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Executive Summary Introduction

The Era of the


Virtual Office
By Adeel Qurashi
MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l I
Executive Summary Introduction

Executive Summary
In the past decade, smartphones have experienced a tremendous

growth. Smartphones are gaining their momentum with an expected

growth rate of 30% every year up until 2012. As a result smartphones are

changing the way people communicate and conduct businesses. The

concept of the virtual office is one the rise, which will dramatically

change the perception of work. Work will no longer be someplace you

go, but something you do.

The research examined the effects of these developments on the

generations that are part of the contemporary workforce, the Baby

Boomers, Gen X and Gen Y. 425 individuals participated in an online

questionnaire which employed the UTAUT construct as a foundation.

Research revealed that although individuals from the three generations

significantly differ from each other according to the ‘generational

theory’, owners of smartphone from each generation did not. In general,

individuals from the three generations had similar usage of

smartphones, attitudes towards work and social aspects.

The research concludes that there is much scope for research in the field

of smartphones and offers recommendations for further research and

practical application.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l II


Acknowledgements Introduction

Acknowledgements

This dissertation could not have been completed without the help of
many others. The author would like to express his deepest appreciation
to all those that have supported in the completion of this dissertation.

Dr. Neil G. Connon Dissertation Supervisor


Over the past months, Dr. Connon has extensively supported the author in all
stages of the dissertation. His open and friendly approach enabled the author
to approach the dissertation in comfort. Dr. Connon’s experience and
knowledge was very inspiring and it was great to work with him. The author
cannot express the amount of appreciation he has for the support that was
provided by Dr. Connon.

Ms. Sophie Anderson RGU Alumni Office


Ms Anderson’s assistance in disseminating the primary research was
extremely helpful. The author would like to thank Ms. Anderson for providing
excellent and timely support.

Participants

The contribution of the participants of the primary research was invaluable to


the research. The author is very thankful to all people that contributed.
Special thanks to people that were so kind to invite their friends and family to
partake in the research.

Friends & Family


The author would not have been able to be at this stage without his dearest
friends. Especially Stephany Elfezy, Gregor Flipse and Betty Koomen, thank
you for your unconditional support over the past six years.

Finally yet importantly, my family for their on-going support, specially my


Mom and Dad, for continuously supporting me and my endeavours; this is for
you.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l III


List of Contents Introduction

List of Contents

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................... II


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ................................................................................ III
LIST OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................... IV
LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................ VIII
LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................ XI
LIST OF APPENDICES ................................................................................... XII
GLOSSARY ................................................................................................. XIII

INTRODUCTION ................................................................................... 1
I. PROLOGUE ............................................................................................ 2
II. THE RESEARCH ...................................................................................... 4
1.1 RESEARCH AIM ........................................................................................................... 4
1.2 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES................................................................................................ 4
III. OVERVIEW............................................................................................. 5
1.3 SECTION 1 – INTRODUCTION..........................................................................................5
1.4 SECTION 2 – LITERATURE REVIEW ..................................................................................5
1.5 SECTION 3 - METHODOLOGY .........................................................................................5
1.6 SECTION 4 – FINDINGS................................................................................................. 6
1.7 SECTION 5 – ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION ........................................................................... 6
1.8 SECTION 6 – CONCLUSION & RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 6

RATIONALE .......................................................................................... 7
IV. RATIONALE FOR THE STUDY ................................................................. 8
V. SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ................................................................ 9
VI. LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY ................................................................10

LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................... 11


1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................... 12
2 THE RISE OF SMARTPHONES ................................................................ 13
2.1 DEFINING SMARTPHONES ........................................................................................... 14
2.2 ORIGIN ..................................................................................................................... 18
2.3 DEVELOPMENT .......................................................................................................... 21
2.4 CONSUMER VS. BUSINESS ...........................................................................................24
2.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY.................................................................................................. 26
3 THE VIRTUAL OFFICE ............................................................................ 27
3.1 UNDERSTANDING THE VIRTUAL OFFICE ........................................................................28

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List of Contents Introduction

3.2 VIRTUAL ORGANISATIONS........................................................................................... 31


3.3 KEY CONCEPTS .......................................................................................................... 33
3.3.1 Telecommuting ..........................................................................................................33
3.3.2 Tethering ................................................................................................................... 35
3.3.3 Hot desking ................................................................................................................ 37
3.3.4 Fully mobile ............................................................................................................... 39
3.4 KNOWLEDGE WORKERS ..............................................................................................40
3.4.1 Defining Knowledge Workers .................................................................................... 41
3.4.2 Managing Gold-Collar Employees .............................................................................. 43
3.5 CHAPTER SUMMARY.................................................................................................. 46
4 SMARTPHONES IN THE WORKPLACE ....................................................47
4.1 WORKPLACE DEVELOPMENT ...................................................................................... 48
4.2 OPPORTUNITIES AND THREATS ....................................................................................50
4.2.1 Opportunities ............................................................................................................ 50
4.2.2 Threats ...................................................................................................................... 51
4.3 CHAPTER SUMMARY...................................................................................................52
5 MULTIGENERATIONAL WORKFORCE .................................................... 53
5.1 GENERATIONS ...........................................................................................................54
5.1.1 Veterans .................................................................................................................... 55
5.1.2 Baby Boomers ........................................................................................................... 55
5.1.3 Generation X ............................................................................................................. 56
5.1.4 Generation Y ............................................................................................................. 56
5.1.5 Generation Z ..............................................................................................................57
5.2 KEY DIFFERENCES ......................................................................................................58
5.3 TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE ....................................................................................... 60
5.3.1 Smartphones ............................................................................................................. 60
5.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................................... 63
6 TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE THEORIES ............................................... 64
6.1 THEORY OF REASONED ACTION ...................................................................................65
6.2 TECHNOLOGY ACCEPTANCE MODEL ........................................................................... 66
6.3 UNIFIED THEORY OF ACCEPTANCE & USE OF TECHNOLOGY ............................................ 67
6.4 CHAPTER SUMMARY................................................................................................... 70
7 SUMMARY OF REVIEWED LITERATURE ................................................. 71

METHODOLOGY ................................................................................ 72
8 RESEARCH OVERVIEW .......................................................................... 73
8.1 RESEARCH TITLE ........................................................................................................ 74
8.2 RESEARCH AIM .......................................................................................................... 74
8.3 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES............................................................................................... 75
9 THE RESEARCH .................................................................................... 76
9.1 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHY ............................................................................................. 76
9.2 RESEARCH APPROACH ................................................................................................ 78
9.3 RESEARCH DESIGN ..................................................................................................... 79
9.4 RESEARCH STRATEGY .................................................................................................82
10 SECONDARY RESEARCH ...................................................................... 83
10.1 ADVANTAGE OF SECONDARY RESEARCH ....................................................................... 83

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l V


List of Contents Introduction

10.2 DISADVANTAGES OF SECONDARY DATA ....................................................................... 84


10.3 APPLICATION OF SECONDARY RESEARCH..................................................................... 84
11 PRIMARY RESEARCH ........................................................................... 86
11.1 ADVANTAGE OF PRIMARY DATA ................................................................................... 87
11.2 DISADVANTAGES OF PRIMARY DATA............................................................................. 87
11.3 QUALITATIVE VS. QUANTITATIVE .................................................................................88
11.4 RATIONALE FOR SELECTED METHOD ........................................................................... 90
12 SURVEY ............................................................................................... 92
12.1 ONLINE QUESTIONNAIRE ............................................................................................ 93
12.1.1 Advantages of Online Questionnaire ......................................................................... 93
12.1.2 Disadvantages of Online Questionnaire ..................................................................... 93
12.1.3 Service Provider......................................................................................................... 94
12.2 DESIGN.................................................................................................................... 96
12.2.1 Demographics ........................................................................................................... 98
12.2.2 Academic vs. Professional ......................................................................................... 98
12.2.3 Smartphones ............................................................................................................. 98
12.2.4 UTAUT Questions ...................................................................................................... 99
12.2.5 Feedback & Closure ................................................................................................... 99
12.3 PILOT ..................................................................................................................... 100
12.4 SAMPLING & DISTRIBUTION ...................................................................................... 101
12.4.1 Online Social Network ..............................................................................................101
12.4.2 RGU Alumni ............................................................................................................. 104
12.4.3 Response rate .......................................................................................................... 104
12.5 DATA ANALYSIS ...................................................................................................... 108
13 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ................................................................ 109
13.1 VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION...................................................................................... 110
13.2 INFORMED CONSENT ................................................................................................ 110
13.3 ANONYMITY & CONFIDENTIALITY .............................................................................. 111
13.4 AUTHENTICITY OF DATA ........................................................................................... 112

FINDINGS ......................................................................................... 113


14 OVERVIEW.......................................................................................... 114
15 DEMOGRAPHICS ................................................................................. 115
15.1 GENDER ................................................................................................................. 115
15.2 AGE ....................................................................................................................... 115
15.3 REGION OF ORIGIN ................................................................................................... 116
15.4 EDUCATION............................................................................................................. 117
15.5 POSITION ................................................................................................................ 117
16 SEGMENTATION ................................................................................. 118
16.1 GENERATION Z ........................................................................................................ 118
16.2 STUDENTS .............................................................................................................. 119
16.3 PROFESSIONALS ...................................................................................................... 120
17 SMARTPHONES .................................................................................. 123
18 UTAUT ................................................................................................ 125
18.1 USE BEHAVIOUR ...................................................................................................... 125

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List of Contents Introduction

18.2 SOCIAL INFLUENCE .................................................................................................. 128


18.3 FACILITATING CONDITIONS ....................................................................................... 130
18.4 EFFORT EXPECTANCY ............................................................................................... 132
18.5 EXPERIENCE ............................................................................................................ 133
18.6 PERFORMANCE EXPECTANCY .................................................................................... 135
18.7 VOLUNTARINESS OF USE ........................................................................................... 137
18.8 BEHAVIOURAL INTENTION ......................................................................................... 138

ANALYSIS & DISCUSSION ................................................................ 140


19 OVERVIEW.......................................................................................... 141
20 SMARTPHONES .................................................................................. 142
20.1 ADOPTION OF SMARTPHONES ................................................................................... 142
20.2 EXPERIENCE WITH SMARTPHONES .............................................................................. 146
20.3 USAGE OF SMARTPHONES ........................................................................................ 148
21 SOCIAL ............................................................................................... 152
21.1 SMARTPHONES IN THE SOCIETY ................................................................................. 152
21.2 ACCESS TO RESOURCES ............................................................................................ 155
21.3 SMARTPHONES: A NEED OR A WANT ........................................................................... 159
22 WORKPLACE ...................................................................................... 164
22.1 ORGANISATIONAL INVOLVEMENT .............................................................................. 164
22.2 SMARTPHONE AS A WORK TOOL ................................................................................ 167
22.3 MENTALITY TOWARDS SMARTPHONES........................................................................ 169
23 SUMMARY .......................................................................................... 172

CONCLUSION ................................................................................... 175


24 CONCLUSION ..................................................................................... 176
25 FINAL THOUGHTS............................................................................... 179

RECOMMENDATIONS ...................................................................... 180


26 RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................................... 181
26.1 FURTHER RESEARCH................................................................................................. 181
26.1.1 Cultural Differences ..................................................................................................181
26.1.2 Gender Differences ...................................................................................................181
26.2 PRACTICAL .............................................................................................................. 182
26.2.1 Universities should lead ........................................................................................... 182
26.2.2 Policies and Practises ................................................................................................183
26.2.3 Security and Operations ...........................................................................................183

RESOURCES ..................................................................................... 184


REFERENCES.................................................................................................................... 185
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................................................................................................. 213

APPENDIX......................................................................................... 218

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l VII


List of Figures Introduction

List of Figures

Figure 1 – Overview: Literature Review................................................................................ 12


Figure 2 – Smartphone Operating Systems ......................................................................... 16
Figure 3 – Smartphone Specifications .................................................................................. 17
Figure 4 – Smartphones sales: Historical Figures ................................................................. 21
Figure 5 – Major players in smartphone business .................................................................22
Figure 6 – Levels of virtualness ............................................................................................28
Figure 7 – Virtual Organisation variables.............................................................................. 31
Figure 8 – Virtual Organisation Framework ......................................................................... 32
Figure 9 – Virtual Office: Key Concepts................................................................................ 33
Figure 10 – Mobility / Virtualness Grid.................................................................................. 39
Figure 11 – Evolution of Workers .........................................................................................40
Figure 12 – Accenture’s Mobile solution.............................................................................. 48
Figure 13 – Generational Differences ...................................................................................59
Figure 14 – Smartphone adoption among generations ........................................................ 61
Figure 15 – Baby boomers attitude towards PDA’s and mobiles ......................................... 62
Figure 16 – Theory of Reasoned Action................................................................................65
Figure 17 – Technology Acceptance Model ......................................................................... 66
Figure 18 –Unified Theory of Acceptance & Use of Technology .......................................... 68
Figure 19 – Research philosophies ....................................................................................... 76
Figure 20 – Research Orientation with Epistemological philosophy..................................... 77
Figure 21 – Research Approach ............................................................................................ 78
Figure 24 – Types of Research ............................................................................................. 79
Figure 25 – Applied research approaches ............................................................................. 81
Figure 26 – Sources of primary data ................................................................................... 86
Figure 27 – Qualitative vs. Quantitative methods ............................................................... 89
Figure 28 – Proposed Primary Research method ................................................................ 90
Figure 29 – Types of questionnaires.................................................................................... 92
Figure 30 – Questionnaire service providers.........................................................................95
Figure 31 – Structure of the questionnaire ........................................................................... 97
Figure 32 – Facebook event ............................................................................................... 102
Figure 33 – Link-backs Social Networks ............................................................................. 103
Figure 34 – Extract from questionnaire .............................................................................. 105

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l VIII


List of Figures Introduction

Figure 35 – Facebook Event: RSVP..................................................................................... 106


Figure 34 – Gender information ......................................................................................... 115
Figure 35 – Generations ..................................................................................................... 116
Figure 36 – Region of Origin .............................................................................................. 116
Figure 37 – Education ......................................................................................................... 117
Figure 38 – Position ........................................................................................................... 117
Figure 39 – Student: Course ............................................................................................... 119
Figure 40 – Student: Preferred Industry ............................................................................. 119
Figure 41 – Professionals: Industry..................................................................................... 120
Figure 42 – Professionals: position..................................................................................... 121
Figure 43 – Professionals: Income ...................................................................................... 122
Figure 44 – Professionals: Size organisation ...................................................................... 122
Figure 45 – Possession of a Smartphone ............................................................................ 123
Figure 46 – Intention of buying a smartphone ................................................................... 123
Figure 47 – Motivation to purchase a smartphone ............................................................. 124
Figure 48 – Reason for not intending to purchase a smartphone ....................................... 124
Figure 49 – User of smartphones (in years) ........................................................................ 125
Figure 50 – Activities on a smartphone .............................................................................. 126
Figure 51 – When smartphones are used............................................................................ 127
Figure 52 – Social influence ............................................................................................... 128
Figure 53 – Facilitating Conditions ..................................................................................... 130
Figure 54 – Effort Expectancy ............................................................................................ 132
Figure 55 – Experience ....................................................................................................... 133
Figure 56 – Performance expectancy ................................................................................. 135
Figure 57 – Voluntariness of use ......................................................................................... 137
Figure 58 – Behavioural Intention ...................................................................................... 138
Figure 59 – Owner of a Smartphone .................................................................................. 142
Figure 60 – Occupation ...................................................................................................... 143
Figure 61 – Intention to purchase a Smartphone ............................................................... 143
Figure 62 – Motive for not purchasing a smartphone ......................................................... 144
Figure 63 – Motive for purchasing a smartphone ............................................................... 145
Figure 64 – Adoption of smartphones per generation ........................................................ 146
Figure 65 – Adoption of smartphones per generation (including totals)............................. 147
Figure 66 – Activities on a smartphone .............................................................................. 148
Figure 67 – Preference of smartphone usage location ....................................................... 151

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l IX


List of Figures Introduction

Figure 68 – Trendiness of Smartphones............................................................................. 152


Figure 69 – Purchasing Hi-Tech equipment ....................................................................... 153
Figure 70 – Smartphones are a Hype.................................................................................. 154
Figure 71 – Interactivity with Social Network ..................................................................... 154
Figure 72 – Usage support from Provider ........................................................................... 155
Figure 73 – Operating cost of Smartphones ....................................................................... 156
Figure 74 – Position of Respondents .................................................................................. 156
Figure 75 – Guidance from family and friends .................................................................... 157
Figure 76 – Support from suppliers .................................................................................... 158
Figure 77 – Smartphones are essential ............................................................................... 159
Figure 78 – Intention of use ................................................................................................ 160
Figure 79 – Multitasking on Smartphones .......................................................................... 161
Figure 80 – The benefits of a smartphone .......................................................................... 162
Figure 81 – Smartphones: a burden?.................................................................................. 163
Figure 82 – Organisation provided a smartphone .............................................................. 164
Figure 83 – Organisations do not support use .................................................................... 165
Figure 84 – Organisations encourage use .......................................................................... 166
Figure 85 – Smartphone: an efficient and organised work tool .......................................... 167
Figure 86 – Cannot complete work without a smartphone ................................................ 168
Figure 87 – Data inaccessible without a smartphone ......................................................... 168
Figure 88 – Decline of workplace etiquette ........................................................................ 169
Figure 89 – Smartphone only at work ................................................................................ 170
Figure 90 – Smartphone outside of work ........................................................................... 171

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l X


List of Tables Introduction

List of Tables

Table 1 – Social Influence data ........................................................................................... 129


Table 2 – Facilitating conditions data................................................................................. 131
Table 3 – Effort Expectancy data ....................................................................................... 132
Table 4 – Experience data .................................................................................................. 134
Table 5 – Performance Expectancy data ............................................................................ 136
Table 6 – Voluntariness of use data ................................................................................... 137
Table 7 – Behavioural Intention.......................................................................................... 139
Table 8 – Major Product launches ...................................................................................... 146

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l XI


List of Appendices Introduction

List of Appendices

Appendix 1- Questionnaire Preview ................................................................................... 219


Appendix 2- Students: Preferred Industry.......................................................................... 219
Appendix 3- Professionals: Industry ................................................................................... 219

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l XII


Glossary Introduction

Glossary

IS – Information System

OS – Operating System

PDA – Personal Data Assistant

PIM – Personal Information Management

SERP – School Ethics Review Panel

TAM – Technology Acceptance Model

TRA – Theory of Reasoned Action

UTAUT – Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l XIII


Chapter 0 l Glossary Introduction

Introduction

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 1


Chapter I l Prologue Introduction

I. Prologue

While in the train travelling to a business meeting, an executive grabs

his smartphone to read the latest business news, which happens to have

a significant impact on the presentation he is scheduled to deliver to

management that afternoon.

An immediate call to his colleague allows him to discuss the implications

of his recently acquired knowledge to the presentation. Upon review,

the executive makes the required changes on his smartphone and sends

an updated version of the presentation by e-mail to colleagues in

advance, accompanied by a request in which a meeting is scheduled to

discuss the alterations before he disembarks the train.

Upon arrival at the office, the team assembled in the meeting room is

prompt to discuss the effects and present a solid case to the

management team.

A decade ago a story like this would have been considered a fairy-tale; a

vision of the future at its best. At present, due to technological

developments this is no longer a vision, but reality.

The increased adoption of internet, mobile phones and other

technologies has allowed the world to become a smaller place (Wiberg

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 2


Chapter I l Prologue Introduction

and Ljungberg, 2001). This trend of increased connectivity is referred to

as the global village (Preece, 1994; McLuhan, 1962).

Internet has played a key role in connecting people around the globe;

allowing consumers and businesses to access a wide range of resources

regardless of their location. Over 1.8 billion users around the world are

connected to the internet using it to communicate with each other

(Internet World Statistics, 2010). One of the limitations was the fact that

internet was accessible primarily from a desktop computer, forcing its

users to become immobile. This limitation was reduced by the

development of laptop computers, permitting computer users to

become mobile. The trend of being mobile and connected has

continued to prosper, leading to the development of smartphones.

Smartphones play a key role in this dissertation. Research into the rise

of smartphones as one of the most popular handheld devices will be

conducted. The findings will be analysed in the light of how Baby

Boomers, generation X and generation Y are adopting the smartphones

and its effect on workplace developments.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 3


Chapter II l The Research Introduction

II. The Research

1.1 Research Aim

The aim of this study is to identify the effects of smartphones on Baby

Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y in the changing work

environment.

1.2 Research Objectives

 To appraise the literature addressing the rapid growth of


smartphones and the underlying causes for this increased
adoption.

 To comprehend how the work environment has developed over


time and its effect on the employees.

 To develop an understanding of contemporary generations and


their approach towards work and social life.

 To critically analyse the adoption by Baby Boomers, Generation X


and Generation Y of smartphones in general and in the workplace.

 To examine and discuss whether a significant technology gap is


existent among Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y in
the context of smartphones.

 To provide realistic conclusions based on the findings and


recommend areas for further research.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 4


Chapter III l Overview Introduction

III. Overview

1.3 Section 1 – Introduction

The first section introduces the dissertation by setting the scene and

introducing the key themes and topics. It furthermore highlights the

aims and objectives of the research and provides a rationale for the

research.

1.4 Section 2 – Literature Review

The second section is divided among five sub headings discussing the

key aspects of the research. The review is initiated by examining the

development of smartphones. The review then continues by discussing

how the workplace has changed over time and the move towards

virtualness. Smartphones are then discussed in the context of

workplace. Next heading studies the multigenerational workforce and

finally the technology acceptance models are discussed in relation to

smartphones.

1.5 Section 3 - Methodology

The third section critically evaluates the research approach adopted by

the author to conduct primary research. It discusses in detail the

methods that will be applied to collect relevant data and how the

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 5


Chapter III l Overview Introduction

collected data will be analysed. The sections will furthermore highlight

research limitations and ethical considerations that were taken into

account by the author.

1.6 Section 4 – Findings

In fourth section, the findings of the primary research are presented.

They are organised in four segments to provide overview.

1.7 Section 5 – Analysis & Discussion

The fifth section of the report analyses the findings in the light of the

existing literature and the aims and objectives of the research.

Correlations are drawn to translate raw data in useful figures. Finally the

findings are discussed in a relevant context.

1.8 Section 6 – Conclusion & Recommendations

The sixth section summarises the report and draws conclusion based on

the primary and the secondary research. The section furthermore

describes the author’s recommendations based on the findings.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 6


Chapter III l Overview Rationale

Rationale

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 7


Chapter IV l Rationale for the Study Rationale

IV. Rationale for the Study

Mobile devices, in particular smartphones have been growing rapidly in

the past decade and will continue to grow at an expected rate of 30%

each year up until 2012 (Sacco, 2007). Roughly 172 million units were

sold in 2009 alone worldwide and it is expected that smartphone sales

will continue to grow to form 46% of overall mobile sales by 2013

(Gartner, 2010).

A smartphone in present times consists of advanced hardware and

software that allows it to be used for a vast variety of purposes. The use

of smartphones for social and business purposes is being embraced;

however, its effects on society are yet to be determined.

As the number of smartphones dramatically increases and technology

development has shortened lead times, it is once again for visionaries to

develop fairy tales for the future. Nevertheless, for now it is more

important to understand how smartphones are affecting the world

today.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 8


Chapter V l Significance of the Study Rationale

V. Significance of the Study

Research will examine the effects of smartphones on Baby Boomers,

Generation X and Generation Y. Currently there is limited research

available on how smartphones have been adopted by these three

generations. Smartphones are having a momentum in business and

social life, therefore examining how these devices are affecting the

three key generations in the workforce can uncover their positive and

negative effects.

Upon completion, the research will contribute to the understanding of

smartphone adoption among the three generations, it will also discuss

various aspects of smartphone usage and its influences on business and

society.

A wide range of information will be introduced and developed that may

be useful to academicians interested in the field and professionals that

may wish to understand how smartphones are affecting businesses.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 9


Chapter VI l Limitations of the Study Rationale

VI. Limitations of the Study

In order to focus the scope of the research, some limitations had to be

drawn by the author, other limitations derived naturally.

A limitation of the study concerns the extendibility of the findings. The

majority of sources utilised for secondary research were written in

western countries, additionally most of the individuals that took part in

the primary research were from European background. A similar study

in a non-western setting may not produce similar results.

In addition, a wide range of published and unpublished research was

encountered discussing aspects of smartphones and virtual

organisations. In order to limit the scope of the research, some areas

were not discussed or elaborated extensively within the research,

including security and operational hazards and technical issues.

Finally, primary research was conducted using online questionnaires,

using a combination of convenience sampling and simple random

sampling. Although this method allows the convenient collection of

data to understand trends and explore phenomena, it can exclude a

large proportion of the population, which may have reduced the

extendibility of the results.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 10


Chapter VI l Limitations of the Study Literature Review

Literature Review

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 11


Chapter 1 l Introduction Literature Review

1 Introduction

Literature review is an essential part of the dissertation. It is the process

of gathering and evaluating data to provide evidence to fulfil certain

aims (Hart, 1998; Machi and McEvoy, 2008). A wide range of sources

were consulted in order to write this section to ensure that the

dissertation has a well-established foundation.

The section will discuss the findings derived from extensive secondary

research. Each of the five chapters within this section correspond to key

areas within this research [Figure 1].

Defining Smartphones
The Rise of Development in Smartphones
smartphones
Consumer Vs Business

Virtual Organisation
The Virtual Office Key Concepts
Literature Review

Knowledge Workers

Workplace Development
Smartphones in the Case Studies
Workplace
Opportunities and Treats

Generations
Multigenerational Key Differences
Workforce
Technology Acceptance

Theory of Reasoned Action


Technology
Technology Acceptance Model
Acceptance Theories
Unified Theory

Figure developed by author

Figure 1 – Overview: Literature Review

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 12


Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

2 The Rise of Smartphones

The value of the global smartphone market is expected to be worth $150

billion by 2014; up from $39 billion in 2007 (MarketsandMarkets, 2010;

Telecom Redux, 2008). This year smartphone sales are expected to grow

by 36%; accounting for 27% of the total number of handset sales and

generating 64% of the mobile phone markets (Sandstrom, 2009).

These figures portray a highly lucrative segment within the mobile

industry. As a result, it is not surprising that the segment is becoming

highly competitive, offering consumers and businesses more value for

money, variety in products and innovative technology (Grant, 2010;

Maisto, 2009).

This chapter will discuss what elements a particular hardware requires to

be identified as a smartphone. The chapter will furthermore discuss the

origin of smartphones and what developments took places for

smartphones to become as popular as they are today. Finally, the

chapter will analyse the use of smartphones in present times.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 13


Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

2.1 Defining Smartphones

The definition of smartphones has been changing since the word was

first used. In 1958, when the Russian scientist Leonid Kupriyanovich first

developed a pocket version of a mobile phone, all phones were

considered ‘smart’ phones (The Independent, 2009; Vochin, 2009). This

is related to the perception of what is considered to be ‘smart’. Moore’s

law describes how technology doubles every two year, which in the case

of smartphones would indicate that two years after development a

smartphone may not be considered ‘smart’ (Brock, 2006). In order to

establish a definition of smartphones for the purpose of this research,

the author will use recent publications to draw up a definition.

Soto (2010) describes a smartphone as a mobile phone offering

advanced capabilities, similar to PC’s. Rittinghouse and Ransome (2009)

provide a similar definition, however categorise between two types,

stating that a smartphone could be identified as a phone that runs a

complete operating system or a phone with advanced features;

including e-mail, internet and calendar. Jaylon (2010) also states

smartphones are ought to perform many activities; like local data

transfer between computers and phones, remote data transfer, PIM,

LAN-connectivity, ability to install applications, other voice and data

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 14


Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

functions and all the features mentioned earlier. Investments et al

(2010) state that the definition of smartphones has changed over time,

but it generally refers to phones with more advanced features and

higher price tags. Jaylon (2010) furthermore notes that many of the new

mobile phones offer PDA like functionalities; however are not

considered smartphones; which makes it difficult to draw up a single

accepted definition of smartphones.

The most important software on a smartphone is its operating system

[OS] (Coustan and Strickland, 2010). The operating system enables

smartphones to perform the activities that are expected of them, hence

allow restrictions to be created to separate smartphones from mobile

phones. Contemporary smartphone should use one of the OS described

in Figure 2 in order to qualify as a smartphone (Buchanan, 2008; Dignan,

2008; German and Cha, 2010; McCracken, 2008)

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

Operating system Developed by

Windows Mobile Microsoft

Blackberry OS Research in Motion

MeeGo Nokia and Intel

Android Google & partners

iOS Apple

WebOS Palm

Symbian Nokia

Figure developed by author utilising Coustan and Strickland, 2010;


Dignan, 2008; Siegler, 2010; Yarow, 2010; Culimore, 2010

Figure 2 – Smartphone Operating Systems

Hardware ability is also considered a key factor in deciding whether a

mobile phone can be identified as a smartphone. According to the

definition of Cassavoy (2010), a smartphone should possess a QWERTY

keyboard which does not necessarily have to be a physical keyboard; it

could also be made available through touch screens. Furthermore, it is

more common for smartphones to possess larger high-resolution

screens than basic mobile phones; however, it is difficult to draw up

specifications that would be specific to smartphones (Litchfield, 2010).

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

Use smartphone Large high Support 3G


OS resolution screens networks

Allow installation Support QWERTY Remote Data

Hardware

Additional
Software
of applications keyboard transfer
(also possible through
software support)
Able to conduct Large data
complex tasks capacity
Camera, GPS,
Advanced PIM & Gyroscope, Wi-Fi,
Calander options Bluetooth

Figure developed by author

Figure 3 – Smartphone Specifications

In Figure 3 the author has outlined some of the key features a mobile

phone should possess in order to qualify as a smartphone; based on the

sources consulted earlier. This will provide a basic understanding of the

concept of a smartphone throughout the research. Unfortunately, it

proved to be practically impossible to draw up a single concise definition

of a smartphone.

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

2.2 Origin

Smartphones have undergone many developments to become the

devices we know them as today. In order to understand the functionality

and features of a smartphone, one must familiarise itself with its

predecessors. A smartphone is a hybrid device inspired by the mobile

phone and the Personal Digital Assistant [PDA].

It was Apple computers who coined the term PDA in 1992, referring to a

small, hand-held electronic device that would allow common clerical

tasks including note-taking, maintaining a contact list and keeping a

diary (Daniels, 1994a).

PDA’s in theory were supposed to be small enough to fit in one hand,

lacking ‘real’ keyboards (Daniels, 1994a). The issue with the keyboards

was resolved by integrating a stylus as an input device. PDA’s could be

grouped between two categories, namely: Palm Handhelds produced by

Palm Inc. and Pocket PC’s produced by Microsoft, this categorisation

was based on their operating systems and manufacturers (Livingston,

2004).

According to Daniels (1994a) a PDA was only useful if it possessed three

key features, namely:

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

 Software able to convert input crawl into identifiable text,

commonly referred as handwriting recognition

 The ability to transfer data between the device and a computer

 Good communications ability in order to access e-mail and others.

Livingston (2004) stated that once PDA’s are connected to the internet

they comprise of the same set of features as a smartphone, with the

exception of voice. It must be noted that smartphones at the time of

writing were not as advanced as they are presently produced. According

to Livingston (2004) PDA’s have the following features: messaging,

browsing, extensibility, PIM functionality and miscellaneous. With

extensibility, Livingston (2004) is referring to the ability to download

and install software, whereas with miscellaneous he is referring to

calendars, calculators and games.

The other device that was essential to the development of smartphones

was the mobile phone. Its primary purpose was to enable its users to

telecommunicate by removing location barriers. This device has been

used in far greater numbers than PDA’s and is therefore more

recognised, this could also be linked to the fact that PDA’s were being

primarily used by businesses, whereas mobile phones were being used

by businesses and consumers (O’Brien, 2008). The word mobile is

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

derived from the Latin word mōbilis, which is defined as movable, loose,

quick and flexible (Latin Dictionary, 2008). Motorola unlocked mobility

back in 1983 when they launched the DynaTAC 8000X, the world’s first

mobile phone (Edwards, 2009). The $3.995,- worth of device weighted

nearly 1 kilogram and had a height of roughly 25 centimetres, stretching

the definition of portability (Figueroa, 2010). At present the smallest

phone, the Modu weighs only 40 grams and has a height of 7.2 cm

(Hanlon, 2010; Zedge, 2010).

After years of development, both of the devices (PDA’s and mobile

phones) became small and intelligent enough to be merged into a single

device. In 2004, researchers at Forrester research identified that PDA’s

and smartphones were heading for a collision course and that it would

be inevitable for them to become a single device (Golvin and Jackson,

2004) .

It was as early as 1992 when IBM released the allegedly first smartphone

(O’Shea, 2009).Since then there have been many successful and less

successful attempts by several manufacturers including Nokia, Research

in Motion, Apple, Microsoft, Palm and many other firms to capture a

slice of the smartphone industry.

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

2.3 Development

Smartphones have been on the market for a while now; however initially

there was much hesitation among mobile phone users to switch, as

early smartphones were expensive, only a limited set of models were

available and many people preferred the idea of having two separate

devices (Crouch 2000). Since then the smartphone landscape has

changed drastically, with each year sales exceeding the previous years

(Figure 4).

200

180

160

140

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009

Sales figures x million


Figure developed by author utilising Best (2007), CIA (2006,) Davies (2008),
Gartner (2010) and Strategy Analytics (2010)

Figure 4 – Smartphones sales: Historical Figures

Market prospects are highly favourable; smartphones sales have risen

55.4% this year and with sales expected to reach 247 million units by the

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

end of 2010; many companies in the sector are keen on taking active

part in this lucrative market segment (ISuppli, 2010; Nichols, 2010).

Nokia which is the largest smartphone manufacture with 40% market

share, manufactured about 20 different smartphones in 2009 (Gibbs,

2009; Kang 2010). HTC Corp, a company that produces powerful

handsets also released approximately 20 different phones in 2009 (HTC,

2010; Sherwood, 2009). One of the key differences within the

smartphone market is the increased number of major players in

comparison to a decade ago. There are currently roughly eight

prominent companies involved in the smartphone segment producing

either hardware or software or in some cases both [Figure 5].

Software Hardware

HTC

RIM

Google

Microsoft

Palm

Samsung

Nokia

Apple

Figure produced by author


Figure 5 – Major players in smartphone business

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

The largest computer manufacturer HP recently acquired Palm Inc.,

which has endured years of struggling in the highly competitive market

of smartphones (Shofield, 2010). Google recently joined the

smartphone environment by developing Android, an operating system

for mobile devices (Android, 2010). However, Apple made the most

significant entry when it introduced the iPhone in 2007, immediately

affecting the shares of its competitors RIM and Palm (Arrington, 2007).

Although the iPhone was not revolutionary, as it did not introduce any

new features, it did combine existing features into a device that was

able to perform them very well (Klatell, 2007). The smartphone was

praised for drastically improving web-browsing experience and

introducing a platform for applications; the app store (Foresman, 2009;

Hesseldahl, 2008; Riley, 2007). The app store allowed the iPhone to

become a consumer and a business device at the same time as it

contained applications for a wide range of purposes (Hoover, 2008). It

blurred the long-standing border between consumer and business

devices.

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

2.4 Consumer vs. Business

Predecessors of the smartphone: the PDA and the mobile phone each

had specific target audiences. Manufacturers either marketed their

devices to businesses users or to consumers. The high purchase cost of

early PDA’s and its functionalities primarily attracted business users,

whereas consumers adopted mobile phones more rapidly.

Contemporary users of smartphone devices are both business users and

consumers. The demand among consumers is being fuelled by the

desire for the ultimate converged devices that support functionalities

such as touch screen, camera/video support, dual SIM card, Wi-Fi and

integrated GPS (Shein, 2010). Two other limiting factors have been

eliminated as well, namely: smartphones have become available widely

and there has been a significant decrease in purchase price (Hantke,

2010).

The new generation of consumers is furthermore highly connected,

Generation Y for example started using technology on average from

when they were 3 years old (Rosen, 2004). Smartphones are being

adopted by generation Y at an increased speed as it allows them to stay

in connected while use a wide range of applications. The world’s largest

social networking website Facebook; boasts with more than 500 million

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

users (Facebook, 2010), while its closest competitor; Twitter has more

than 75 million users (Gaudin, 2010). Both of these websites attract

enormous traffic on daily basis. People like to access these websites

from everywhere they go: home, work, restaurants, work, public

transport etc. With consumers demanding advanced features,

smartphones have become extremely popular.

The same consumers intend to use their smartphones at their office, as

it allows them to access their favourite websites and applications, while

maintaining all personal information such as contact details and other

media items. High profile executives within organisations have been

held accountable for making personal smartphones to be accepted as

business devices (Timson, 2010).

Instead of developing smartphones for business and consumer

segments, smartphones can now be targeted to any audience. The

difference among users is now determined by their usage of their

smartphones. Extendibility allows users to use business and personal

applications at the same time, introducing the concept of mobility and

productivity, which is affecting many work place environments.

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Chapter 2 l The Rise of Smartphones Literature Review

2.5 Chapter Summary

The aim of this chapter was to expand on smartphones. As smartphones

form a key part of the research, gathering substantial amount of

information in order to understand the purpose and the use of

smartphones was conceived to be important.

It became apparent that defining smartphones would be particularly

difficult, as no accepted definition exists. The author aimed to define

smartphones using recent articles. Although it was not possible to draw

up a concise definition, authors in the field shared similar ideas on what

was to be referred as smartphones.

The chapter continued by highlighting the origins of a smartphone,

which is a hybrid descendant of a PDA and a mobile phone. The

developments around smartphones have not stood still in the past

decade and have led to greater acceptance and wider availability.

Information provided in this chapter will be used in conjunction with the

following chapters in which the author will discuss how smartphones

have affected the workplace, how different generations are picking

using smartphones and how academic theory supports this

development.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3 The Virtual Office

Business is changing, as information technology is altering what people

do and how do they do it (Raymond and Cunliffe, 1997). No longer is it

necessary for individuals to occupy a particular space every single day,

equipped with mobile phones, internet and laptops; people can choose

when as well as where to work (Duffy, 1997).

The virtual office is a place where employees can interact, collaborate

and be productive at any given time and anywhere in the world. These

employees consist of a new generation of workers also referred to as

knowledge workers. The management guru Peter Drucker first used the

term ‘knowledge worker’ in 1959 (Gregory, 2004). The concept

describes workers that access data, use knowledge, employ mental

models and apply significant amount of concentration and attention in

completing their work (Davis, 2002).

This chapter will discuss the concept of a virtual office, addressing how

organisations are using various models for implementation. The chapter

will furthermore discuss the role of knowledge workers in contemporary

business.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.1 Understanding the Virtual Office

The work environment is changing continuously, influenced by people’s

perception of an effective work environment and technological

developments. According to Genova (2010), the 20th century office is

dead. Organisations are intensively exploring new ways of working.

“Location is becoming less important to organizations as work is

becoming something you do, not someplace you go” (Helms and

Raiszadeh, 2002, p 241).

There are generic degrees of virtualness described in the literature

(Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002, Shao et al, 1998). Figure 6 highlights the

three degrees of virtualness.

1. 100% Virtual

2. Hollow
Firms

3. Virtual
Offices

Figure produced by author utilising Helms and Raiszadeh (2002)


Figure 6 – Levels of virtualness

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

Organisations in the first category are fully virtual; some web-based

organisations only exist as a set of webpages, while all other functions

are outsourced (Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). These types of

organisations are highly responsive and possess the ability to adjust

competencies as competition changes strategy (Werther, 1999).

Helms and Raiszadeh (2002) describe the second category of virtualness

as less extreme. The hollow firm is an organisation that exists not

necessarily to offer products or services themselves, but to bring other

organisations together (Wickham, 2006). The formal organisation is

kept as small as possible, focussing primarily on essential and core

activities to create value of which it reaps the rewards (Helms and

Raiszadeh, 2002; Wickham, 2006). The balance between what is done

inside the company and what is done outside the company is changed to

achieve higher levels of competitiveness (Werther, 1999).

The final category is the virtual office. Traditionally the term virtual

office has referred to shared office space and/or business services (Allen,

2008). This could include services as: business address, computers,

telephones, receptionists, meeting rooms, legal and accounting (Allen,

2008). However, developments have changed the understating of the

concept of virtual office. The virtual office is now defined as a work

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

environment in which employees work cooperatively and remotely from

different locations using a computer network (Walker and Herrmann,

2004). This allows employees to commute to work using telephones and

other telecommunications equipment rather than utilising traditional

forms of transit (Alverson, 1998). A more recent description is provided

by bNet (2010) which defines a virtual office as “a workplace that is not

based in one physical location but consists of employees working

remotely by using information and communications technologies. A

virtual office is characterized by the use of teleworkers, telecenters,

mobile workers, hot-desking, and hoteling, and promotes the use of

virtual teams”. Ferreira et al (2009) support this definition as they state

that organisations that employ people that are enabled to work from a

distance are referred to as virtual companies.

In order to limit the extent of the research; the dissertation will use the

definition provided in the third category when it refers to a virtual office.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.2 Virtual Organisations

Kleinrock (1996, 1998) claimed that advanced wireless technology,

internet, GPS systems and other technologies would realise the vision of

working anywhere at any time. This vision has been realised by the birth

of the virtual organisation, which is an environment in which employees

can operate remotely from each other and their managers (Cascio,

2000).

Shao et al (1998) conducted research that identified four important

characteristics of a virtual organisation. The four characteristics they

defined were connectivity, purpose, technology and boundary [Figure 7].

They highlighted that although they stressed these characteristics,

these may not be the only one that may define a virtual organisation.

Connectivity the creation of unity or linkage through structural change,


breaking of constraints or overcoming of previously existing
barriers
Purpose the objective that provides the incentive for creating the new
organisation and which serves as the cohesive force to hold the
virtual organisation components at least temporarily together
Technology the enabling factor that allows the breakthrough and makes the
virtual form possible

Boundary the separation of those who are part of the virtual organisation
and those who are not, in the absence of any clearly visible
physical border lines. It defines who can share its activities

Figure adopted by author from Shao et al (1998: p 306, table 1)

Figure 7 – Virtual Organisation variables

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

The four characteristics highlighted by Shao et al (1998) are still valid in

today’s organisations. Connectivity in a virtual organisation describes

the act of sharing knowledge at a distant from each other and allowing

employees to access company resources including data, printers and

software (Shao et al, 1998) and technology can refer to intelligent

hardware such as IT-infrastructure and smartphones allowing data to be

shared among employees over a distance (Shao et al, 1998).

External Office Mobile

Employees

Office
Smartphone
s
Supplier Connected
s Centrally
through Laptops Employees
Stored data
Clients internet

Web Access

Figure developed by author

Figure 8 – Virtual Organisation Framework

A comprehensive virtual organisation can be completely interlinked with

suppliers, clients and employees [on/off location] with all data being

centrally stored [Figure 8]. However, several approaches have been

adopted by organisations to create a suitable degree of virtualness.

These concepts are discussed in chapter 3.3.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.3 Key concepts

There are a range of approaches to a virtual office. The degree of

mobility of an employee within a company may vary from role to role.

Organisations are likely to use a blend of concepts that allow the firm to

enable a virtual workplace. Academicians describe four concepts that a

virtual office may employ [Figure 9 and Figure 10].

Telecommuting

Tethering

Hot desking

Fully mobile

Figure produced by author utilising


Ferreira et al (2009); Helms and Raiszadeh (2002)

Figure 9 – Virtual Office: Key Concepts

3.3.1 Telecommuting

Telecommuting is an arrangement in which employees with fixed

company offices are allowed to occasionally work at home (Ferreira et

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

al, 2009; Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). Cross and Raizman (1987)

predicted that telecommuting would be the future of working, now it is

considered the first step towards the fully virtualised company. The

benefits of telecommuting are flexibility and increased productivity

(Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). Helms and Raiszadeh (2002) furthermore

state that the primary disadvantage of telecommuting is the minimal

cost saving. However this statement is disputed by recent research

which indicates that businesses in the United States could save

approximately $10.000,- per employee per annum if they practised

telecommuting (BusinessGreen, 2010).

The benefits according to the research would derive from cost savings

on electricity, real-estate and related costs such as: furniture, supplies,

maintenance and space consolidation (BusinessGreen, 2010). A research

conducted by Brigham Young University (2010) indicates that

employees that are offered telecommuting options are more productive

than office workers as their ability to balance work and family life is

enhanced. Another advantage of telecommuting is the fact that the

managerial impact is minimal and therefore there is less need for new

management approaches (Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002).

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.3.2 Tethering

This term is used by Ferreira et al (2009) to describe a setting in which

employees have a certain degree of mobility, but are expected to report

to an office on a regular basis. The employees do not have a fixed office

location, but do have a fixed work location (Ferreira et al, 2009). The

concept is also referred to homeworking. In this setting the company

often provides necessary equipment for the employee to conduct the

work from a fixed location, i.e. home based office (Helms and

Raiszadeh, 2002).

The benefits of tethering according to Helms and Raiszadeh (2002) are

reduced real-estate costs, flexibility and commuting avoidance. The

Department for Business, Innovation & Skills (2010) goes further in

listing the benefits and indicates that allowing employees to work from

home can have number advantages such as:

 Improved retain of employees; i.e. it can help parents to provide

childcare and work

 Wider pool of applicants; i.e. disabled people that are unable to

leave their homes

 Increased productivity; i.e. employees are not required to

commute

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

 Increased staff motivation; employees report reduced stress and

sickness levels

 Geographical advantage; i.e. sales staff could be based closer to

clients.

As was the case with telecommuting, employers enabling their workers

to work from home can expect approximately 19 additional working

hours, without straining their employees (Devlin, 2010)

Tethering also has its drawbacks, the Department for Business,

Innovation & Skills (2010) again supplies a list of drawbacks associated

with tethering, namely:

 Managing remote workers may prove difficult

 Potential deterioration in skills and quality of work

 Initial cost of training and equipment

 Difficulty maintaining staff development

 IT issues

 Increased telecommunications costs

 Increased difficulty in maintaining team spirit

 Tethering may be unsuitable for certain jobs

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

Helms and Raiszadeh (2002) state similar drawbacks emphasising that it

is important that managers must incorporate frequent face-to-face

contact to maintain a sense of belonging and commitment to objective

and goals.

3.3.3 Hot desking

This system is a development of the original concept of ‘hoteling’. Under

this scheme, employees were not always physically present and as a

result were not assigned to a fixed office space (Ferreira et al, 2009;

Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). Instead, they could reserve a spot/cubicle

“hotel room” at company offices that provided essential equipment to

conduct the work (Ferreira et al, 2009; Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). This

concept when introduced was used alongside existing settings. Offices

in general support three types of seating settings, namely:

 Shift space is occupied during a particular shift, on

completion of the shift; the space is ‘released’

to another employee.

 Assigned a single person occupies the space

 Unassigned space is available for everyone to use.

Modern businesses are embracing the concept of unassigned

workspace, which is often referred to as hot desking. The main

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

difference between hoteling and hot desking is the fact that with

hoteling, staff has to reserve a work station, whereas this is not

necessary when the organisation is working with hot desks. Daniels

(1994b) explains the concept in the 90’s as an idea that was derived from

navy practises where a single bed was used by several marines to save

valuable space. As more and more organisations move towards new

ways of working, utilising hot desks has become increasingly popular.

The benefits of using this system is that it frees up office space and may

reduce office size, space and cost (Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002).

Allowing employees to select their own space can result in increased

creativity and productivity (Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). It will

furthermore allow them to select suitable timings and locations to work.

The drawback of using this system is that managers must provide a level

of amenity so that the benefits to the workers are clear (Helms and

Raiszadeh, 2002). However, people’s attitudes towards working have

changed significantly in the past decade. Unlike the Baby Boomer

generation, generation Y perceives this type of mobility as a benefit

rather than a drawback.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.3.4 Fully mobile

In this setting, employees do not have a desk at home or at the office

(Ferreira et al, 2009; Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002). They can work from

anywhere at any time using a phone and a portable computer (Helms

and Raiszadeh, 2002).

The benefit of this approach according to Helms and Raiszadeh (2002) is

the increased customer interaction. Relatively inexpensive mobile

equipment allows the employee to be on the move and get closer to its

clients.

A drawback could be that the travel demands may increase and that

managers may be required to undertake extra effort to maintain contact

and commitment to company objectives (Helms and Raiszadeh, 2002).

High

Fully mobile

Hot desking
Mobility

Tethering

Telecommuting

Low Virtualness High

Figure produced by author


Figure 10 – Mobility / Virtualness Grid

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.4 Knowledge workers

Significant changes have occurred during the past century in work

environment. The western countries have developed themselves from

manufacturing and labour intensive industries to service and knowledge

based countries.

Employees have evolved over time, adapting to different circumstances

and management practises. They have been affected by many

ideologies over time [Figure 11].

Factory Workers
• Born in the 18th century
• Extension of the machine
• Reward in cash
Office workers
• Born in the 20th century
• Fixed responsibilities
• Reward in cash and incentives

Knowledge workers
• Born in the 21st century
• Outcome is more important than activities
• Reward in cash, incentives, trust and freedom

Figure produced by author


Figure 11 – Evolution of Workers

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

Employees in the 18th century were considered to be an extension of the

machine they were operating. They performed their work under strict

supervision and low levels of trust from the management. They were

remunerated in cash with no additional rewards for their efforts. During

the 20th century a new type of employee evolved, the office worker.

Employees were assigned fixed responsibilities, which had to be

completed within specific working hours. These employees were

rewarded with payment in cash and additional incentives to increase

productivity. The most recent evolution in employee perception is the

one of a knowledge worker.

3.4.1 Defining Knowledge Workers

Technological advances have eliminated many of the uncomplicated

jobs within corporations (Cardinali, 1998), while at the same time much

of the physical work has moved to countries with cheap labour. This

progress has forced developed societies to build a knowledge economy.

The knowledge economy according to Powell and Snellman (2004: p.

199) exists of “…production and services based on knowledge-intensive

activities that contribute to an accelerated pace of technical and

scientific advance, as well as rapid obsolescence. The key component of

a knowledge economy is a greater reliance on intellectual capabilities

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

than on physical inputs or natural resources”. Essential to developing a

knowledge-based economy are knowledge workers. The work

knowledge workers perform is inherently cognitive, instead of physical

[Davis, 1999]. According to Davis (2002: p. 68) “Knowledge work is

human mental work performed to generate useful information and

knowledge”. As knowledge has increasingly become recognised as a

corporate asset, it has been reasoned that knowledge has superseded

traditional factors of production to become the leading corporate and

competitive asset (Havens and Knapp, 1999). Knowledge lies within the

employees of an organisation, therefore employees are one the most

important assets of an organisation, and the success of any company

depends upon the productivity of its employees (Weinstein, 2005).

Peter Drucker stated: “Every knowledge worker in the modern

organisation is an ‘executive’, if by virtue of his possession of

knowledge, he is responsible for a contribution that materially affects

the capacity of the organisation to perform and to obtain results”

(Drucker, 1966, p.5). Effectively managing knowledge workers is

therefore essential to create a competitive edge in the fast passed

business environment. Organisations should attempt to meet the

tangible and intangible requirements of these employees.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.4.2 Managing Gold-Collar Employees

Managing employees has become ever more complicated as the nature

of their work progressively reaches new levels of complexity.

Historically, the workforce has been divided into two groups, namely:

the ‘blue collar’ workers (factory workers) and the ‘white collar’ workers

(office workers). Blue-collar workers are assigned manual labour in

exchange for an hourly pay (Kelley, 1990). The work is done under strict

supervision and results are measurable. The white-collar workers

conduct their daily activities in an office environment. The work a white-

collar employee performs could range from archiving files to solving

complex organisational issues. As knowledge workers gain increasing

value in the eyes of the employers, a new category has been created,

the ‘gold collar’ employees.

Managing gold collar employees requires significant changes in

management approaches. Unlike white-collar employees that deal with

information, gold collar employees deal with knowledge. “That

knowledge is dynamic, and the goal of management should be

enhancing, exchanging, and using it effectively rather than preserving

and systematizing it like a static resource” (Wonacott, 2002: p.1). This

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

dynamic process creates a tension between absorbing new information

and exploiting existing knowledge (Crossen et al, 1998).

A more productive approach to managing gold collar workers includes

concentrating on end results by settings goals rather than controlling

the process involved (Wonnacott, 2002). Kelley (1990) stated that it is

important for management to understand that management theories

and tools that are designed for blue-collar workers are not appropriate

for the complex work activities of gold collar workers. Management

should furthermore allow the leeway and flexibility necessary for

exploring and tinkering, from which new solutions, new strategies and

new learning results can be attained (Wonnacott, 2002).

Knell (2000) identifies knowledge workers as ‘free workers’, this as the

emergence of new type of complicated expertise arises, which is highly

valued in the marketplace, shifting power to the knowledge worker as

they become less dependent on their employers. This shift in power

provides knowledge workers considerable influence over their work

(Glaser, 1976; Donelly, 2006). Along with Kelly (1990); Knell (2006) has

also argued that new approaches to management and organisations are

required, as he indicates that knowledge workers are making two

demands from their employment relation, namely: firstly they insist to

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

control their development and secondly they are demanding job

characteristics that reflect their own philosophy of work, career and life.

According to Doyle and Reeves (2001) knowledge workers are ‘time

sovereign’, not bound by time and able to decide their own work

schedule. Due to the interdependent employment relation and their

empowered status, knowledge workers are often managed using ‘soft’

or ‘high’ commitment HRM style (Donelly, 2006). This allows knowledge

workers to demand from employers to offer them the benefits of

remote working as development in mobile technology and the nature of

work continue to allow new methods (Donelly, 2006). It is not very likely

that every knowledge worker is able to exercise a significant amount of

power of its employer. Many knowledge workers are allowed to operate

flexibly within the restrictions defined by their employees, which are

necessary to fulfil client demands and expectations (Gill, 2000).

However, the trend in increased level of autonomy in employment

relationship is becoming increasingly popular among many

organisations.

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Chapter 3 l The Virtual Office Literature Review

3.5 Chapter Summary

The number of organisations utilising mobility is increasing greatly, with

main drivers being economic benefits and emerging new forms of

connections, devices, applications and services (Vartiainen, 2006). This

development initiated the trend of virtual organisations. Organisations

have adopted different form of virtualness, ranging from fully mobile to

a blend of several structures.

Although the trend to virtualise a company is economically attractive for

organisations, it is becoming apparent that knowledge workers are

becoming more demanding than their fellow workers are. This has

forced organisations to respect the requests of these empowered

employees by providing them with a level of autonomy.

With mobility comes connectivity, therefore organisations have to

consider how they intend to connect their mobile employees with other

sources in the company network. Internet, laptop and smartphones

have proved to be an effective tool in addressing this issue. Next chapter

addresses how smartphones in particular are affecting the workplace.

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Chapter 4 l Smartphones in the Workplace Literature Review

4 Smartphones in the Workplace

Smartphones are becoming increasingly popular in workplaces. A recent

survey indicated that 340 small and large companies in Europe and US

plan to boost the deployment of smartphones, while dramatically

slowing the deployment of laptops (Hamblen, 2008).

Jackson (1999, p4.) stated that “it must be noted that existing ideas and

assumptions about work and organisations, as well as corporate

policies, business strategies and management philosophies shape the

way what we think about new technologies …”. Jackson was correct in

his statement, as the dynamic growth in the use of smartphones has

been largely driven from the top downwards, with senior executives,

sales staff and field employees to be among the first to embrace the

smartphone (James, 2008). From a strategic perspective, smartphones

as a tool allow businesses to increase productivity and get closer to their

clients; from a business perspective, new technological developments

allow businesses to employ new practises that result in cost savings and

improved business processes (Andriessen and Vartiainen, 2005).

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Chapter 4 l Smartphones in the Workplace Literature Review

4.1 Workplace development

As mobility is becoming a key factor in today’s workplace, it is creating

new challenges to both companies and their employees (BenMoussa,

2003). The are several reasons for companies to seek mobility, for it

allows organisations to respond more promptly to rapidly changing

market environment and to provide knowledge workers with more

autonomy.

As early as 1998, multinationals such Procter & Gamble, IBM, HP, AT&T

and Compaq had partially or fully eliminated their field sales and

customer service offices by replacing them with technology including

portable computers, cellular phones and fax machines (Davenport and

Pearlson, 1998). Contemporary companies are extending the limits

using emerging technologies. Accenture UK and Vodafone collaborated

on improving the mobility and productivity of Accenture workforce by

applying the latest technologies [Figure 12] (Vodafone Group, 2004).

Figure produced by author


Figure 12 – Accenture’s Mobile solution

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Chapter 4 l Smartphones in the Workplace Literature Review

In the case of Accenture, employees were equipped with gear that

allowed their mobile devices to be permanently connected to the

corporate network at any time and almost anywhere. This allowed the

employees to keep unproductive downtime to a minimum. It also

provided the workforce with autonomy to decide when and how to

work, allowing them to make better use of their time. A common

demand among knowledge workers as discussed in the previous section.

Microsoft NL is another example of an organisation embracing mobility.

Under the name of ‘The New world of Work’, they have overhauled

existing business practises and replaced them with shared workspaces,

laptops, smartphones and other software and hardware (Microsoft NL,

2010). Again, the motivation was to enable employees to become more

productive and provide them with freedom to decide when and how

they want to work.

Mobile work solutions are enabling organisations and employees to

approach work differently, bringing new opportunities and treats to

businesses.

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Chapter 4 l Smartphones in the Workplace Literature Review

4.2 Opportunities and Threats

With the rise of smartphones in the workplace and the increased

mobility of employees, businesses are increasingly dealing with new

issues; ranging from legal obligations to information management

4.2.1 Opportunities

As smartphones have become more powerful and capable, they are

gradually replacing tasks that other devices were required for (James,

2008). Smartphones are highly mobile devices that allow employees to

collaborate and share data from virtually anywhere. This allows

organisations to respond more promptly to changes in the environment.

Smartphones also have a positive impact on increasing productivity and

provide employees with extended autonomy (Bradley, 2010). By

allowing employees to work off-site, organisations can furthermore

reduce their costs of real estate and focus on flexible working schemes.

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Chapter 4 l Smartphones in the Workplace Literature Review

4.2.2 Threats

It is clear that smartphones can be beneficial to an organisation;

however, some serious threats must be taken into account. Genova

(2010: p. 119) for instance states: “Although the disappearing office

boundaries caused by technological advances have obvious benefits for

employers and employees, something else is dissolving along with those

cubicle walls: clear limit lines of employer liability”. The increasing

popularity of the concept of virtual office, has led to a fresh breed of

lawsuits, expanding in the area of employment, overtime compensation

and confidentiality issues (Genova, 2010).

Security issues will similarly affect organisations, as smartphones will

require protection from viruses and malware or employ encryption to

ensure that sensitive corporate data is not leaked when smartphones

are lost or stolen (James, 2008).

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Chapter 4 l Smartphones in the Workplace Literature Review

4.3 Chapter Summary

Increasing mobility of the workforce employing latest technology is

being considered very beneficial to businesses and their employees.

Smartphones have been very effective in fuelling this trend, as they are

relatively cheap to put into business.

While it is important for organisations to understand the threats that

exist in increasing mobility, the positive impact is that employees are

able to decide when and how they work, while organisations can reduce

their base costs and increase the productivity of their workforce.

However, contemporary workforce within a single organisation can exist

of up to four different generations. Although the latest generation is

very tech savvy, this may not be the case for the oldest generation in the

workforce. The next chapter identifies and discusses the different

generations and analyses how they have been impacted by

smartphones.

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

5 Multigenerational Workforce

The concept of work being something you do instead of somewhere you

go was initially resisted by the baby boomers (Daniels, 1994b). The idea

of having an office and a desk offered them a sense of job security. The

baby boomers had a significantly different perception and mentality

towards work than generation Y, the latest generation to join the

workplace.

Each generation has a different perspective on social life, work life and

methods of communication. Contemporary organisations may have to

deal with four different generations at a single time, affecting the way

policies are drawn and what methods of conducting business are used.

This chapter will elaborate on the various generations that are currently

active in the workplace and will aim to critically analyse the differences

among them. Finally, the chapter will discuss how smartphones have

affected the different generations.

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

5.1 Generations

A generation is defined as a cohort of individuals that are born into a

specific political, economic, technological and social moment, sharing

key historical and social life experiences (Kupperschmidt, 2000; Rentz et

al, 1983; Smola and Sutton, 2002; Strauss and Howe, 1992). These

experiences have a similar effect on the individuals of a cohort; as a

result, each generation develops a distinctive personality

(Kupperschmidt, 2000; Smola and Sutton, 2002; Schewe & Noble,

2000).

This concept is described by the generational theory which assumes that

it is possible to generalise cohort differences, however these

assumptions may not be fully objective or absolute (Marker, 2004). The

generational theory enables better understanding and forecasting of

tendencies of individuals born in a specific cohort (Lamm and Meeks,

2009).

Society has created labels for each of the generation; however, these

labels are often inconsistent as the timespan used to define them are

different (Smola and Sutton, 2002). It is suggested that each generation

lasts nearly two decades, after which it is preceded by a newer

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

generation (Shepard, 2004). This research will address four generations

that are relevant to today’s workplace.

5.1.1 Veterans

The oldest generation is that of the ‘veterans’ also referred to as

‘matures’ and the ‘silent generation’ (Heffernan, 2006; Jurkiewicz and

Brown, 1998; Pennington-Gray and Lane, 2001). The veterans are

referred to the silent generation, as they are perceived to be cautious,

indifferent, have a lack of adventure and imagination (Pennington-Gray

and Lane, 2001). They were born between 1922 and 1945 (Heffernan,

2006) and as a result individuals of this generation will be fully retired by

the end of 2010. Members of the Silent Generation are the parents of

the Baby Boom Generation, currently one of the largest generations

(Pennington-Gray and Lane, 2001)

5.1.2 Baby Boomers

Baby Boomers are considered the most competitive generation (Raines,

2003). Born between 1946 and 1964 (Heffernan, 2006), they consider

themselves optimistic, resourceful and open minded experimenters, not

afraid to use technology based products (Bernstein, 2001; Hicks and

Hicks, 1999; Yang and Jolly, 2008). Due to the size of this generation

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

and the times they have experienced, individuals of this cohort have had

a profound impact on global societies (Glass, 2007).

5.1.3 Generation X

Generation X is significantly smaller than the previous generation, which

is attributed to easier access to birth control and the decision to have

smaller families (Glass, 2007, Zemke et al, 2000). They are often

portrayed as a selfish generation (Cennamo and Gardner, 2008); having

more commitment to their own careers than the organisations they are

employed by (Miller and Yu, 2003). Generation X is born between 1965

and 1980 (Heffernan, 2006). As children they experienced their parents

being laid off during the mass corporate layoffs in the 1980’s which had

an impact on their work related viewpoint (Glass, 2007, Reynolds, 2005).

Individuals from this are led by their ‘survivor’ mentality and favour fun,

informality and creativity (Zemke et al, 2000).

5.1.4 Generation Y

Generation Y is the latest generation to join the workforce (Glass, 2007).

They are also known as Nexters, Echo Boomer and Millennials (Lamm

and Meeks, 2000). Members of this generation were born between 1981

and 1999 (Heffernan, 2006). Individuals of this generation were

constantly encouraged and coached by their parents, which resulted in

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

strong ambition, increased optimism, over confidence and high flyers

mentality among the individuals of this cohort (Zemke et al, 2000). They

are known to lack long term attachment or commitment to an

organisation and regard jobs primarily as a mean to build a career

resume (Lamm and Meeks, 2000).

5.1.5 Generation Z

Individuals from Generation Z have yet to join the workforce. They are

born between 2000 and present. This pre-teen generation is also

referred to as Generation I (internet) and Generation Next (Lyon,

2010a). This name has been given to them as they are seen as true

digital natives, having no memories of pre-smartphone world (Lyon,

2010a). It is interesting to note that large mobile manufacturers like LG

electronics are already busy producing smartphones to address this

cohort (Ziegler, 2010). This generation will however not be addressed in

this research extensively, as they are currently too young for the

purpose of this research.

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

5.2 Key Differences

A wide range of author has discussed the differences among

generations (Cenamo and Gardner, 2008; Glass, 2008; Jorgensen, 2003;

Lamm and Meeks, 2009; Macky et al, 2008; Smola and Sutton, 2002;

Phillips and Addicks, 2010; Pitt-Catsouphes and Smyer, 2007; Yang and

Jolly, 2008). Although each of them approached the area differently,

most of them agreed on key differences among the generations.

Understanding the differences among generations is becoming

increasingly important for organisations and their management. It is the

first time that organisations are employing four different generations at

the same time (Frey, 2008; George, 2008; Hammill, 2005; Rosen, 2004).

In an article on the American Management Association website, Jenkins

(2007) stated, “Each group has its own distinct characteristics, values,

and attitudes toward work, based on its generation’s life experiences. To

successfully integrate these diverse generations into the workplace,

companies will need to embrace radical changes in recruitment,

benefits, and creating a corporate culture that actively demonstrates

respect and inclusion for its multigenerational work force”. The key

differences among the four generations are highlighted in Figure 13.

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

Veterans Baby Boomers Gen X Gen Y


1922 - 1945 1946 - 1964 1965 - 1980 1981 - 1999

Work ethics and values

Hardworkers Workaholics Eliminate the task Multitasking


Respect authority Work efficiently Want structure Entrepreneurial
Sacrifice and direction Tolerant
Desire quality
Duty before fun Sceptical Goal oriented
Question
Adhere to rules authority

Meaning of work

An obligation An exciting A difficult A mean to an end


adventure challenge fulfillment
A contract

Leadership styles

Directive Consensuel Everyone is the Supportive


Command and Collegial same Participative
Control Challenge others Manage results
Ask why

Interactive styles

Individual Team player Entrepreneur Participative

Communication

Formal In person Direct Digital


Memo Immidiate

Feedback & Reward

No news is good Don't appreciate it Regular feedback Meaningful work


news Money Freedom is best Immediate
Satisfaction in job Title Recognition reward feedback
well done Freedom

Work & Family balance

Kept strictly No balance Balanced Balanced


seperate Work to live

Figure developed by author utilising Glass (2008), Hammill (2005), Heffernan (2006), Lamm
and Meeks, (2009), Leitschuh (2007) Macky et al (2008); Smola and Sutton (2002)

Figure 13 – Generational Differences

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

5.3 Technology Acceptance

Each generation approaches technology differently, based on their

beliefs and attitudes towards life and change (Rosen, 2004). The Silent

Generation was raised without modern technology, whereas the Baby

Boomers were the first technological generation (Rosen, 2004). Baby

Boomers are frequently addressed by technology companies as they are

wealthier than individuals from other cohorts and tend to respond to

changing trends (Haynes, 2004). Members of Generation X were the

first to be considered computer and internet literate and have a high

affinity for technology (Kupperschmidt, 2000; Yang & Jolly, 2008),

whereas generation Y was born and raised with technology (Jorgensen,

2003; Rosen, 2004).

5.3.1 Smartphones

The adoption of smartphones among the different generations varies

significantly. Baby Boomers tend to adopt new technology only after its

benefits are demonstrated and if a need is being satisfied (Chen, 2010).

Currently 21.1% of the Baby Boomers use a smartphone, whereas more

than half of Gen Y uses a smartphone [Figure 14] (eMarketer, 2010).

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

Veterans Baby Boomers Gen X Gen Y


Figure developed by author utilising eMarketer (2010)

Figure 14 – Smartphone adoption among generations

In case of baby boomers, the manufacturers are pushing smartphones,

as baby boomers control more than 83% of consumer spending, which

makes them a highly lucrative segment (Lyon, 2010b).

Generation Y on the other is pulling the technology and demanding

continues product development. Generation Y chooses the technology,

the products and the services they want to buy and use (Whittaker,

2010). However, this tech savvy generation does not need much

convincing to buy into the latest technology (Manning-Schaffel, 2002).

This exemplifies the difference in attitudes among the two generations.

A recent survey [Figure 15] revealed that 69% of the baby boomers

agreed to the statement that “PDAs and mobile phones contribute to

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

the decline of proper workplace etiquette”, while merely 47% of

generation Y agreed to the same statement (Schonfeld, 2009).

8 10 14

23
33
39

46
42
38

23
15
9

Baby boomer Gen X Gen Y

Strongly agree Somewhat agree Somewhat disagree Strongly disagree

Figure adopted by author from Schonfeld (2009)

Figure 15 – Baby boomers attitude towards PDA’s and mobiles

Both generations perceive smartphones differently, leading to possible

complications on the work floor. In another survey conducted by

Accenture, results showed that 27% of the baby boomers preferred

mobile handsets, whereas among Gen Y this figure was 51% (Kavur,

2009). Baby boomer and Gen X, consume their information slow,

whereas Gen Y is keen on consuming information quickly and easily

using their smartphones (Legge, 2010). Each cohort uses smartphones

differently based on their needs and mentality.

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Chapter 5 l Multigenerational Workforce Literature Review

5.4 Chapter Summary

Different generations with a different mentality and attitude towards

work and smartphones are bound to affect the developments. With

baby boomers controlling the largest consumer spending and

Generation Y keen on spending on smartphones, they appear to be

particularly interesting target groups.

Veterans and Generation Z are not extensively addressed, as one is

considered too old while the other is too young to have a notable impact

on smartphone usage within the workplace. However, It could be

suggested that generation Z which is currently underage will be able to

work better with generation Y as they are both exposed to technology

at a very early stage in their lives.

Technology nevertheless can influence people in many ways; many

academicians have concluded this. A result of this has been various

technology acceptance models that discuss how technology is adopted

among individuals. These models are discussed in the next chapter.

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

6 Technology Acceptance Theories

We live in an increasingly connected society, with rapid advances in the

field of information and communication technology (Office for National

Statistics, 2010). Every year consumers and businesses are presented

with a vast number of technologies, some of them experience great

success, and others fail miserably. Academics have in many ways

attempted to measure and analyse why an individual chooses a

particular course of action over another (Connon, 2007).

This chapter will aim to discuss how technology acceptance frameworks

assist in understanding the different aspects that play a role in the

adoption of technology. Popular frameworks such as Theory of

Reasoned Action [TRA] and Technology Acceptance Model [TAM] will

be discussed; with an emphasis on the Unified Theory of Acceptance

and Use of Technology [UTAUT].

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

6.1 Theory of Reasoned Action

TRA states that an individual’s behaviour is determined by intentions.

These intentions are influenced by the individual’s attitude toward the

behaviour and the subjective norms that exist toward the behaviour.

The model has four key elements: ‘Attitude’ relates to how the

individual thinks on the topic, ‘Subjective Norms’ refers to how the

individual perceives referent other’s opinion on the topic. ‘Intention’

states how the individual intends to act on the situation and ‘Behaviour’

is how the individual actually responds to the situation.

Beliefs
Attitude
Evaluation
Intention Behaviour
Normative
beliefs Subjective
norms
Motivation to
comply

Figure adopted by author from Fishbein and Ajzen (1975)

Figure 16 – Theory of Reasoned Action

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

6.2 Technology Acceptance Model

TAM is altered version of the TRA model to the field of Information

Systems. TAM specifies the elements that can allow improved attitudes

on information systems, alongside higher acceptance and usage of the

system in an organisation (Davis, 1989). In 2003, Lee et al (2003) stated

that TAM was the most influential and commonly employed theory for

describing an individual’s acceptance of information systems.

Perceived
Usefulness
Attitude Behavioural Usage Behaviour
Perceived Ease Intention
of Use

Adapted by author from Davis et al (1989) and Venkatesh et al (2003)

Figure 17 – Technology Acceptance Model

However, an issue with the model is that it assumes that when an

individual intends to perform a certain action, that it will be unrestricted

to perform the intended action, however in a realistic setting this may

not be possible due to organisational, social or personal factors (Elliot

and Loebbecke, 2000). Several authors have discussed the importance

of external factors as they can considerably affect an individual’s

behaviour, therefore TAM was considered limited (Bless et al, 2003;

Burger, 2010; Forgas and Williams, 2001).

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

6.3 Unified Theory of Acceptance & Use of Technology

Researchers felt that TRA and TAM were not suitable to predict user

acceptance, as they did not include specific technological and social

influences that may alter the user acceptance (King et al, 1994; Taylor

and Todd, 1995). Both models do not consider personality related

factors, cultural factors and demographic variables that shape the

behaviour (Sharma & Kanekar, 2007). Ogden (2003) critically reviewed

both models and concluded that these models can be considered

pragmatic tools; however, researchers should recognise the essential

flaws these models consist. Ogden (2003) claims that the models focus

on analytic truths rather synthetic ones and may create and change

cognitions and behaviour rather than describing them, therefore being

incompetent to be a good theory.

Due to the vast amount of critique, several modifications were made to

the TAM (TRA) model. The most prominent and comprehensive model

is the UTAUT model, which integrates eight different models to exclude

theoretical exclusion of specific influences.

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

Performance
Expectancy

Behavioural
Intention
Effort
Expectancy

Use
Social Behaviour
Influence

Facilitating
Conditions

Voluntariness
Gender Age Experience of Use

Adapted by author from Venkatesh et al (2003)

Figure 18 –Unified Theory of Acceptance & Use of Technology

According to Taniar (2009) UTAUT provides an in depth view of how the

determinants of intention and behaviour evolve over time; and assumes

that there are three direct determinants of intention to use

[performance expectancy, effort expectancy and social influences], two

direct determinants of usage behaviour [intention and facilitating

conditions] and four moderators of key relationships [gender, age,

experience, voluntariness of use].

Effort expectancy describes the degree of ease associated with using

smartphones. It will be interesting to research this as generation Y in

contrary to baby boomers has been entangled with technology from

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

their birth (Rosen, 2004). Generation Y starts using technology on

average from year 3 (Rosen, 2004). Recent survey indicated that mobile

devices are considered to contribute to a decline in work etiquette by

66% of the baby boomers, whereas less than half of the Y generation

agrees with the same statement (Perez, 2009). It will also be interesting

to identify to what extend this trend continues to influence the

acceptance of smartphones within the work environment.

Social influence is another determinant, which can form an important

impact on the acceptance of technology. It consists of subjective norm,

social factors, external ties, self-identity, image and power (Nasution,

2007). Elements that have a major impact on the decisions people make

and can assist in shaping how people behave (Gilbert et al, 1998).

Among the youth, smartphones are considered part of the person’s

image, in work environment smartphones are primary considered to be

tools to perform certain activities, hence the peer perception is

different.

Due to these key features, the UTAUT model is the most appropriate to

apply in the research as it utilises a range of models, covering a range of

essential aspects, while removing limitations that were attributed to

TRA/TAM.

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Chapter 6 l Technology Acceptance Theories Literature Review

6.4 Chapter Summary

Technology acceptance models have been widely adopted by authors in

the field of information system to research a variety of areas. Models

including TRA and TAM have led to several adapted versions of the

model including but not limited to ‘Theory of Planned Behaviour’,

‘Technology Acceptance Model (2)’ and ‘Unified Theory of Acceptance

and Use of Technology’.

UTAUT is utilised in the primary research as it is considered a robust

theory covering eight different models. It will serve as the foundation of

the questions to be examined during the research.

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Chapter 7 l Summary of Reviewed Literature Literature Review

7 Summary of Reviewed Literature

The literature review focused on four key areas within the research,

namely smartphones, the virtual office, multigenerational workforce

and frameworks of technology acceptance.

During the research, it was discovered that there is no concise

description for smartphones and that virtual offices can employ a range

of virtualness. Smartphones in the workplace are gaining popularity as

they meet the needs of evolving businesses and knowledge workers.

Differences among generations were examined, which revealed that

each generation has a different attitude towards work and life; shaped

by their life experiences. Their attitude towards technology seemed to

differ, as one generation had to adopt technology, whereas the other

was born into it. Technology acceptance models were discussed in order

to understand the aspects that play a role in adoption and use. The

UTAUT framework was considered to be most suitable as it did not

encompass the limitations of the previous models.

In the next sections, the research methodology will be discussed. It will

clarify how the different aspects of this research will be examined.

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Chapter 7 l Summary of Reviewed Literature Methodology

Methodology

The Era of the

Virtual Office

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Chapter 8 l Research Overview Methodology

8 Research Overview

This chapter will examine the reasoning behind the selection of the

research methods. Research methods refer to the systematic, focussed

and orderly collection of data for the purpose of obtaining information

from them (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Method refers to the process

of collecting data though historical review and analysis, whereas

techniques refer to the systematic procedure that dictates how data is

gathered and analysed (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). The chapter will

furthermore discuss how the undertaken research will meet the aims

and objectives of this research.

The chapter is comprised of five sections. The first section addresses the

research design, philosophy, strategy and approach. The second section

provides a detailed description of the secondary research approaches

applied and an extensive analysis of the primary research methods. The

chapter continues by examining primary research methods and

discussing research design. The final section of the chapter highlights

the ethical concerns that were taken into account while conducting

research.

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Chapter 8 l Research Overview Methodology

8.1 Research Title

The title of the dissertation is:

The Era of the Virtual Office

An investigation into the rise of smartphones

and its effects on Baby Boomers, Gen X and Gen Y

The title highlights the development towards an office that is available

from anywhere and anytime. Smartphones play the role of enabling this

trend among the three core generations currently active in the

workforce.

8.2 Research Aim

The aim of this study is

To identify the effects of smartphones on Baby Boomers,

Generation X and Generation Y in the changing work

environment.

The aim will be achieved by completing six objectives.

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Chapter 8 l Research Overview Methodology

8.3 Research Objectives

 To appraise the literature addressing the rapid growth of

smartphones and the underlying causes for this increased

adoption.

 To comprehend how the work environment has developed over

time and its effect on the employees.

 To develop an understanding of contemporary generations and

their approach towards work and social life.

 To critically analyse the adoption by Baby Boomers, Generation X

and Generation Y of smartphones in general and in the workplace.

 To examine and discuss whether a significant technology gap is

existent among Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y in

the context of smartphones.

 To provide realistic conclusions based on the findings and

recommend areas for further research.

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

9 The research

9.1 Research Philosophy

Research Philosophy is the concept that describes the development of

knowledge and the nature of that knowledge (Saunders et al, 2009).

There are two main types of research philosophies [Figure 19], with each

of them corresponding to different assumptions (Saunders et al, 2009).

The adoption of a particular research philosophy defines the author’s

views on the research and provides a foundation for the research

strategy.

Philosophy Description
Epistemology Concerns what is accepted as knowledge in a field
Ontology Concerned with the nature of reality

Developed by author utilising Saunders et al, 2009

Figure 19 – Research philosophies

Epistemological assumptions are made by understanding the process

and experience. The view considers the most suitable way of

researching the nature of the world (Easterby-Smith et al, 2008). The

view furthermore considers what knowledge is and the sources and

limits of knowledge (Eriksson and Kovalainen, 2008). Ontology assumes

that there are several realities, each socially constructed by individuals.

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

It describes a view, which is either claimed or assumed by the author,

which in reality may or may not exist (Flowers, 2009). Social science

studies dealing with culture, power and control are examples in which

the view of the author may exist in reality or is only experienced by the

author (Hatch and Cunliffe, 2006).

The epistemological philosophy was considered most suitable for the

current research. The research aims to study the acceptance of

smartphones among different generations, using accepted knowledge

in the field and by being objective while conducting the research.

The focus of the research was further enhanced by adopting a positivist

orientation [Figure 20], which argues that only observable phenomena

can provide credible data (Saunders et al, 2009).

Orientation Description Data Collection


Positivist Only observable phenomena can provide credible Highly structured, large
data, facts. Focus on causality and law like samples, measurement
generalisations
Interpretive Subjective meanings and social phenomena. Focus Small samples, in-
upon details of situations. depth research

Developed by author utilising Saunders et al, 2009

Figure 20 – Research Orientation with Epistemological philosophy

The data collection method selected to conduct the

epistemological/positivist research was quantitative research. This

would allow the research to access a large sample to generate data.

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

9.2 Research Approach

Research has two broad methods of reasoning which are known as the

deductive and inductive approach. Deductive approach describes the

process whereby a theory is tested by conducting research and the

conclusions derive through logical reasoning (Ghauri and Gronhaug

2005; Saunders et al, 2009). An inductive approach reverses this

approach. The process is initiated by collecting data and then continues

by developing a theory as a result of the analysis of the data (Saunders

et al, 2009).

Approach Description
Deductive The logical process of deriving a conclusion from a known premise or
something known as true
Inductive The systematic process of establishing a general proposition on the
basis of observation or particular facts

Developed by author utilising Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005)

Figure 21 – Research Approach

The inductive and deductive approaches are not exclusive (Ghauri and

Gronhaug, 2005; Gray, 2008), however the author found the deductive

approach most appropriate. This approached allowed the author to

research the field (literature review), test the knowledge (primary

research) and derive conclusions by using the data (analysis and

discussion).

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

9.3 Research Design

The research design is the general strategy applied to answer how the

research questions will be addressed (Saunders et al, 2009). It

establishes the blueprint for the collection, measurement and analysis

of the data and supports the researcher in assigning the limited

resources by presenting essential choices (Phillips, 1971). The

importance of research design is attributed to its role as a critical link

between primary and secondary data (Nachmias and Nachmias, 2008).

The research design states the structure of the research problem and

the plan of investigation (Kerlinger, 1986).

There are three types of researches; exploratory, descriptive and

explanatory. The type of research is selected depending on the

circumstances, nature of the problem and the audience it is written for.

Exploratory Seek new insights in the smartphone industry and identify its impact on
Research work place environments

Descriptive Is to portray accurate profile of smartphones, the new work place and
Research differences between generations of people

Explanatory Is used to study the development of smartphones in order to explain the


Research relationship between the increased use and its relation to work place.

Produced by author using Robson (2002) and Saunders et al (2009)


Figure 22 – Types of Research

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

Exploratory researches are most valuable in examining current

situations; creating new insights and assessing developments in a

different context (Robson, 2002). An exploratory research can be very

useful when the nature of the problem is not clear of the field of study is

novel (Cooper and Schindler, 2003; Gray, 2009; Saunders et al, 2009).

There are three key methods of conducting an exploratory research,

namely: performing a secondary research, interviewing experts in the

field or conducting focus groups (Saunders et al, 2009). This approach is

distinguished by its flexibility (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Exploratory

research was conducted at the initial phase [Research Proposal] in order

to develop broader knowledge of the topic. The method applied was by

searching the literature, which allowed gaining understanding of what

existing research provides and what elements the author could research

in order to contribute to the existing knowledge.

Descriptive approach is used to portray an accurate profile of people,

events and situations (Gray, 2009; Robson, 2002). When applying this

type of research it is important that the problem that is being addressed

is clear prior to the research (Robson, 2002). The approach was

particularly useful after the research proposal was submitted and

approved. There was an understanding of the research problem which

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

allowed the study of the areas involved. The approach resulted in the

literature review and the methodology section.

A weakness of descriptive approach is that it is unable to explain why an

event has occurred (Blumberg et al, 2008), therefore the explanatory

research method was applied. Explanatory research sets out to explain

and account for the descriptive information (Grey, 2009). Information

derived during descriptive approach was used in this phase to provide

evidence to previous research and test the research problem. This

information is primarily to be found in the dissertation under ‘Findings’

and ‘Analysis’ chapters.

The strength of each type of research was used in different stages of the

dissertation [Figure 23]. It allowed the research to have a different focus

at each stage, resulting in a logical flow.

Explanatory
Exploratory

Descriptive

Proposal Dissertation

Figure produced by author


Figure 23 – Applied research approaches

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Chapter 9 l The research Methodology

9.4 Research Strategy

Adopting an appropriate research strategy was essential, as it would

determine to what extend the author is able to answer the research

objectives (Saunders et al, 2009). The survey strategy was considered

most appropriate, as it is commonly associated with the deductive

approach (Saunders et al, 2009).

The survey strategy allowed the author to collect quantitative data,

which was used to suggest possible relationships between variables and

to analyse these relationships (Saunders et al, 2009). The survey

strategy provided more control over the research process and offered

the possibility to collect data that could be representative for the whole

population (Saunders et al, 2009). Drawback of applying the survey

strategy was that in contrast to other strategies, the data is unlikely to

be as wide ranging (Saunders et al, 2009).

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Chapter 10 l Secondary Research Methodology

10 Secondary Research

Secondary research was conducted in order to review existing literature.

Exploiting secondary data was very useful as it is widely available and it

consists of highly relevant data (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Secondary

data is a form of research, where the data is collected and processed

previously for a different purpose (Babbie, 2009). The information was

often provided as raw data or published summaries (Saunders et al,

2009).

10.1 Advantage of Secondary research

The major advantage of using secondary data was that it allowed

savings in time and money (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). The existing

research was sufficiently extensive and removed the need for the author

to create relevant data. The second advantage of using secondary data

was that it suggested suitable methods to tackle the research problem

(Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Reviewing previous academic research

allowed the author to determine the most appropriate method for

primary data collection.

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Chapter 10 l Secondary Research Methodology

10.2 Disadvantages of Secondary data

There are certain drawbacks to using secondary data. The secondary

data was collected for a different purpose than the one described in this

study; therefore, the data in some cases did not fit the research problem

(Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Another issue with collecting secondary

data was the accuracy of the data (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). During

the research, the author aimed to collect data from credible sources to

avoid inaccuracies. Other measures were taken when a doubt was

raised; these are described in the next section [paragraph 10.3].

10.3 Application of Secondary Research

The author in the process of collecting relevant data consulted a wide

range of sources. Sources of secondary data were: (online) books,

(academic) journals, theses, statistics, websites, reports and articles.

The author was advised by the supervisor to ensure that the secondary

data was exhausted before he proceeded with collecting primary data

(Connon, 2010), an advice that is repeated by many other academicians

(Churchill, 1999; Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005; Green, 2000; Stewart and

Kamins, 1992). Therefore, the author spent significant time on

reviewing secondary data to be certain that all relevant information was

reviewed and assessed.

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Chapter 10 l Secondary Research Methodology

The use of sources varied depending on the area that was being

addressed. Technology acceptance theories were researched in more

detail in academic journals; which served as a primary source for

information, whereas the author had to rely on technology related

websites to find information on smartphones. This was because

research done by academicians in the field of smartphones does not

cover all aspects. Nevertheless, a number of relevant journals were

found that provided useful information.

The author’s intention was to use credible sources whenever possible.

Journals were preferred source for data, as the information is peer

reviewed. In the case that the information was not available through

journals and other sources had to be used; the author often performed a

background check to determine whether the authors were credible

sources. This process was repeated as often as was found necessary in

order to avoid inconsistencies in the literature review.

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Chapter 11 l Primary Research Methodology

11 Primary Research

Primary data was useful when secondary data was unable to answer the

research questions (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Primary data is data,

which was collected by the researcher himself (Cameron, 2007).

Conducting primary research allowed the author to collect data tailored

for the current study.

Mechanical
Observations
Human
Mail
Primary Data Experiment
Interviews Phone/mail

Communication
s Surveys Personal

Figure produced by author utilising Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005)


Figure 24 – Sources of primary data

There are several methods to collect primary data [Figure 24], which

normally include experiments, surveys and interviews (Ghauri and

Gronhaug, 2005). Conducting a survey was found to be the most

suitable method to collect primary data for this research. The following

paragraphs will provide a rationale for the selected method and explain

how it was put into practise.

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Chapter 11 l Primary Research Methodology

11.1 Advantage of Primary data

The main advantage of collecting primary data was that the information

was more consistent with current research (Ghauri and Gronhaug,

2005). By conducting primary research, the author was able to gather

information that was previously not available.

11.2 Disadvantages of Primary data

There are a few disadvantages related to collecting primary data. The

first issue is that the process can be time consuming and can cost a lot

(Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Secondly, it can be difficult to access

people willing to partake in research and finally, if the researcher is not

careful in utilising the proper tools, procedures and method of analysis;

he can threaten the reliability and applicability of the research. Each of

these issues was taken into consideration by the author when primary

research was being designed. These issues were addressed as

sufficiently as possible and further explanation is provided in the next

chapters.

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Chapter 11 l Primary Research Methodology

11.3 Qualitative vs. Quantitative

Primary research methods are categorised between two key methods:

qualitative methods and quantitative methods (Mingers, 2003). The

main difference between them is not the quality of the method but the

procedure (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005).

According to Punch (1998) quantitative research is empirical research

where the data are in the form of numbers, whereas qualitative research

is empirical research where the data are not in the form of numbers.

More recently quantitative research is described as research whereby a

concept or a phenomenon is being explored using a mixture of rational,

exploration and intuition (Creswell, 2009; Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005).

The data in quantitative methods is usually related to collecting and

analysing data in several forms, mainly non-numeric (Blaxter et al,

2006). Qualitative research is common in social and behavioural

sciences and among practitioners who desire to understand human

behaviour and functions (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). Quantitative

research is however more valuable when studying the factors that affect

a large group of individuals (Creswell, 2009). The focus of each method

is different and therefore they have different benefits and drawbacks

[Figure 25]

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Chapter 11 l Primary Research Methodology

Qualitative Emphasis on understanding


Methods Focus on understanding from respondents view
Interpretation and rational approach
Observations and measurements in natural settings
Explorative orientation
Process oriented
Holistic Perspective
Quantitative Emphasis on testing and verification
Methods Focus on facts and/or reasons for social events
Controlled measurement
Objective
Focus on hypothesis testing
Result oriented
Generalization by population membership

Figure produced by author utilising Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005)


Figure 25 – Qualitative vs. Quantitative methods

There have been several dialogues within social sciences regarding the

relative advantages of quantitative and qualitative strategies for

research (Blaxter et al, 2006). Some researchers find the two methods

exclusive, while others are willing to use a combination of methods

(Creswell, 2009; Blaxter et al, 2006; Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). The

quantitative research method was found to be most appropriate for this

research. Rationale for selecting this method is discussed in chapter

11.4.

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Chapter 11 l Primary Research Methodology

11.4 Rationale for Selected Method

The actual primary research method was different to what had been

originally described by the author in the proposal. The initial proposal

was to use a combination of qualitative and quantitative methods in

order to collect primary data [Figure 26]. Interviews among professionals

would be conducted to understand their views of smartphones in the

workplace and employees of a range of companies would be requested

to fill in a survey to provide their view on the use of smartphones in the

workplace.

Qualitative Method

Interviews

Questionnaire

Quantitative Method

Figure developed by author

Figure 26 – Proposed Primary Research method

This approach was considered unsuitable after initial research was

conducted and the research aim was altered to research how different

generations adopted the smartphones and its effects on the workplace.

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Chapter 11 l Primary Research Methodology

The author was recommended by his supervisor to analyse research

methodologies in previous academic research in the field and focus the

approach on a single method (Connon, 2010). A review of existing

research formed a firm foundation for advancing knowledge; it

facilitated theory development and uncovered areas where research

was required (Webster and Watson, 2002).

Secondary research was conducted in the field of smartphones and

generations, which were identified as key subjects in current research.

The UTUAT model has been used to examine smartphones and much of

the previous research in this area has been conducted using quantitative

research (Connon, 2007; Davis, 1989; Venkatesh et al, 2003).

Furthermore, many other studies that have been conducted in the field

of technology have used quantitative methods often using similar

methods (Kim, 2008; Pagani, 2004; Park et al¸2007; Venkatesh et al,

2002; Wang et al, 2006; Wu and Wang, 2005). Studies that have

researched generational differences likewise used quantitative methods

(Dries et al, 2008; Lamm and Meeks, 2009; Smola and Sutton, 2002;

Yang and Jolly, 2008). A wide range of significant research has been

done in the key fields using quantitative methods; therefore, it provided

a solid rationale for the author to proceed with a quantitative method

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12 Survey

Survey refers to the method of data collection that utilises

questionnaires or interview techniq ues (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005).

Previous studies have used questionnaires to conduct research in similar

fields and it was therefore considered the most consistent method to

apply.

Questionnaires present a set of standardised questions to each

respondent, which provided an efficient way to collect responses from a

large sample (Saunders et al, 2009). Saunders et al (2009) describe a

variety of questionnaires [Figure 27].

Delivery and
Collection
questionnaires

Internet mediated
questionnaires
Self-administered

Postal questionnaires

Questionnaire
Telephone
questionnaire
Interviewer
administered
Structured interview

Figure adopted by author from Saunders et al (2009: p363 – Fig. 11.1)

Figure 27 – Types of questionnaires

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.1 Online Questionnaire

The author selected the self-administered type of questionnaire using

the internet as an intermediary. Key motives for selecting this approach

were the low cost, the global reach and the automated data collection.

12.1.1 Advantages of Online Questionnaire

A range of advantages are associated with the use of online

questionnaires. Using an online questionnaires was cheaper in

comparison to other research methods, as the cost of printing and

distributing was non-existent (Sue and Ritter, 2007). It allowed

convenient processing of data, as responses could be loaded into a data

analysis package (Fink, 2009). It provided the author with the ability to

create skip patterns that were not visible to the respondent (Fink, 2009).

Online technologies provided by Survey Gizmo and Facebook allowed

easier follow up and the ability to send reminders (Fink, 2009).

12.1.2 Disadvantages of Online Questionnaire

Literature also describes a range of disadvantages. Commonly referred

issue is that respondents require an internet access (Fink, 2009),

however the author considered this argument irrelevant as nearly two

billion people around the world have access to the internet according to

the latest figures (Internet World Stats, 2010). The dissemination would

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

furthermore primarily take place through Facebook, which has roughly

500 million users (Facebook, 2010) and the RGU alumnus, which

contains a database with e-mail addresses, suggesting that the users

have access to the internet. Another issue could be that questionnaires

may not look the same in different web browsers and different monitor

(Fink, 2009). This was overcome by using a reliable online service

provider, which ensures that the quality of the questionnaire was

maintained. Finally, it is suggested the researcher is unable to exercise

quality control in respect to answering all questions and the quality of

the answers (Fowler, 2009). The author limited this issue by extensively

pre-testing the questionnaire, to ensure the highest level of quality can

be achieved.

12.1.3 Service Provider

The author used the service provided by Survey Gizmo to conduct the

questionnaire. Their offer was superior to their competitor as it allowed

students to use their enterprise accounts free of charge. Their service

allowed the author to avoid any hosting charges, disseminate the

questionnaire, collect and monitor results and export the collected data.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

Free Free

10 questions per survey Unlimited questions

100 responses per survey Unlimited responses

15 types of questions 20+ types of questions

Realtime results Realtime results

No skip logics Full logic support

No enhanced security Full security

Export data: not available Export data: fully available

Limited templates Customisable templates

Figure developed by author


utilising Survey Gizmo (2010) and Survey Monkey (2010)

Figure 28 – Questionnaire service providers

The alternative available to the author was Survey Monkey, which has a

limited account available for use without any cost incurring. However for

a package with more options the author would have to pay £20,- per

month and would still be receiving less options than Survey Gizmo. A

comparison was made between the two free packages made available

by the two companies [Figure 28]. The author also found it very

convincing that Microsoft and HP, the leading providers of software and

hardware, were using Survey Gizmo. Hence, the most sensible choice

was to proceed with Survey Gizmo.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.2 Design

The questionnaire was designed in a highly dynamic manner. Three key

logics were built into the questionnaire to collect relevant data from

each respondent.

The first logic was related to the generation a respondent was born into.

Respondents that would indicate to be born into ‘Generation Z’ were

leaded to a different page to collect data on whether they possessed

smartphones, after which the questionnaire was tagged as completed.

This was done because this generation was considered to be too young

(oldest individuals in this generation are 11 year old) to partake.

However, the author considered that it would interesting to examine

how many individuals of the next generation workforce already

possessed a smartphone.

The second logic was related to whether people were a ‘student’ or

‘(self/un) employed/ retired’. The first group was relayed to a page were

academic information was collected, whereas the latter group was

directed to a page were professional information was collected.

The final logic was related to whether the respondent possessed a

smartphone or not. The answer resulted in two different structures.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

The author developed a visual aid to portray the structure of the

questionnaire, which is provided in Figure 29. The figure displays the

logics described previously. A preview of the actual questionnaire can be

found in Appendix 1.

Demographics

- Generation Z - Student - (Self) Employed


- Retired

Smartphone Info Academic Info Business Info

End of Survey Smartphone info

Smartphone: Yes Smartphone: No

UTAUT Q's Collect info

End of Survey

Figure developed by author

Figure 29 – Structure of the questionnaire

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.2.1 Demographics

The first section of the questionnaire focused on collecting demographic

information. Five questions were asked in the section that addressed the

gender, age, region of origin, education and the position. Gender and

age provided general demographic information, while also forming part

of the UTAUT framework (Connon, 2007). By requesting respondents to

select to which generation they belonged measured age. Five

generational options were presented, which were derived from the

literature (Heffernan, 2006; Leitschuh, 2007). Other questions allowed

further segmentation of the respondents.

12.2.2 Academic vs. Professional

The second section focussed on collecting information on the

education/profession of the respondents. This would allow the research

to study whether significant differences were perceived among

industries.

12.2.3 Smartphones

In this section the respondents were asked whether they possessed a

smartphone. Individuals responding with a ‘yes’ were directed to UTAUT

based questions, whereas individuals responding with a ‘no’ were asked

certain questions after which the questionnaire was completed.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.2.4 UTAUT Questions

The final section addressed the eight determinants and moderators

from the UTAUT model. The questions were presented using a five point

Likert-scale ranging from ‘Strongly disagree’ to ‘Strongly agree’. The

questions were based on previous academic research in the field and

were adapted to meet the needs of the current research (Al-Qeisi, 2009;

Connon, 2007; Kim, 2008; Wang et al, 2006; Wu and Wang, 2005). This

approach was selected on recommendation provided by the supervisor

(Connon, 2010) and is supported by a wide range of authors (Allan and

Skinner, 1991; Bui, 2009; Burdon and Steane, 2004; Paltridge and

Starfield, 2004).The advantage of adopting this approach was that it

allowed the author to develop questions that were academically

rigorous.

12.2.5 Feedback & Closure

The final section allowed the respondents to provide any comments

they had regarding the questionnaire. They were also offered to submit

their e-mail addresses, which would be used to publish results once

available.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.3 Pilot

Evaluating the questionnaire is referred to as pilot testing (de Vaus,

2002). Pilot testing can eliminate severe potential sources of difficulties,

such as poorly worded questions (Fink, 2009). According to Fowler

(2009), the best method to pre-test a self-administered computer based

questionnaire is by allowing respondents to respond through their

individual laptops and discuss the outcomes in a group. The author

requested four people to fill in the questionnaire, noting the time it took

them to complete, difficulties in understanding the questions and any

other complications they may encounter. This was done after the

supervisor had previewed the survey and no significant changes were

required.

Pretesting provided the author with useful feedback, which was then

integrated into the final survey. The appearance and the readability

were particularly appealing to the respondents. As a result of the

feedback the following changes were made: a progress bar was added,

question relating to age was revised, minor changes to the use of

language and ‘use behaviour’ questions were brought to the front due to

their simplicity, which is supported by Ghauri and Gronhaug (2005) as it

has a positive impact on the respondent.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

After the pilot testing with respondents, the author used diagnostics

tool provided by Survey Gizmo (2010) to further improve the

questionnaire. The tool compares the questionnaire with hundreds of

other questionnaires in order to examine three areas, namely

complexity, fatigue Score and accessibility. The questionnaire passed

all three tests.

Finally, the author generated test data using the built in tool. The

software generated 100 responses to test the questionnaire, which

exposed a flaw in the logic. After this test, the questionnaire was

considered ready to be disseminated.

12.4 Sampling & Distribution

Two methods were applied to sample and distribute the questionnaire.

The first method was using the author’s online social network and the

second method was the university’s alumni.

12.4.1 Online Social Network

The author’s personal network consists of nearly 500 people dispersed

among several social networking sites. A non-probability sampling

technique was found to be most appropriate. Ghauri and Gronhaug

(2005) describe the convenience sampling method as the method in

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

which individuals are selected because they are convenient to access.

Roughly, 400 people were invited by the author to partake in the

questionnaire and it was considered extremely important to attract

more respondents by generating ‘word of mouth’ [WOM] among the

author’s network. The concept of generating WOM is widely discussed

in the field of marketing, where it is more commonly referred to as Viral

Marketing (Chaffey, 2006; Goldsmith, 2002; Helm, 2000; Mullen and

Daniels, 2008; Silverman, 2001). A viral effort is defined as something

that resonates so effectively with readers that they share it with many

others quickly (Mullen and Daniels, 2008). To create a viral aspect to the

survey respondents were repeatedly encouraged to invite their contacts.

An ‘event’ was set-up to invite contacts on Facebook and Hyves, two

main personal social networks of the author [Figure 30].

Event set-up by author

Figure 30 – Facebook event

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

Facebook proved to be most effective whereby the author invited 300

contacts to partake in the questionnaire and the network of the author

invited 741 more contacts. Respondents were encouraged further to

invite their contacts, by providing three graphical linking to the most

popular social networking sites [Facebook, Twitter and Hyves in NL].

Graphics developed by author

Figure 31 – Link-backs Social Networks

The graphical link-backs proved very popular as more than 200

respondents made use of them [Figure 31].

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.4.2 RGU Alumni

The RGU alumni office was contacted to assist in dissemination of the

questionnaire. The RGU alumnus is a worldwide community with over

50.000 members (RGU Alumni, 2010). Member of the alumni indicated

that it would not be possible to contact all individuals and suggested

that a simple random sampling method was applied. The criterion for

selection was age. A thousand individuals were selected from each of

the three generations, namely the Baby Boomers, Generation X and

Generation Y. In total, 3000 questionnaires were sent by the alumni

office to its members.

12.4.3 Response rate

It is often the case that it is unclear what response rate should be

achieved in a survey (Babbie, 2009), however it is not possible to

calculate the response rates for internet based questionnaires placed on

a website which are freely accessible (de Vaus, 2002). Nevertheless,

overall response rate is one guide to the representativeness of the

sample respondents.

Researchers have discussed several methods that can increase the

response rate. New web formats for instance offer appealing

possibilities (Cook et al, 2000). Developing an online questionnaire

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

permitted the author to create a more appealing and innovative

interface [Figure 32], which would otherwise not be possible with the

limited options of paper surveys or telephone interviews (Schillewaert et

al, 1998). The attractive interface options meant that colour, different

fonts, graphics and variety of appealing response formats allowed the

questionnaire to be more inviting and easy to read (de Vaus, 2002).

Developed by author
Figure 32 – Extract from questionnaire

Another method of increasing response rates is by following up non-

respondents (de Vaus, 2002). This was not possible with the

dissemination among the RGU alumnus, because the author had no

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

access to the information. However, the Facebook event provided the

author with limited information regarding to respondents and non-

respondents. Invitees to the event were requested to indicate whether

they would be ‘attending’ (filling in the questionnaire) or ‘not attending’

(not filling in the questionnaire) the ‘event’.

Adopted by author from Facebook (2010)


Figure 33 – Facebook Event: RSVP

Facebook also provided a list called ‘awaiting reply’, which consisted of

people that were invited, but had not responded. This provided the

author with a tool to send out a reminder to these individuals to

encourage them to fill out the questionnaire. An increase in responses

was experienced within two days after the follow-up.

Incentives were not used in this research, although they were

considered as an option in the early phase of the primary research. As

the questionnaire would reach individuals in a variety of countries,

feasible and attractive incentives were difficult to determine.

Furthermore, research conducted by Cook et al (2000) into the use of

web surveys indicated that using incentives was associated with similar

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

and lower response rates. They concluded that this may be related to

researchers conducting disproportionally long or dull surveys and

therefore recognised the need for providing substantial rewards for

survey completions (Cook et al, 2000). Both of the issues highlighted by

Cook et al (2002) were not found to be applicable to the current

research, as the length of the questionnaire was within acceptable

norms and smartphones are very popular (Wilson, 2010)

It was important to use simple and concise language while conducting

the research (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). This would limit the

respondents that would feel intimidated by the research. Throughout

the communication with respondents, the aim was to avoid jargon and

promote non-academic use of language; allowing the respondents to

feel comfortable while answering the questions.

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Chapter 12 l Survey Methodology

12.5 Data Analysis

Data analysis is the process in which raw data is systematically

organised in order the extract information. Two most popular methods

for digital data analysis are SPSS and Stata. SPSS is promoted as the

world’s leading statistical software for business, government, research

and academic organisations (SPSS Inc., 2010). Stata does not make such

bold statements, however does offer a complete statistical suite, similar

to SPSS (Stata, 2010). After careful reviewal of both suites it was

determined that, both suites were excessively complex for the purpose

of this research.

The analysis was primarily conducted using cross tabulation technique,

which is a technical term to describe a method to analyse bivariate or

multivariate categorical data (Acock, 2008; Eye and Niedermeier, 1999;

Wrenn et al, 2006). The technique produces similar information as Chi-

square and Cramer’s V test (Morgan et al, 2007). The information

produced by this technique would produce sufficient data for analysis

and discussion. The author will furthermore make use of Microsoft Excel

to perform less complex data analysis and to develop charts.

Percentages have been rounded to full figures; this measure was taken

in order to increase readability and improve accessibility (Thody, 2006).

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Chapter 13 l Ethical Considerations Methodology

13 Ethical Considerations

Ethics are moral principles and values that are bound to impact the way

the researcher conducts its activities (Ghauri and Gronhaug, 2005). The

aim of ethics in research is to ensure no harm is caused to participants

and no one suffers from adverse consequences derived from the

research activities (Cooper and Schindler, 2003; Creswell, 2009).

‘Research Ethics Policy is established by the Robert Gordon University of

which the aim is to establish and promote good ethical practise in the

conduct of academic research (Robert Gordon University, 2010). The

author aimed to ensure good understanding of the policies in order to

avoid any misconduct.

A Student Project Ethical Review [SPER] form was submitted to the

School Ethical Review Panel [SERP] in order to comply with Aberdeen

Business School and Robert Gordon University’s ethical policies. The

aim of SPER and SERP is to avoid any ethical misconduct from taking

place.

The following subchapters further highlight the issues that were

addressed to conform to a sound ethical research.

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Chapter 13 l Ethical Considerations Methodology

13.1 Voluntary participation

The principle is that people are not required to participate in a survey (de

Vaus, 2002). In order to communicate this with the participants; the

researcher added the following text to the introduction page of the

survey:

“Please note that your participation in this survey will be greatly


valued, however your participation is not compulsory and you may
stop at any point during the survey”

(Altered by author, original by de Vaus, 2002: p60)

This informed the participants that they have the right to abandon the

survey at any given time.

13.2 Informed consent

Informed consent within a survey describes the requirement of

informing the participant about a range of matters related to the

research (Creswell, 2009; de Vaus, 2002; Gaiser and Schreiner, 2009).

However de Vaus (2002) argues that simply supplying more information

may not be better than providing a brief description. He suggest that

this problem can be overcome by providing basic information and to

offer to answer further questions (de Vaus, 2002).

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Chapter 13 l Ethical Considerations Methodology

The following information was added to the introduction page to ensure

that participants were informed about the research:

“This survey is part of my dissertation which I am writing to


complete my Master's degree in International Business.

Smartphones have become increasingly popular and most of us


have heard of Blackberry's, iPhones and others. In my research, I am
investigating how smartphones are being used among different
generations of people and how this is affecting the workplace.

On the following pages, you will be asked to share your thoughts on


the use of smartphones. The survey should not take more than 10
minutes.

In case you have questions related to this survey, please do not


hesitate to contact me. You may also wish to use the feedback form
at the end of the survey to share your comments”

Along with the text above, the participants were provided with contact

details of the author, which enabled them to seek contact with the

author in case they had any further queries.

13.3 Anonymity & Confidentiality

Participants can be harmed in survey research when the confidentiality

of responses is not honoured (de Vaus, 2002). One issue to anticipate

about confidentiality is that some participants may not want to have

their identity to be confidential, allowing them to retain ownership of

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Chapter 13 l Ethical Considerations Methodology

their voice (Creswell, 2009). Current research did not require personal

data to be collected as it would serve no purpose during analysis and

discussion. Participants were therefore not offered an option to ‘retain

their voice’ and all data was collected anonymously. The survey was

disseminated primarily through the internet whereby no data (i.e. name

and address) was collected that could harm confidentiality. The

participants were informed of this on the introduction page using the

following text:

“The survey is designed not to collect any information that would


allow the data to be linked to an individual. The survey is
anonymous and will not collect geo-location data or IP addresses”

Geo-location and IP address data collection was disabled in the online

survey system. This was considered to be the most effective way to

safeguard the process.

13.4 Authenticity of Data

Issues of accuracy can be raised when the researcher is unable to check

the understanding of the respondents at first hand (Blaxter et al, 2006).

This issue was addressed by piloting the questionnaire extensively in

advance in order to limit the space for misinterpretation.

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Chapter 13 l Ethical Considerations Findings

Findings

The Era of the

Virtual Office

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Chapter 14 l Overview Findings

14 Overview

“Data is not information, Information is not knowledge, Knowledge is not


understanding, Understanding is not wisdom”

Stoll and Schubert (2006: p. 112)

A significant amount of data was collected through utilising a

questionnaire. The data is presented in manner that it becomes

information that can be easily interpreted. In total, 478 responses were

received of which 53 were omitted from the results, as they were

considered inadequate for analysis. This section presents data collected

from 425 respondents.

The section is divided in four chapters. The first chapter presents

demographic information, the second chapter addresses the

backgrounds of students and professionals, the third chapter presents

findings on the use of smartphones and the final chapter addresses the

UTAUT construct.

Unless stated otherwise, all figures in this section were developed by the

author.

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Chapter 15 l Demographics Findings

15 Demographics

Demographical information was collected at the initial stage of the

questionnaire as it assists in understanding the size, composition and

distribution of the respondents (Lazer, 1994).

15.1 Gender

Gender information is outlined as one of the moderators in the UTAUT

model. The questionnaire was filled in by 229 males (54%) and 196

females (46%) [Figure 34].

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Male Female

Figure 34 – Gender information

15.2 Age

Age is the second moderator in the UTAUT model. In this research,

respondents were requested to select the generation they belonged to

[Figure 35]. This will allow the research to identify generation gaps in the

adoption of smartphones. The mode is represented by Gen Y with 221

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Chapter 15 l Demographics Findings

respondents (52%), followed by Gen X with 103 respondents (24%) and

Boomers with 97 respondents (23%). The veterans and Gen Z were

significantly underrepresented with both categories only attracting two

respondents (0.5%). The latter two generations will not be included in

further analysis as the sample is unusable.

60% 1.00%
50%
40%
30% 0.50%
20%
10%
0% 0.00%
Gen Y Gen X Boomers Gen Z Veterans

Figure 35 – Generations

15.3 Region of Origin

The majority of respondents indicated to be European (n= 316, 75%),

while the largest group among the minority were Asians (n=55, 13%).

None of the other categories exceeded 5% of all responses [Figure 36].

80%
Other 2%
60% South American 1%
North American 2%
40%
Middle Eastern 2%
20% African 5%
Asian 13%
0%
European 0% 5% 10% 15%

Figure 36 – Region of Origin

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Chapter 15 l Demographics Findings

15.4 Education

The highest frequency of respondents graduated from university,

specifically, 199 respondents (47%) had completed an undergraduate

degree and 141 respondents (33%) had completed a postgraduate

degree. The remaining 85 respondents (21%) had a college degree or

less [Figure 37].

50% 47%
Primary School 3%
40%
33%
30% College, No degree 5%

20% High School 5%

10%
College 8%
0%
UG PG 0% 5% 10%

Figure 37 – Education

15.5 Position

The respondents were mainly (self) Employed (n=296). Followed by 108

students, 18 unemployed and 3 retired.

Retired 1%

Unemployed 4%

Student 25%

(Self) Employed 70%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80%

Figure 38 – Position

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Chapter 16 l Segmentation Findings

16 Segmentation

Due to the use of convenience sampling method, it was considered

useful to gather additional information on the respondent. This

information would enable the author to identify to what degree the

research may limit or extent the usability of the results. The primary

segmentation was between students and professionals, whereas Gen Z

was relayed within the questionnaire.

16.1 Generation Z

Generation Z was not considered crucial to this research. Limited

attempt to attract this generation to respond to the survey resulted in

two responses from generation Z. This did not have a significant impact

on the research as individuals from this generation were presented with

only one follow up question: “Do you own a smartphone?” The recorded

result was one individual responded with ‘yes’, while the other

responded with ‘no’, Due to the size of the sample this information was

considered insufficient for any further usage.

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Chapter 16 l Segmentation Findings

16.2 Students

Students formed 25% of the total respondents; of which 50% are

attending a ‘Business, Management or Accounting’ course [Figure 39].

Students attending ‘Healthcare’ represented the second largest group

with 10 respondents.

Information, Communication, Media 2%


Achitecture & Construction 3%
Computing 3%
Law 5%
Art & Design 5%
Science 7%
Engineering 9%
Social work and Social sciences 9%
Healthcare 10%
Business, Management, Accounting 50%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60%

Figure 39 – Student: Course

The follow up question requested the students to indicate the industry

they wish to be employed in. Marketing/Market Research/PR recorded

the highest frequency (n=23). Figure 40 displays the top four industries

and Appendix 2 provides a full overview.

Finance / Banking / Insurance / Legal 12%


Consulting / Professional Services 13%
Healthcare / Medical 13%
Marketing / Market Research / Public… 22%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

Figure 40 – Student: Preferred Industry

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Chapter 16 l Segmentation Findings

16.3 Professionals

Professionals were requested to indicate in which industry they were

employed, given the option to select from 21 different industries, which

was considered comprehensive. Unexpectedly, 43 individuals (14%)

indicated to be employed working in an ‘other’ industry. This could

relate that individuals may perceive the industry differently than

presented.

Leisure / Hotel / Entertainment / Recreation 6%

Education 8%

Healthcare / Medical 8%

Consulting / Professional Services 8%

Finance / Banking / Insurance / Legal 9%

IT / Telecommunications 10%

Construction / Engineering 10%

Other 14%

0% 5% 10% 15%

Figure 41 – Professionals: Industry

Figure 41 illustrates the industries that attained more than 5% of the

responses, a full overview is provided in Appendix 3.

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Chapter 16 l Segmentation Findings

In the next question, respondents were probed to indicate on which

level they were operating in their respective industries. The majority of

the respondents indicated to be a professional (n=135). Demographics

had already revealed that only 4% of the respondents were

unemployed, therefore the result of this group was consistent. In the

distribution, ‘managers’ represented the second largest group (n=81).

Admin and support staff accounted for 14% (n=44), followed by

directors (10%, n=30) and finally 4% indicated to be a top level executive

(n=12).

N/A - Unemployed/Retired/Homemaker 4%

Top Level Executive 4%

Director 10%

Administrative/Support personnel 14%

Manager 26%

Professional 43%

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50%

Figure 42 – Professionals: position

The large frequency of managers and professionals, resulted in higher

levels average of income among respondents [Figure 43]. The mode was

represented by the ‘£30.000,- to £50.000,-’ category (n=83), closely

followed by the ‘£50.000 and £100.000’ category (n=75), while

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Chapter 16 l Segmentation Findings

individuals earning more than £100.000 represented 15% (n=47%). 81%

of the respondents exceeded the average household income levels of

Scotland (HMRC, 2005), indicating an above average prosperous

respondents.

Less than £10.000,- 6%

Between £ 10.000 and £ 20.000,- 13%

Between £20.000,- and £ 30.000,- 15%

More than £ 100.000 ,- 15%

Between £ 50.000,- and £ 100.000,- 24%

Between £ 30.000,- and £ 50.000,- 27%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

Figure 43 – Professionals: Income

The concluding question targeted specifically at professionals examined

the size of organisations [Figure 44]. The majority worked for an

organisation employing 500 to 9.999 people (n=85). The size of the

organisation was not known to 10% of the respondents.

30% 27%

25%

20%
15% 16%
15%
10% 11%
10% 8%
6% 6%
5%

0%
N/A 1-4 5-9 10 - 19 20 - 99 100 - 499 500 - 9,999 10,000+

Figure 44 – Professionals: Size organisation

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Chapter 17 l Smartphones Findings

17 Smartphones

Smartphones played a key role in the primary research. In this section,

the respondents were presented with questions that would identify the

possession of a smartphone and which factors affected the decision not

to purchase one.

Smartphones are owned by 63% of the respondents (n=265), while 37%

of indicated not to own a smartphone (n=156) [Figure 45].

80%
60%

40%

20%
0%
Yes No

Figure 45 – Possession of a Smartphone

When the respondents are questioned whether they intend to purchase

a smartphone, 48% of the respondents answered ‘yes’ and 52%

responded with a ‘no’ [Figure 46].

60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Yes No

Figure 46 – Intention of buying a smartphone

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Chapter 17 l Smartphones Findings

Further investigation of why respondents were considering purchasing a

smartphone demonstrated that 80% of them were attracted by the

extended features (n=58). A group of 26 individuals (36%) felt that they

were ready to try a smartphone and 7 individuals (10%) found

smartphones to be affordable [Figure 47]

100%
80%
80%
60%
36%
40%
20% 10% 8% 4%
0%
Extended Ready to try it More affordable Required for Other
features work

Figure 47 – Motivation to purchase a smartphone

Enquiring why 52% of the respondents were not interested in

purchasing a smartphone revealed that 61% of the individuals [n=50]

felt they did not require the extended features [Figure 48]. The second

largest category still considered smartphones too expensive, while less

than 10% considered them too complicated.

Too complicated
Other
I am a late adopter of technology
Too expensive
I don't need extended features

0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70%

Figure 48 – Reason for not intending to purchase a smartphone

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18 UTAUT

The UTAUT framework as indicated previously formed the foundation

of the questionnaire. Two moderators namely gender and age were

addressed at the initial phase of the questionnaire. The remaining

components of the UTAUT model were addressed individually.

18.1 Use Behaviour

Use behaviour denotes the actual usage of smartphones within the

UTAUT framework. The largest amount of respondents now own their

smartphones between one and two years (33%, n=87), closely followed

by three to four years (30%, n=81) and less than one year (29%, n=77).

Only 2% indicated to be a user of smartphone for more than 8 years

(n=6) [Figure 49].

More than 8 years 2%

6 to 8 year 6%

3 to 5 years 30%

1 to 2 years 33%

Less than one year 29%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30% 35%

Figure 49 – User of smartphones (in years)

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

Basic mobile phones are primarily designed to make calls and use text-

messaging services. Smartphones as discussed in chapter 2 are intended

to perform a range of activities. Interestingly, smartphones are more

often used for checking e-mail (91%, n=243), browsing the web (85%,

n=226) and as calendar/organiser (80%, n=214) than they are used for

calls and instant messaging services (73%, n=195). The least popular

activity on a smartphone was word processing (16%, n=42) [Figure 50].

Word processing

Other

Gaming

Directions/maps

Voice and instant messaging

Calendar/ Organiser

Web surfing

Checking e-mail

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 50 – Activities on a smartphone

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

Research indicated that smartphones are being used for a variety of

activities. Their key feature is considered portability, enabling users to

use them at any given time. More than half of the respondents (58%,

n=156) used their smartphones during daily commutes [Figure 51]. Home

is however the most popular location to use a smartphone (90%, n=239).

Minority of the respondents indicated that they only use a smartphone if

a computer is not available (18%, n=47).

Only when a computer in not available

Meetings away from office

During daily commutes

At work

During Travel

At home

0% 20% 40% 60% 80% 100%

Figure 51 – When smartphones are used

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.2 Social Influence

This category was aimed at understanding the social aspects related to

the use of smartphones. Respondents were presented with five

questions [Figure 52]. Only 9% of the respondents disagreed that using of

smartphone is trendy. This trend continued as 61% of the respondents

disagreed that mobile phones are good enough.

Using a smartphone is trendy

I find it annoying when people use smartphones


at work

Smartphones are a hype, mobile phones are


good enough

My company/university encourages the use of


smartphones [i.e. through policies]

Not having a smartphone will affect my


interactivity with my social network (i.e.
blackberry messenger)

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 52 – Social influence

The figures support the surge in popularity of smartphones as noted in

the literature review. This is further reflected in the behaviour of people,

as only 12% found it annoying when people use smartphones at work.

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

When asked whether the respondent’s company/university encourages

them to use a smartphone, 40% replied with ‘neutral’, which could

indicate that most organisation do not have policies regarding this

matter.

Smartphones play dissimilar roles in individual’s lives as tools to social

network. 31% of the respondents are affected in their social interactivity

if they would not possess a smartphone, 43% would not notice a

difference.

[Details of the statements are recorded in Table 1]

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Strongly Disagree 3% 18% 21% 9% 13%
Disagree 6% 50% 45% 20% 30%
Neutral 33% 20% 18% 40% 26%
Agree 40% 10% 11% 20% 23%
Strongly Agree 18% 2% 5% 11% 8%

Table 1 – Social Influence data

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.3 Facilitating Conditions

The use of smartphones can be affected by the conditions of the

environment. Smartphones with fast internet connections can make

other devices redundant (Markis, 2010), if the network provider offers

the service. Fast network availability was not an issue among the

respondents as 68% of the respondents disagreed to the statement that

their provider did not support a 3g network [Figure 53].

My friends and family guide me in the use of


smartphones

I can get assistance from the supplier of my


smartphone in case of problems

The operating cost of a smartphone do not


prevent the use of it

My company/university does not support the


usage of smartphones

My network provider does not fully support the


usage of smartphones

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 53 – Facilitating Conditions

Although respondents indicated previously that their organisations were

not proactively promoting the use of smartphones [Figure 52], only 13%

agreed when asked whether their organisation did not support

smartphones. Which means that although the use is not encourages, the

support for users of smartphones is available.

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

Interestingly, 61% of the respondents disagreed when asked whether

their family and friend helped them use smartphones. This could relate

to the fact that Gen X and Y together formed 76% of the respondents.

As both of these generations are considered tech savvy, they do not

require assistance in operating smartphones.

Smartphones are more expensive to operate than mobile phones;

however, this does not prevent 61% of the respondents to purchase a

smartphone. Only 15% of the respondents indicated that the operating

costs affect the purchase decision.

[Details of the statements are recorded in Table 2]

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Strongly Disagree 22% 4% 3% 22% 29%
Disagree 39% 17% 12% 34% 39%
Neutral 17% 28% 26% 31% 18%
Agree 20% 47% 50% 10% 12%
Strongly Agree 2% 4% 9% 3% 2%

Table 2 – Facilitating conditions data

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.4 Effort Expectancy

The degree of ease associated with smartphones can increase or reduce

the uptake. The majority of respondents indicated to consider

themselves skilful at using smartphones (80%). Other statements

measuring the quality of interaction (79%) and the use of features (81%)

reported roughly the same figures. Relatively high negative responses

were noted when respondents were asked whether they found the

learning curve to be low, on which 20% of the respondents disagreed

[Figure 54, Table 3].

My interaction with smartphones is clear and


understandable

I am skilful at using smartphones

Learning to use smartphones is easy for me

I find it easy to use all the features of my


smartphone

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 54 – Effort Expectancy

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4
Strongly Disagree 2% 3% 6% 3%
Disagree 9% 7% 14% 8%
Neutral 10% 10% 9% 9%
Agree 47% 47% 43% 50%
Strongly Agree 32% 33% 29% 31%

Table 3 – Effort Expectancy data

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.5 Experience

The figures demonstrated that the greatest uptake of smartphone took

place in the past 5 years [§ 18.1]. The experience of users of

smartphones greatly differs. Smartphones contribute to the decline of

proper workplace etiquette according to 37% of the respondents, while

32% disagree with the same notion [Figure 55].

I enjoy buying high-tech equipment

Smartphone is an essential tool in my daily life

Smartphones encourage too much multitasking

A smartphone provides me with a more


efficient and organised tool in my job

Smartphones contribute to the decline of


proper workplace etiquette

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 55 – Experience

The majority of the respondents enjoyed buying high-tech equipment

[70%] and 62% of the respondents found smartphones to be an

essential tool in their daily life. Findings therefore advocate that people

are buying smartphones to fulfil a particular need; in this case

contradicting earlier research indicating that people purchase high tech

products primarily for prestige (Hamann et al, 2007).

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

However, 31% of the respondents find that smartphones encourage too

much multitasking, whereas 39% of the respondents do not agree with

this notion. To 62% of the respondents, the smartphones provide the

individuals with a more efficient and organised tool in their jobs.

[Details of the statements are recorded in Table 4]

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4 #5
Strongly Disagree 2% 4% 5% 3% 7%
Disagree 6% 15% 34% 11% 30%
Neutral 21% 19% 30% 25% 32%
Agree 41% 42% 23% 47% 27%
Strongly Agree 29% 19% 8% 15% 5%

Table 4 – Experience data

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.6 Performance Expectancy

Performance expectancy relates to which degree an individual believes

that smartphones will affect their job performance. In general, the

majority of respondents (68%) agreed that smartphones positively

affected the quality of their work output [Figure 56]. While nearly all of

the respondents found their smartphones to be useful (92%).

I find smartphones useful

Using smartphones enables me to accomplish


tasks more quickly

Using smartphones increases the effective use


of my time in handling my tasks and
responsibilities

Using smartphones increases the quality of my


work output at minimal efforts

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 56 – Performance expectancy

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

84% of the respondents agree that using smartphones allows them to

increase the effectiveness of their time in handling tasks and

responsibilities, whereas 72% of the respondents believe that is also

helps to complete their tasks more quickly.

[Details of the statements are recorded in Table 5Table 4Table 1]

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4
Strongly Disagree 2% 5% 3% 8%
Disagree 3% 7% 5% 8%
Neutral 3% 9% 9% 17%
Agree 55% 46% 43% 49%
Strongly Agree 37% 32% 41% 19%

Table 5 – Performance Expectancy data

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.7 Voluntariness of use

Using smartphones may not be a choice; companies may provide their

employees with these devices in order for them to be connected to

essential resources. 64% of the respondents did not require a

smartphone to complete their work, nor did it prevent them from

accessing essential data (58%). However, 66% of the respondents

would not purchase a smartphone before its benefits were

demonstrated [Figure 57, Table 6]

I want to see the benefits of a smartphone


demonstrated before I purchase it

I have a smartphone because I cannot complete


my work without it

My organisation has provided me with a


smartphone

Without a smartphone I cannot access essential


data

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 57 – Voluntariness of use

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4
Strongly Disagree 4% 16% 31% 19%
Disagree 18% 48% 28% 39%
Neutral 13% 16% 9% 16%
Agree 48% 16% 19% 22%
Strongly Agree 18% 3% 13% 4%

Table 6 – Voluntariness of use data

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

18.8 Behavioural Intention

Behavioural intention denotes how individuals intend to use their

smartphones. 41% indicated that they did not intend to use all the

functions, whereas 44% of the responds does have the intention to use

all functions.

I intend to use all functions of my smartphone

I intend to use my smartphone only at work

I intend to use my smartphone outside of work

I will only use a smartphone if I have to

Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Figure 58 – Behavioural Intention

Results furthermore showed that 85% does not intend to use their

smartphones merely at work, while only 7% of the respondents

indicated they would not prefer to use their smartphone outside of

work. Figures suggest that most individuals do not mind using their

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Findings

smartphones, as merely 19% would only use a smartphone if they had

no other option.

[Details of the statements are recorded in Table 7]

Statement #1 #2 #3 #4
Strongly Disagree 7% 29% 3% 24%
Disagree 34% 56% 10% 43%
Neutral 15% 8% 6% 14%
Agree 34% 6% 54% 15%
Strongly Agree 10% 1% 28% 4%

Table 7 – Behavioural Intention

In the following section, the findings are analysed and discussed.

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Chapter 18 l UTAUT Analysis & Discussion

Analysis & Discussion

The Era of the

Virtual Office

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Chapter 19 l Overview Analysis & Discussion

19 Overview

In the former section, data was converted into information. This section

will transform the information into knowledge. Primary research

targeted five generations. Unfortunately, the veterans and generation Z

did not produce a useable sample; therefore, no further statements are

made in regards to these generations. The analysis and discussion will

deliberate on Baby Boomers (referred as ‘Boomers’), generation X

(referred as ‘Gen X’), and generation Y (referred as ‘Gen Y’).

The section will discuss the adoption of smartphones among the three

generations. Before analysing how the workplace has been affected by

smartphones, it is essential to understand the general view on

smartphones and how societal factors have played a role.

The section will conclude by drawing upon the findings made by

analysing and discussing the data.

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

20 Smartphones

20.1 Adoption of smartphones

Smartphones have experienced rapid growth in usage and the industry

is expected to grow 24% annually (Telecoms market research, 2010).

Research shows that among the three generations, the majority is an

owner of a smartphone. Gen X leads the path with an adoption rate of

68%, closely followed by Gen Y [Figure 59].

80% 68%
64%
58%
60%
42%
36%
40% 32%

20%

0%
Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Yes No

Figure 59 – Owner of a Smartphone

Generation Y’s adoption is yet very strong, as 47% of this generation is a

student, which are known for their limited financial resources. Whereas

93% of the boomers were (self) employed, which was also the case for

Gen X [Figure 60]. Findings previously showed that 81% of the

professionals exceeded the average household income in Scotland

[Figure 43]. The gap in spending power can justify the adoption rates.

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

100% 93% 93%


90%
80%
70%
60%
49% 47%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% 4% 4% 4% 3% 4%
0% 0% 0%
0%
(Self) Employed Unemployed Retired Student

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Figure 60 – Occupation

As highlighted in the literature, Boomers are found to be a very lucrative

market due to their high spending power and nearly half of the Boomers

(43%) do not possess a smartphone [Figure 59]. However when asked

whether these individuals intended to purchase a smartphone, 77% of

them responded with a ‘no’ [Figure 61].

90%
77%
80%
70% 64%
59%
60%
50% 41%
40% 36%
30% 23%
20%
10%
0%
Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Yes No

Figure 61 – Intention to purchase a Smartphone

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

The most common reason for Boomers not to purchase a smartphone is

due to the high purchase cost [Figure 62], Gen X and Y found

smartphones to be too expensive as well. Most intriguing detail was that

although Gen Y is considered most tech savvy among the three, it was

also the generation that most often indicated to find smartphones to be

too complicated. Many individuals of the three generations indicated

that they had no use for the extended features, eliminating the key

selling point of smartphones. Other responses included “I have a laptop,

it satisfies my needs for connectivity” and “(I am) not sure yet, because

there are so many varieties available”.

30%
26%
25% 24% 24%
23% 23% 23%
22%
21%
20% 19%
18%
16%
15% 15% 15%
15%

10%
10%

5%

0%
Too Expensive Extended Too Complicated Late adopter of Other
features not Technology
required

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Figure 62 – Motive for not purchasing a smartphone

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

On the other hand, the extended features motivate the majority that do

intend to purchase a smartphone [Figure 47]. Gen X is most curious about

the extended features (71%) [Figure 63]. This generation was also the

largest group that required smartphones for work (21%). As

organisations increase their attention towards mobile working, it seems

like Gen X is the first to encounter the new policies. Although only 4% of

the Gen Y indicated that they require smartphones to work, it must be

taken into account that most respondents of this cohort are students.

This number can increase significantly by the time Gen Y has completed

their education and is ready to join the workforce.

80%
71%
70%

58%
60%

50% 46%

39%
40%

30% 27%
21%
20% 15%

10% 7% 7%
4% 4%
0% 0% 0% 0%
0%
Affordable Extended Required for Ready to try it Other
features Work

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Figure 63 – Motive for purchasing a smartphone

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

20.2 Experience with smartphones

Findings revealed that the greatest adoption of smartphones took place

in the last five years [Figure 49]. Adoption before that period was primary

led by Boomers [Figure 64].

50% 44%
40% 37% 36% 35%
30%
30% 25% 25% 24%

20% 14% 14%


10% 6% 5%
3% 1% 1%
0%
< one year 1 to 2 years 3 to 5 years 6 to 8 years > 8 years

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Figure 64 – Adoption of smartphones per generation

There are several arguments for Boomer purchasing more smartphones

in this period than other generations. Before 2005, smartphones were

business devices [Table 8]. They were popular in corporate environment

due to their organising capabilities.

Options Year Major Launches


< one year 2009 - present iPhone 4, Windows Mobile 6.5, Android 2.2,
Blackberry OS 6 , Windows Phone 7*
1 to 2 years 2008 - 2009 iPhone 3G, iPhone 3GS, Android
3 to 5 years 2005 - 2007 Windows Mobile 5, Windows Mobile 6, iPhone
6 to 8 years 2002 - 2004 Nokia Communicator, Blackberry 5810
> 8 years Before 2002 Palm OS, iPAQ, Pocket PC
*
Windows Phone 7 will be released in October 2010

Figure produced by author utilising Android (2010), Blackberry (2002),


Microsoft (2010), Mombert (2010), Shaun (2010),

Table 8 – Major Product launches

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

However, since 2005 significant changes took place [Table 8]. Early 2005,

Microsoft addressed the consumer market by integrating multimedia

possibilities into its Windows Mobile 5 platform (Microsoft Press, 2005).

Although uptake was slow, smartphones were becoming increasingly

popular. In 2007, Apple launched a smartphone focussing on consumer

market and sold nearly 1.4 million units in 2007 alone (Apple, 2007).

Same year Microsoft launched Windows Mobile 6 to compete within the

smartphone market. Finally, Google entered the market with Android;

considerably boosting the share of smartphone. This trend is clearly

visible as adoption jumped from 6% to 30% between 2002 (2 to 8 years)

and 2007 (3 to 5 years). Particularly the share of generation X and Y

soared in the smartphone market [Figure 65]. In addition, in the past 5

years, smartphones have become more affordable, have different form

factors and wider available.

50% 44%

40% 37% 36% 35%


30%
30% 25% 25% 24%

20% 14% 14%

10% 6%
3% 5%
1% 1%
0%
Less than one 1 to 2 years 3 to 5 years 6 to 8 year More than 8 years
year

Boomers Gen X Gen Y Overal Adoption

Figure 65 – Adoption of smartphones per generation (including totals)

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

20.3 Usage of Smartphones

Smartphones provide their users with the ability to conduct a wide

range of activities. It was expected that the use of smartphones would

significantly differ among generations, yet findings generally stated the

contrary [Figure 66].

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

21%
Check e-mail 19%
19%

18%
Web surfing 18%
18%

18%
Calander/Organiser 18%
18%

19%
Voice & Instant messaging 17%
14%

14%
Navigation 14%
14%

3%
Gaming 6%
9%

2%
Word processing 5%
3%

5%
Other 3%
6%

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Figure 66 – Activities on a smartphone

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

Checking e-mail is the most popular activity among all generations. Not

a very surprising development, as e-mail integration into smartphones

has become highly intelligent. Push technology transfers e-mails from

servers to smartphones instantly and actively, providing users with

continues access to their email (Prasad et al, 2009). E-mail technology

allows users to share more types of data (pictures, videos, and links),

which has resulted in a decrease of the traditional activity on a phone

namely voice and messaging. This activity was ranked fourth and could

start to loose popularity as other tools on smartphones become more

sophisticated.

It could be argued that smartphones have become less of a phone and

more of a computer. The Oxford dictionary describes a (tele)phone as ‘a

system for transmitting voices over a distance using wire or radio, by

converting acoustic vibrations to electrical signals’ (Oxford Dictionaries,

2010a). The same dictionary describes a computer as ‘an electronic

device which is capable of receiving information (data) in a particular

form and of performing a sequence of operations…’ (Oxford

Dictionaries, 2010b). It is evident from the findings that users of

smartphone purchase them not to call and text people, but more

importantly to connect with people around the world in various ways.

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

Research conducted by the market research firm Nielson, support this

claim as it appears that; with the exception of Android OS, where it

comes in second; Facebook application is the most popular smartphone

application (Nielson, 2010).

Navigation is an equally popular activity. In 2001, Rainio stated,

“Location-based services and personal navigation have a huge potential.

First time in the history of mankind the maps and geographic

information in general will meet a real mass market” (Rainio, 2001: p.

13). This claim was disputed more recently by Tscheligi and Sefelin

(2006) which stated, “We do not argue that guiding systems for

pedestrians will not work and will not sell… However, a system from

which the majority of travellers, hikers, tourists, etc. can benefit still

seems far away”. Four years later, mobile navigation is widely adopted

and will continue to become more common as large suppliers including

Google [Google Maps], Microsoft [Bing Maps] and Nokia [Ovi Maps] are

offering free navigation tools (Bing, 2010; Google Mobile, 2010; Nokia,

2010).

Although smartphones encourage mobility, the favourite time to use

them was at home [Figure 51]. It could be suggested that smartphones

have become very personal as earlier research indicated that

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Chapter 20 l Smartphones Analysis & Discussion

smartphones tied with having intimidate personal relationships as being

the number one thing smartphone users cannot live without

(RingCentral, 2010).

Gen Y is most comfortable among the three generations to use

smartphones during travelling and daily commutes. However, they also

most often indicated to use a smartphone only when a pc was not

available. Apart from the usage during daily commutes, the three

generations shared similar preference.

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25% 30%

26%
Home 24%
24%

23%
Work 23%
19%

22%
Travel 21%
23%

10%
Daily commutes 15%
18%

16%
Away from office 15%
15%

4%
Computer is n/a 3%
5%

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Figure 67 – Preference of smartphone usage location

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

21 Social

21.1 Smartphones in the society

Using smartphones is considered trendy in today’s society [Figure 52].

This could relate to the fact that trendy people prefer the latest

technology, which in turn makes smartphones trendy (Siddiqui et al,

2009). Especially Gen Y considers this the case; they are a trendy, tech

savvy and fashion conscious generation, whereas Boomers generally

took a neutral stance on this aspect [Figure 68]. Majority of Gen X also

consider the usage of smartphone trendy. The results highlight the

different perceptions on the use of smartphones and are in line with

previous research, whereby youngsters (Gen Y) are keener on adopting

trendy products (Samost, 2009).

60% 54%

50% 44%
41%
40%
30%
30% 26% 27% 25%

20% 13% 12%


7% 9%
10% 4% 4% 3%
1%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “using a smartphone is trendy”

Figure 68 – Trendiness of Smartphones

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

Although Boomers may not consider smartphones trendy, they are

most keen on buying hi-tech equipment. It could relate to the fact that

Boomers as described in the literature seek quality and comfort in life,

which makes a smartphone a tool to attain these needs, contrary to the

trendy Gen Y. Gen X is often described as the middle child that balances

his decision between his older and younger siblings (Stephey, 2008;

Zemke et al, 2000) and this trend is beginning to appear, as this

generation seems to be in the middle of the other two generations.

50% 47%
42%
38%
40%
29% 30%
30% 27%
23%
20% 21%
20%

8%
10% 6%
4% 4%
2%
0%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “I enjoy buying hi-tech equipment”

Figure 69 – Purchasing Hi-Tech equipment

The Boomers (78%) and Gen X (76%) consider the smartphone a more

useful tool than mobile phones and disregard it as being a hype [Figure

70]. In contrast, 21% of Gen Y agreed that smartphones are a hype and

that mobile phones are good enough, nearly twice as many as the

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

Boomers and Gen X. This is unusual as Gen Y among other generations

least often used the traditional voice and messaging functions on a

smartphone [Figure 66].

57%
60% 48%
38%
40% 30%
19% 19% 22%
16% 16%
20% 11%
5% 6% 5% 3% 5%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “Smartphones are a hype, mobile phones are good enough”

Figure 70 – Smartphones are a Hype

Moreover, it is Gen Y’s interactivity with its social network that is most

affected (34%) when a smartphone is not available [Figure 71].

Smartphones enable users to connect through web and applications,

whereas a mobile phone does not offer this functionality. Twitter and

Foursquare have created platforms that encourage continues

interaction with your social network, the intensity of usage of this kind

of services can rectify the differences in usage.

40% 34% 36% 34%


30% 25% 26% 23% 25% 24%
18% 19%
20% 10% 10%
8% 9%
10% 0%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “Not having a smartphone will affect my interactivity with my social network”

Figure 71 – Interactivity with Social Network

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

21.2 Access to resources

Access to certain resources can affect the adoption of smartphones in a

positive or a negative manner; access to assistance in how to operate

smartphones, access to financial resources and access to technical

resources can be factor. Connection speeds for instance are a key

determinant of the user experience on a smartphone as most activities

occur externally; i.e. checking e-mail and surfing the web. Providers

understand that by offering faster connection speeds they can attract

customers. This strategy was visible in the results, as the majority

among all generations indicated that their providers fully support the

use of smartphones [Figure 72]. However, it must be noted that

respondents of the questionnaire were mainly of European origin [Figure

36], where the penetration of mobile services (3G network) is generally

higher than other parts of the world (Forrester Research, 2008; Lomas,

2008; Meller, 2007).

50% 44% 44%


40% 33% 35%
30%
30% 26%
22%
19%
20% 15%
8% 10%
7%
10% 4%
1%
0%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “My Network provider does not fully support the usage of smartphones”

Figure 72 – Usage support from Provider

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

These investments made by providers result in increased costs for

smartphones users (Clark, 2010). This development however does not

prevent any of the generations to stop using smartphones [Figure 73].

Boomers (63%) and Gen X (68%) accept the operational cost of

smartphone, followed by 53% of Gen Y. 31% of the Gen Y indicated to

have a neutral stance on this matter. This could relate to the limited

disposable income they have, as a significant number (47%) of this

generation indicated to be a student, whereas 93% of the Boomers and

92% of Gen X was self-employed [Figure 74].

80%
57% 59%
60%
43%
40% 31%
21% 20%
20% 11% 12% 13% 9% 10%
5% 3% 5%
0%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “The operating costs of a smartphone do not prevent the use of it”

Figure 73 – Operating cost of Smartphones

100% 93% 92%

80%
60% 49% 47%
40%
20% 4% 4% 4% 4%
3% 0% 0% 0%
0%
(Self) Employed Unemployed Retired Student

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “Which of the following describes your current position”

Figure 74 – Position of Respondents

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

Analysis of the results demonstrated that the majority of individuals

from all generations had sufficient access to technical and financial

resources. A final aspect was whether they had access to

support/assistance in handling issues related to smartphones. Friends

and family are often first ones to be considered for help. Findings

demonstrate that the majority of all generations disagreed when asked

whether their friend and family guide them in the use of smartphones

[Figure 75].

50% 46%

40% 36% 36%


29% 29%
30% 22% 22%
19%
20% 15% 16%
13%
10%
10% 4% 2%
1%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “My friends and family guide me in the use of smartphones”

Figure 75 – Guidance from family and friends

Gen X most often disagreed (75%), followed by Gen Y (58%) and

Boomers (51%). Boomers (33%) on the contrary most often agreed to be

assisted by family and friends. The explanation for the high number of

disagreements could be twofold. The first argument could relate to the

willingness of family members and friends to assist. The second

argument could be that people may not require the assistance in using

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

the smartphones and therefore disagreed to the statements. This could

especially be the case among Gen X, as many individuals of this cohort

have been users of smartphones for 3 to 5 years [Figure 64] and therefore

do not require much assistance in the usage of a smartphone.

Alternative source for assistance is the supplier of the smartphone. Most

individuals agreed that assistance was available from the supplier [Figure

76]. However, 28% of the Boomer disagreed, whereas the other two

generations did not feel as strongly about this matter. As the literature

demonstrated, it could relate to the fact that Boomers consider

themselves open-minded and resourceful experimenters, and are

therefore unwilling to seek support. However, this is being contradicted

within the analysis itself as the Boomer’s family and friends most often

guide them in the use of smartphones [Figure 75].

60%
49% 51%
50% 44%

40%
29% 31%
30% 26%
18%
20% 15% 15%

10% 4% 5% 6% 5%
2% 1%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “I can get assistance from the supplier of my smartphones”

Figure 76 – Support from suppliers

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

21.3 Smartphones: a need or a want

The concept of needs and wants describes whether a product or a

service is essential to a person (a need) or when it is not necessary and

the individual desires the product or service (a want) (Solomon, 2002).

Gen X (69%) most often indicated to find their smartphones to be an

essential tool in their daily lives, followed by 61% of Gen Y and 57% of

the Boomers [Figure 75]. 24% of Gen Y even indicated to be strongly

attached to their smartphones (strongly agree), whereas Boomers (23%)

were the largest group who disagreed with smartphones being

essential. In general, the three generations largely found smartphones

to be an essential tool in their daily lives. A major cause for this must be

the fact that users are using smartphones for a wide variety of purposes

as seen previously [Figure 66].

60% 53%
50% 44%

40% 37%

30% 24%
18% 20% 20%
20% 16% 16%
13% 15% 13%
10% 5% 4%
2%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “Smartphone is an essential tool in my daily life”

Figure 77 – Smartphones are essential

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

Although smartphones are used for a variety of purposes, individuals

from all generations seem to have a different opinion on whether they

intend to use all the functions on their smartphones [Figure 78].

Interestingly, the three generations produced nearly similar results.

However, Hoover (2008) for instance indicated that the iPhone is able to

serve for an exceptionally wide variety of purposes due to the hundred

thousands of applications that are available to its users. Upon reviewal,

this question has become out-dated, as users are no longer limited to

the functions a supplier provides, they can install applications that serve

their need and wants more correctly. Nonetheless, 43% of the Boomers,

40% of Gen X and 47% of Gen Y indicated to have the intention to use all

the functions on their smartphones.

60%
39% 39%
40% 33% 32% 34%
30%
16% 16%
20% 7% 10% 5%
11% 10% 13%
4%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Boomers Gen X Gen Y
Response to: “I intend to use all functions of my smartphone”

Figure 78 – Intention of use

Being able to conduct such a wide range of activities on a smartphone

can result in an increased level of multitasking. Although multitasking

has been shown to slow learning and reduce efficiency (Jarmon, 2008), it

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

is heavily marketed by manufacturers as a feature (Buchanan, 2010) and

proclaimed smartphones guru; Khawand (2007:p.94) even states: “what

is a smartphone good for if it doesn’t even let you multi-task?”. Gen X

(43%) and Boomers (42%) indicate that according to them smartphones

do not encourage too much multitasking, unlike Gen Y (26%) which did

not share the view to the same extend [Figure 79]. Highest frequency of

‘strongly agree’ was noted among Gen Y (11%). Research conducted by

UK’s communications regulator Ofcom (2010) has previously indicated

that Gen Y is most actively conducting activities simultaneously among

the three generations. It could therefore be the case that they

experience this to a greater extent than other generations. Current

research has revealed that smartphones have become more accepted;

as a 2008 research conducted by LexisNexis (2008) revealed that among

all three generations more than half of the respondents found that

smartphones encourage too much multitasking.

60%
40%
36% 36%
40% 31%
27%
24% 23%
20% 20%
20% 11%
6% 3% 6% 6%
2%
0%
Strongly Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree
Disagree Boomers Gen X Gen Y
Response to: “Smartphones encourage too much multitasking”

Figure 79 – Multitasking on Smartphones

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

Building on whether smartphones fulfil a need or a want, the three

generations were asked whether they want to see the benefits

demonstrated prior to their purchase. More than half of each

generation would like to see the benefits demonstrated [Figure 80]. Yet

within each generation, there is a disagreement. Boomers (28%)

disagreed most often and would therefore buy a smartphone without

knowing its benefits to them. The findings contradict Chen (2010) which

stated that Boomers only tend to adopt new technology after its

benefits are demonstrated and a need is satisfied. Boomers seem to be

more willing to adopt new technology (smartphones) than the rest.

Boomers have to capital to afford expensive technology, are willing

experiment and enjoy life as stated by various authors (Bernstein, 2001;

Hicks and Hicks, 1999; Yang and Jolly, 2008).

60%
49% 48%
50% 45%

40%
30%
21% 21% 21%
17% 16%
20% 14% 15% 12% 13%
7%
10% 3% 3%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “I want to see the benefits of a smartphone demonstrated before I purchase it”

Figure 80 – The benefits of a smartphone

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Chapter 21 l Social Analysis & Discussion

Among Gen Y, with 20% of the individuals they least often indicated to

purchase a smartphone without knowing the benefits, whereas 69%

would like to see the benefits, of which 21% even strongly agreed to the

statement. The findings argue with Manning-Shaffel (2002), she

indicated that this tech savvy generation did not require much

convincing to buy into the latest technology. On the contrary, Whittaker

(2010) was accurate in stating that Gen Y is more aware of the choices

they make and the product/services they want to buy and use.

Smartphones seem to be popular among all generations, whether they

serve a need or a want. More than one fifth of all generations strongly

disagreed when asked whether they would use a smartphone only if

they have to [Figure 81]. Making smartphones a device that individuals

from all generations generally like to use.

60% 52%
48%
50%
37%
40%
30% 24% 26%
20%
17% 17%
20% 13% 13% 15%
7% 7%
10% 3% 4%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y


Response to: “I will only use a smartphone if I have to”

Figure 81 – Smartphones: a burden?

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Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

22 Workplace

22.1 Organisational involvement

The literature revealed that smartphones are becoming increasingly

popular among organisations as a tool to increase efficiency and reduce

costs [chapter 4]. This trend was experienced by 55% of the Boomers

and 49% of Gen X, whereas only 14% of Gen Y was provided with a

smartphone [Figure 82]. The findings are not very surprising as Boomers

and Gen X form the largest group within the current workforce;

therefore, they are experiencing the changes at present, whereas Gen Y

is mostly student and has yet to join the workforce in greater numbers.

45%
39%
40% 37% 37%
35%
30% 28%
26%
24% 23%
25%
20% 18%
16% 15%
15%
9% 10% 10%
10% 6%
4%
5%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “My organisation has provided me with a smartphone”

Figure 82 – Organisation provided a smartphone

In the case of students, it seems to be ‘obvious’ that universities do not

provide them with smartphones. However, this is found to be rather

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Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

strange, as universities become “more critical than ever as a provider of

talent, knowledge, and innovation in the age of knowledge based

capitalism” (Florida, 1999: p. 68), yet they lag in adopting new practises.

There are nevertheless some exceptions, namely University of Leeds,

which had decided to lend iPhones to its student doctors to foster

learning experience (Nguyen, 2010), similarly California University of

Pennsylvania has adopted a campus wide smartphone strategy that

allows students to access a various services within the university (Rudra,

2010).

Many companies/universities do not provide smartphones, however it

appears that most of them do support the usage [Figure 83].

45%
38% 39%
40%
35%
35% 32%
31%
30% 27%
25%
25%
20%
20%
16% 15%
15%
10%
10%
4% 4% 3%
5% 2%

0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “My company/university does not support the usage of smartphones”

Figure 83 – Organisations do not support use

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Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

Only a minority among the three generations agreed that their

respective organisations do not provide support for the usage of a

smartphone, though a significant amount of neutral replies were given,

which could indicate an unclear policy from the management, especially

among Gen Y (39%).

Neutral replies were even more frequent when the generations where

asked to indicate whether their organisations encouraged the use of

smartphones [Figure 84]. The figures illustrate that many organisation

have yet to developed strategies/policies to encourage or even

discourage employees/students in their usage of smartphones.

45% 42%
40% 39%
40%
35%
30% 26%
25% 23% 23%

20% 16% 16% 16%


15% 13%
11% 11% 11%
10%
5% 3% 3%

0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “My company/university encourages the use of smartphones”

Figure 84 – Organisations encourage use

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 166


Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

22.2 Smartphone as a work tool

Organisations may be keen on deploying smartphones and individuals

may be keen on using smartphones, but are they perceived and used as

business tools.

Respondents were asked whether a smartphone provided them with a

more efficient and organised tool in their jobs, whereby the majority of

all generations had a neutral stance on this matter [Figure 85]. Findings

indicate that majority of people have either not yet discovered how to

use their smartphone to become more efficient and organised or have

not yet experienced this. However, there are significant numbers of

individuals that do find smartphones useful tools. A qualitative research

would be required to investigate why a large number of respondents

indicated to be neutral on this matter, as smartphones being tools that

increase productiveness is used as one of the USP’s in business settings.

50% 40% 42% 39%


40%
30% 26%
23% 23%
20% 16% 16% 16%
11% 11% 13% 11%
10% 3% 3%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “A smartphone provides me with a more efficient and organised tool in my job”

Figure 85 – Smartphone: an efficient and organised work tool

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 167


Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

Smartphones however are not essential tools in order for one to work.

Nevertheless, their absence may restrict individuals from accessing

essential data [Figure 86, Figure 87].

60%
35% 38% 32% 39%
40% 27% 31% 25%
16% 20%
15%
20% 10%
4% 4% 2% 3%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “I have a smartphone because I cannot complete my work without it”

Figure 86 – Cannot complete work without a smartphone

The majority disagrees that smartphones are necessary to complete

their work [Figure 86]; however, 55% of the Boomers and 49% of Gen X

indicated that they would be unable to access essential data if they did

not possess a smartphone [Figure 87]. It could be argued that it may be

difficult to deliver quality work without being able to access essential

data, therefore significantly increasing the importance of having a

smartphone.

60%
39% 37% 37%
40% 28% 26%
24% 23%
16% 15% 18%
20% 6% 9% 10% 10%
4%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “Without a smartphone I cannot access essential data”

Figure 87 – Data inaccessible without a smartphone

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 168


Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

22.3 Mentality towards smartphones

The mind-set of individuals can greatly affect the adoption of

smartphones. Templar (2010) discusses the ‘herd mentality’, which

describes the process of blending in existing organisations. All

organisations have unwritten rules that are accepted by the individuals.

These ‘rules’ may have an impact on the mentality towards

smartphones. LexisNexis (2008) research discovered that 69% of the

boomers found that PDA’s and mobile phones contribute to a decline of

proper workplace etiquette, of which 23% even strongly agreed. Current

research revealed that there is now a uniform dispersion among

Boomers, whereby 30% agree, 30% disagree and 32% indicated to be

neutral on the statement [Figure 88].

40% 36% 35%


30% 32% 30%
27% 28% 26% 26%
30%
20%
7% 8% 7%
10% 3% 2% 4%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “Smartphones contribute to the decline of proper workplace etiquette”

Figure 88 – Decline of workplace etiquette

Only 2% of the Boomers strongly agreed to the statement. This can

indicate a change in mentality among the Boomers in the use of

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Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

smartphones. Among the generations, no significant changes are

noticed. Even though Gen X and Gen Y are considered more tech savvy

than the Boomers, their opinion does not differ much.

Although smartphones predecessors PDA’s; were primary seen as

business tool, this does no longer seem to be the case [Figure 89, Figure

90].

70%
59%
60% 55% 56%

50%

40%
31%
30% 27%
25%

20%
9% 9% 9%
10% 7% 6% 5%
2% 1%
0%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “I intend to use my smartphones only at work”

Figure 89 – Smartphone only at work

Of all the questions examined, the questions aimed at enquiring

whether respondents were willing to use their smartphones only at work

or whether they would also use the smartphone outside of work

produced the lowest neutral responses. The mentality of all generations

was very clear on this matter, nearly everyone disagreed to using their

smartphones only at work and nearly everyone agreed that they intend

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Chapter 22 l Workplace Analysis & Discussion

to use their smartphones outside of work. This clearly indicates that

smartphones have to be more than just work tools, as individuals of all

generations want to use them in their professional and social life.

70%
61%
60%
53%
51%
50%

40%
33%
30%
30%
18%
20%
11% 10%
9%
10% 7%
5% 5% 5%
2% 2%
0%
Strongly Disagree Disagree Neutral Agree Strongly Agree

Boomers Gen X Gen Y

Response to: “I intend to use my smartphones outside of work”

Figure 90 – Smartphone outside of work

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 171


Chapter 23 l Summary Analysis & Discussion

23 Summary

This section analysed the findings to discover the differences and

similarities between the Boomers, Gen X and Gen Y. The UTAUT

constructs provided a valuable framework for identifying relevant

aspects to the adoption of smartphones. It is essential to note that the

research was not designed to validate the UTAUT framework; instead, it

served as the foundation of the research and enabled the author to build

his research on years of work by renowned academicians.

The section was divided in three chapters, namely: Smartphones, Social

and Workplace. Although the latter is key to the aim of this research,

through the application of the UTAUT framework, a wider aspect was

covered. This was necessary to create essential data to research the

phenomena.

The objectives were to critically analyse the adoption among

generations and to examine whether a significant technology gap was

existent.

Analysis demonstrated that the adoption of smartphones among

generations appeared to be nearly the same. Although a minority of

Boomers were using smartphones before other generations, a

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Chapter 23 l Summary Analysis & Discussion

substantial increase was noted in the past five years. The usage of

smartphones did not appear to be very different either; checking e-mail

was the most popular activity among each generation. However, there

were certain activities that attracted one generation more than the

other, even if the difference was marginal.

Although the usage of smartphones was similar among generations, the

perception was not. Gen X and Y found the smartphone to be a trendy

device, whereas more than half of the Boomers had a neutral stance

towards its trendiness. Owners of smartphones in all generations greatly

agreed to enjoy purchasing hi-tech equipment, a predictable result as

smartphones have a high tech appeal.

Socially, the effects of not having a smartphone on the interactivity with

social networks were most noticeable on Gen Y. This generation is more

connected to online social networks and tends to spend more time on

time. However, although Boomers and Gen X reported to notice the

effect to a lesser extent, they shared the experience. This was in line

with how smartphones were being used among generations. Among

each generation, individuals agreed to find their smartphones an

essential tool in their daily lives, with similar intentions to use the

functions of their smartphones.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 173


Chapter 23 l Summary Analysis & Discussion

The three generations had similar attitude towards a smartphone as a

tool to be more efficient and organised in their jobs. They liked to use

their smartphones at and outside of work and shared similar thoughts

on smartphones effects on workplace etiquette.

Analysing the findings indicates that smartphones are being adopted

among all generations. They primarily attract tech savvy individuals

within each generation and therefore the technology gap among the

three generation appears to be limited. It was difficult to compare these

findings to previous research, as they have not been conducted in an

academic setting. Furthermore existing research is conducted by

research firms that either attempt to promote their services or create

brand awareness. As a result this research has touched a fairly novel

concept and offers future research some perspective.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 174


Chapter 23 l Summary Conclusion

Conclusion

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 175


Chapter 24 l Conclusion Conclusion

24 Conclusion

As smartphones are becoming increasingly popular within social and

business environment, it offers many possibilities to research the

developments. The starting point for this research was to analyse what

had fuelled the soaring adoption of smartphones and how this was

affecting business.

Reviewing the literature revealed that although there are several

aspects to the increased popularity of smartphones, key causes were the

increased availability, greater focus by manufacturers and wider uses for

the devices. It was interesting to discover that there was no commonly

accepted definition for smartphones.

Virtual office was a key concept within the research. The concept has

been under research for over a decade and its definition has changed on

several occasions in history. The most recent understanding of the

concept describes a setting in which employees can interact, collaborate

and be productive at any given time and anywhere in the world.

Smartphones can greatly contribute to such concept and are therefore

becoming increasingly popular in business settings. But the drive to

integrate smartphones is not solitary driven by business; users are

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 176


Chapter 24 l Conclusion Conclusion

keener on using personal smartphones in their social and business life

and are therefore pushing companies to adapt policies to accommodate

this change.

There is also a social development in which work is becoming something

you do, not someplace you go. New breed of employees are demanding

greater autonomy in their work and companies are changing business

practises to meet the needs of this new employees. Some of the world’s

largest firms have adopted some degree of virtualisation to support

their businesses. This trend will continue to gain popularity as newer

generations enter the workforce and the current management is

replaced by the next generation.

This led to research the three largest generations within the current

workforce namely Baby Boomers, Generation X and Generation Y. The

Boomers control senior management and Gen Y is entering the

workforce. All three generations have been impacted by different

economic and social developments which have shaped their view on the

world. Research revealed significant differences in attitudes towards

work and life.

In order to understand the usage of smartphones among these three

generations a tested framework was applied. TRA and TAM have

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 177


Chapter 24 l Conclusion Conclusion

provided many researchers with a framework to understand technology

acceptance, however all have shown limitations in practise. As a result

the most prominent and comprehensive framework was selected,

UTAUT.

UTAUT was used as foundation for a questionnaire that was

disseminated online to examine the three generations. The findings

revealed a much a wider scope for research. Critical analysis established

that in general, individuals from the three generations that were using

smartphones had similar purpose for smartphones and attitudes

towards the use of it. This was an interesting discovery, since the

stereotypes of the three generations indicate significant differences. It

was also noted that smartphone users were the tech savvy individuals

within each generation and therefore the technology gap among them

was insignificant.

Research has revealed interesting developments that can have a

substantial effect on how business is conducted. As the office becomes

mobile, the workplace of the future may not resemble todays work

environment. The effects of smartphones on the three generations have

been examined and discussed and have exposed a greater trend which

will significantly impact the workplace.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 178


Chapter 25 l Final Thoughts Conclusion

25 Final Thoughts

The author found the research to be very interesting as smartphones are

part of the wider move in how technology, knowledge and social

development are shaping our world.

Conducting a comprehensive research as this, enabled the author not to

only absorb new information on various topics, it also further developed

analytical and critical thinking skills. Although a paper of this magnitude

requires significant amount of work, it is upon completion a great

learning experience. It would be outstanding if this work would inspire

other researchers to conduct work in a similar field.

In the following section, areas for further research are identified and

recommendations are made based on the findings.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 179


Chapter 25 l Final Thoughts Recommendations

Recommendations

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 180


Chapter 26 l Recommendations Recommendations

26 Recommendations

Recommendations are made based on the findings. They are divided in

two sections, first section addresses areas for further research and

second chapter provides practical recommendations to organisations.

26.1 Further Research

26.1.1 Cultural Differences

“Culture is more often a source of conflict than of synergy” (Hofstede,

2010). The sample of current research was primary European; therefore,

its findings may not apply to other cultures. Further research could

examine the differences in adoption and use of smartphones in different

cultures.

26.1.2 Gender Differences

Gender differences have been extensively examined in the academic

world. Current research, collected data that could be used to identify

differences among genders; however, this would make the project

indistinct. Analysing the differences among genders could lead to

identify the causes for adoption and examine the usage of smartphones.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 181


Chapter 26 l Recommendations Recommendations

26.2 Practical

26.2.1 Universities should lead

Universities can only justify their existence by fostering knowledge and

embracing innovation. Universities research many phenomena’s and

possess a deep knowledge of wide range of areas, yet they wait for

business to implement their ideas. Universities can set an example by

integrating smartphones into their learning environment and engaging

in innovative information systems and knowledge management. The

youngest generation is currently in university and should be prepared

for pushing the boundaries of innovation and not for adopting business

practises. Smartphones, combined with other devices could overhaul

the out-dated university practises. A practical example would be to fully

digitalise the library, making the library accessible to staff and students

at any time and any place and eliminating costs for sustaining library

staff and space.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 182


Chapter 26 l Recommendations Recommendations

26.2.2 Policies and Practises

It is inevitable that organisations will have to deal with increasing

number of smartphone users that will demand to fully utilise their

devices. It is important that organisations developed a strategy to either

support or halt the use of smartphones and communicate this clearly

with their stakeholders. Research has revealed that organisations would

do well in supporting these devices as they can provide creative

solutions to various situations and will be widely adopted in the society.

26.2.3 Security and Operations

Smartphones can be very useful device, however as any other electronic

communication device they create security and operational issues. It is

important for organisations to understand these issues and take

adequate measures to counteract any risks.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 183


Practical Resources

Resources

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 184


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Bibliography Appendix

Appendix

The Era of the

Virtual Office

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 218


Appendix Appendix

Appendix 1- Questionnaire Preview

Two sample pages from the online questionnaire, representing the

design and setting of the questionnaire.

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 219


Appendix Appendix

Appendix 2- Students: Preferred Industry

Utilities 1%
Manufacturing 2%
Aerospace / Aviation / Automotive 2%
Retail 2%
Media / Printing / Publishing 3%
Leisure / Hotel / Entertainment / Recreation 3%
Government / Military 3%
Non-Profit 4%
IT / Telecommunications 4%
Other 5%
Construction / Engineering 6%
Research / Science 6%
Finance / Banking / Insurance / Legal 12%
Consulting / Professional Services 13%
Healthcare / Medical 13%
Marketing / Market Research / Public… 22%

0% 5% 10% 15% 20% 25%

Appendix 3- Professionals: Industry

Agriculture / Forestry / Fishing 1%


Utilities 0%
Research / Science 1%
Real Estate 1%
Non-Profit 1%
Retail 2%
Manufacturing 2%
Mining 2%
Aerospace / Aviation / Automotive 2%
Transportation / Distribution 3%
Food Service 3%
Marketing / Market Research / Public… 3%
Government / Military 4%
Media / Printing / Publishing 4%
Leisure / Hotel / Entertainment / Recreation 6%
Education 8%
Healthcare / Medical 8%
Consulting / Professional Services 8%
Finance / Banking / Insurance / Legal 9%
IT / Telecommunications 10%
Construction / Engineering 10%
Other 14%

0% 2% 4% 6% 8% 10% 12% 14% 16%

MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 220


Appendix Appendix

Robert Gordon University


Aberdeen Business School
Adeel Qurashi BA (Hons) Garthdee Road
MSc International Business Student Aberdeen
AB10 7QE
a.qurashi@rgu.ac.uk
Tel: +44 1224 262000
Web: www.rgu.ac.uk

September

2010
MSc Dissertation l Aberdeen Business School Page l 221

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