Structures and Materials

Turning Flight

V-n Diagrams

Lift Distribution

Stress and Strain

Materials

Weight Estimation

MAE 2
 Turning Flight

A level turn implies that the airplane flight path changes, but is still restricted to a
horizontal plane.
By banking the wings, the lift vector is tilted toward the center of the turn.

Equations of Motion L=lift

W =weight
V ∞ =velocity
L =bank angle
Vertical: L cos =W  =heading angle

d
Horizontal: mV∞ = L sin 
dt

Airplane is flying into page during

a right turn (right wing down)
W

MAE 2 2
 Load Factor
Define load factor as the ratio of lift to weight.

L n=load factor
n≡
W

1
Vertical: L cos =W cos =
n

 2
sin = 1−cos = 1−
 n
1
2
=
 n 2−1
n2

MAE 2 3
 Turn Rate and Radius
Turn rate is the rate at which the airplane changes (compass) heading.

d =turn rate
≡
dt R=turn radius

Horizontal: mV∞
d
dt
= L sin  m V ∞ =mg  
L
W
sin 

=
g
V∞

n 2 −1 =
g
V∞
n

n 2 −1
n2
=
g
V∞
n sin 

2
V ∞= R  V∞
R=

g n 2−1

MAE 2 4
 Maximum Turn Rate
The best possible turning performance results in a maximum turn rate and a
minimum turn radius.

1
nW = L= ∞ V 2∞ S C L
2
 n=V ∞
 1
2
∞  S /W C L

=
g
V∞

n 2 −1 =
g
V∞
n
n 2 −1
n 
max =g
 ∞ C L , max n 2max −1
2W / S  n max
= g
 ∞ C L n 2 −1
2W / S  n

Note: n 2max ≫1  max ≃ g

 ∞ C L ,max n max
2W / S 

MAE 2 5
 Minimum Turn Radius

1 2 nW / S 
nW = L= ∞ V 2∞ S C L 2
V∞ =
2 ∞ C L

2
V∞ 2 n W / S 
R= R=

g n 2−1 
∞ C L g n 2 −1

2 n max W / S 
R min =

∞ C L , max g n 2max −1

2W / S 
Note: n 2max ≫1 Rmin ≃
g ∞ C L , max

MAE 2 6
 Wing Loading
Maximum turn rate and minimum turn radius are achieved when:
n = nmax
nmax is usually constrained by structural limits
CL = CLmax
CLmax occurs at stall airspeed
Wing Loading = (W/S) is maximized

W/S (lb/ft2)

Sailplane 6
General Aviation 20
Twin Turboprop 40
Jet Trainer 50
Jet Fighter 70
Jet Transport 120

MAE 2 7
 Maneuvering Load Limits (nmax)
CFR Part 23 (normal, utility, acrobatic aircraft)
Positive load factor limit
Utility aircraft, n_plus > 4.4 g
Acrobatic aircraft, n_plus > 6 g
Normal aircraft, 2.5 g < n_plus < 3.8 g (typical)
Negative load factor limit
Normal and utility, n_minus < -0.4*n_plus
Acrobatic aircraft, n_minus < -0.5*n_plus

CFR Part 25 (transport)

Positive load factor limit, n_plus > 2.5 g
Negative load factor limit, n_minus < -1 g (typical)

MAE 2 8
 V-n Diagram


2 n plus W / S 
Load L 1 2 V corner =
Factor n= = ∞ V ∞  S /W C L , max ∞ C L , max
W 2

n plus
Positive limit load factor

Maximum dive speed

n=1
V stall

V corner Airspeed
Negative limit load factor
n minus

1 2
n=− ∞ V ∞ S /W k L C L , max 0.6k L1.0
2

MAE 2 9
 Lift Distributions
The lift distribution specifies how aerodynamic lift is spread over the entire wing.

  
2 L=nW =lift
4L 2y
Elliptical Wing: L  y = 1− n=load factor
b b W =weight
c t =tip chord
c r =root chord

Trapezoidal Wing: L  y =
2L
b1 [ 2y
1− 1−
b ] =taper ratio=c t / c r

Lift Distribution : L(y)

y=spanwise location

b=wingspan

MAE 2 10
 Stress and Strain
A load (force) applied to a structural element causes stress in the material.
length=l

F F
Compression: F =applied force
A=cross section area
=stress
l

F F F
Tension: =
A
l

Strain measures how the material reacts to applied loads.

The modulus of elasticity defines a linear relationship between stress and strain.

l =strain
≡ = E 
l E=Young ' s modulus of elasticity

MAE 2 11
 Shear Strain and Strain
Shear acts tangentially to the cross-sectional area under load.

F F =applied force
Shear: = A=cross section area
A =shear stress

The modulus of rigidity defines a linear relationship between shear stress and strain.

F
 = shearing strain
=G  G=modulus of rigidity

MAE 2 12
 Material Properties

10−3 lb/inch 2 10−6 lb/inch 2

Material  tu  ty  cy  su E G

Aircraft Steel 260 220 240 155 30 11

Stainless Steel 185 150 158 120 29 11
Aluminum 61 45 37 37 11 4
Titanium 160 145 154 100 16 6
Inconel 155 100 100 100 31 11

Ultimate
stress
Stress
 tu =ultimate tensile stress
Proportional
limit  ty = yield tensile stress
 cy = yield compressive stress
Fracture
Yield  su=ultimate shear stress
stress

Elastic Inelastic

Strain

MAE 2 13
 Component Weights (lbs)

Citation 500 DC-9 L-1011 747

Wing 1,020 11,391 47,401 88,741

Tail 288 2,790 8,570 11,958
Fuselage 1,724 19,712 82,261 116,459
Landing Gear 425 4,182 19,923 32,220
Nacelles 241 1,462 8,916 10,830
Propulsion 1,342 8,350 38,325 45,305
Systems 1,337 7,986 23,618 28,722

Empty Weight 6,377 55,873 229,014 334,235

Takeoff Weight 11,650 108,000 430,000 775,000

MAE 2 14