12/14/2018

CHARACTERISATION OF
GROUND

Madhav Madhira
IIT & JNTU
madhavmr@gmail.com

Stages of site
investigations
“If you do not know
what you are looking for
in
site investigation,
you are not likely to find
much of value.”
R. Glossop-
8th Rankine Lecture

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• You
•PAY
• for Geotechnical
Investigations whether
you get them done or
NOT

Soil – An Engineering
Material???
• Porous Solid/Sediment
• Fully/Partially Saturated
• Inelastic, Anisotropic, Nonhomogeneous
• Dilatant, Memory, Brittle to Ductile
• Sensitive, Thixotropic, Liquefiable
• Strain Hardening/Softening
• Stress History

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Geotechnical Practice
• Site Suitability
• Failure Analysis & Rectification
• Ground Improvement
• Prevention of Liquefaction
• Creation of Land - Reclamation
• Bio-remediation of Contaminated Lands

THE GROUND
• Qualitative • Reconnaissance
• Aerial/ Satellite Data
• Site History
• Adjacent Structures
• Quantitative
• Limits - Liquid, Plastic,
Shrinkage, etc.
• Grain Size, Shape, Clay
Content, Mineral Type
• Relative Density (State
Parameter)

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Quantitative Tests
• Routine Lab. Tests • Compressibility,
Consolidation
• Permeability
• Direct Shear
• Triaxial
• In Situ Tests
• Standard Penetration
• Static/Dynamic Cone
• Vane Shear
• Plate/Pile Load tests

Advanced/Specialized Tests
• Laboratory • Simple Shear
• Stress Path Controlled
• Plane Strain
• True Triaxial
• In Situ
• Pressuremeter
• Dilatometer
• Piezo-cone, Seismic Cone
• SASW, etc.

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Outline of Geotechnical Site

Characterization Methods
• Drilling & Sampling
• In-Situ Tests
o Standard Penetration Test (SPT)
o Cone Penetration Test (CPT + CPTu)
o Flat Plate Dilatometer (DMT)
o Pressuremeter (PMT)
o Vane Shear (VST)
• Geophysical Methods
o Mechanical Waves (P-, S-, R-waves)
o Electromagnetic (radar, resistivitity)

In-Situ Geotechnical Tests for Soils

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Boring
•Definition
Drilling or driving a hole into the earth's
surface.
•Types
–Trial pits
–Shafts and headings
–Percussion boring
–Mechanical auger
–Wash borings
–Hand and portable augers
–Rotary drilling

Boring (Detailed Soil

Investigation)

Trial Pits

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Hand Auger
Used for:
– Depths of around 5m.
– Fine particles
– Cohesive Soil

Boring (Detailed Soil

Rotary Drilling Investigation)

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Boring (Detailed
Rotary drilling Soil Investigation)
Advantages:
- Progress is faster than other methods
- Disturbance of the soil is slight

Boring (Detailed Soil

Rotary Drilling Investigation)

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Sampling

Definition
Taking samples from the filed or site to determine
soil types and in-place characteristics of soil .
Types
– Disturbed sample

– Undisturbed sample

Sampling Techniques

1. Disturbed samples:
– Drill tools
– Drive sampling
– Rotary sampling
2. Undisturbed samples :
– Trial pit.

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Sampling

Sampling from Boreholes

Sampling

Samplers

Piston Sampler Sampling tube

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Disturbed Sample

Undisturbed Sample

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Preservation of
Samples

Block sample Tube sample

Laboratory Tests
Classification Tests
 Moisture Content
 Density/Unit Weight
 Atterberg Limits
 Particle Size Distribution
Specific Gravity of Soil Solids

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Liquid Limit Test Device

Plastic limit

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Particle Size Test-Sieving

Grading Curve

Hydrometer Analysis

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Laboratory Tests
Permeability Tests
Constant Head Permeability Test
Falling Head Permeability Test

Permeability: Constant Head Test

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Permeability: Falling Head Test

Laboratory Tests
Compaction Tests
 Density/Moisture Content Relationship
 California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test
 Maximum/Minimum Density Test

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4.89 kg hammer
1000 cc 2250 cc

Mould and Hammer used for

compaction Tests

Compaction test apparatus

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CBR Test

Laboratory Tests
Shear Strength Tests
 Shear Box
 Vane Shear
 Unconfined Compression Test
 Undrained Triaxial (Quick) Test (Total Stress)
 Consolidated Undrained Triaxial Test
(Effective & Total Stress)
 Drained Triaxial (Slow) Test (Effective Stress)

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UCC Test

Direct/Box Shear Test

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Direct shear test

39

Triaxial Compression Test

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Triaxial Testing on Soil Sample

Triaxial Test Set Up

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Triaxial Test
Consolidated Drained Test

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Laboratory Tests
Compressibility & Consolidation Tests
 Oedometer/One Dimensional Consolidation
 Triaxial Consolidation
 Swelling Tests

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Consolidation
Purpose
To determine stress-
strain - time
properties of
saturated soils under
sustained loads
Procedure:
Small diameter, thin
undisturbed specimen
placed in a loading
device and subjected
to incremental loads

Void ratio vs log (effective stress)

&Preconsolidation Stress of Clays
'=300
Sandy Clay (CL),sSurry, VA: kPa
Depth = 27 m
1.0
vo
sp'=900 kPa
Cr = 0.04
0.9
Void Ratio, e

0.8 Overconsolidation
Ratio, OCR = 3
0.7

0.6
Cc = 0.38

0.5
1 10 100 1000 10000

Effective Vertical Stress, svo' (kPa)

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Field Tests

Testing

• The main tests:

– Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

– Cone Penetration Test (CPT)

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Standard
Penetration Test

• Most common geotechnical test

• Been in use for over 70 years
• Universal availability of equipment
• Fairly well known outside of geotechnical community

Standard
Penetration Test

Sample by
Driving With a
Drop Weight

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Standard
Penetration Test
•SPT N-value - indication of the soil
stiffness.

Standard
Penetration Test

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Standard Penetration Test

Advantages Disadvantages
• Obtain Sample + • Obtain Sample +
Number Number
• Simple & rugged • Disturbed sample
device at low cost (index tests only)
• Suitable in many soil • Crude number for
types analysis
• Can perform in weak • Not applicable in soft
rocks clays and silts
• Available throughout • High variability and
the world uncertainty

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Standard Penetration Test (SPT)

Measured N-values Corrected N60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
4 4

Donut
ER = 34 (energy ratio)
6 6 Saf ety
55 45
60 Trend
40

Depth (meters)
8 8
Depth (meters)

56 41
63
41 10
10
63
39

12 63 12
47

Donut 64 56
14 Saf ety 14
69
Sequence
16 16

Data from Robertson, et al. (1983)

Standard
Penetration Test
•Disturbed sample from SPT Sampler

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Testing of soils
Relative density from SPT blow count
No of blows Relative density Degree of
(N/30 cm) RD = (emax – e) x100 % compaction
(emax – emin)

0–4 0 – 15 % Very loose

4 – 10 15 – 35 % Loose
10 – 30 25 – 65 % Medium
30 – 50 65 – 85 % Dense
>50 >85% Very dense

Shear strength of cohesive soils

Consistency Undrained shear strength, N (Blows per 30 cm)

cu (kPa)

Very soft 0 – 12.5 0-2

Soft 12.5 - 25.0 2–4
Medium 25.0 - 50.0 4-8
Stiff 50.0 - 100.0 8 - 16
Very Stiff 100.0 - 200.0 16 - 32
Hard > 200.0 32

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Stop Test If

• More than 50 blows required for any interval

• If more than 100 total blows required
• Either of these events known as:
• Refusal
• Will be so noted on borings

Problems associated
with SPT

• Extremely operator dependent

(results can vary by a factor of 2)

• No theoretical basis

• Foundation design using SPT is entirely

empirical (typically conservative)

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SPT Test - Common

Errors
• Damaged Drive Shoe
• Variation in Hammer Fall
• Effect of Overburden Pressure
• Plugging End of Sampler
• Hollow Stem Auger Quick
Condition
• Careless Work by Drill Crew

SPT Test -
Advantages

• Very Economical Test

• Provides Sample for Soil
Classification
• Long Service Life of Equipment
• Vast SPT Data Base
• Numerous Empirical
Correlations with SPT

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SPT

Gravels - What to do?

• SPT may not be Dependable
• Can Use Oversize Sample Spoon
• Can Use Dynamic Cone for
Correlation to SPT Test

Cone Penetration
Test
An instrumented steel cone is pushed into the
ground at a rate of 2 cm/sec

Measurements include:
• tip resistance
• sleeve friction
• pore water pressure
• shear wave velocity

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Static Cone - Components

Cone Penetration Testing (ASTM D

5778)

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Electric Friction Cone Penetrometer

Cone Penetration Test

Advantages
• Fast and continuous
profiling of strata
• Economical and
productive
• Results not operator-
dependent
• Strong theoretical basis
for interpretation
• Particularly suited to soft
soils
Disadvantages
• High capital
investment
• Requires skilled
operator for field use
• Electronics must be
calibrated & protected
• No soil samples
• Unsuited to gravelly
soils and cobbles.

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Classification
of Soils by
CPT

Soil Behaviour Chart (after Robertson 1987)

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CPT – SPT Correlation

Vane Shear Test

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Torque Wrench

Collar Vane Shear Device

Ground Thrust Bearing
Surface Thrust Bearing Guide
Adapter (Casing to Guide)

Casing

Bearing Guide
Coupling
Drill Rod

Adapter (Vane to
Drill Rod)

Vane

Vane Shear Test (VST)

• Performed at bottom of boring or by direct
push placement of device
• Four-sided blade pushed into clays and silts to
measure following:

 suv (peak) = Peak Undrained Strength

 suv (remolded) = Remolded Strength (after 10 revolutions)
 Sensitivity, St = suv(peak)/suv (remolded)

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Vane Shear Test (VST)

Results from Vane Shear Tests

Vane Strength, suv (kPa) Sensitivity, St
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 0 1 2 3 4 5
0 0

Peak
5 5
Remolded
Depth (meters)

Depth (meters)

10 10

15 15

20 20

25 25

30 30

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Vane Shear Test

Advantages Disadvantages
• Assessment of undrained • Limited to soft to stiff
shear strength of clays clays & silts with suv <
• Simple test and 200 kPa
equipment • Slow & time-
• Measure in place consuming
sensitivity • Raw suv needs
• Long history of use in empirical correction
practice, particularly • Can be affected by
embankments, sand seams and lenses
foundations & cuts

Plate Bearing
Test

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Plate Bearing Test

Pile Loading Test

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Plate Bearing Test-

Interpretation

GEOPHYSICS
Mechanical Wave Measurements
Electromagnetic Wave Techniques

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Geophysical Methods
• Mechanical Wave Measurements
 Crosshole Tests (CHT)
 Downhole Tests (DHT)
 Spectral Analysis of Surface Waves
 Seismic Refraction
 Suspension Logging
• Electromagnetic Wave Techniques
 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR)
 Electromagnetic Conductivity (EM)
 Surface Resistivity (SR)
 Magnetometer Surveys (MT)

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Mechanical Wave Geophysics

• Compression (P-) wave is fastest wave; easy
to generate.
• Shear (S-) wave is second fastest wave. Is
directional and polarized. Most fundamental
wave to geotechnique.
• Rayleigh (R-) or surface wave is very close to
S-wave velocity (90 to 94%). Hybrid P-S
wave at ground surface boundary.
• Love (L-) wave: interface boundary effect

Mechanical Body Waves

Initial

P-wave

S-wave

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Mechanical Body Waves

Amplitude
S R
Time

P
Oscilloscope

Source
Receiver (Geophone)

R S P

Mechanical Waves
(Compression)

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Mechanical Waves (Shear)

oscilloscope
Seismic Refraction

ASTM D 5777

Note: Vp1 < Vp2

Determine depth t1
to rock layer, zR t2
Vertical Geophones
Source t3
(Plate) t4

x1
x2
x3
Soil: Vp1
zR x4

Rock: Vp2

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Shear Wave Velocity, Vs

• Fundamental measurement in all solids (steel,
concrete, wood, soils, rocks)
• Initial small-strain stiffness represented by
shear modulus: G0 = rT Vs2 (alias
Gdyn = Gmax = G0)
• Applies to all static & dynamic problems at
small strains (gs < 10-6)
• Applicable to both undrained & drained
loading cases in geotechnical engineering.

Oscilloscope
Crosshole Testing
ASTM D 4428

Pump

x = fctn(z)
t from inclinometers
© Paul Mayne/GT

Shear Wave Velocity:

Vs = x/t
Downhole
Hammer
(Source) Velocity
Test Transducer
Depth (Geophone
Receiver)
packer
x
Slope Slope
Note: Verticality of casing
Inclinometer Inclinometer
must be established by
slope inclinometers to correct
PVC-cased PVC-cased
distances x with depth.
Borehole Borehole

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Oscilloscope
Downhole Testing
Pump
Horizontal Plank
with normal load

x © Paul Mayne/GT

t Hammer
z1
z2 packer

Horizontal
Test
Depth
Velocity
Interval Transducers
(Geophone
Receivers)

Shear Wave Velocity: R12 = z12 + x2

R22 = z22 + x2
Vs = R/t Cased
Borehole

In-Situ Surface Wave Testing

Signal
Analyzer

Accelerometer

Source Sensors

Layer 1

Rayleigh Layer 2
Surface
Waves Layer 3

Layer 4

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Applicability of In-Situ Tests

CLAYS SILTS SANDS GRAVELS Cobbles/ Boulders

SPT
In-Situ Test Method

CPT

DMT

PMT

VST

Geophysics
0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000

Grain Size (mm)

Boring Spacing

• More borings = better analysis

• Borings are expensive
• General Guide to spacing for borings:
– Multi-story bldg. – 50 to 100 ft.
– One story , earthen dams and borrow pits = 100 to
200 ft.
– Highway sub-grades – 500 to 1000 ft

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Depth & No. of

boreholes
• Spacing:
– buildings 10 – 30 m apart
– road lines 30 – 300 m apart
– landslides at least 5 in line for profile
• Depth:
– 1.5 x foundation width + 10 m control
hole
– 3 m below rock head

Planning of Exploration
Programme
Layout and Number of Boreholes

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Soil Investigation

Soil Investigation

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Planning of Exploration
Programme
Depth of Boreholes

Depth of Boreholes

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Typical Ground/Soil Profile

TYPICAL SOIL PROFILE, CALCUTTA

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Soil Investigation
Soil profile

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Soil Investigation
Soil profile

Soil Investigation
Data interpretation

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Soil Investigation

Schedule of laboratory tests

GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING

IS A SCIENCE

BUT ITS PRACTICE

AN ART

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