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Guide for Agricultural Competitive
Examinations
(An Enhanced Competition Explorer)
This e book is for use at Navsari Agricultural Unive rsity only. Cannot be re sold
Guide for Agricultural Competitive
Examinations
(An Enhanced Competition Explorer)
Useful for:
∗ JRF (Agronomy) and other disciplines
∗ SRF, NET & ARS
∗ Ph.D. Examination of IARI, BHU & GBPUAT, IGKV etc.
∗ Under-graduate & Post-graduate Courses of Various Indian Universities
Includes Previous Years Question papers of JRF Examination
Edited and Compiled by
R.K. Sharma, N. Pandey, A.P. Singh
& R.S. Maitry
2013
Daya Publishing House®
A Division of
Astral International Pvt. Ltd.
New Delhi – 110 002
© 2013 PUBLISHER (AI-178)
2013 (EBOOK FORMAT)
ISBN 978-93-5130-112-7
All rights reserved, including the right to translate or to reproduce this book or parts
thereof except for brief quotations in critical reviews.
This EBook is for use at N avsari Agricultural U niversity, N avsari only. Cannot be
resold.
Published by : Daya Publishing House®
A Division of
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Preface
D uring recent past, agriculture as whole have faced

tremendous challenges due to increased demand of food
grains and agriculture related raw materials for allied
sectors. This created enormous job opportunities in teaching,
research, extension, industries and financial institutions.
Therefore, excellent human resources have been the prime
needs for aforesaid organization. The I ndian C ouncil of
A gricultural Research (I C A R), New D elhi is conducting A ll
I ndia C ompetitive E xamination every year for awarding
J unior Research F ellowship, National E ligibility Test and
S enior Research F ellowship, besides recruiting S cientists
through A gricultural S cientists Recruitment B oard. I n
addition to that C ommon E ntrance Test for competitive
examination for post-graduate degree, D octor of P hilosophy
courses of various S tate A gricultural U niversities, B anking
services and S tate B oards are being conducted for selection
of suitable candidates. A ll these examinations are mostly
objective based and students always look for study material
that is ready to use and easy to grasp.
The present book “Guide for Agricultural C ompetitive
Examinations” has been prepared in most simple, clear and
appropriate manner which covers core courses offered for
J unior Research F ellowship and other competitive
examinations. W hile preparing the book, a wide discussion
has been made with the students, teachers and scientists and
as per their desire, this book is brought out.
We hope that this book impart basic and innovative
knowledge of various fields of agriculture. We will be
grateful to readers, if errors are pointed out so that
necessary corrections can be incorporated in the book. We
humbly welcome critical suggestions for further
improvement of this book.
Authors
Contents
Preface
1. Historical and Current Innovations in Indian Agriculture
2. Agricultural Meteorology
3. Crop Production
A) Basic principles of crop production
B) Classification of crops and their origin
C) Soil and climatic requirements
D) Leading states in area, production and productivity of crops
E) Recommended fertilizer dose
F) Inflorescence of different crops
G) Fruit types and edible parts of different crops
H) C3, C4 and CAM plants
I) Oil percentage of oilseed crops
J) Recommended Seed rate of field crops
K) Recommended Plant geometry of field crops
L) Test weight of field crops
M) Mutant varieties of crops
N) Toxic substances found in different fodder and food crops
4. Modern Concepts of Tillage
5. Cultivation Practices of Crops
A) Cereals crops
B) Pulses crops
C) Oilseeds crops
D) Fibres
E) Sugar crops
F) Fodder & forages crops
G) Commercial crops
H) Medicinal & aromatic plants
I) Fruit & Vegetable crops
6. Irrigation Water Management
A) Concept of irrigation
B) Water resources in India
C) Scheduling of irrigation
D) Irrigation water measurement
E) Methods of irrigation
F) Concept of available soil moisture
G) Evapotranspiration
H) Water requirement of crops
I) Irrigation water quality
J) Agricultural drainage
7. Watershed Management
8. Weed Management
This ebook is for use at Navsari Agricultural University only. Cannot be resold
9. Dryland Agriculture
10. Soil and Water Conservation
11. Cropping and Farming Systems
12. Soil Science
A) Soil structure & texture
B) Soils of India
C) Soil fertility & productivity
D) Plant nutrients
E) Manures & fertilizers
F) Problem soils
13. Genetics
A) Cell organelles
B) Mitosis & Meiosis
C) Mendelian genetics
14. Plant Physiology
A) Photosynthesis
B) Respiration and Photorespiration
C) Transpiration
15. Biochemistry
A) Carbohydrates
B) Protein
C) Nucleic acid
D) Enzymes
E) Vitamins
16. Plant Protection
A) Major pests of crops & their control measures
B) Major diseases of crops & their control measures
17. Agricultural Extension
A) Important rural development programmes
18. Agricultural Statistics
A) Elements of Statistics
B) Principles of Field Experimentation
19. Agroforestry Systems
20. Organizational Set-Up of Agricultural Research, Education and Extension
21. Numerical Problems
22. Syllabus for ICAR-JRF 2012-2013 (Subject: E-1: Agronomy/Farming Systems
Management)
23. Previous Years Question Papers of JRF-Agronomy from ICAR (2000 to 2011–
Memory Based)
References
This ebook is for use at Navsari Agricultural University only. Cannot be resold
Mr. Rakesh Kumar Sharma is Senior Research Fellow in MoWR Project,
BRSM College of Agril. Engineering & Technology Mungeli, IGKV, Raipur. He has
also worked as Senior Surveillance Inspector in the Department of Agronomy,
Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur, under National Invasive Weed
Surveillance Programme. He received his B.Sc (Ag.) in 2006 and M.Sc (Ag.) degree
in 2008 in the field of Agronomy from Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya,
Raipur (C.G.). He has qualified JRF (Agronomy) during 2006 and Ph. D. Exams of
Banaras Hindu University and GBPUAT during 2009-10. He has also qualified
National Eligibility Test (ASRB, ICAR) during 2010. He has published many
research papers and technical articles in many journals. He also worked with
Department of Agriculture as Rural Agriculture Extension Officer at Raipur
(C.G.). He has lot of experience of teaching of Under-graduate programme.
D r. N arendra Pandey is Principle S cientist in the D epartment of A gronomy,

I ndira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur. He received his B.S c. (A g.) and
M.S c. (A g.) degree from J awahar Lal N ehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, J abalpur &
Ph. D . from I ndian I nstitute of Technology, Kharagpur. He is well known for his
work on water and nutrient management and cropping system. He has published
and presented more than 150 research papers in different journals and many
technical bulletins for providing technologies to the farmers. He has vast
experience of teaching of Under-graduate, Post-graduate and Ph.D . programme,
and research and extension activities. At present, he is the Principle S cientist of
A ll I ndia Co-ordinated Rice I mprovement Project in the D epartment of
Agronomy, IGKV, Raipur.
D r. A .P. Singh is Principle S cientist in the D epartment of A gronomy, I ndira
Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, Raipur. He received his B.S c. (A g.) and M.S c.
(A g.) degree from J awahar Lal N ehru Krishi Vishwavidyalaya, J abalpur & Ph. D .
from I ndian I nstitute of Technology, Kharagpur. He is well known for his work on
farm and weed management. He has published over 100 research papers, critical
reviews & technical articles etc. in national and international journals of repute.
He has also presented his work at international level in countries like Philippines,
Thailand, Germany, US A , Canada etc. At present, he is the Principle I nvestigator
of A ll I ndia Co-ordinated Research Project on Weed S cience for Raipur centre. He
is also associated with IRRI-IGKV Collaborative Research Project “CURE”.
M r. Roop Singh M aitryis a Ph. D . S cholar in the department of Water S cience
& Technology, I .A .R.I ., N ew D elhi. He received his B. S c. (A g.) degree from
College of Agriculture, Bilaspur (C.G) and M.Sc. degree from department of Water
S cience & Technology, I .A .R.I ., N ew D elhi. He has also qualified N ational
Eligibility Test (ASRB, ICAR) during 2010.
D uring our preparation, we found that A GRI CULTURE created enormous job
opportunities in teaching, research, extension, industries and financial
institutions, which are based on all those examinations conducted by I ndian
Council of A gricultural Research (I CA R), N ew D elhi, various S tate A gricultural
Universities, S tate Boards and banking institutions. A ll these examinations are
mostly objective based and students always look for study materials that are ready
to use and easy to grasp, but there is no one competitive book that deals with
Agriculture in its entirety for any competitive examination.
The present book “Guide for Agricultural Competitive Examinations” has been
prepared in simple, clear and in appropriate manner so that easy to grasp and
remember, based on syllabus of competitive examinations, 100% examination
oriented, covers Agriculture comprehensively with basic and innovative
knowledge of various fields of agriculture.
Chapter 1
Historical and Current Innovations in Indian
Agriculture
AGRICULTURAL UPDATES
∗ U.P. has highest total fertilizer consumption.
∗ Crop under highest irrigation is 1st - wheat, 2nd - rice (50 per cent of total area).
∗ I rrigated area to net sown area highest in sugarcane (93 per cent) followed by
wheat (85 per cent).
∗ Largest imported fertilizer is potash (K2O).
∗ 26 per cent of the Indian population are under poverty line.
∗ The parameter to group under BPL is:
∴ In urban area - less than 2100 cal/day
∴ In rural area - less than 2400 cal/day
∗ Indian standard ratio for fertilizers has been assumed to be 4:2:1.
∗ In India, the NPK nutrients ratio being used is 6.5:2.5:1 as recommended ratio of
4:2:1.
∗ State having maximum area under irrigation – Punjab
∗ Major source of irrigation in India – Canal
∗ Maximum area under fruit crops – Mango
∗ Maximum production under fruit crops – Banana
∗ First agriculture census in India conducted in – 1970
∗ A s per national forest policy, for ecological balance, the forests cover should be
on 1/3rd area (i.e. 33 per cent) of the country.
∗ Nobel Peace Prize (1970) for “Green Revolution” awarded to U.S. scientist Nobel
Laureate Dr. Norman Earnest Borlaug for working on wheat.
∗ A nimal husbandry output constitutes about 30 per cent of the country’s
agriculture output.
∗ 11 March – Water Resource day
∗ 21 March – World Forest day
∗ 22 March – World Water day
∗ 22 April – World Earth day
∗ 5 June – World Environment day
∗ 1 July – National Agricultural day
∗ 16 July – ICAR day
∗ 16 Oct. – World Food day
∗ 17 Oct. – Rice day
∗ 23 Dec. – National Farmers day
SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMES

∗ Command Area Development and Water Management ® 1974-05
∗ National Horticulture Mission ® 2005
∗ National Commission on Farmers ® 2004
(Head- M.S. Swaminathan)
∗ National Rural Employment Scheme ® 2006
∗ Kisan Credit Card Scheme ® 1998-1999
∗ National Agricultural Insurance Scheme ® 1999-2000
∗ Vishesha Krishi Upaj Yojana Project (O bjective: Promote agricultural exports in
fruits, vegetables and flowers)
∗ N ational A gricultural I nnovation project ® J uly 2006 (O bjective: To boost
research and development in agriculture and to create skilled scientific
resources)
∗ N ational Food S ecurity Mission- 2007 (target for wheat, rice and pulses to
increase the production by 10, 8 and 2 Mt., respectively)
REVOLUTION IN AGRICULTURE
Revolution Related to
∗ Green revolution : Food grain production
∗ White revolution : Milk production
∗ Yellow revolution : Oilseeds production
∗ Gray revolution : Manures and Fertilizers
∗ Blue revolution : Fish production
∗ Red revolution : Meat/Tomato production

∗ Round revolution : Potato production
∗ Silver revolution : Egg production/Poultry
∗ Pink revolution : Prawn production
∗ Golden revolution : Fruit production (apple)
∗ Brown revolution : Non-conventional energy source
∗ Black revolution : Bio fuel (Jatropha) production
∗ Rainbow revolution : Overall development of agriculture
sector (1996)
∗ Food chain revolution : Food grain production
∗ Evergreen revolution : Reduction in wastage of food
grains, fruits and vegetables
∗ Parbhani revolution : Okra
FIRST IN AGRICULTURE
∗ Domestification of animal : (1) Dog (2) Sheep (3) Goat
∗ Cultivated crops in the world : (1) Wheat (2) Barley
∗ Hybrid pigeon pea : ICPH-8 (ICRISAT, Hyderabad)
∗ Hybrid sunflower : BSH-1 (Pro-Agro)
∗ Hybrid cotton : H-4 (Surat Farm, Gujarat)
∗ Semi dwarf variety of basmati rice : Pusa Basmati 1 (IARI)
∗ Aromatic Rice hybrid : Pusa RH 10 (IARI)
∗ Sorghum hybrid : CSH-1 and CSH-2 (IARI)-1964
∗ Public sector hybrid of forage sorghum : Pusa Chari Hybrid 106
∗ Mango hybrid for commercial : Mallika (Neelam × Dashehari)
cultivation
∗ Public sector insect resistant multiple forage : PCH 106
∗ Viral disease : Leaf curl of Tobacco
∗ Plant Parasitic Nematode : Anguina tritici (on wheat)
∗ Plant Parasitic Bacteria : Fire Blight of apple
∗ Sorghum high yielding variety : CSV-1
∗ Rice variety introduced in India : IR-8
∗ Developed dwarf variety of rice : TN 1

∗ Rice high yielding variety of India : Jaya (TN1×T1N1)
∗ Hybrid variety of mustard : Pusa Jai Kisan (BIO 902)
∗ Hybrid variety of Bajra : HB-1 (1965)
∗ Hybrid developed by using local male parent : Hare Chhole no-1
∗ Man made cereal : Triticale (Wheat × Rye)
∗ Rice resistant variety developed for yellow stem borer : IR-20 (TN-1 × TKM-6)
∗ Organophosphate compound : Parathion
∗ Napier × Bajra (NB) hybrid : Pusa Giant Hybrid
∗ Hormone : Secretin
∗ Maize hybrid : Ganga 101 (1961)
High productive early duration rice hybrid released by
∗ : DRRH 2
DRR
∗ Country to adopt hybrid rice : China
∗ Hybrid rice released in India : APRH-1 and APHR-2 (1994)
∗ Egyptian variety of cotton : Sujata
∗ Super rice variety for saline/ alkaline conditions : Lunishree
∗ Country to introduce zero tillage : USA
∗ Sugarcane variety : Co-205
∗ Scented basmati rice for normal and sodic soils : Yamini (CSR 30)
Interspecific variety of co on (G. hirsutum × G.
∗ : Varalaxmi
barbadense)
∗ Tobacco hybrid : GTH 1
∗ Safflower hybrid : DSH-129
∗ Crop to have its genome decoded : Rice
∗ Plant to have its genome decoded : Arabidopsis thaliana
∗ Single cross maize hybrid : Paras
∗ Pathogen resistant gene : HM 1
∗ Systemic fungicide : Carboxin
∗ Organic fungicide : Dithiocarbamate
∗ Fungicide : Bordeaux mixture (inorganic in nature)
∗ Person to record plant disease : Theophrastus

Autopolyploid variety released for commercial
∗ : Pusa Giant (Berseem)
cultivation in India
∗ Carbamate compound : Sevin/carboryl
∗ Laureate of the “world food” prize : Dr. M.S.Swaminathan
∗ Director General of ICAR : Dr. B.P.Pal
∗ President of ICAR : Mohammad Habibullah
∗ Indian scientist who collected and identified the fungus : K.R. Kirtikar
G.B. University of Agriculture and
∗ Agriculture university :
Technology, Pantnagar (1960)
∗ Plant pathologist of India : J.F. Dastur
∗ Plant parasitic bacteria was reported by : T.J. Burill
∗ Plant parasitic nematode was reported by : Needham
∗ Mycoplasma disease reported by : Do et al. and Ishit et al.
∗ Virus was first discovered by : Iwanosky
∗ Scientist to study fungi and their species : Micheli
∗ Transgenic plant : Tobacco (By Fraley, 1983)
∗ Biotechnological crop introduced in India : Bt. Cotton
∗ Hormone artificially produced by culturing bacteria : Insulin
∗ Commercially bio-insecticide : Sporeine
∗ Maize hybrid developed in India : Ganga-2
∗ ‘00’ or canola type/variety of Gobhi sarson : PGSH-51
∗ Short duration pigeon pea hybrid : PPH 4
∗ Leaf curl resistant cotton hybrid : Fateh LHH-144
∗ Sorghum × Sudan grass hybrid : Sudan Chari no 1
∗ Fungicide used : Sulphur (powdery mildew of vine)
∗ Insecticide used : Paris green
∗ Herbicide used : 2, 4-D
∗ First Bt cotton variety : Bollgaurd (Cry1 Ac gene used)

∗ Fumigant used : Hydrocyanic acid (HCN)
∗ First hybrid in India : Pusa meghdoot (bottle gourd)
∗ Commercially used fertilizer : SSP
∗ First fertilizer used : Calcium nitrate
FATHERS OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

Father of Name
∗ Agronomy : Pietro Decrescenzi
∗ Agro climatology : Koppen
∗ Agro meteorology : D. N. Walia
∗ Agricultural chemistry : Justus von Liebig
∗ Antibiotics : Alexander Fleming
∗ ATP cycle : Lipmann
∗ Biology : Aristotle
∗ Botany : Theophrastus
∗ Bacteriology : Leuwenhoek
∗ Biochemistry : Justus von Liebig
∗ Crop rotation : Norfork (1730)
∗ Cytology : Robert Hooke
∗ Cytoplasmic inheritance : Carl Correns
∗ Cooperative movement in India : F. Nicholson
∗ DNA finger printing technique : Alec jeffrey
∗ Economic ecology : M.S.Swaminathan
∗ Ecology : Reiter
A. S eaman and Knapp (in US A) and
∗ Extension education :
Leagans (in India)
∗ Experimental genetics : Thomas Hunt Morgan
∗ Forest pathology : Robert Haring
∗ Fermentation : Louis Pasteur
∗ Field plot experiment : J. B. Boussingault
∗ Fruit and vegetable preservation : M. Nicholas Apart
∗ Genetics : Gregor Johann Mendel
∗ Genetic engineering : Paul Berg
∗ Green revolution : Dr. N. E. Borlaug

∗ Green revolution in India : M.S.Swaminathan
∗ Golden revolution in India : Dr. K.C. Chadha
∗ Golden rice : Dr. Ingo Potrykus
∗ Hybrid rice : Yuan Long Ping
∗ Hybrid cotton : C.T. Patel
∗ Indian plant pathology : E.J. Butler
∗ Indian Rust : Dr. K.C. Mehta
∗ Indian Mycology : E.J. Butler
∗ Indian Ecology : R. Mishra
∗ Indian Plant Breeding : Dr. B.P. Pal
∗ Indian Remote Sensing : Dr. P.R. Pishroty
∗ Immunology : Edward Jenner
∗ Microbiology : A.V. Leuwenhoek
∗ Mycology : Pler A. Micheli
∗ Medicinal Bacteriology : Robert Koch
∗ Modern Genetics : T.H. Morgan
∗ Mutation Theory : Hugo de vries
∗ Modern Botany : Linnaeus/Bauchin
∗ Modern Cytology : Swanson
∗ Nematology : N.A. Cobb
∗ Nitrogen Fixation : Winogradsky
∗ Ornamental Gardening : M. S. Randhawa
∗ Plant Pathology : Anton De Bary
∗ Plant Physiology : Stephen Hales
∗ Pedology : V.V. Dokuchalev
∗ Parasitology : F. Platter
∗ Plant Tissue Culture : G. Haberlandt
∗ Plant Anatomy : Grew
∗ Polygenic Inheritance : Kolreuter
∗ Pure Culture Technique : Oscar Brefeld
∗ Sociology : Auguste compte
∗ Statistics : R.A. Fisher

∗ Soil Conservation : H.H. Bennett
∗ Soil Science : Dokuchalev
∗ Soil Microbiology : S.N. Winogradsky
∗ Soil Testing Technique : M.L. Troug
∗ Super Rice : Dr. G.H. Khush
∗ Taxonomy : Carolus Linnaeus
∗ Tillage and Weeds : Jethro Tull
∗ White Revolution : Dr. Varghese Kurien
∗ Zoology : Aristotle
∗ Hybrid Rice in India : E.A. Siddiqe
FAMOUS NAME OF CROPS

Famous Name Crops
∗ King of cereals : Wheat
∗ Queen of cereals : Maize
∗ King of coarse cereals : Sorghum
∗ King of coarse millets : Kodo (Paspulum scrobiculatum)
∗ King of pulses : Chickpea
∗ Queen of pulses : Pea
∗ King of oilseeds : Groundnut
∗ Queen of oilseeds : Sesame (Til)
Congress grass
∗ King of weeds :
(Parthenium hysterophorus)
∗ King of fruits : Mango
∗ Queen of fruits : Pineapple
∗ King of temperate fruits : Apple
∗ King of spices : Black Pepper
∗ Queen of spices : Cardamom
∗ King of vegetables : Potato
∗ Queen of vegetables : Okra
∗ Poor man’s meat : Soybean
∗ Wonder crop : Soybean
∗ Famine reserves : Millets
∗ King of fodder crops : Berseem
∗ Queen of fodder crops : Lucerne
∗ Vegetables meat : Cowpea
∗ Poor man’s fruit : Jackfruit, Ber
∗ Poor man’s substitute for ghee : Sesame
∗ Poor man’s friend : Potato
∗ Poor man’s food : Pearl millet
∗ King of Arid and semi arid fruits : Ber
∗ National fruit of India : Mango
∗ Glory of East : Chrysanthemum
∗ Autumn queen : Chrysanthemum
∗ Wonder tree : Neem
∗ Queen of night : Cestrum nocturnum
∗ Egg plant : Brinjal
∗ Bio energy plant : Jatropha
∗ King of flower crops : Rose
∗ Queen of flower crops : Gladiolus
∗ Brown gold : Dead pupae of Silkworm
∗ Apple of paradise : Banana
P oor man’s orange (India) and L ove of apple
∗ : Tomato
(England)
∗ Drosophila of crop plants : Maize
∗ Adams fig : Banana
∗ Butter fruit : Avocado
∗ Queen of beverage crops : Tea
∗ China’s miracle fruits : Kiwi fruit
∗ Food of god : Cocoa
∗ Small holder’s irrigated crops : Oil palm
∗ Oldest cultivated tropical fruits : Banana
∗ Tree of heaven : Coconut
∗ King of nut crops : Walnut
∗ Queen of nut crops : Peanut

∗ Bio drainage plant : Eucalyptus spp
∗ Golden fibre : Jute
∗ White gold of America : Cotton
∗ Yellow jewel of America : Soybean
∗ Backbone of America : Maize
∗ Thorny oilseed crop : Safflower
TERMS AND ASSOCIATED CROPS

Terms Associated Crops
∗ Curing : Tobacco, Tea
∗ Stripping : Jute
∗ Nipping : Gram
∗ Wrapping and Tying : Sugarcane
∗ Propping : Banana, Sugarcane
∗ Trashing : Sugarcane
∗ Dapog seedling : Rice seedling
∗ De-suckering : Tobacco
∗ De-tasseling : Maize
∗ Pegging : Groundnut
∗ Retting : Jute
∗ Ginning : Cotton
∗ Topping : Cotton
∗ Staking : Tomato
∗ Arrowing : Sugarcane
∗ Ratooning : Sugarcane
∗ Tipping : Tea
∗ Parboiling : Rice
∗ Rabbing : Tobacco
∗ Earthing-up : Potato, Sugarcane
∗ Standing : Sunflower
∗ Lopping : Lucerne
CONCEPTS AND RELATED PERSONS

Concepts Related Persons
∗ Super rice : G.H. Khush
∗ Hybrid rice : Yuan Long Ping
∗ Golden rice (evolved by Japonica rice) : Ingo Potrykus (1999)
∗ Super wheat : S. Nagarajan
∗ Proteto : Ashish Dutta
∗ Crop ideotype and harvest index : Donald
∗ Green revolution : N.E. Borlaug
∗ Green revolution in India : M.S. Swaminathan
∗ White revolution : Varghese Kurien
∗ Evergreen revolution in India : M.S. Swaminathan
∗ Rainbow revolution : Nitish Kumar
∗ Golden revolution : K.L. Chadha
C.D. Mayee (present Chairman of
∗ Bt. Cotton in India :
ASRB, 2010)
∗ Green revolution term given by : William Guad
∗ Noblization of sugarcane : T.S. Venkatraman
∗ Hybrid cotton : C.T. Patel
∗ PURA (Providing Urban Amenities in Rural areas) : A.P.J Abdul Kalam
∗ Single cross maize hybrid : E.M. East and G.H. Shull
∗ Double cross maize hybrid : D.F. Johns
∗ Nutrient mobility : Bray
∗ ‘A’ value : Fried and Dean
∗ Functional nutrients : Nicholas (1961)
∗ Law of minimum : J.V. Liebig
∗ Law of Inverse yield nitrogen : Wilcox (1929)
∗ Law of optimum and limiting factor : Blackman (1905)
∗ Law of diminishing return : Mitscherlich
∗ Leaf area index (LAI) : Watson (1945)
∗ Permanent wilting point : Briggs and Santz
∗ Q/I relationship : Beckett
∗ Law of flow of moisture in saturated soil : Darcy and Poiseuille

∗ Allelopathy : Hans Molish (1937)
∗ Essentiality of nutrients : Arnon & Stout (1939)
∗ Mass flow : Munch
∗ Vernalization : Lysenko
∗ Origin of plants : Vavilov
∗ Thermoperiodism : Went
TOXINS PRODUCED IN PLANTS

Toxins Plants
∗ Gossypol : Cotton
∗ Neurotoxin (BOAA) : Lathyrus
∗ Erucic acid : Rapeseed and mustard
∗ Goitrogen : Soybean
∗ Saponin and plant estrogens : Alfalfa/Lucerne
∗ Aflatoxin : Groundnut
∗ Coumarin : Sweet clover
∗ HCN glucocides/Prussic acid/ Dhurin : Sorghum
∗ Steroidal alkaloids : Potato
∗ Alkaloids : Yam
∗ Resins : Mango
∗ Antivitamin E Factor : Field pea
∗ Polyphenolics : Safflower and sunflower
∗ Tripsin inhibiters : Pigeon pea, French bean & Soybean
∗ Haemaggutinins : French bean
∗ Lathyrogens : Lathyrus sativus (Khesari)
∗ Glucocides : White clover
∗ Eicosenoic acid : Rapeseed and mustard
∗ Cucurbitacins : Cucurbits
∗ CN glucocides : Cassava
∗ Oxalic acid : Pearl millet, Napier grass
NUTRIENTS AND THEIR SOURCES

Nutrients Sources
∗ Nitrogen (N) : Organic matter
∗ Phosphorus (P) : Apetite and Al & Fe phosphate
∗ Potash (K) : Arthoclase, Micas, Feldspar
∗ Calcium (Ca) : Dolomite, Calcite
∗ Magnesium (Mg) : Dolomite, Muscovite
∗ Sulphur (S) : Gypsum, Pyrite, Organic matter
∗ Iron (Fe) : Pyrite, Magnetite
∗ Molybdenum (Mo) : Olivine
∗ Boron (B) : Tourmaline
∗ Manganese (Mn) : Magnetite
∗ Zinc (Zn) : Sphalerite
∗ Chlorine (Cl) : Apetite
SCIENTISTS AND THEIR MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS

Scientists Contributions
∗ S.S. Bains : Relay cropping
∗ La-Flitze : Mixed cropping
∗ N.G. Dastane : Irrigation scheduling in crops
∗ M.S. Swaminathan : Green revolution
∗ D.R. Bhumbia : Reclaimation of saline/alkaline soils
∗ B.P. Pal : Wheat breeding
∗ Ambika Singh : Sugarcane agronomy
∗ Richards and Smith : Permanent wilting point
∗ Fr. Henride Laulanie : SRI
∗ R.W. Willey : Multiple cropping index & LER
∗ Wischmeir & Smith : Universal soil loss equation
∗ Nicholas : Functional nutrients
∗ J.B. Fourler : Green house effect
∗ Hargreaves : Moisture availability index (MAI)
∗ Thornthwaite : Water balance concept and PET
INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2011-12)

∗ A record production of 218.20 Million tonnes of foodgrains in 2009-10
∗ Contribution to Growth rate in GD P – 4.7 per cent (2007-08), 1.6 per cent (2008-
09)
∗ Contribution to GDP –16.4 per cent (2007-08), 15.7 per cent (2008-09)
∗ Share to total imports– 2.95 per cent (2007-08), 2.74 per cent (2008-09)
∗ Share to total exports – 12.05 per cent (2007-08), 10.23 per cent (2008-09)
∗ Contribution to total Employment- 52 per cent.
∗ India supports (of world’s):
∴ Total geographical area-2 per cent
∴ Population- 18 per cent
∴ Livestock-15 per cent
∴ Forest-1.5 per cent
∴ Milk production in India (Highest over World) -104 Mt.(2009)
∴ Milk Availability (gm/person/day) - 245
∴ Food grain production (Mt.) - 218.20 Mt
∴ Fruit production - 63 Mt
∴ Vegetable production -125 Mt
∴ Agriculture accounts 52 per cent of National work force
∗ Total Geographical Area (TGA) - 328.7 Mha
∗ Potential for Biological Production - 265 Mha
∗ Per Capita land availability - 0.37ha (1991-92)
∗ Per Capita Agri. land availability - 16 ha(1991-92)
∗ Net cultivated area (NCA)- 143 Mha
∗ Irrigated area-56.3 Mha (39 per cent of NCA)
rd
∗ NRAA- National Rain fed Area authority, since 3 Nov, 2006
∗ RADP- Rainfed Area Development Programme, since 20 March, 2008
∗ National Bamboo Mission - started 2006-07
∗ National food security mission - started Rabi, 2007
∗ All India average fertilizer consumption - 116.5 Kg/ha
∗ Highest average fertilizer consumption - Punjab (212Kg/ha)
∗ Lowest average fertilizer consumption - AP (5 kg/ha)
∗ Nutrient consumption ration (NPK), 2007-08)- 5.5:2.1:1
∗ NPMFS- National Project on Management of Soil Health & Fertilizer, 2008-09
∗ I S O PO M-I ntegrated S cheme of O ilseeds, Pulses, O ilpalm & Maize, started since
1st April, 2004
∗ Kisan Call Centre(KCC),started since 21st Jan 2004 (toll free No. 1551)
∗ DMRI- Directorate of Marketing and Inspection, Nagpur, Maharashtra
∗ First livestock census conducted in India: 1919
∗ Rank of India in Silk production - 2nd, about 18,320 MT (1st rank - China)
∗ Indian agriculture provides about 65 per cent of the livelihood
∗ Contributes 21 per cent of Total Exports, and S upplies Raw materials to
Industries
∗ Growth Rate in production - 5.8 per cent
∗ A bout 75 per cent people are living in rural areas and are still dependent on
Agriculture
∗ About 43 per cent of India’s geographical area is used for agricultural activity
∗ The Protection of Plant Varieties and Farmers’ Rights (PPV&FR) Authority,
established in November, 2005 at New Delhi.
∗ N ational Project on Management of S oil Health & Fertility (N PMS F) has been
introduced in 2008-09.
∗ Total no. of Soil Testing Laboratories (STLs) in India-750 (2008-09)
∗ Total irrigation potential in India- 102.77 million ha by March 2007
∗ Accelerated Irrigation Benefit Programme (AIBP) started since 1996-97
∗ N A FED -N ational A gricultural Cooperative Marketing Federation of I ndia
Limited
∗ CCI- Cotton Corporation of India.
∗ The Macro Management of A griculture S cheme (MMA) was formulated in 2000-
01
∗ N ational Food S ecurity Mission (N FS M) has been launched from the rabi, 2007-
08 to enhance the production of rice, wheat and pulses by 10, 8 and 2
million tonnes respectively by the end of the Eleventh Plan.
∗ Kisan Credit Card Scheme (KCC) was introduced in August 1998
∗ Rashtriya Krishi Vikas Yojana (RKVY) - launched in August 2007
∗ National Bamboo Mission (NBM)- commenced in 2006-07
∗ National Committee on Plasticulture Applications in Horticulture (NCPAH)
∗ Chairman, Planning Commissions- M. S. Ahluwalia
∗ Chairman of National Commission for Farmers - Dr. M.S. Swaminathan.
∗ FCI: Food Corporation of India (specially for Rice, Wheat & Coarse millets)
∗ NAFED: National Agriculture Marketing Federation.
∗ NWDPRA: N ational Watershed D evelopment Project for Rainfed areas (1990-
91)
∗ NWP: National Water Policy (also known as Water Policy, 1 April 2001)
∗ APEDA: A gricultural Processed Food Products and Export D evelopment
Authority.
ICAR - HISTORY
∗ I CA R, established on J uly 16, 1929 under the S ocieties Registration A ct, 1860 in
pursuance of the report of the Royal Commission on A griculture. I CA R
headquarters at New Delhi.
∗ I ncrease in production of foodgrains by 4 times, horticultural crops by 6 times,
fish by 9 times (marine 5 times and inland 17 times), milk 6 times and eggs
27 times since 1950-51.
ICAR - MILESTONE
∗ Initiation of the first All-India Co-ordinated Research Project on Maize in 1957
∗ Status of Deemed University accorded to IARI in 1958
∗ Establishment of the first State A gricultural U niversity on land grant pa ern at
Pantnagar in 1960
∗ Creation of D epartment of A gricultural Research and Education (D A RE) in the
Ministry of Agriculture in 1973
∗ O pening of first Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) at Puducherry (Pondicherry) in
1974
∗ Establishment of A gricultural Research S ervice (A RS ) and A gricultural
Scientists’ Recruitment Board (ASRB) in 1975
∗ Launching of Lab to Land Programme and the N ational A gricultural Research
Project (NARP) in 1979.
∗ Initiation of Institution Village Linkage Programme (IVLP) in 1995
∗ Establishment of National Gene Bank at New Delhi in 1996
∗ The I CA R was bestowed with the King Baudouin A ward in 1989 for its valuable
contribution in the Green Revolution. A gain awarded King Baudouin
A ward in 2004 for research and development efforts made under
partnership in Rice Wheat Consortium.
∗ Launching of N ational A gricultural Technology Project (N ATP) in 1998 and
National Agricultural Innovation Project (NAIP) in July 2006.
ORGANIZATIONAL SETUP OF ICAR
(Present Scenarios)
∗ Union Minister of A griculture is the ex-officio President of the I CA R S ociety.
(Present- Sharad Pawar)
∗ National Bureaux - 6 (2 New- NBAII, Bangalore and NBAIM, Mau, UP)
∗ D eemed Universities status - 6 (2 N ew- N A A RM, Hyderabad and N I A S M,
Malegaon, Maharashtra)
∗ N ational Bureau of A griculturally I mportant I nsects (N BA I I ) 2009 [formerly
Project D irectorate of Biological Control (PD BC)] is a nodal I nstitute at
national level for research and development on all aspects of work on
harnessing resources of insects including biological control of crop pests
and weeds, training, information repository, technology dissemination and
national/international cooperation.
∗ N ational Bureau of A griculturally I mportant Micro-organism (N BA I M), Mau,
UP (2005)
th
∗ The Handbook of Agriculture updated as 6 edition (2009).
∗ N I A S M (N ational I nstitute of A biotic S tress Management), Malegaon,
Maharashtra, 2008
∗ Established a network of over 568 Krishi Vigyan Kendras (up to Dec. 2009)
∗ Deputy Director General (Natural Resource Management): Dr. A.K. Singh
∗ Union Minister for Agriculture: Shri Sharad Pawar
∗ New Director-General of ICAR: Dr. S. Ayyappan
∗ Project Directorates - 25 (upgraded NRCs -12)
∗ SAUs - 45
∗ National Research Centres (NRCs) -17
∗ AICRPs - 61
∗ National Institutes - 6
∗ Central Institutes - 49
∗ Directorate of Women in Agriculture - Bhubneshwar, Orissa
∗ Directorate of Floricultural Research - New Delhi
∗ Directorate of Information and Publication in Agriculture- New Delhi
∗ AICRP, Arid Zone fruit - Bikaner
∗ AICRP, NSP - Vegetable,Varanasi
∗ AICRP, Pesticide residue, New Delhi
∗ AICRP, Agrometeorology, Hyderabad
∗ AICRP, NSP (Crops), New Delhi
INDIAN AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE (IARI)
Agricultural Research Institute was established at P usa, B ihar by
L ord Curzon. T he land was donated by Mr. P hipps of US A after
∗ 1905: whom the place was named as P usa. T he P hipps laboratory in
division of S oil S cience and Agricultural Chemistry. IARI is named
after him.
∗ 1911: Renamed as Imperial Agricultural Research Institute.
∗ 1923: Institute started offering Diploma of Associateship.
∗ 1934: Major Earthquake damages the buildings at Pusa.
∗ 1936: Shifted to New Delhi.
∗ 1936: B. Vishwanath became the first Indian Director of the Institute.
∗ 1946: The Diploma of Associateship was recognised equivalent to M.Sc.
Name has been changed from Imperial Agricultural Research
∗ 1947:
Institute to Indian Agricultural Research Institute.
∗ 1958: Recognized as “Deemed University” under UGC Act of 1956.
GENERAL AGRICULTURE (New)

∗ Sahbhagi Dhan - new varieties of rice capable of withstanding drought.
∗ Water submergence variety of rice- Swarna-Sub 1, can survive for 14 days under
water.
∗ To ward off threat to wheat production from the globally spreading menace of
resistant varieties of wheat stem rust-Ug99, D BW 17, PBW 550, Lok 1, and
Turja identified.
∗ I n potato, dry ma er-rich variety Kufri Frysona developed for making French
Fries.
∗ Zinc solubilizing bacterial bio-fertilizer (A zozink) developed to alleviate zinc
deficiency in soils.
∗ Cloned and surviving buffalo calf, GA RI MA , produced for faster multiplication
of selected highly productive animals.
∗ For Bird Flu diagnosis, High S ecurity A nimal D isease Laboratory, Bhopal,
conferred OIE-international recognition.
∗ D evised drip and sprinkler irrigation systems saving water (30-50 per cent),
labour (50 per cent), fertilizer (30-40 per cent) and increasing yields (12-76
per cent).
∗ Leaf Colour Chart (LCC), a simple device for nitrogen management saves 15 kg
N /ha in rice. Tractor-mounted cumin planter saves 30 per cent seed.
Motorized aril extractor developed for pomegranate.
∗ The first systematic work on SRI began at TNAU, Tamil Nadu in 1993.
∗ G olden rice: Produced by combining genetic material from daffodils, Ervinia
vredivora, Agrobacterium tumifacience and J aponica rice by Professor I ngo
Potrykus and D r. Peter Beyer (Germany,1999). Purpose of golden rice is to
provide a new, alternative intervention to combat Vitamin A deficiency.
∗ National Biodiversity Board - New Delhi
∗ Camel crop - Sorghum
∗ Natural Genetic engineer - Agrobacterium tumefacience
∗ Pashmina (winter cloth) obtained from - Goats
∗ Law of Tolerance – Sheford
∗ Oleresine - Chilli
∗ Keshar (saffron) belongs to family - Iridaceae
∗ World Food Prize,2007-Phylips Nelson
∗ World Food Prize, 2008- R. Dole & George McGovern
∗ Mychoryza increase availability of – Phosphorus
∗ Water Requirement of irrigated wetland rice-1500 mm
∗ Nutrient mobility concepts-Bray
∗ PUFA content is highest in –Sunflower
∗ Pseudo cereal - Buckwheat
∗ First Agricultural Chemist of ICAR - J W Leather
∗ Pulse crop doesn’t fix N - Rajma
∗ Average Milling recovery of Rice - 60 per cent
CROP BIOTECHNOLOGY
∗ First transgenic plant - Flavr SavrTM tomato for delayed ripening was released
for commercial cultivation in 1994 by Calgene (Company).
∗ Area under transgenic plant in India (2008)-125 Mha
∗ Rank of India for transgenic plant - 4th (1st -USA, 2nd - Mexico, 3rd - Argentina)
∗ Crops having highest transgenic plant cultivation area – S oybean > Maize >
Cotton
∗ Area under Bt cotton: 7.5 Mha (2008), 8.4 Mha (2009)
∗ First genetic engineering company established in 1976, Genentech.
IRRIGATION IN INDIA - 2010

∗ N ational water awards (2007) - Hiware Bazar Gram Panchayat, A hmadnagar,
Maharashtra
∗ Micro Irrigation scheme launched in Jan., 2006.
∗ Area under micro irrigation system in India (2008-09): 3.88 Mha
∗ Area under Drip in India (2008-09): 1.42 Mha (highest area - Maharashtra)
∗ Area under Sprinkler in India (2008-09): 2.45 Mha (highest area - Haryana)
∗ Water year - 2007
∗ A rtificial Recharge of Ground Water A dvisory Council (A RGW C) - constituted
in 2006
∗ National Institute of Hydrology - Roorkee, Uttarakhand
∗ World Congress on conservation Agriculture, held at New Delhi in 2009
ITK IN AGRICULTURE
∗ Bael fruit can be used to control – Rice blast disease
∗ Cow urine used for – Wheat termite and sorghum smut control
INDIA’S POSITION IN WORLD AGRICULTURE RANK

Total Area : Seventh
Irrigated Area : First
Population : Second
Economically Active population : Second
Total Cereals : Third
Wheat : Second
Rice : Second
Coarse grains : Fourth
Total Pulses : First
Oil Seeds : Second
Fruits and Vegetables : Second (first - China)
Implements (Tractors) : Third
Milk : First
Live Stock (cattles, Buffaloes) : First
WORLD GREEN REVOLUTION

∗ Increasing the wheat production that began in Mexico in 1945.
∗ The term “Green Revolution” was first used in 1968 by former US A I D director
William- Gaud.
∗ Green Revolution was the production of novel wheat cultivars.
∗ CIMMYT, Mexico - The International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center.
∗ HYVs or “high-yielding varieties - A J apanese dwarf wheat cultivar (N orin 10
wheat)
∗ Father of G reen Revolution- N orman Ernest Borlaug (Birth-March 25, 1914 and
D eath - S eptember 12, 2009 (aged 95) D allas, Texas (US A). A n A merican
agronomist and N obel laureate who has received his Ph.D . in plant
pathology and genetics).
∗ Father of the Green Revolution in I ndia- M. S . S waminathan (Mankombu
S ambasivan S waminathan, born August 7, 1925, in Kumbakonam,
Tamilnadu.)
∗ Father of the Ever Green Revolution in India (1995) - M. S. Swaminathan.
∗ Punjab was selected by the I ndian government to be the first site to try the new
crops for Green Revolution.
∗ The land Mark of Indian Green Revolution- IARI, New Delhi
∗ “IR8” - a semi-dwarf rice variety developed by I RRI . Crossed between an
I ndonesian variety named “Peta” and a Chinese variety named “Dee-geo-
woo-gen.”
CROP PRODUCTION
Table 1.1: Production of Field Crops (2010-11)
Sl.No. Crops Final Production (Mt.) 2nd Advanced Estimates
of Production (Mt.)
2008-09 2009-10 2010-11
1. Rice 99.02 89.13 94.01
2. Wheat 80.70 80.80 81.47
3. Maize 19.70 16.70 -
4. Sorghum 7.2 7.0 -
5. Bajra 8.9 6.5 -
6. Course cereals 39.48 33.77 40.08
7. Arhar 2.3 2.6 -
8. Gram 7.1 7.3 -
9. Total pulses 14.60 14.66 16.51
10. Total foodgrains 234.40 218.20 232.07
11. Groundnut 7.2 5.5 -
12. Rapeseed and mustard 7.2 6.4 -
13. Soybean -
14. Sunflower -
15. Safflower -
16. 9 oilseeds (Total) 27.70 24.93 27.85
17. Cotton 22.30 24.22 33.93
18. Sugarcane 295.00 292.30 336.70
19. Jute and Mesta 10.30 11.82 10.08
Table 1.2: Highest/Lowest Production Year

Crop Year (Highest) Year (Lowest)
Food grain 2008-09 2002-03
Wheat 2008-09 2002-03
Rice 2008-09 2002-03
Pulse 2003-04 2002-03
Nine Oilseed 2007-08 2002-03
Sugarcane 2006-07 2003-04
Cotton 2007-08 2002-03
Table 1.3: Fertilizer Consumption in Term of Nutrients during

2005-06 to 2009-10 (in lakh tonnes)
2009-10 (only
Product 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09
kharif)
Nitrogenous (N) 127.23 137.73 144.19 150.90 74.86
Phosphatic (P) 52.04 55.43 55.15 65.06 41.32
Potassic (K) 24.13 23.35 26.36 33.13 16.07
Total (N+P+K) 203.40 216.51 225.70 249.09 132.25
Per ha. 105.50 111.80 116.80 128.60 –
Consumption (kg)
Table 1.4: Production and per Capita Availability of Milk

Year Milk Production (MT) Per Capita (grams/day)
1990-91 53.9 176
2000-01 80.6 220
2005-06 97.1 241
2006-07 100.9 246
2007-08 104.8 252
2008-09 108.5 258
LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION OF CROPS

Crops State (Production)
∗ Rice : WB> UP
∗ Wheat : UP>PNB
∗ Pulse : MP
Crops State (Production)

∗ Oilseed : UP>AP
∗ Groundnut : AP
∗ Mustard : Rajasthan
∗ Sugarcane : UP > Maharashtra
∗ Cotton : Maharashtra
∗ Jute : WB
∗ Coffee : Karnataka
∗ Tea : Assam
∗ Rubber : Kerala
∗ Potato : UP
∗ Onion : Maharashtra
RECENT FAMOUS YEARS IN AGRICULTURE

∗ 1980 : Natural Conservation year
∗ 2002 : Worst drought year
∗ 2004 : International Rice year (Theme: Rice is life)
∗ 2005 : Neem Patent year (Patent from USA to India)
Natural P arthenium control year, International year of Desert and
∗ 2006 :
Desertification
∗ 2007 : Potato year, Year of Neem
∗ 2008 : Water conservation year/world water year (Theme: More crop per drop)
∗ 2009 : Fibre year/Food security & quality year
∗ 2010 : International year of Biodiversity
∗ Climactric Fruits: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota
∗ Non-Climactric Fruits: Litchi, Lemon, Citrus spp, Grape, Pineapple
MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE

(acc. to CACP, India)
Kharif Crops MSP 2012-13(Rs./Qt) Rabi Crops MSP 2011-12 (Rs./Qt)
Paddy–Normal 1250 Wheat 1285
y–‘A’ Grade 1280
Maize and Bajra 175 Gram 2800

Hybrid Jwar 1500 Lentil 2800
Soybean–Black 2200 Mustard 2500
Soybean–Yellow 2240
Arhar 3200 Sunflower 3700 (2012-13)
Cotton 3600 (F-414/H-777) Safflower 1800
3900 (H-4)
Urd 4300 Barley 980
Sesamum 4200 Sugarcane 139.12
Groundnut 3700
Moong 3500 (2011-12)
Jute 1600 (2011-12)
Chapter 2
Agricultural Meteorology
CLIMATE AND WEATHER

∗ Climate (‘Greek word’) is a weather condition over a given region during a
longest period.
∗ Weather is a condition of atmosphere at a given place at a given time.
∗ M icro climatology deals with pertinent factors (solar radiation, temperature,
wind, vapour pressure, CO2) of the environment in the zone lying between
the highest level reached by the plant and the lowest depth to which air
penetrates into the soil.
STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE (4)

Closest & Densest layer of atmosphere, temperature
8-18 km
1. Troposphere zone : decrease with altitude @ 6º C per km., all weather
height
phenomenous like rain, fog, clouds found.
Tropopause zone : 18-20 km Zone between troposphere and stratosphere
P resence of Ozone layer so also called as Ozonosphere,
2. Stratosphere zone : 20-48 km
warm region, uniform temperature increase with altitude
Stratopause zone : 48-50 km Zone between stratosphere and mesosphere
3. Mesosphere zone : 50-75 km Cold region, temperature decrease with altitude
Temperature increase with altitude includes

4. Ionosphere zone : 75-80 km thermosphere & exosphere, Remote sensing, Radio
transmission.
5. Thermosphere zone : >80 km Temperature decrease with altitude, Gas less zone.
∗ Solar constant: Energy falling in one minute in a surface area of one square cm
at the outer boundary of atmosphere. It is equivalent to 1.94 cal/cm2/min.
∗ PH O T O PERI O D I C EFFECT: I nfluence of crop growth by the relative length of
day and night especially for floral initiation.
∴ Long day plants: Plant requires longer day length (>14 hrs.) for floral initiation
(e.g. Wheat, barley oat, generally rabi crops)
∴ Short day plants: Plant requires shorter day length (<10 hrs.) for floral
initiation (e.g. Rice, sorghum, generally kharif crops)
v D ay neutral plants: I ntermediate day length (12-14 hrs) e.g. Co on, maize,
sunflower, safflower, groundnut, buck wheat etc.
INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES

Instruments Uses/Measures
∗ Altimeter : Height
∗ Aneroid barometer : Atmospheric pressure
∗ Anemometer : Wind speed/velocity
∗ Atmometer : Leaf temperature
∗ Auxanometer : Growth of plant
∗ Barograph : Continuous atmospheric pressure
∗ Crescograph : Growth of plant
∗ Cryometer : Measuring temp. below 0ºC
∗ Cambel stokes recorder : Sunshine duration
∗ Drosometer : Dew
∗ Hygrometer/Psychrometer : Relative humidity (RH)
∗ Evaporimeter : Evapotranspiration
∗ Hydrometer : Relative density of liquids
∗ Heliograph : Duration of bright sunshine hours
∗ Infra-red thermometer : Canopy temperature
∗ Irrometer : Water stress, soil moisture tension
∗ Infiltrometer : Infiltration
∗ Lactometer : Fat per cent in milk
∗ Lysimeter : Evapotranspiration
∗ Permeameter : Hydraulic conductivity
∗ Pycnometer : Soil specific gravity
∗ Pyrheliometer : Direct solar radiation
∗ Pyradiometer : Both long and short wave radiation
∗ Quantum sensor : PAR
∗ Psychrometer : Leaf water potential/RH
∗ Porometer : Transpiration rate (ET)
∗ Pyranometer : Total incoming solar radiation
Depth of water table, measuring hydrostatic
∗ Peizometer :
pressure of ground water
∗ Pulvimeter : Rainfall (RF)
∗ Pressure chamber/Thermocouple : Leaf water potential
∗ Pressure membrane apparatus : Field capacity
∗ Pyrgeometer Long wave radiation
∗ Rain gauge : Amount of rainfall
∗ Spectrophotometer : Wavelength of light
∗ Thermograph : Continuous measuring temperature
∗ Tensiometer : Soil moisture tension (0.8 bar)
∗ Wind vane : Wind direction
ISOPLETHS FOR DIFFERENT WEATHER

PARAMETERS
∗ Isotherm : Lines of equal temperature
∗ Isobar : Lines of equal pressure
∗ Isohyets : Lines of equal rainfall
∗ Isotach : Lines of wind speed
∗ Isopleths : Lines of equal water depth
∗ Isohels : Lines of equal sunshine duration
∗ Isonephs : Lines of equal cloud cover
∗ Isonomals : Lines of equal thermal anomalies
∗ Issallobars : Lines of equal pressure distribution

∗ Thermoisopleths : Lines of equal soil temperature
T he line joining all points of same key
∗ Isochrones : time elements, such as time of start of
precipitation.
CHEMICAL/MATERIAL USED FOR CLOUD SEEDING

1. Silver iodide (AgI 2) : Cold cloud
2. Sodium chloride (NaCl) : Warm cloud
∗ Rainy day: If the rainfall received ³ 2.5 mm in 24 hrs., it is called as rainy day.
∗ Crop rainy day: One particular day, if RF received > 5.0 mm.
∗ IMD: Indian Meteorological Organization, situated at Pune (1932).
v EI Nino: Phenomena of Warming of eastern Pacific.
v LI Nino: Phenomena of Cooling of eastern Pacific.
DROUGHT
∗ Agricultural drought: A period of 4 consecutive weeks from May to mid O ctober
or 6 consecutive weeks during rest of the year or Yield reduction due to
severe soil moisture shortage.
∗ H ydrological drought: D epletion of level of water bodies, lowering of ground
water table.
∗ D rought year: Year for which the annual rainfall is less than £ 75 per cent
normal.
∗ D rought prone area: A rea which suffer with severe/moderate drought for ³ 20
per cent of year.
∗ Chronic D rought area: A rea which suffer with serious/moderate drought for ³
40 per cent year.
∗ Most of the arid and semi arid regions fall in seasonal drought.
∗ Widely used index for classification of droughts – Palmer drought index given
by Palmer (USA, 1965).
∗ MAI : Moisture Availability Index =
where, ETa for reference evapotranspiration and ET for Evapotranspiration
∗ MDI : Moisture Deficit Index =
where, P for precipitation and PET for Potential Evapotranspiration.
∗ AI : Aridity Index =
where, ppt for precipitation
∗ NADAMS: N ational A gricultural D rought A ssessment and Monitoring S ystem,
established by NRSA, Dehradun.
∗ NRSA: National Remote Sensing Agency, Hyderabad
∗ NDVI: N ormalized D eviation Vegetation I ndex, used for determining drought
severity.
CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT SEVERITY

ACCORDING TO NDVI AND MAI %
Drought Severity NDVI (per cent)
∗ Normal : < 10 per cent
∗ Mild : 10-25 per cent
∗ Moderate : 25-50 per cent
∗ Severe : > 50 per cent
Drought Severity MAI (per cent)
∗ Humid period : ³ 75 per cent

∗ Crop growing season : 50-75 per cent
∗ Moderate : 25-49.5 per cent
∗ Severe : < 25 per cent
∗ Hail occurs in Cumulonimbus clouds.

∗ NCMRWF: N ational Centre for Medium Range Weather Forecasting (for 3-10
days)
∗ Size of Cloud droplets – 20 µm (dia.)
∗ Size of Rain droplets – 2 µm (dia.)
∗ A G RO CLI M AT I C ZO N E(A CZ): Classified based on Topography,
Temperature, RF and Cropping Pattern
v According to Planning Commission – 15
v According to NARP of ICAR – 127
∗ AGRO ECOLOGICAL REGION (A ER): Classified based on S oil, Physiography,
Bioclimate and LGP (in days)
v According to NSSSLUP – 21
v According to ICAR – 8
∗ Soil Climatic Zones of India (by ICAR, 1964) – 64
∗ Southwest monsoon (S W ) (covers 75 per cent rainfall, about 300 mha) starts in
1st June in extreme south of I ndia (Kerala), at the end of the J une it spreads
to entire country and last at 31st Sept.
∗ N orth East monsoon (N E) starts at N ov 15 and last at D ec (25 per cent RF)
covers about 100 mha.
Monsoon Area
T N, AP & Coastal areas (occurrence of high
∗ South-West/Summer :
variation in RF)
∗ North-East : Pre monsoon rainfall
∗ Western depression : Punjab (winter rainfall)
∗ Cyclone : Irregular winds
FORMS OF CLOUD (10)

Cirrus, Cirro-cumulus, Cirro-stratus, A lto-stratus, A lto-cumulus, S tratus,
Nimbo-stratus, Strato-cumulus, Cumulus, Cumulo-nimbus
∗ High level clouds : Cirrus, Cirro-cumulus & Cirro-stratus
Nimbo-stratus (occurrence at 2500 to 6000 m.
∗ Rain bearing clouds : height with continuous rainfall either as rain or
snow)
Cumulo-nimbus (also known as Thunder
∗ Summer season RF clouds :
clouds, occurrence of Hail)
∗ Fibrous clouds : Cirrus
∗ Occurrence at low height : Cumulus
∗ Occasional drizzling : Stratus
∗ Good RF at high latitude : Alto-stratus
PRINCIPLE GASES IN THE AIR

Constituent By Volume (per cent) By Weight (per cent)
Nitrogen 78.088 75.527
Oxygen 20.949 23.134
Argon 0.930 1.282
Carbon dioxide 0.030 0.045
Total 99.997 99.997
METHODS OF WEATHER FORECASTING
(a) Synoptic method: Useful for short range forecasting, especially for farmers,
irrigation engineers, mariners.
(b) Statistical method: Useful for short & long range forecasting both.
Types of Weather Forecasting
1. S hort Range Forecasting : up to 3 days, useful for farmers, irrigation engineers,
marines etc
2. Medium Range Forecasting : for 3 -10 days
3. Long Range Forecasting : for 5-6 months, useful for choosing Cropping Pattern
∗ In evaporation, about 60 to 75 per cent rainfall is lost.

6 2
∗ Standard sea level pressure is 1013.25 milibars (1 bar = 1000 mb = 10 dynes cm )
TYPES OF PRECIPITATION
2 µm dia of droplets, widely sca ered small drops are called
∗ Rain :
rain.
Rain of very light intensity with fine droplets (< 0.5 mm
∗ Drizzle :
diameter) and barely reach to earth.
∗ Mist : Water droplets completely evaporate before ground.
∗ Glaze/freezing rain : Rain at subfreezing temperature freezes into ice.
∗ Rime : Freezing fog
S ublimation of water vapour at sub freezing temperature & it
∗ Snow :
is a solid precipitation.
Rain which freezes as it falls through a cold layer near the
∗ Sleet :
surface.
Rain drops formed by intense condensation and levels where
∗ Hail :
coalescence of water droplets at higher they freeze.
1. EVAPORIMETER
I. Can Evaporimeter: used for estimating ET under field condition and scheduling
of irrigation.
I I . Portable Evaporimeter: developed in I srael, used to measure evaporation for
short period.
CLASSIFICATION OF CLIMATE
Given by the Scientist Based on
1. De Condole (1900) : Vegetation
2. Koppen (1936) : Temperature & Rainfall
3. Koppen & Thornthwaite : Annual Rainfall & Evaporation
4. Thornthwaite & Mother (1955) : Moisture Index
Temperature & monthly humidity (For
5. Troll (1963) :
Agriculture purpose)
T hornthwaite Classification : based on annual precipitation (RF) & annual
evaporation (AE)
Symbols Climate PE Index
A Wet >128
B Humid 64-127
C Sub-humid 32-63
D Semi-humid 16-32
E Arid <16
AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF CHHATTISGARH: 3

1. Baster plateau : 1) Baster
2) Dantewada
2. Northern Hill region : 1) Sarguja
2) Koria
3) Jaspur
2. Chhattisgarh plains : 1) Raipur
2) Kanker
3) Dhamtari
4) Durg
5) Rajnandgaon
6) Bilaspur
7) Korba
8) Mahasamund
9) Kawardha
10) Raigarh
11) Janjgir-champa
COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES

OF CHHATTISGARH
Sl.No. Particular Baster Plateau Northern Hill Region Chhattisgarh Plains
1. Major Soils Marham, Tikra, Gobhar Hilly soil, Tikra Bhata, Matasi, Tikra
2. Monsoon comes on 10 June 18 June 15 June
3. Rainfall (mm) 1400 - 1600 1400 – 1600 1200 - 1400
4. Rainy days/annum 65 - 82 72 - 91 64 - 72
AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA: 15

1 . Western H imalayan zone: Zone includes HP, UP hills, 3 sub-zones of J &K,
S keletal soils of cold region including podsols mountain meadow soils, hilly
brown soils, silty loam. I t is composed of undulating terrain, steep slopes,
prone to erosion.
2 . Eastern H imalayan zone: A runachal, N agaland, Manipur, Tripura, Mizoram,
A ssam, J alpaiguri and Coochbihar D istrict of West Bengal. High rainfall
and forest cover. Mostly alluvial soils are found. S hifting cultivation is
practiced. Zone is prone to floods.
3. Lower gangatic plains zone: West Bengal, High rainfall area.
4. M iddle gangatic plains zone: Eastern UP (12 D is .), Bihar (27 D is .), potential
for exploitation of ground water, canals and tube wells.
5. Upper gangatic plains zone: Include 32 Districts of western UP.
6. Trans gangatic plains zone: Punjab, Haryana, D elhi, Chandigarh, S riganganagar
D is . of Rajasthan. Highest net sown area, irrigated, crop intensive, water
utilization.
7 . Eastern plateau and hill zone: Eastern MP, S outh W B, I nland O rissa. Medium
soil depth and undulating topography is the characteristic feature. Tank
and tube wells are prominent.
8. Central plateau and hill zone: South UP, Eastern Rajasthan, Most of MP and CG.
9 . Western plateau and hill zone: Major parts of Maharashtra, Parts of MP, one
dis . of Rajasthan. O nly 12.4 per cent area is irrigated. Canal is the main
source of irrigation.
10. Southern plateau and hill zone: Parts of A P, Karnataka and TN (35 D is ).
Mostly semi-arid climate.
11. East coast plains and G hats zone: East coast of TN , A P and O rissa. A lluvial
soils and coastal sand is mainly present. Canal and tank irrigation is main
source.
1 2 . West coast plains and G hats zone: West coast of TN , Kerala, Karnataka,
Maharashtra, Goa. Variety of soil types, rainfall pattern, cropping pattern.
13. G ujarat plains and hills zone: 19 districts of Gujarat. A rid climate, well and
tube well irrigation.
14. Western zone: 9 districts of Rajasthan. Hot desert, sandy, erotic rainfall, high
Evapotranspiration, scanty vegetation, ground water level is low, brackish.
Drought is common.
15. I sland zone: A ndaman and N icobar, Lakshadweep. Equatorial, more than 300
cm rainfall for 8 months. Forest zone.
SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

∗ The word ‘Meteorology’ is derived from Greek.
∗ Division of Agricultural Meteorology at Pune was started in 1932.
∗ International Meteorological Organization (IMO) was established during 1873.
∗ The distance between earth and sun is 1.5 x 108 km.
∗ Earth rotates in its exis at an angle of 23 ½º.
∗ 99 per cent of the total mass of atmosphere within 40 km.
∗ Day and night are equal on both March 21 and September 23.
∗ Shortest day in north hemisphere is on December 21.
∗ Blue colour of the sky and red colour of sunset is due to Dispersion.
∗ Black colour absorbs more radiation as compared to others.
∗ Highly reflectivity is found in Green colour.
∗ Reflected radiation (Albedo) is useful in remote sensing.
∗ Visible radiation is the range of 390-760 micron (0.39-0.7m).
∗ Red light is most favourable for growth of plants.
∗ Photosynthetic active radiation (PAR) can be measured in Einstein units.
∗ Process responsible for heat flow: Conduction, Convection and Radiation.
∗ Radiation does not require medium for its heat flow.
∗ The Principles of mercury barometer was discovered by Torricelli.
∗ Lowest temperature in a day is observed during just before sunshine, whereas
highest temperature is after 2 P.M.
∗ Cardinal temperature is temperature range of maximum, optimum and
minimum temperature of a crop for its optimum growth and development.
∗ Normal sea surface temperature is 23ºC.
∗ Lapse rate –temperature decrease along with height (Vertically), expressed as
LR. The normal lapse rate is 6.5ºc/km or 3.5ºF/1000 feet.
∗ Absolute zero is -273ºC
∗ Melting and Boiling points of water
Measured Unit Melting Point Boiling Point
Celsius (ºC) 0º 100º
Fahrenheit (ºF) 32º 212º
Kelvin (ºK) 273º 373º
Reaumur (ºR) 0º 80º
∗ Relationship between: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Reumer:

∗ Humidity refers to the water vapour content of the atmosphere.
1. Absolute humidity (g/m3) =
2. Specific humidity (g/kg) =
3. Relative humidity (%) =
∗ Low relative humidity includes both more evaporation and transpiration.
∗ 60-80 per cent RH favours crop production, whereas higher RH increases pest
and disease incidence.
∗ Conversion factor for wing speed: m/sec. to Km/day Þ 86.4
∗ Standard sea level pressure - 1013.25mb (milibars)
1 bar = 1000mb = 106 dynes/cm2
∗ A cid rain (CO2+Rain drops) basically have Carbonic acid with pH of less than
5.6.
∗ Warm rain (Rainfall in the tropics) is due to the process of Coalescence.
∗ Dry ice and Silver iodide is used for making of artificial rain.
∗ Atmospheric pressure is the most important parameter in weather forecasting.
∗ In forecasting of rainfall
1. The word ‘isolated rain’ denotes 1/3 area receives rain.
2. The word ‘scattered rain’ denotes 2/3 area receives rain.
∗ Green house gases: CO2 (50 per cent), CH4 (20 per cent), CFCs (14 per cent)
∗ CF2Cl2 gas is responsible for ozone depletion.
∗ Green house gases produced from agriculture - 35 per cent
∗ Percentage contribution of different gases in global warming:
Sl.No. Gases Percentage Contribution in G.W. Potential
Global Warming (GW)

1. CO2 50 per cent 1
2. CH4 20 per cent 21
3. CFCs 14 per cent –
4. N2O 5-7 per cent 310
Chapter 3
Crop Production
∗ AGRICULTURE: derived from two Latin words i.e. Agric = soil, Culture =
cultivation
“A n activity of human to cover primary aims like food, fibre, fuel etc by optimum
use of terrestrial resources is called as A griculture eg. crop production,
horticulture, agronomy, pomology, animal husbandry, apiculture,
sericulture, vermiculture etc”.
∗ AGRONOMY: consist of two Greek words i.e. Agros = field, Nomos = to manage
“A gronomy is the branch of agricultural science which deals with the principles
and practices of crop production for obtaining maximum economic returns
from a unit of area in a definite period without deteriorating the fertility
status of the soil”.
“A gronomy treats the principles and practices of Crop, S oil and Water
management”.
∗ CROP: “A group of cultivated plant those are grown commercially on a large
scale”
“Cultivated plants or agricultural produce, such as grain, vegetables, or fruit,
considered as a group”.
(A) BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

The basic principles of crop production are the ways and means for the be er
management of soil, plants and environments to obtain ecologically maximum
returns per unit area for years.
1. Planning and programming for maximum utilization of land, labour, capital,
sunshine, rainwater, temperature, humidity, transport and marketing
facilities.
2. Choice of crop varieties adopted to a particular agroclimatice, land situation,
soil fertility, season and method of cultivation and benefiting to the
cropping system.
3. Proper field management by tillage, preparing field channels and bunds for
irrigation and drainage, checking soil erosion, levelling and adopting other
suitable land improvement practices.
4. A doption of multiple cropping, mixed and intercropping to ensure harvest
under adverse environmental conditions.
5. Timely application of proper and balanced nutrients to the crop or crops in
sequence and improvement of soil fertility and productivity. Correction of
ill effect of soil reactions and conditions and increasing soil organic ma er
through the application of green manure, FYM, organic wastes,
biofertilizers etc.
6. Choice of quality seeds or seed material and maintenance of requisite plant
density per unit area with healthy and uniform seedlings.
7. Proper management of crop, soil and environment through conservation and
utilization of soil moisture that is available in excess. Efficient use of water
for life saving or protective irrigation, scheduling of irrigation at critical
stages of crop growth and also growing crops in non traditional seasons
with irrigation or rain.
8. A doption of adequate, need based, timely and exacting plant protection
measures against pests i.e. weeds, insects and pathogens as well as climatic
hazards and correction of deficiencies and disorders of plant nutrients.
9. A doption of suitable and existing management practices including intercultural
operations for getting maximum benefit from dealer.
10. A doption of suitable method and time of harvesting of crop to reduce field
damage and to release land for succeeding crops and efficient utilization of
residual moisture, plant nutrients and other management practices.
11. Adoption of suitable post harvest technologies.
(B) CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS AND THEIR ORIGIN

A) Classification According to Taxonomy
Family Crops
∗ Asteraceae/Compositae : Sunflower, Safflower, Niger
∗ Cruciferae : Mustard, Radish, Cabbage, Cauliflower etc
∗ Cucurbitaceae : Bottlegaurd, Bittergaurd, Pumpkin etc.
∗ Chenopodiaceae : Sugarbeet, Beet, Spinach
∗ Euphorbiaceae : Castor, Topioca
∗ Malvaceae : Cotton, Ladyfinger, Rosette
P ea, Gram, Arhar, Groundnut, B erseem,

∗ Papilionaceae/ Leguminoceae : Lathyrus, Sunhemp, Lucerne, Urd, Moong,
Lentil, Soybean etc.
∗ Linaceae : Linseed
∗ Pedaliaceae : Sesamum (Til)
Cereals, Millets. Grasses, S ugarcane,
∗ Poaceae/Graminae :
Napier, Lentil, Soybean etc.
∗ Polygonaceae : Buckwheat
∗ Solanaceae : Potato, Tobacco, Tomato, Chilli, Brinjal
∗ Tiliaceae : Jute
B) Classification According to Special Purpose

1. A rable crops: Crops which are cultivated on ploughed land. They are annual
crops and include cereals, root crops, tobacco, sugarcane, maize and
potatoes.
2 . A romatic crops: The crop/plants contain odoriferous and volatile substances,
which occur as essential oils, gum exudates, balsam and oleoresin in one or
more part of plant, viz. wood, bark, foliage, flower and fruit are called
Aromatic plants.
3. A lley Crops: A lley crops or hedge-row intercrops is grown under an agroforestry
practice in which perennial, preferably leguminous trees or shrubs are
grown simultaneously with arable crop. The trees, managed as hedgerows,
are grown in wide rows and the crop is planted in the interspace or ‘alley’
between the tree rows. e.g. S weet potato, Black gram, Turmeric & Ginger are
grown in the passages formed by the rows of Eucalyptus, S ubabul and
Cassia etc.
4 . Augment Crops: S uch crops are grown to supplement the yield of the main
crops. e.g. Japanese mustard with berseem.
5 . Avenue Crops: S uch crops are grown along farm roads and fences e.g. Pigeon
pea, Glyricidia sisal etc.
6 . Border/G uard Crops: S uch crops protect another crops from trespassing of
animals or restrict the speed of wind and are mainly grown as border e.g.
safflower (thorny oilseed crop) is planted around the field of gram.
7 . Cash Crops: A crop, such as tobacco, grown for direct sale rather than for
livestock feed or a crop grown by a farmer primarily for sale to others rather
than for his or her own use e.g. sugarcane, cotton, jute, tobacco etc.
8 . Catch/Contingent Crops: S uch crops are cultivated to catch the forthcoming
season when main crop is failed e.g. Linseed, toria, urd, moong, cowpea etc.
9. Contour Crops: Crops are grown on or along the contour line to protect the land
from soil erosion e.g. marvel grass etc.
10. Cover Crops: A close-growing crop grown primarily to improve and protect the
soil from erosion through their ground covering foliage and/or rootmats
between periods of regular crop production e.g. Lobia, groundnut, urd,
sweet potato, methi etc.
11. Complementary Crops: Both main and intercrop is benefited to each other e.g.
Jowar + Lobia.
12. Competitive Crops: S uch crops compete to each other and are unsuitable for
intercropping e.g. two cereals.
1 3 . Exhaustive Crops: These crops leave the field exhaustive after growing e.g.
Cereals (Rice)
1 4 . Energy Crops: A n energy crop is a plant grown as a low cost and low
maintenance harvest used to make biofuels, or directly exploited for its
energy content e,g, sugarcane, potato, maize, topioca.
1 5 . Fouling Crops: S uch crops whose culture practices allow the infestation of
weeds intensively e.g. direct seeded upland rice.
1 6 . Ley Crops: A ny crop or combination of crops is grown for grazing or
harvesting for immediate or future feeding to livestock e.g. Berseem +
Mustard.
17. Medicinal crops: The crop/plant contain alkaloids, glycosides, steroids or other
groups of compounds of medicinal value, which is used commercially, such
plants are called Medicinal plants.
18. M ulch Crops: S uch crops are grown to conserve the soil moisture through
their ground covering foliage e.g. cowpea.
19. N urse Crops: A crop of trees (nurse trees), shrubs or other plants introduced
to foster or nourishment of another crops by i.e. shading it, protecting it
from frost, insolation or wind. The widest use of nurse crops is in the
establishment of leguminaceous plants such as alfalfa, clover e.g. S unhemp
in sugarcane, Jowar in cowpea, Rai in pea.
2 0 . Paira/U tera Crops: The seed of succeeding crops like lentil, gram, pea,
lathyrus, berseem, linseed etc. is sown broadcast at 10 to 15 days before
harvesting rice crop. This practice saves time; money (to be spent on land
preparation etc.) utilizes residual fertility. This practice is common in both
upland and lowland rice culture.
21. Paired row Crops: Generally the third row of crop is removed or growing of
crop in pair row and the third row is escaped with an object to conserve the
soil moisture in Dryland areas.
22. Restorative Crops: Restorative crops are crops that help in maintaining the
fertility of the soil, for e.g. pulses and legumes.
2 3 . Silage Crops: S uch crops like corn, legumes, and grasses that have been
harvested at early maturity, finely chopped, packed tightly to exclude air,
and stored in tower silos, pits, or trenches for properly fermentation which
is used as animal feed during lean period or offseason e.g. Maize, cowpea,
Jowar etc.
2 4 . Smother Crops: S mother crops are specialized cover crops being ability to
suppress weeds by providing dense foliage and quick growing ability e.g.
buckwheat, mustard, cowpea, urd etc.
2 5 . Stimulate Crops: S timulate crops stimulate the human body e.g. tobacco,
opium etc.
26. Supplementary Crops: S uch cops are neither complementary nor competitive
e.g. maize + cucurbits.
27. Trap Crops: Trap crops are grown to protect the main cash crop from a certain
pest or several pests. These crops are planted in completely surrounding
the main cash crop and prevent pest a ack from all sides of the field
through a racting the pest e.g. co on red bug trapped by Ladyfinger
around cotton.
28. T ruck Crops: Growing one or more vegetable crops on a large scale for fresh
shipment to distant markets. Most important truck crops are Potato,
tomatoes, le uce, melons, beets, broccoli, celery, radishes, onions, cabbage,
and strawberries.
C) Classification According to Season
1. Kharif Crops
The Kharif/monsoon crop is sown with the beginning of the first rains in J une
to J uly, during the south-west monsoon season and harvest in the month of
O ctober. The term Kharif means “autumn” in A rabic.e.g. Paddy, Maize, S oybean,
Sorghum, Groundnut, Cotton, Urd etc
2. Rabi Crops
The Rabi/winter crop or spring harvest crop is sown in the month of N ovember
during the north-east monsoon season and harvest in the month of February. The
term Rabi means “spring” in A rabic. e.g. W heat, Chickpea, Pea, S unflower,
Safflower, Mustard etc.
3. Zaid Crops
The Zaid/summer crop is mainly sown in the month of March and harvested in
May e.g. Paddy, Groundnut, Moong, Sunflower, Maize etc.
D) Classification According to Botany
Crops Botanical Name
Cereal Crops
∗ Rice : Oryza sativa L.
∗ Wheat : Triticum aestivum L.
∗ Maize : Zea mays L.
∗ Bajra/Pearlmillet : Pennisetum typhoides/P. glaucum L.
∗ Sorghum/Jowar : Sorghum bicolor/S. vulgare L. Moench
Barley : Hordeum vulgare L.

∗ Triticale : Secale cereal
∗ Buckwheat/Pseudo cereal : Fagopyrum esculentum
Millet Crops
∗ Cheena/Proso millet : Panicum miliacearum
∗ Foxtail/Italian/Jerman millet/Kakun : Seteria italica L. Beauv.
∗ Kodo/Coarsest millet : Paspulum scrobiculatum L.

∗ Little millet : Panicum sumatrense
∗ Madua/Ragi/Finger millet : Eleusine coracana Gaertn
∗ Sawan/Barnyard millet : Echinochloa frumentance L.

Pulse Crops
∗ Gram/Chickpea/Bengal gram : Cicer aeritinum L.
∗ Field Pea/Grain pea : Pisum sativum var. arvense
∗ Arhar/Pigeon pea/Red gram : Cajanus cajan L. Millsp.
∗ Soybean : Glycine max L. Merril
∗ Black gram/Urdbean : Vigna mungo/Phaseolus mungo L. Hepper
∗ Green gram/Moong/ : Vigna radiate/Phaseolus aureus L. Wilczek

Moongbean
∗ French bean/Rajmash : Phaseolus vulgaris
∗ Indian Cowpea/Lobia : Vigna unguiculata/V. sinensis L.
∗ Lentil : Lens esculantum/L. culinaris Moench

∗ Lathyrus/Chickling pea/ : Lathyrus sativus
∗ Mothbean : Vigna/Phaseolus aconotifolia
∗ Horse gram/Kulthi : Macrotyloma uniflorum
Edible Oilseed Crops
∗ Groundnut/Peanut/Monkeynut : Arachis hypogea L.
∗ Sunflower : Helianthus annus L.
∗ Safflower : Carthamus tinctorius L.
∗ Rapseed and Mustard : Brassica spp. L.
∗ Sesamum/Til : Sesamum indicum L.

∗ Niger : Guzotta abssicinia
Non edible Oilseed Crops
∗ Linseed/Flex : Linnum ussitatisimum L.
∗ Castor : Ricinus communis L.

Fiber Crops
∗ Cotton : Gossipium spp.
∗ Jute/tita pat : Corchorus capsularis
∗ Sunhemp : Crotolaria juncea L.
Forage Crops
∗ Berseem : Trifolium alexandrinum L.
∗ Lucerne/Alfalfa : Medicago sativa L.
∗ Oat : Avena sativa L.
∗ Napier grass : Pennisetum purpureum L.
∗ Clusterbean/Gaur : Cymopsis tetragonalaba L.

Sugar Crops
∗ Sugarcane/Cane : Saccharum officinarum L.
∗ Sugarbeet : Beta vulgaris L.

Tuber Crops
∗ Potato : Solanum tuberosum L.
∗ Tapioca : Manihot utilissima
Stimulate Crops
∗ Tobacco : Nicotiana spp.
∗ Opium : Papaver somniferum
Medicinal Crops
∗ Safed musli : Chlorophytum borivilianum
∗ Ashwagandha/Winter cherry : Withania somnifera
∗ Rouvolfia/Sarpagandha : Rouvolfia serpentina
∗ Isabgol : Plantago ovata
∗ Butch : Acorus calamus
∗ Bramhi : Bacopa morriei
∗ Nux vomica : Strychnos nuxvomica
Aromatic Crops
∗ Lemon grass : Cymbopogan flexuasus
∗ Mentha/Mint : Menthe arvensis
∗ Khus/Vetivar : Vetiveria zizanoides
∗ Citronella : Cymbopogan winterianus
∗ Tulsi/Basil : Ocimum sanctum
ORIGIN PLACE OF CROPS

Crops Origin Place
∗ Rice, Sugarcane : South East Asia
∗ Wheat, Barley, Buckwheat, Gram, Lucerne : South West Asia
∗ Soybean, Rapseed and Mustard, Tea : China
∗ Tobacco : America
∗ Maize, Teosinate : Mexico
∗ Potato, Tomato : Peru
∗ Linseed : Afghanistan
∗ Sunflower : USA
Arhar, Mung, Urd, Cotton, Jute, Kodo, Kutki, Oat,
∗ : India
Mango
S orghum, B ajra, S unhemp, S esamum, Cowpea,
∗ : Africa
Castor, Clusterbean
∗ Groundnut : Brazil
∗ Berseem : Egypt
∗ Napier grass : Rhodesia
(C) SOIL AND CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT OF FIELD

CROPS
Crops Soils
Rice, Wheat, S orghum, Finger millet,
∗ : Clay loam
Barley, Triticale, Linseed
∗ Maize, Bajra, Prosomillet, Sawan, Kodo, : Sandy loam to Silty loam
∗ Kakun : Red loam

Gram, Arhar, Rapseed and Mustard, Jute,
∗ : Sandy loam to Clay loam
Lucerne, Sugarcane, Sugarbeet, Potato
∗ Lentil, Berseem : Light loam and alluvial soil
P ea, Cowpea, S oybean, Castor, S afflower,
∗ : Well drained Loam
Sunhemp, Napier grass
∗ Moong, Oat : Loam to sandy loam
∗ French bean/Rajmash : Sandy to Sandy loam soil
∗ Groundnut, Til, Cluster bean :
∗ Cotton, Urd, Sunflower : Black cotton soil
Cigar, P ipe, Hookah & Chewing type
∗ : Heavy soil
tobaccos
Cigare es, B idi, Cigar wrappers & high
∗ : Light sandy
grade pipe tobaccos
CLIMATIC REQUIREMENT OF FIELD CROPS

1) Rice
(a) Rice needs hot and humid climate.
(b) Minimum temperature for germination, flowering and grain formation is 10, 23
and 20-21ºC, respectively.
(c) O ptimum temperature for growth, flowering and grain formation is 21-36, 25-
29 and 20-25, respectively.
(d) Maximum temperature for which rice crop tolerate is 40ºC.
(e) Requirement of rainfall throughout growth period is 100-150 cm.
(f) Rice is a short day plant .
2) Wheat
(a) Wheat needs cold and dry climate.
(b) O ptimum temperature for growth and grain formation is 20-25 and 14-16ºC,
respectively.
(c) Water required for proper growth is 60-90 cm.
(d) Wheat is a long day plant.
3) Maize
(a) Maize grows from sea level to 3000 metre altitude.
(b) Minimum temperature for germination is 6-7ºC.
(c) Most suitable temperature for germination and growth is 21-23 and 30-32ºC,
respectively.
(d) Maize crop requires 50-80 cm rainfall for proper growth.
(e) Maize is a day neutral plant.
4) Sorghum
(a) Sorghum is a short day plant.
(c) Suitable temperature for optimum crop growth is 27-32ºC.
(d) Requirement of rainfall throughout growth period is 40-60 cm.
(e) It can tolerate drought conditions as well as water logging condition.
5) Pearl Millet/Bajra
(a) Bajra is a warm weather crop.
(b) Best suited temperature for crop growth is between 27-30ºC.
(c) Requirement of rainfall throughout growth period is 25-35 cm.
(d) It can tolerate hot temperature.
(e) Bajra is a short day plant.
6) Barley
(a) Barley needs cold weather during early crop growth period and warm and dry
weather at maturity.
(b) Water requirement for good crop growth is 35-50 cm.
(c) Barley is a long day plant.
7) Gram
(a) Gram is a winter season crop.
(b) It is a long day plant.
(c) Minimum temperature for germination is 6-8ºC.
(d) Suitable temperature for optimum crop growth is 20-25ºC.
(e) Requirement of water throughout growth period is 35-45 cm.
(f) S evere cold and frost at the time of flowering causes detrimental effect to gram
seed development.
8) Field Pea
(a) Field pea requires cool growing season.
(c) Optimum temperature for its growth is 13-18ºC.
(d) Water requirement for proper growth is 40-60 cm.
(e) Field pea is a short day plant.
(f) Frost can damage the plant during flowering period.
(g) High humidity is harmful to pea crop due to incidence of disease.
9) Pigeon pea
(a) Pigeon pea grows well under warm tropical and subtropical climate.
(b) During vegetative growth, crop prefers a fairly moist and warm climate.
(c) D uring flowering and ripening stage, it requires bright sunny weather for
proper fruit setting.
(d) It is highly susceptible to frost at the time of flowering.
10) Green Gram

(a) Green gram requires hot climate.
(b) It requires an average annual rainfall of 60-80 cm.
(c) Best suited temperature for crop growth is between 25-32ºC.
(d) It can tolerate drought to a great extent.
(e) It is a day neutral plant.
(f) It is considered to be the hardiest pulse among all pulse crops.
11) Black Gram

(a) Black gram requires a hot and humid growing season.
(b) Black gram can be grown successfully from sea level up to an elevation of 2000
metre altitude.
(c) Water requirement for proper growth is 40-60 cm.
(d) Heavy rains during flowering stage are harmful to yield of pea crop.
12) Soybean
(a) Soybean grows well in warm and moist climate.
(b) Optimum temperature for growth of most of the varieties is 26-32ºC.
(c) Water requirement for proper growth is 60-75 cm.
(d) Soybean is a short day plant.
13) Groundnut
(a) Groundnut is wide spectrum adoptable crop which grown in all 3 seasons.
(b) It requires tropical climate.
(c) It requires an average annual rainfall of 50-100 cm.
(d) Best suited temperature for crop growth is between 25-35ºC.
(e) Flowering and seed setting affected by cloudy weather.
(f) It is a day neutral plant.
(g) It resists drought and tolerate flooding for one week once it establish.
14) Rapseed and Mustard

(a) Cool temperature, clear dry weather with bright sunshine accompanied with
adequate soil moisture increases the oil percentage of crop.
(b) Water requirement for proper growth is 35-45 cm.
(c) The crop can not tolerate drought as well as water logging condition.
15) Sunflower
(a) Sunflower is also a wide spectrum adoptable crop, grown in all 3 seasons.
(b) It requires subtropical climate.
(c) The requirement of annual rainfall varies from 30-150 cm.
(d) Best suited temperature for crop growth is between 20-25ºC.
(e) During vegetative phase, crop requires cold temperature.
(f) Higher temperature (> 38ºC) during reproductive stage reduce the oil content.
(g) It is a day neutral plant.
16) Cotton
(a) Cotton is a warm season crop.
(b) I t requires an average annual temperature and rainfall of over 18ºC and 50-70
cm, respectively.
(c) A daily mean temperature of 16ºC for seed germination, 21-27ºC for proper
vegetative growth and 27-32ºC for fruiting phase.
(d) A bundant sunshine during boll maturation and harvesting is essential to
obtain a good quality crop produce.
(e) Heavy showers of rain or heavy irrigation during fruiting period causes
shedding of flowers and young bolls.
17) Sugarcane
(a) Sugarcane is a tropical plant.
(b) It requires an average annual rainfall of 250-300 cm.
(c) Optimum temperature for crop growth is between 32-35ºC.
(d) Besides temperature and rainfall, light (day length) plays a very important role
in proper growth and development i.e. tillering of cane.
–1
(e) Short day length decreases number of tillers plant .
(f) Under long day length conditions, plant produces more dry matter.
18) Potato
(a) Potato is a temperate and cool climate crop.
(b) O ptimum temperature for germination and vegetative growth is 25 and 17ºC,
respectively.
(c) For tuberization, it requires 17-20ºC temperature.
(d) Tuberization stopped, when temperature exceeds 30ºC.
(e) Cloudy weather, rainy days and high humidity is unfavourable for potato crop..
(D) LEADING STATES IN AREA, PRODUCTION AND

PRODUCTIVITY OF CROPS
Sl.No. Crops Area Production Productivity (qt/ha)
Kharif - 20.00
1. Rice WB WB Punjab
Rabi – 31.00
2. Wheat UP UP Punjab 41.79
3. Maize Karnataka AP AP 19.00
4. Cotton Maharashtra Punjab - 4.20
5. Soybean MP MP Maharashtra 20-25
6. Total pulses MP UP Maharashtra 6.20
7. Total oilseeds MP MP TN Kharif – 8.50
Rabi – 10.20
Kharif – 7.00
8. Groundnut Gujarat Gujarat TN
Rabi – 17.00
9. Mustard Rajasthan - - 10.00
10. Sugarcane UP UP Maharashtra 720.00
11. Jute WB WB - 23.40
12. Tobacco Gujarat Gujarat -
13. Arhar Maharashtra Maharashtra Bihar 11.00
14. Sorghum Maharashtra Maharashtra -
15. Sunflower Karnataka Karnataka -
16. Safflower Maharashtra Maharashtra -
17. Mango UP AP UP
18. Tea Assam Assam -
(E) GENERAL RECOMMENDED FERTILIZER DOSES

(N:P:K RATIO)
∗ Cereal crops : 4:2:1
∗ Pulse crops : 1:2:1 or 1:2:2
∗ Oilseed crops : 3:2:1
∗ Fodder/Fibre crops : 2:1:4
(F) NAME OF INFLORESCENCE OF DIFFERENT

CROPS
∗ Rice, Litchi, Mango : Panicle
∗ Wheat, Bajra : Spikelet/Head/Ear
∗ Mustard : Corombose-receme
∗ Maize – Male : Tassel
– Female : Silk
∗ Sugarcane : Arrow
∗ Sunflower (head) : Capitulum
∗ Banana : Spadix
(G) FRUIT TYPES AND EDIBLE PARTS

OF DIFFERENT CROPS
Crops/Fruits Fruit Types Edible Parts
∗ All cereals crops and grasses Caryopsis Endosperm and Embryo
Most of leguminous crops
∗ Legume/Pod Seed/Cotyledons
i.e. gram, pea, arhar
∗ Groundnut Lomentum Seed/Cotyledons
∗ Mango Drupe Mesocarp
∗ Ber, Plum, Datpalm Drupe Apicarp and Mesocarp
∗ Tomato, Grape, Brinjal, Banana, Chilli Berry Pericarp and Placenta
∗ Papaya Berry Mesocarp
∗ Citrus spp. Hesperidium Endocarpic juicy hairs
∗ Pomegranate Blusta Aril
∗ Apple Pome Mansal thalamus
∗ Bael - Mesocarp and Endocarp
∗ Cucurbits Pipo Apicarp and Mesocarp
∗ Coconut Nut Endosperm
(H) COMPARISON BETWEEN C3 AND C4 PLANTS

Characters C3 Plants C4 Plants
st
1. 1 stable product Phosphoglyceric acid Oxalo acitate acid
2. Water use efficiency Low Comparatively high
3. Photo synthetic rate Low Comparatively high
4. Photo respiration rate High Comparatively low
5. Energy requirement (CO2:ATP:NADPH) 1:3:2 1:5:2
6. Calvin Cycle Present Absent
Phosphor-phenol
7. CO2 acceptor Ribose 1-5 diphosphate
pyruviate
∗ C3 Plants: Rice, wheat, barley, pea, gram, mustard and rye, co on, A rhar,
soybean, sunflower, lentil, sugarbeet, tomato etc.
∗ C4 Plants: Maize, sorghum, Bajra, sugarcane, millets.
∗ CAM Plants: Pineapple, khajur, cactus, sisal.
(I) OIL PERCENTAGE OF OILSEED CROPS

Crop Oil (per cent)
∗ Groundnut, Sunflower : 44-50 (45 per cent)
∗ Soybean : 18-20 per cent
∗ Sesamum : 46-52 per cent
∗ Castor : 35-40 per cent
∗ Safflower : 24-36 per cent
∗ Niger : 35-45 per cent
∗ Rapseed & mustard : 33-34 per cent
∗ Coconut : 55-60 per cent
(J) RECOMMENDED SEED RATE OF FIELD CROPS

Crops Seed Rate (kg/ha)
1. Rice: (a) Transplanting : 50 - 60
Rice: (b) Broadcasting : 80 - 100
Rice: (c) Dibbling and Drilling : 25 - 30
Rice: (d) Hybrid rice : 15
Rice: (e) SRI method : 6-8
2. Wheat : 100 - 125
3. Maize: (a) Hybrid : 20 - 25
Maize: (b) Composite : 15 - 20
4. Sorghum, Moong, Arhar : 12 - 15
5. Pearlmillet : 2-3
6. Gram : 60 - 80
7. Field Pea : 75 - 100
8. Urd, Cowpea, Sunhemp : 20 - 25
9. Lathyrus: (a) Pure crop : 40 - 50
Lathyrus: (b) Mixed crop : 8 - 10
Lathyrus: (c) Utera crop : 80

10. Lentil, Linseed : 30 - 40
11. Soybean : 70 - 80
11. Safflower : 15
12. Sunflower, Sugarbeet, Jute : 8 - 10
13. Groundnut: (a) Bunch type : 100 - 120
Groundnut: (b) Spreading type : 80 - 100
14. Til : 3-4
15. Rapseed & Mustard:
(a) Pure cropping : 4-6
(b) Mixed cropping : 2-3
16. Castor : 10
17. Cotton : 10 - 12
18. Hybrid cotton, Tobacco : 2.5 - 3
19 Potato : 10 - 15 qt
20 Kodo : 6-8
21. Lucerne : 20
22. Berseem: (a) Diploid spp. : 20 - 25
Berseem: (b) Tetraploid spp. : 30 - 35
23. Fodder maize : 40 - 60
24. Fodder Bajra : 20 - 30
25. Oat: (a) Small seeded : 80 - 100

Oat: (b) Bold seeded : 100 - 120
26. Clusterbean/Gaur : 30 - 40
27. Teosinate : 20 - 30
(K) RECOMMONDED PLANTING

GEOMETRY (SPACING) OF FIELD CROPS
Crops Spacing (cm) Plant population/ha
1. Rice: (a) Transplanting : 20×10 5, 00,000
Rice: (b) Hybrid rice : 20×15 3,33,333
Rice: (c) SRI method : 25×25 1,16,000

2. Wheat : 22.5 (R×R)
3. Maize : 60×25 67,000
4. Moong, Urd : 40×10 2,50,000
5. Cotton: (a) Desi : 60×30 55,000
Cotton: (b) Hybrid : 120×60 13,388
6. Sorghum : 45×15 1,48,000
Gram, P ea, Cowpea, T il, S unhemp,
7. : 30×10 3,33,000
French bean
8. Potato : 50×20 & 60×25 1,00,000 & 67,000
9. Sunflower : 60×20 83,333
10. Groundnut, Til, Soybean, Kodo : 45×5 4,44,444
11. Jute : 20×7 7,14,286
12. Castor : 60×45 & 45×60 37,111
13. Sugarcane : 75-90 (R×R) 33,000-45,000
14. Lentil 30×5 6,66,666
(L) TEST WEIGHT OF FIELD CROPS

Crop Test Weight Crop Test Weight
∗ Rice : 25 Linseed, Safflower : 10
∗ Basmati rice : 21 Lucerne : 2-4
Crop Test Weight Crop Test Weight

∗ Wheat, Barley, Oat : 30-40 Sunflower : 40-50
Soybean : 55
∗ Cotton, Arhar : 70-72 Moong : 34-36
∗ Pea : 100 Cowpea : 80
∗ Mustard : 3-5 Bajra : 5-7
38-44/1000
∗ Sorghum : 25-30 French bean :
seeds
∗ Tobacco : 2.5-3/10000 seeds
∗ Test weight: weight of 1000 seeds of a crop

∗ Seed Index: weight of 100 seeds of a crop (used for bold seeded)
(M) MUTANT VARIETIES OF CROPS

Crop Mutant Varieties
∗ Rice : Jagannath, Prabhavati
∗ Chickpea : BGM-48, BGM-413,
∗ Pea : Hans
∗ Arhar : Trombay, Vishakha-1
∗ Wheat : Sarbati sanora
∗ Cotton : MCU-7, MCU-10
∗ Tobacco : Jayshri, Bhavya
∗ Moong : Dhulli, Pant mung 2, MUM 2
∗ Urd : CO1, Sarla
∗ Mango : Rosica
∗ Turmeric : BSR-1
(N) TOXIC SUBSTANCES FOUND IN DIFFERENT
FODDER AND FOOD CROPS
Crops/Plants Toxic Substance
∗ Sorghum : HCN/Dhurin/Prussic acid
∗ Alfalfa/Lucerne, Berseem : Saponines
∗ Perlmillet, Napier grass : Oxalic acid
∗ Sweet clover (Melilotus sp.) : Coumarins

∗ Leucarena leucocephela (Subabul) : Mimosine
∗ Lathyrus/Khesari : Lathogen/Neurotoxin (BOAA)
∗ Safflower : Polyphenolics
∗ Sudan grass, White clover, Sorghum : Cyanogenic glucocides
∗ Mustard : Erusic acid
Haemag-glutinine, Tripsin and Amylose
∗ French bean :
inhibitors
∗ Pigeonpea and Cowpea : Tripsin inhibitors
Chapter 4
Modern Concepts of Tillage
TILLAGE AND TILTH

∗ The word tillage is derived from the A nglo-S axon words ‘tilian’ and ‘ teolian’,
means to plough and prepare soil for good seed to sow, to cultivate and
raise crops.
∗ “Tillage is the mechanical manipulation of the soil for obtaining conditions
ideal for seed germination, seedling establishment and growth of crops”.
∗ Jethrotull is the father of tillage.
∗ Tilth is the good physical condition of soil after tillage in relation to plant
growth.
TYPES OF TILLAGE
1 . Primary/Preperety tillage: The tillage operation which constitutes the initial
measure soil working operation. I t is normally design to reduce soil
strength, cover plant material and rearrange aggregates and mainly for seed
bed preparation.
The main aim of primery plough is breaking, opening and turning of soil.
The primery tillage implements are D eshi plough, MB plough, Ridge plough, D isk
plough etc.
2. Secondary tillage: The tillage operation following primary tillage to create a good
seedbed for proper seeding/planting.
The secondary tillage implements are Cultivator, Harrows, Hoe, Planker, Roller
etc.
OBJECTIVES OF TILLAGE
1. Adequate soil aeration for gaseous exchange in the seed and root zone.
2. Adequate seed-soil contact to permit water flows to seed and seedling roots.
3. A non-crust soil contact to permit seedling emergence.
4. A low density soils that permit root elongation and proliferation.
5. A n environment that provides adequate light to the seedling (weed free
environment).
6. A pest and pathogen free environment.
7. Mixing the applied manures and fertilizers with the soil, and
8. Removing the hard pan, if any to increase the soil depth for water absorption.
The aim of the tillage is to produce as good a soil condition or tilth as possible
for crop establishment and initial shoot and root development.
Seed-bed: when soil is brought to such a condition ideal for crop growth, it is
called seed-bed and is said to be in good tilth. The ideal seed-bed is a soil in which
porosity of the mineral solid ma er provides an optimum balance between water
holding and freely drained. The optimum balance appears to be the one in which
capillary pores are in equal proportion.
MODERN CONCEPTS OF TILLAGE
1. Conventional tillage
A) Minimum tillage
B) Zero tillage
C) Conservation tillage
1) Conventional Tillage
Conventional tillage involves primary tillage to break, open and turn the soil
followed by secondary tillage to obtain seed bed for sowing or planting. With the
introduction of herbicides in intensive farming systems, the concept of tillage has
undergone radical change:
(a) The depth of tillage has been reduced and cultivator replaced the plough as
primary tillage implement, particularly on heavy soils.
(b) There has been an increasing trend to reduce the number of cultivations in
order to avoid undesirable results of over cultivation.
(c) Reduction or elimination of tillage has been accompanied by direct drilling of
seeds.
(d) The greatest success and potential for restricted tillage appear to be on heavy
soils, where timeless of cultivation is so critical.
(e) The main disadvantages are that direct drilling favours proliferation of
perennial weeds and certain pests and diseases. N utrient leaching may be
greater than on ploughed land. Response of direct drilled crops to fertilizers
is lesser because of greater weed competition or slower crop establishment.
Soil is invariably more compacted and proportion of large pores decreases.
A) Minimum Tillage
Minimum tillage refers to growing a crop using only that tillage needed for
placing the seed at proper depth and then covering them. Thus minimum tillage
aimed that reducing tillage to the minimum necessary for ensuring a good seed-
bed, rapid germination, satisfactory stands and favourable growing condition.
Tillage can be reduce in 2 ways::
1. by omi ing operations which do not give much benefits when compare to the
cost, and
2. by combining agricultural operations like seeding and tillage.
Advantages of Minimum Tillage
1. Improves soil conditions due to decomposition of plant residues insitu,
2. I mproves soil physical condition due to incorporation of organic residues
leading to higher water infiltration into the subsoil,
3. Higher infiltration is caused by the vegetation present on the soil and channels
formed by the decomposition of dead roots,
4. Less resistant to root growth due to improved soil structure,
5. Lesser surface runoff of rain water,
6. Satisfactory crop stand establishment,
7. Less soil compaction by the reduced movement of heavy tillage vehicles and
less erosion compare to conventional tillage.
Disadvantages of Minimum Tillage
1. Seed germination is lower with minimum tillage,
2. I n minimum tillage, more nitrogen has to be added as the rate of
decomposition of organic matter is slow,
3. Nodulation is affected in some leguminous crop i.e. Fieldpea, Beans,
4. Sowing operations are difficult with ordinary implements,
5. Continuous use of herbicides causes pollution problem and dominance of
perennial problematic weeds.
Methods of Practising Minimum Tillage
1. Row zone tillage
2. Plough plant tillage
3. Wheel track planting
1. Row Zone Tillage
Row zone tillage means after primary tillage with MB plough, 2ndy tillage
operations like disking and harrowing are reduced. 2ndy tillage is done in row zone
only.
2. Plough Plant Tillage
A fter the soil is ploughed, a special planter is used and run over the field. The
row zones is pulverized and seeds sown.
3. Wheel Track Planting
Ploughing is done as usual. Tractor is used for sowing and the wheels of tractor
pulverizes the row zone.
B) Zero Tillage
Zero tillage referred as no tillage in which the crop is planted in unprepared
soil by opening a narrow slot, trench or band only of sufficient width and depth to
obtain proper seed coverage. The weeds are controlled only by chemical means.
∗ The word ‘Zero tillage’ was given by Jethrotull.
∗ Zero tillage is possible where the soil has: (a) course textured surface, (b) good
internal drainage and (c) adequate quantity of residue as mulch.
∗ Problems of zero tillage are low seed germination, low mineralization and build
up of volunteer plants.
∗ Commonly used herbicides under zero tillage are paraquate and diquat both.
C) Conservation Tillage
Conservation tillage is a system of tillage in which organic residues are not
inverted into the soil such that they remain on the surface as a protective cover
against erosion and evaporational losses of soil moisture. I f stubbles from the
protective cover on surface, it is usually referred as stubble mulch tillage. The
residues left on the soil surface interfere with seed-bed preparation and sowing
operations.
Objective: To conserve soil from erosion along with water (moisture).
∗ Conservation tillage is also known as S tubble mulch tillage, Eco-fallow and
Reduced tillage.
Tillage Implements and their works:
1. Chisel plough – Subsoil breaking
2. Rotary plough – Cut and pulverizes the light soil
3. Ridge plough – Earthing-up and form ridges and furrows
4. Basin lister – Prevent runoff and form basins
5. Disc plough – Deep ploughing in grassed field
6. Tractor drawn cultivator – Destroy weeds and breaking clods
7. Sweep cultivator – Harvesting groundnut and used in stubble mulching
8. Harrows – Preparation of seedbed, destroy weeds
9. Planker – Micro levelling
10. Star weeder – Weeding in dry lands and groundnut field
∗ Improving aeration is the main objective of tillage.
∗ Due to tillage in soil, Bulk density of soil decreases.
∗ Good tilth has 0-5 mm size of aggregates.
∗ Iron plough was invented by James Small.
∗ Clean tillage means working of the soil of entire field in a way that no living
plant is left undisturbed.
∗ Infiltration of soil is with hard pan can be increased by Subsoiling.
∗ Dibbling – Putting of seed or seeds materials in a hole or pit or pocket made at a
predetermined distance and depth.
∗ D rilling – D ropping of seeds in furrow of a predetermined dimension, at a
predetermined distance and depth, covering with soil followed by
compacting is known as drilling.
∗ Seed drill and Horse-hoe was introduced by Jethro Tull.
∗ Blind cultivation – The cultivation after planting and before crop emergence.
∗ Deep tillage – soil tilled from the depth of 15-45cm, generally carried out in root
crops.
∗ Shallow tillage – when soil is tilled up to depth of 2.5 cm to 15 cm.
∗ I deal tillage – soil should be prepared in such a way that the tillage operation
carried out to the normal sequences of tillage and upon moisture and type
of soil.
∗ Fallow tillage and clean tillage are together known as Mulch tillage.
∗ M inimum tillage or no-till system reduces the availability of potassium due to
increased compaction, lessened reaction, lower temperature and positional
availability.
∗ The concept of minimum tillage was started in USA.
∗ Paddling is ploughing the land with 5-10 cm standing water with an object to
create an impervious layer below the surface to reduce deep percolation
losses of water and to provide soft seedbed for planting rice.
∗ USA is the 1st country to introduce zero tillage.
∗ Plough was invented during 2900 BC.
∗ Chisel plough is used to break hard pans present at 60-70 cm depth.
∗ More than 5 mm (> 5mm) soil aggregate size must be required for good crop
under irrigated conditions.
∗ The proportion of 50:50 (1:1) of capillary and non capillary pores is must for
good crop production.
∗ Generally roots occupy 1/10 of the soil mass.
∗ Primary tillage operations are deep tillage, sub soil tillage, year round tillage etc.
∗ Setline planting is practiced in Gujarat for cultivation of cotton and groundnut.
∗ Sub soiler works up to the depth of 50 cm.
Chapter 5
Cultivation Practices of Crops
(A) CEREAL CROPS

(1) Rice
∗ Botanical name: Oryza sativa, Family: Poaceae (Gramineae)
∗ Rice is the most important crop of I ndia, occupies 23.3 per cent of gross cropped
area of the country.
∗ Rice contributes 43 per cent of total food grain production and 46 per cent of
total cereal production.
∗ Oryza has 24 species of which only 2 species (O . sativa & O . glaberima) is
cultivable and rest 22 spp. are wild type. O ryza sativa is grown in I ndia and
O. glaberima is cultivated in Africa.
∗ Oryza sativa is believed to evolve from O. nivora.
∗ Rice is a diploid (2n) crop has chromosome no. of 24.
∗ Rice contains about 70 per cent carbohydrate and 6-7 per cent protein (Oryzein)
content.
∗ Oryza sativa has 3 varietal types:
1. Indica : Grown in India (Tropical rice)
2. Japonica: Grown in Japan (Subtropical rice)
3. Javanica: Grown in Indonesia (Wild rice)
∗ Lodging doesn’t occurs in Japonica spp of rice.
∗ Rice inflorescence is called as panicle which has 6 numbers of stamens.
∗ Lemma and Palea together called as Hull.
∗ Stem of rice is called as Culm.
∗ Rice is considered as a self pollinated and short day crop.
∗ Rice Growing Regions:
1. North-Eastern Region - Assam and North eastern states.
2. Eastern Region - Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Orissa, Eastern
UP and WB
3. Northern Region - Haryana, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh,
Uttaranchal, HP and J& K.
4. Western Region - Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan.
5. Southern Region - Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil
Nadu.
∗ Rice favours hot and humid climate.
∗ Optimum temperature for good crop growth is 30-32ºC.
∗ Requirement of rainfall throughout growth period is 100-150 cm.
∗ Rice is grown in three seasons in Eastern and Peninsular I ndia because of
uniformity in temperature.
∗ Clay loam soil with slightly acidic condition (pH 4-6) is best for cultivation of
rice.
∗ N ormally, rice is grown at the spacing of 20 cm from row to row and 10 cm from
plant to plant.
∗ Seasons of rice cultivation:
1. Aus/Autumn/Pre kharif: Sowing in April-May and harvesting in
August-Sept.
2. Aman/Kharif/Aghani: Sowing in June-July and harvesting in October.
3. Boro/Summer/Spring: Sowing in January-Feb and harvesting in April-
May.
∗ Dehusked (unhusked) rice is also known as Brown rice.
∗ Hulling percentage =
or =
∗ Hulling per cent of rice is 70-75 per cent.
∗ Milling percentage of rice is 50-55 per cent.
∗ Harvest Index of rice is 0.40.
∗ Rice (cleaned) is 2/3 of paddy.
∗ The gene responsible for dwarfness is Dee-gee-woo-gene.
∗ I R8 was evolved by breeder Henry M. Beachell at I RRI , Manila, Philippines
through crossing of Dee-gee-woo-gene × Peta.
∗ In india, TN1 variety of rice introduced in 1964 by G. V. Ghalam from IRRI.
∗ I R8 rice variety was introduced in I ndia in 1966 which was higher yielder than
TN1.
∗ First dwarf variety developed on I ndia’s rice intervarietal cross programme was
Jaya (TN 1×T141), which was out yielded of I R8, so also called asMiracle
rice.
∗ Rice plant is transplanted at:
1. In Kharif season: 21-25 days after sowing (3-4 leaf stage)
2. In Rabi season: 30-35 days after sowing
3. SRI method: 10-12 DAS
4. Depong method: 11-14 DAS
5. Dry land areas: 30-35 DAS
Methods of Rice Cultivation
1. Dry or Semi-dry upland cultivation:
(a) Broadcasting the seed
(b) Sowing the seed behind the plough or drilling.
2. Wet or lowland cultivation:
(a) Transplanting in puddled fields.
(b) Broadcasting sprouted seeds in puddled fields.
∗ Nursery area required for transplanting in 1 ha (10000 m2):

2
Normally : 1000 m (1:10)
2
1. Rice dry bed : 1000 m
2. Rice wet bed : 1250-1500 m2
3. SRI method : 100 m2 (1:100)
4. Depong method : 40 m2 (1:250)
∗ Paira and Utera cropping system are most practiced in O rissa, Bihar and
Chhattisgarh.
∗ Most prominent cropping pattern of rice in India is Rice-Wheat.
∗ Rice prefer nitrogen uptake in Ammonical form (NH4).
∗ Best fertilizer as basal dose is DAP followed by SSP.
∗ Ammonium sulphate is the best fertilizer for top dressing in rice.
∗ The recommended dose of N, P and K for rice crop is 100, 60 and 40 kg
ha–1.
Nitrogen Management in Rice
1. In Direct sown rice : 2 splits → ½ at Tillering stage
→ ½ at PI stage
2. Transplanted and puddled rice : 3 splits → ½ as Basal dose
→ ¼ at Tillering stage
→ ¼ at PI stage
3. Biasi method : 3 splits → 30% as Basal dose
→ 35% at Tillering stage
35% at PI stage
→
∗ Azolla is applied in the rice field for nitrogen fixation and enhance the organic
matter in soil.
∗ Azospirrillium is a nitrogen fixing bacterium found on root surface of rice.
∗ T h e most important critical stage for irrigation is tillering to flowering. The
water supply should be ensured in required amount during panicle
initiation to flowering stage.
∗ The critical stages of rice for both fertilizer application and irrigation are
Tillering and Panicle Initiation (PI).
∗ Rice crop requires 5 irrigations for its life cycle.
∗ Rice crop has 5 critical growth stages in respect of irrigation:
1. Seedling
2. Tillering
3. Panicle Initiation (PI)
4. Flowering
5. Dough/Maturity
∗ Rice crop is a lowest water use efficiency (W UE) and highest water consuming
crop, which requires 5000 litre of water to produce 1 kg of yield.
∗ IW/CPE ratio of rice is 1.20.
∗ Highest nitrogen loss in rice field occurs due to denitrification process.
∗ N2 loss in rice field can be reduced by placing the ammonical fertilizer (N H4+) in
reduced zone and nitrate fertilizer (NO3–) in oxidized zone.
∗ In low land rice, fertilizer is applied in reduced zone only.
∗ Mutant variety of rice is Jagannath, Prabhavati.
∗ W orld’s first high yielding dwarf variety of rice evolved through conversion
breeding by IRRI is Pusa Basmati-1.
∗ Protein rich rice variety is Sabarmati.
∗ Aroma in rice is due to presence of “Di-acetyl 1 propaline” chemical.
∗ W orld first rice hybrid variety was developed by China in 1976, after that I ndia
developed rice hybrid variety of A PRH-1, A PRH-2, KRH-1 and MGR-1
during 1994.
Rice Varieties Suitable for Cultivation in Different Condition
∗ Saline-alkaline soil : CSR-10, CSR-13, CSR-27
∗ Salt tolerant : Lunishree, TRY1
∗ Post flood situation : Heera, Kalings-3
∗ Gall midge resistance : Phalguna, Surekha, Suraksha
∗ BPH resistance : Aruna, Chandana
∗ BLB resistance : Ajaya, PR-10
∗ Blast resistance : Tulsi, IR64
∗ Stem borer resistance : IR20, Ratna, Sweta, ADJ44
∗ Drought tolerant : Govind, Sabari
∗ Deep water rice : Punkaj, Jagannath
∗ Hybrid rice was developed by using Cytoplasmic Male Sterility (CMS).

∗ Gas emitted from rice field is CH4 (Methan).
∗ Phalguna variety tolerance to Fe toxicity.
∗ Masuri is a Dormancy resistant rice variety.
–1
∗ Zinc deficiency of rice can be correctified by applying ZnSO4 @ 25 kg ha .
∗ I ntegrated Programme for Rice D evelopment (I PRD )” was implemented from
1990-91.
∗ S pecial O rientation Training Programme on Rice Production Technology: 1997-
98
∗ Most dominated weed species in rice field is Echinochloa spp.
∗ Weeds of rice are controlled by application of:
1. Butachlor @ 2.0 kg ai/ha PRE.
2. Propanil @ 3.0 kg ai/ha POST.
∗ The right stage for harvesting as commonly is when panicles turn into golden
yellow and the grains contain about 20 percent moisture.
∗ Productivity: Highest in Japan – 63.00 qt/ha.
∗ Productivity: Highest in China – 62.00 qt/ha.
∗ Productivity: Highest in India – 20.00 qt/ha.
Classification of Rice Productivity
∗ High productivity : Yield more than 25 qt/ha
∗ Medium productivity : Yield more than 20-25 qt/ha
∗ Medium-Low productivity : Yield more than 15-20 qt/ha
∗ Low productivity : Yield in between 10-15 qt/ha
∗ Very Low productivity : Yield less than 10 qt/ha
∗ The critical percentage of moisture for harvesting and storage of paddy is 15-20
per cent and 10-12 per cent, respectively.
∗ Rice husk contains 15 to 18 percent silica, therefore, it is a potent source of silica
for the manufacture of silicates or in glass manufacture.
∗ Parboiled rice contains vitamin B12.
∗ Polish per cent of paddy is 2 per cent.
∗ Oil content in rice bran:
v Raw rice bran : 12-18 per cent
v Parboiled bran : 20-28 per cent
v De-oiled bran : 1-3 per cent
∗ Disease: 1. Akiochi disease: caused by H2S toxicity.
2. Khaira disease: caused by Zn deficiency.
3. Montek disease: caused by rice root nematode.
4. White eye: Fe deficiency.
∗ Dead heart and white ear is caused by yellow stem borer of rice.
∗ Killer disease of rice is Bacterial Leaf Blight (BLB) and tungro virus.
∗ Dapog method of rice:
∴ Originated and commonly prevalent in Philippines.
∴ The D apog nursery is constructed for the raising of seedlings without any soil.
Rice seeds contain sufficient food in the endosperm to permit the young
seedlings to grow for up to 14 days without receiving any outside
nutrients except air, water, and sunlight.
∴ 11-14 days old rice seedlings are used for transplanting.
∴ For nursery sowing, about 1.5 kg sprouted seeds m2 are required.
∴ Seedlings from 1m2 area are sufficient for transplanting in 200-250 m2.
∗ Beushening/Biasi in Rice:
I t is a prominent method of rice cultivation in Chha isgarh, Bihar and O rissa.
Under this system, rice seeds are broadcasted in ploughed field
immediately after the onset of monsoon and the standing crop is ploughed
4 to 6 times later when 4 to 5 cm water is standing in the field. The uprooted
seedlings are transplanted after biasi which is called as Chalai gap filling.
∗ Objectives of Biasi
1. To control weeds,
2. To create semi puddled conditions,
3. To arrest percolation loss of water, and
4. Adjust the plant population through chalai.
SYSTEM OF RICE INTENSIFICATION METHOD (SRI)
Sl.No. Particulars SRI Method
1. Seed rate/ha. 6-8 kg
2. Nursery area/ha. 1 per cent
3. Nursery raising Raised bed-dry nursery
4. Age of the nursery at transplantation 8-12 days
5. Stage of the crop at the time of transplantation Only 2 leaves
6. Spacing 25×25cm,16 hills/sq.m
P erfectly levelled with sticky muddy
7. Condition of the main field at the time of transplantation
condition
S eedlings are lifted from underneath soil
8. Transfer of nursery gently & transferred as and when
required
S hallow-to be planted along with seed
9. Method of transplanting
& attached soil at required spacing
10. No. of plants/hill Single
Required all along the field to drain out
11. Channels
excess water
No weedicide application. Repeated inter
12. Inter-cultivation cultivation through rotary weeder and
line weeder
Intermi ent weeding & drying for
aeration. A thin film of water is
13. Water management
maintained from primordial initiation
stages to physiological- maturity
14. Water use More
15. Root development Profuse & deep
16. Pest and disease incidence Less
17. Availability of organic matter More
(2) Wheat
∗ Botanical name: Triticum spp.; Family: Poaceae
∗ Wheat is the largest staple food crop of world.
∗ India stands 2nd position in production of wheat after china.
∗ Generally, wheat is a self pollinated, C3 and hexaploid plant.
∗ The national average productivity of wheat is 26.5 qt/ha.
∗ Triticum spp:
Mexican dwarf wheat, everywhere grown,
∗ T. aestivum → 2n= 42 : evolved by Dr. N.E . B orlaug of Mexico,
covered 87 per cent of total wheat area
Tall wheat for Rainfed condition, typical
∗ T. vulgare → 2n= 42 :
wheat for alluvial soil.
Marconi wheat, very old spp., best for
drought condition, used for S uji
∗ T. durum → 2n= 28 :
preparation, covered 12 per cent of total
wheat area
∗ T. dicocum → 2n= 28 : Emmer wheat, used for
preparation, popularly grown in south
India, covered 1 per cent of total wheat area.
Indian dwarf/Club wheat, very short &
∗ T. spherococum → 2n= 14 :
compact heads
∗ T. monococum → 2n= 14 : Einkorn wheat
∗ T. aestivum, is the most important species, occupying more than 90 per cent of
the wheat area and 87 per cent of the total wheat production in the country.
∗ UP covers maximum area and production of wheat in I ndia, whereas in
productivity, Punjab gets 1st position.
∗ Research station of wheat spp:
1. Modern/Common bred wheat: CIMMYT, Mexico
2. Durum wheat: ICARDA, Syria
3. Directorate of Wheat Research: Karnal, Haryana
∗ Chapatti making/backing quality of wheat is mainly affected by Gluten strength.
∗ The flowering portion of wheat is known as Head/Ear/Spike and the central
zigzag axis is called as Rachis. S pikelets are composed flowers called
Florets.
∗ The flower of wheat is closed by Lemma and Palea and awn is the extending
portion of lemma.
∗ Wheat plant has:
1. Seminal roots – Temporary roots, responsible for nourishment the plants
during early stage of crop.
2. Crown roots – Permanent roots, appeared 20-22 days after sowing (after
or at tillering stage)
∗ W heat crop favours cold and dry climate with an optimum temperature of 20-
25ºC.
∗ O ptimum temp. for germination, tillering and grain formation is 4-5, 16-20 and
23-25ºC, respectively.
∗ Indo-gangetic plain is the most suitable region for wheat cultivation.
∗ 90 per cent of the wheat seed germination take place after 4 to 8 days of sowing.
∗ The shelling percentage of wheat is 60 per cent.
∗ Harvest index = 40-45 per cent (0.4-0.45)
∗ Dwarf gene introduced in wheat to develop dwarf wheat is Norin.
∗ Norin ® Nor (Rht) = Reduced height (Rht1 and Rht2)
∗ S ource of dwarfing gene is (1) N orin from J apan (2) O lsen dwarf from S .
Rhodesia.
st
∗ 1 dwarf gene wheat variety is N orin 10, developed by D r. N .E. Borlaug in 1961-
62.
∗ S owing depth of dwarf wheat is shallow, directly depend upon length of
coleoptyle.
∗ Coleoptyle (main part of wheat seed) is immediately seen after germination.
∗ Larma rojo is all three rust resistant variety of wheat.
st
∗ 1 time, Govt of I ndia imported 100 kg of Mexican dwarf wheat varieties
(Sanora-64, Sanora-63 and Larma rojo) in 1963.
∗ Triple gene dwarf wheat varieties were released during 1970.
∗ Sowing:
1. Sowing date:
Irrigated: timely sowing : 2nd week of November
Irrigated: Late sowing : 15 Dec.

Rained: timely sowing : 15 Oct – 15 Nov.
Rained: Late sowing : 15 Nov – 15 Dec.
In North-West plain zone : up to 25th Dec.
In Central zone : up to 10th Dec
In Peninsular zone : up to 30th Nov
2. Sowing depth: The dwarf wheats should be sown only at 5-6 cm depth as they
have shorter coleoptiles. S eeding depth of 8-10 cm results in poor
germination and reduced yield.
4. Seed rate:
Particular Row to Row Spacing Seed Rate (kg/ha)
Timely sown wheat : 22.5 - 23.0 cm 100 -125
Late sown wheat : 15- 18 cm 125 -150
(25% more of timely sown)
∗ Irrigation Management:
∴ Water requirement of wheat is 45-65 cm through its life cycle.
∴ Average no. of irrigation required is 6.
∴ For dwarf wheat – 30-60 cm
∴ Deshi wheat – 15-20 cm
∴ In light soil – 5 irrigation, each of 5 cm
∴ In heavy soil – 4 irrigation, each of 6 cm
v IW/CPE ratio is 0.90
v Percentage irrigated area of wheat in India is 85 per cent
Irrigation Management according to number of irrigation availability:
Critical Growth Stages No. of Irrigation Available
1 2 3 4 6
1st Crown root initiation (20-25 DAS) : √ √ √ √ √

nd
2 Tillering stage (40-45 DAS) : √ √
rd
3 Late jointing stage (60-65 DAS) : √ √
th
4 Flowering stage (80-95 DAS) : √ √ √
th
5 Milking stage (110-115 DAS) : √ √ √
th
6 Grain filling/Dough stage (120-125 DAS) : √
* DAS: Days after sowing.

Fertilizer management:
Particular NPK (kg/ha)
Irrigated: timely sowing : 100:60:40 - ½–¼–¼N
late sowing : 80:50:30 - – do–
Complete basal
Unirrigated : 30:20:10 -
application
½ N as basal
Semi irrigated : 60:40:20 - application + ½ at CRI
stage
* For obtaining 50 qt ha–1 production, wheat crop uptake 125, 45 and 165 kg
NPK/ha.
∗ Wheat varieties:
∗ Single gene dwarf : Sonalika, UP-262, WL-711, Girja
∗ Double gene dwarf : Kalyansona, UP-215, Arjun, Pratap, Janak
∗ Triple gene dwarf : Jawahar, Jyoti, Hira, Moti, Sangam, UP-301, UP-319
S arbati sanora, S onalika, S afed lerma, UP -301,
∗ Late sown :
Sanora-64, Raj 3765, UP-2425, UP-2338
∗ Rainfed timely sown : C-306, Sujata, Mukta, K-8027, HW 2004, N59
∗ Marconi wheat : Jayraj, Meghdoot, Malvika, HD-4530, Bansi
∗ Bred wheat : C-306, C-3, K-65, K-68,
DWR-39, HI-977, HW-65, Kalyansona, NP 824, NP
∗ Chapati wheat :
891
∗ For Central zone : HI-1077, GW-190
Important varieties during Green
∗ : HD-2329, Kalyansona and Sonalika,
revolution
∗ For salt affected soil : Lok1, Raj 3077, KRL 1-4, PBW 19
∗ Baking purpose : K 65, K 68, NP 880, UP 310, UP 319, Sarbati sanora
S onalika, HD 2285, P B W 175, HD 2285, L arma roja,
∗ Biscuit purpose :
Safed larma, Chhoti larma
∗ Rainfed areas : C -306, Sujata, Shera, Mukta
Partially irrigated : GW 2004, GW 1034, GWV 17, HI 1277
Arpa, Ratan, B ilasa, L ok1, GW190, GW147, GW273,
Timely sown irrigated :
Kanchan, Swati
L ok1, S wati, GW173, Jayraj 1555, Raj 911,
Late sown irrigated :
Meghdoot, Sonali,
∗ Resistant to: : HD 2189, HD 2285
A. Blight and Rust : UP 2425, PBW 273, WH 291
B. Shoot fly : HUW 243, HUW 468
C. Heat tolerant : Raj 3765
D. Leaf blight : HD 2643
E. Drought : K 68, Narmada, NP 890
∗ Most suitable cropping system for wheat crop is mixed cropping (wheat +
mustard and wheat + chickpea).
∗ Four to Five rows of wheat grown in two rows of sugarcane is a popular
intercrop practice.
∗ Relay copping of wheat in an early planted potato crop is a high bonus cropping
system.
∗ To obtain maximum yield of wheat, 500 tillers per m2 is required.
∗ Weeds of wheat crop:
1. Objectionable weed – Convolvulus arvensis
2. Associated weed – Phalaris minor, Avena fatua and Chenopodium album
3. Horrible weed– Sorghum halepense
4. Satelite weed – Phalaris minor & Avena fatua
∗ Phalaris minor is found with dwarf wheat.
∗ Common herbicide used to control weeds is 2, 4-D.
∗ Grain and straw ratio in Mexican dwarf wheat is 1:1.5.
(3) Maize
∗ Botanical name: Zea mays; Family: Poaceae
∗ Maize is known as queen of cereals.
∗ Quality protein maize (QPM) varieties released by using “opaque 2” genes.
Varieties – Shaktiman 1 & 2, HQPM 1, Sakti 1, Proteina, Ratan
∗ Maize is a cross pollinated crop.
∗ Percentage oil content in maize – 4 per cent
∗ Leading state of rabi maize - Bihar
∗ Maize species: (Sturtevant, 1899)
1 . Zea mays indurate–Flint corn (early and most widely grown in I ndia, soft and
starchy endosperm, Kernel is round and yellow)
2 . Zea mays identata–D ent corn (grown in US A , both hard and starchy
endosperm)
3. Zea mays everta–Pop corn (exceptional popping quality, small grains, small size
kernel but hard endosperm)
4 . Zea mays tunicata–Pod corn (primitive type of corn, each kernel enclosed by
pod/husk)
5. Zea mays sacchrata–Sweet corn (sweetest among all and shrivelled when dry)
6 . Zea mays amylacca–S oft corn (kernels are soft and are mostly white and blue
coloured)
7 . Zea mays ceretina–Waxy corn (produce starch similar to tapioca, when
endosperm cut/broken, gives a waxy appearance)
∗ Varieties of different maize type

1. Fodder maize – African tall, J1006
2. Sweet corn – Composite Madhuri, Composite Priya
3. Pop corn – Amber pop, V L Amber. Pop, Pearl pop corn
4. Baby corn – Prakash, Parvati, VL42,
5. Quality protein corn – Sakti, Shaktiman 1 and 2, HQPM 1
6. Flood prone area – Diara3
7. Drought resistant – Prakash, Megha
∗ Hybrid varieties: Yellow seeded – Ganga-1, 3, 5, 101, Ranjit, Himalaya, VL-54

White seeded – Ganga safed-2, High starch, Ganga-4
∗ Maize grain contains 8-10 per cent protein and 4-5 per cent oil.
∗ Seed rate: Hybrid var. - 20 to 25 kg/ha
Composite var. - 15 to 20 kg/ha
Fodder maize - 40 to 50 kg/ha
∗ Nutrient management: Hybrid var. - 120:50:40 kg/ha
Composite var. - 100:40:30 kg/ha
∗ Critical stages for irrigation – Tasseling and silking
(4) Sorghum/Jowar
∗ Botanical name: Sorghum bicolor; Family: Poaceae
∗ Sorghum is known as “Camel crop” because it has the capacity to withstand
against drought.
∗ D ue to higher Leusine (amino acid) content, higher dose of sorghum in food
causes “Pellagra disease”.
∗ Seed rate – 12-15 kg/ha
∗ Hybrids – CSH 1 to 6, CSH 9, 10,13, 16, 17, 18
∗ 1st Hybrid – CSH-1 in 1965
∗ Major pests – Shoot fly, stem borer, midge, ear head bug
∗ HCN (D hurin alkaloid) present in early stage (40-50 days) and in upper leaves of
crop.
∗ Varieties of sorghum:
1. Drought and Rainfed resistant – CSH1, 6, 9, 11 and 3
2. Sweet sorghum – RSSV 46, 53, 59, 84, 96, NSS 216
3. Both grain and fodder – CSH 13 and CSV 15
4. Low HCN – IS 208, IS 28450 and 288692
5. Multicut fodder – MFSH 7, 885 F, CO (FS) 29
(5) Pearl Millet

∗ Botanical name: Pennisetum glaucum; Family: Poaceae
∗ Seed rate – 5 kg/ha
∗ 80 per cent phosphorus in grain stored in the form of ‘phytate’
∗ 1st Hybrid: HB-1 (Tift 23A x BIL 3B) in 1965
∗ HB-4 - 1st hybrid developed by using local male parent, duration 80-85 days.
∗ Productivity high in UP > Gujarat > Haryana
∗ Pearl millet is the most drought tolerant crop among cereals and millets.
(6) Barley
∗ Botanical name: Hordeum vulgare; Family: Poaceae
∗ Seed rate – 75-80 kg/ha
∗ Lugri is a fermented drink developed from Hull less barley grains.
∗ ‘Pearl barley’ is suited for kidney disorders
∗ Critical stage in barley is active tillering stage (30-35 DAS)
∗ Resistance variety: RD 2052 – Molya disease
∗ Alfa 93, RD 2503, Rekha – Malting quality
∗ Variety suitable for both fodder & grain – Kedar
∗ Variety suitable for malting and brewing – Vijay
∗ Non-shattering habit and frost tolerant – BSH 46
(7) Millets
∗ Millets belongs to C4 group of plants.
∗ Minor millets are mostly grown in dryland areas.
∗ Higher productivity among the millets – Finger millet
∗ Coarsest millet – Kodo (Paspulum scrobiculatum)
∗ Kodo – 6-8 kg/ha
∗ Kodo spacing – 20cm × 5cm
∗ Kodo: JK-1, 155, KK-1, Pali, IPS-147-1.
∗ ACRIP on small millets – Bangalore (Karnataka)
∗ Ragi variety – VL-147.
(B) PULSE CROPS
(1) Chickpea/Gram
∗ Botanical name: Cicer spp.
Cicer aeritinum – Desi/Brown Chickpea/Kala Chana
Cicer kabulium – Kabuli/White Chickpea
Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminaceae)
∗ Chickpea is also known as Gram or Bengal gram.
∗ Gram is originated in South-West Asia (Afghanistan).
∗ Chickpea consists of more than 1/3 of the area and 40 per cent of the total
production of pulses in India.
∗ Chickpea is called as King of Pulses and contains 22-23 per cent protein content.
∗ The sour taste in leaf of chickpea is due to presence of Maleic and Oxalic acid.
∗ I ts leaves are recommended for intestired disorder patient, due to presence of
Maleic and Oxalic acid.
∗ Types of Chickpea:
Desi: I t has small, darker seeds and a rough coat, cultivated mostly in the I ndian
subcontinent, Ethiopia, Mexico, and I ran. The desi type is used to make
Chana Dal, which is a split chickpea with the skin removed.
Kabuli: I t has lighter/white coloured, larger seeds and a smoother coat, mainly
grown in S outhern Europe, N orthern A frica, A fghanistan, Pakistan and
Chile, also introduced during the 18th century in India.
∗ D esi chickpeas have markedly higher fiber content than Kabulis and hence a
very low glycemic index which may make them suitable for people with
blood sugar problems.
∗ Chickpea is a self-pollinated and long-day plant.
∗ Chickpea is usually considered a dry-land crop.
∗ Chickpea has tape root system.
∗ It favours moderate rainfall with mild cold weather.
∗ Chickpea requires a loose and well aerated rough seedbed.
∗ Light alluvial soil is best for cultivation of gram.
∗ Chickpea may be cultivated as a sole crop, or mixed with barley, lathyrus
(grasspea), linseed, mustard, peas, corn, coffee, safflower, potato, sweet
potato, sorghum, or wheat.
∗ I n I ndia, chickpea is also grown as a catch crop in sugarcane fields and often as
a second crop after rice.
∗ When chickpea is grown as mixed crop, it checks blight disease.
∗ Shelling percentage is 49 per cent.
∗ The optimum time of sowing of chickpea is 15th to 20th October.
∗ Seed rate:
v Early sown – 75-80 kg/ha
v Late sown – 80-100 kg/ha
∗ NPK requirement (kg/ha):
v Normally – 20 : 60 : 30
v Rainted – 15 : 20 : 15
∗ Important varieties of Chickpea:
∗ Recently released from IARI : PDM-11, BG 2024
∗ Popular varieties released from ICAR : Pusa-209, DG-203
∗ Desi variety : JG-11, CO-3, RS-10, GCP-11
∗ Kabuli variety : Pusa-1003, K-551
∗ Early maturing and medium sized grain : Chaff chaff, JG-62
∗ Medium duration and high yielding : L-550, C-104, NP-58, RS-11, G-130
∗ Suitable variety for late sown : Radhey, Uday, Haryana chana 1
Culinary purpose : C 104
Both early and late planting : Mahamaya 2
Rainfed condition : Vishal, Anubhav
∗ Drought resistant (Most suitable) : NP-58
∗ Resistant to drought and wilt : G 24
∗ Resistant to Blight : C-235, Gaurav, Pusa 256,
Sadbhavana
∗ Resistant to Wilt : JG-74, JG-315, BG-256, Awarodhi
∗ Resistant to Pod borer : PBG 3
∗ Phosphorous should be applied at below or side of the seed to increase the

gram yield.
∗ The critical stages for irrigation is
1. Pre-flowering/Late vegetative phase
2. Pod development
∗ N ipping in Chickpea: I t is a process of plucking/tipping of apical buds with
some young leaves once from each plant at a height of 12 to 15 centimetre
(30-40 D A S ) to check luxuriant growth and encourage more branching and
fruit development.
∗ Late planting of chickpea is done to protect the seedlings from wilt disease. I n
such type of delayed planting, seed rate is increased by 25 per cent to obtain
a good yield.
∗ Sowing depth for checking wilt disease is 8-10 cm.
∗ M ost important pest of gram is Pod borer (H elicoverpa armigera), which is
controlled by Endosulphan 0.07 per cent at fruiting stage.
∗ Yield: Rainfed condition – 500 to 600 kg/ha
Irrigated condition – 1200 - 1500 kg/ha
(2) Pigeonpea
∗ Botanical name: Cajanus cajan
Cajanus cajan flavus (early maturing)
Cajanus cajan bicolor (late maturing)
Family: Papilionaceae
∗ Pigeonpea is also called as Arhar, Tur and Red gram.
∗ Cajanus is derived from a Malay word ‘katschang’ or ‘ katjang’ meaning pod or
bean.
∗ Arhar crop works as mini fertilizer crop.
∗ I t is an often cross pollinated crop. A n average cross pollination is 20 per cent.
A plant produces many flowers of which only 10 per cent set pods.
∗ Pigeonpea is mainly grown in tropical and sub-tropical climate.
∗ Pigeonpea can be grown with a temperature ranging from 26° to 30°C in the
rainy season (J une to O ctober) and 17° to 22°C in the post-rainy (N ovember
to March) season.
∗ The length of growing season extends from 120 to 180 days.
∗ The prominent pigeonpea growing states are Maharashtra, MP, UP, Bihar,
Haryana, Rajasthan, Punjab, Gujarat, AP and Tamilnadu.
∗ It requires light textured, well drained soil. It requires a soil pH range of 5-8.
∗ Pigeonpea is sensitive to salinity (>8 pH).
∗ I t has the capacity to tolerate moisture stress to a greater extent because of its
deep/tap rooted system.
∗ Seed germination is hypogeal type.
∗ Thermal energy is required to break the seedcoat.
∗ Sowing:
Sowing Time
Medium-early Pegionpea – 1st fortnight of April (for double cropping)
Late Pegionpea – 1st week of July
Pre-rabi Pegionpea – Sept or October
Punjab and Haryana – 1st week of June
UP and N. Rajasthan – 2nd fortnight of June
Seed Rate
Early Pegionpea – 15-18 kg/ha
Late Pegionpea – 10-15 kg/ha
For bunds planting – 2 kg/ha
∗ Comparison between Arhar and Tur:
Plant Characters Arhar Tur
Plant height (metre) : 5-6 2-3
Flowering : In Dec - Feb In Sept - Nov
Red veins : Present Absent
Pod maturity : Synchronized, same period Different period
Grain pod–1 : More, 5-7 numbers 3-4 numbers
Maturity : Late (150-180 days) Early (100-150 days)
∗ Crop rotation: Pigeonpea is grown in summer as a Kharif crop in N orth I ndia,

and Kharif and Rabi in South India.
The important crop rotations are:
∴ Paddy – Paddy – Pigeonpea
∴ Groundnut + Pigeonpea – Sorghum/Bajra/Maize
∴ Groundnut – Rabi Pigeonpea
∴ Urd bean – Rabi Pigeonpea
∴ Soybean – Rabi Pigeonpea
∴ Pigeonpea + Urd bean – Wheat
∴ Mung bean – Pigeonpea
∴ Pigeonpea – Cotton
∗ Important intercrops for pigeonpea:
Intercrops Cropping Pattern Ratio of Component Crops
Cereals:
Sorghum + Pigeonpea Paired rows at 30:30:60 cm 2:1
Pearl millet + Pigeonpea Paired rows at 30:30:60 cm 2:1
P aired rows at 40:40:80 cm or uniform
Maize + Pigeonpea 2:1
rows at 60 cm
Pigeonpea + Upland rice Uniform rows at 60-75 cm 2:2
Legumes:
Pigeonpea + Groundnut Uniform rows at 75-90 cm 2:2
Pigeonpea + Soybean Uniform rows at 75 cm or 2:2
Mung bean or Black gram Uniform rows at 50 cm 2:1
∗ Fertilizer applications in pigeonpea:

1. N - 20-25 kg N/ha (Starter application)
2. P - 50-65 kg P/ha
3. K - 20-35 kg K/ha
4. Zn - 2-4 ppm zinc (foliar applications of 0.5 per cent Zinc Sulphate)
5. Ca - 0.25 per cent lime
∗ Zn deficiency in Pigeonpea is rectified by spraying of 5 kg ZnS O4 + 2.5 kg Lime

ha–1.
∗ Varieties of Pigeonpea released in India:
1. Extra-short-duration varieties: UPAS-120, Pant A3, Prabhat, ICPL 87,
Pragati, ICPL 151 (Jagriti), CO2, AL 15.
2. Short duration varieties : Pusa Ageti, T21, HY2, Pusa 84, CO1.
3. Medium duration varieties : HY 1, HY 3A, HY 5, Mukta (R60).
4. Late duration varieties : C11, Bahar, Laxmi (Kanke-3), Gwalior 3.
∗ Varieties of Pigeonpea with to different characters:

Characteristics Varieties
∗ Early maturing (120 DAS) : UPAS 120, Manak, Paras, Prabhat
∗ Determinate type : Durga, Sarita, Pusa 84
∗ Suitable for Rabi planting : Sharad, Bahar, Pusa 9
∗ Drought and temperature tolerant : Manak

∗ Sterility mosaic & wilt resistant : Amar, Narendra Arhar 1, Azad
∗ Wilt resistant : Amar, Azad, Maruthi, Pusa 9, Mukta
∗ Sterility mosaic resistant : Bahar
∗ Pod borer resistant : Asha, ICP332, ICP1903, ICPL84660
∗ Earliest variety of Pigeonpea is UPAS-120.

∗ W orld’s first hybrid variety of Pigeonpea is ICPH-8, developed by I CRI S AT,
Hyderabad in 1991 by using genetic male sterility (GMS ). This variety
matures in 130 to 132 days with an average productivity of 20 qt/ha.
∗ A lachlor and Pendimethaline (as pre-emergence) and Basalin (as post-
emergence) are used to control weeds in pigeonpea field.
∗ Proportion of seed to pod is 50-60 per cent.
∗ Harvest index (HI) is 0.19 (lowest among pulses).
∗ Protein content is 25 per cent.
(3) Lentil
∗ Botanical name: Lens esculentum
Lens culnaris
Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminoceae)
∗ Lentil crop is also known as Cover crop and Dryland crop.
∗ Origin: Egypt, Asia minor
∗ Classification: (1) Bold seeded – Masur, Macrosperma
(2) Small seeded – Masuri, Microsperma
∗ Lentil crop is well cultivated in light loam and alluvial soil.
∗ Sowing time: Oct last week to November 2nd week
∗ Seed rate: 30-40 kg/ha (in Late condition - 50-60 kg/ha)
∗ Spacing: 30 x 5 cm and sowing depth is 3-5 cm.
∗ Irrigation: 1-3 irrigations
∗ Critical stages:
1. Flower Initiation stage (40-45 DAS)
2. Pod formation stage
∗ Varieties: JL-3, Pant L.-639, 209, 406, IPL-81, DL-62, Lens 4076.
∗ N utrient management: 20:50:20 kg N PK/ha at sowing time in furrow and
spraying of ZnSO4 0.5 per cent + Lime 0.25 per cent in standing crop.
∗ Lentil is intercropped with wheat, barley, linseed, safflower etc.
∗ Weed management: Fluchloralin @ 1.0 kg ai/ha followed by one hand weeding at
30 DAS.
∗ Lentil is harvested after 100-120 days after sowing.
∗ Yield : 15-20 qt/ha
(4) Field pea

∗ Botanical name: Pisum sativum var. arvense
Family: Papilionaceae (Leguminoceae)
∗ Pea crop contains 22 per cent protein, 60 per cent carbohydrate and 1.8 per cent
fat.
∗ Classification: (1) Field pea/Grain pea – used for dal/pulse purpose
(2) Garden pea/Table pea – green pods used as vegetable
∗ Sowing time: 15-30 Oct.
∗ Seed rate: 100-150 kg/ha
∗ Seed treatment: Captan/Thirum 2.5gm + Rhizobium leguminosarum 10 gm per kg
seed
∗ Spacing: 30 x 5-7 cm
1. Flower Initiation stage (40-45 DAS)
2. Pod filling stage (70-80 DAS)
∗ Varieties:
1. Field pea – Rachana, Aparna, Ambika, T-65,163, Hans, KP-885, Pant C-
5
2. Garden pea – Arkel, Bonvilley, Early bajer, Early December, T-19, 59,
Pant mater-1,5,6,8 Aajad mater-1, Pant Uphar.
∗ Nutrient management: 20:50:30:40 kg NPKS/ha at sowing time.
∗ Weed management: Two hand weeding at 30 and 45 days after sowing.
∗ Pea is harvested when stems and pods turn straw colour or light brown and
seeds are hard and rattle within pod.
∗ Yield: (1) Field pea/Grain pea – 15-20 qt/ha
(2) Garden pea/Table pea – 80-100 qt/ha
(5) Mungbean/Greengram
∗ Botanical name: Vigna rediata (Latest name – Phasiolus aureus)
Family: Papalionaceae
∗ Mungbean is the hardiest crop among the pulses.
∗ Spacing: 40 cm × 10 cm
∗ Varieties: PD M-1, 3,11, Pusa baisakhi, J M-721, Malviya J yoti, Pusa 9531, Pragya,
K-851, Pusa-16.
1. For summer and spring season - Pusa baisakhi, PS16
2. Mutant varieties - Pant mung 2, MUM 2, CO 4
3. Early maturing - Pusa baisakhi, PS16, K851
4. Yellow Vein Mosaic resistant - Pant mung 3, Sumrat, Basanti
st
∗ 1 mungbean variety released in – T1 (1948)
∗ Mutant variety – Dhulia (1980)
∗ Yield: 12-15 qt/ha
(6) Urdbean/Blackgram
∗ Botanical name: Vigna mungo (Latest name–Phasiolus mungo)
∗ Family: Papalionaceae
∗ Spacing: 40 cm × 10 cm
∗ Varieties of Urdbean: Pant U-30, JU-2, Type-9, Barkha, Gwalior-2
Mutant varieties - CO 1 and Sarla
Spring season - Prabha, Krishnayya, AKU 4
∗ 1st urdbean variety released in – T9 (1948)
∗ Yield: 10-12 qt/ha
(C) OILSEED CROPS

(1) Groundnut
∗ Botanical name: Arachis hypogea
Arachis hypogea fastigate (Bunch/Spanish/Erect type)
Arachis hypogea procumbens (Spreading/Verginia runner type)
∗ Groundnut is also called as Peanut, Monkeynut, Earthnut and Mungfalli.
∗ Arachis hypogea word is derived from two Greek words:
Arachis means Legume
Hypogea means Below the ground or soil
∗ Groundnut is a self pollinated and day neutral plant.
∗ Groundnut is a modified fruit.
∗ Fruit of groundnut is Nut and fruit type is Lomentum.
∗ Gynophore of groundnut is known as Peg (intercalary meristem from fertilized
flower).
∗ Geotropism: At the base of overy, a meristematic region grows and becomes a
stalk like structure (gynophore) that bends downwards and forces the overy
into the soil. The peg (gynophore) carrying the overy pushes itself into the
soil. A fter entering into the soil, overy begins to develop and takes up to
horizontal position and pods begins to enlarge.
∗ Flowering starts 24 to 40 days after sowing.
∗ Pegs become viable in 5-7 days after flowering and takes 2-10 days to insert into
the soil.
∗ Testa is a thin skin that covers the seed or nut.
∗ Ratio of Flower: Pegs: Pods is 7:4:1.
∗ The protein and oil content in groundnut seeds are 25 and 45 per cent,
respectively.
∗ Groundnut cake contains 7-8 per cent nitrogen.
∗ Shelling percentage of groundnut is 70 per cent.
∗ Groundnut accounts more than 30 per cent acreage and 40 per cent of total
oilseed production of India.
∗ Technology Mission on Pulses and Oilseeds (TEMPO) was started in1986.
∗ Generally, Groundnut grown during Rabi season gives higher yield as compared
to Kharif season crops due to fewer incidences of insect and pests and
diseases.
∗ Leading groundnut producing states are Gujarat >Tamilnadu > Andhra Pradesh.
∗ Most suitable soil for groundnut cultivation is sandy to sandy loam soil.
∗ Clay soil is strictly avoided to grow groundnut because of presence of high
moisture. The effects are:
∴ Gynophores are swelled & shrinkage and quality affected.
∴ Pod growth is affected due to soil compaction.
∗ Hypogeal type of germination founds in groundnut.
∗ At sowing time, 0.1 per cent Ethrel + 3 gm T hirum is used for seed treatment
and to break seed dormancy.
∗ Sowing time:
Kharif: 3rd week of June to 1st week of July
Rabi: November
Summer: Last week of Dec to end of January
∗ Seed rate:
Bunch type varieties: 100-120 kg/ha
Spreading type varieties: 80-100 kg/ha
∗ Irrigation:
Kharif: no need
Rabi: 5-6 irrigation
Summer: 10-12 irrigation
∗ Critical stages of crop growth:
1. Establishment (10-20 DAS)
2. Vegetative phase (25-35 DAS)
3. Flowering and peg initiation stage (35-50 DAS)
4. Pod formation stage (50-75 DAS)
3. Pod/Seed development stage (75-90 DAS)
∗ Critical stages for irrigation:
1. Flowering stage
2. Pegging stage
3. Pod formation stage
∗ Check basin irrigation is most suitable irrigation method for groundnut.
∗ IW/CPE ratio of groundnut is 0.6.
∗ D uring pod development stage, field should be well drained, otherwise due to
the poor aeration, the formation of toxin (Aflatoxin) take place.
∗ A pplication of 25:60:60 kg N PK/ha with 25 to 50 kg ZnS O
4 and FeS O4 both give
higher yield of groundnut.
∗ Intercultural operations should be avoided during Pegging stage.
∗ Star weeder is used to control weeds in groundnut fields.
Comparison Between Bunch type and Spreading type Groundnut
Particular Bunch Type Spreading Type
1. Shelling per cent : 75 per cent (more) 65 per cent
Occurs (80%
2. Dormancy occurrence : No (90% germination)
germination)
3. Spacing : 60cm×20 cm 45cm×15 cm
4. Maturity : Early maturing Late maturing
5. Seed rate (kg/ha) : 100-120 80-100
Chandra, T ype-28, 64
Jyoti, Kishan, T MV-11, 12 AK-12, T MV-1, 3, M- 13, 37
6. Varieties : 24, Junagarh-11 ICGS -1, 10, 11, 44 Vikram, Verginia,
JL-24 Ganga- puri, Godheri-2,
3
20-30 (comparatively
7. Yield (qt/ha) : 15-20
more)
∗ NAA @ 40 ppm is used to enhance floral initiation and pod formation.

∗ Calcium (Ca) is essential for pod development.
∗ The most common groundnut based cropping systems are:
Groundnut + Pigeonpea (4:1)
Groundnut + Castor
Groundnut + Sunflower
Groundnut + Urdbean (4:1)
Groundnut + Til (3:1)
∗ Earthing-up is done in groundnut crop at 35 to 45 days after sowing to facilitate
proper development of pegs beneath soil and increases number of seeds
per pod.
∗ Strain used for biological N2 fixation in groundnut is Rhizobium japonicum.
∗ Groundnut should be stored at 5 per cent moisture content.
∗ Bi erness of kernel is due to Aflatoxin (toxic substance) developed by two
reasons:
1. When pod moisture content is > 8 per cent
2. Fungus namely Aspergillus niger and Aspergillus flavus.
∗ Resistant varieties against Aflatoxin are CGC-2, 7 and Faizpur.
∗ Vector of virus in groundnut is Aphid.
∗ Tikka/Leaf spot disease is caused by fungus:
1. Early leaf spot – Cercospora arachidicola
2. Late leaf spot – Cercospora personata
∗ Major pest of groundnut is White grub.
(2) Sunflower
∗ Botanical name: Helianthus annus
Family: Compositae
∗ Helios = Sun and Annus = Flower
∗ Auxin activity is more in apical portion of flower.
∗ Sunflower is a day neutral crop.
∗ It has high seed multiplication ratio (>1:80).
∗ Sunflower has high quality edible oil (45-50 per cent).
∗ Sunflower has no unsaturated fatty acid content, so it is safe for heart patients.
∗ The head of sunflower is called as ‘Capitulai’.
∗ S unflower has ray and disc floret, in which Ray floret is for beautifulness
(a raction of pollinators) and D isc floret forms seed and have male &
female flowers.
∗ Chaffiness means non filling of seed.
∗ Sowing time:
Kharif: July to 1st week of August
Rabi: November 1st to 2nd week
Summer: February 2nd week
∗ Seed rate: 5-7.5 kg/ha
∗ Spacing:
Kharif: 45 x 30 cm
Rabi: 50 x 20 cm
Summer: 60 x 30 cm
∗ Irrigation:
Kharif: no need
Rabi: 3-4 irrigation
Summer: 5-6 irrigation
1. Seedling stage (10-12 DAS)
2. Bud initiation/Button/Knee high stage (30-35 DAS)
3. Flowering stage (50-55 DAS)
4. Seed development stage (70-90 DAS)
∗ Varieties: Modern, MS FH-8,17, J walamukhi, KBS H-1, J S -1, S unrise selection, EC
68413
∗ Sunflower is intercropped with groundnut, Arhar, urd etc.
∗ Weed management: Pendimethalin @ 1.5 kg ai/ha followed by hoeing at 30 DAS.
∗ S unflower is matured at 90-120 days after sowing, when 10 per cent of head
become brown and the disc floret a ached to the tip of the head drop down
the crop.
(3) Sesame/Til
∗ Botanical name: Sesamum indicum
Family: Pedaliaceae
∗ Sesame crop contains 18-20 per cent protein and 50 per cent oil.
∗ Seed rate: Line sowing - 3-4 kg/ha
Broadcasting - 5-7 kg/ha
∗ S owing of seed with sand mixture for uniform sowing followed by hoed in to
cover the seeds.
∗ Seed treatment: 1.5 gm Thirum + 1.5 gm Bavistin per kg of seed
∗ Spacing: 30 x 10 cm
∗ Water requirement: 50 cm (5-6 irrigation in summer)
1. 4-5 leaf stage (25-30 DAS)
2. Flowering stage
3. Capsule/Pod formation stage
∗ Varieties: Jawahar Til - 21, 7, Gwalior 5, 35, GT-17
∗ Nutrient management: 30:60:30 kg NPK/ha
∗ Weed management: Basalin @ 1 kg ai/ha or Alachlor @ 0.75 kg ai/ha.
∗ Sesame is matured at 85-90 days after sowing.
(4) Safflower
∗ Botanical name: Carthamus tinctorius
Family: Compositae
∗ Safflower crop is known as Fencing crop/Border crop.
∗ S afflower contains 32-36 per cent oil (used for food), 41 per cent linolic acid and
also used for making paint, warnish.
∗ Percentage unsaturated fatty acid – 78 per cent.
∗ Fruit of safflower - Achene
∗ Origin: Absinia/Afganistan
1. Tillering stage
2. Flowering stage
3. Grain filling stage
∗ Varieties: JSF-1,2,5, JSI-7, EB-7, JSH-129
∗ Nutrient management: 40:40:30:20 kg NPKS/ha at sowing time.
∗ Topping: 40 to 50 days after sowing to increase lateral branching.
(5) Linseed
∗ Botanical name: Linum usitatisium
Family: Linaceae
∗ Linseed crop contains 40-42 per cent oil, 20 per cent protein, 50-60 per cent
linolinic acid and 5-6 per cent fibre.
∗ Fibre of linseed is called as Reflex.
∗ Origin: Afganistan
∗ Seed rate: 25-30 kg/ha (Utera crop – 35 to 40 kg/ha)
1. 4-5 leaf stage
2. Tillering stage
3. Flower stage
4. Pod filling stage
∗ Varieties: Jawahar-7,17,18, 552, Kiran, Mukta, Sweta, Gourav, Shital
∗ Nutrient management: 60:40:20 kg NPK/ha.
∗ Intercropping: Wheat + Linseed (4:1)
Gram + Linseed (1:1)
∗ Weed control: Fluchloralin @ 1.0 kg ai/ha or Pendimethalin1.0 kg ai/ha.
∗ Retting: “It is a process of treatment of stalks for final fibre extraction”.
Process – Linseed stalked chopped at top end, tied in small bundle, and then
shifting in available water source, stalked tied and allowed to remain
immersed in water till re ing is completed. For uniform re ing, bundle
should be turned by replacement upper layer to lower layer after 2-3 days.
(6) Soybean ("Boneless Meat")
∗ Botanical name: Glycine max
∗ Beany taste in soybean is due to sulfer compound.
∗ Soybean is called as wonder crop.
∗ The economic product of soybean crop is Oil, so called as oilseed crop.
∗ It contains 40-42 per cent protein and 20-22 per cent oil.
∗ Soybean contains the poly-unsaturated fatty acid – Linolic acid & Oleic acid
∗ Nitrogen fixation: 40kg N/ha.
∗ D ue to presence of enzyme Lipoxidase, soybean is not used as dal which
produces off flavour.
∗ N odule formation starts 2-3 weeks after sowing and nitrogen fixation starts 2
weeks after nodule formation up to 6-8 weeks.
∗ Nodule formation: by Rhizobium japonicum (gram–ve bacteria)
∗ Classification of soybean:
1 . M anturian classification (based on seed colour) - Black, Green and Yellow
colour
2. Martin classification (based on seed shape and size) - Soja elliptica, Soja spherical
and Soja compresia
3. Hertz classification (based on seed shape) - Soja platycarpa and Soja tumida
4. American classification (based on crop maturity period in days)
Group: 00 0 I II III IV V VI VII VIII
Maturing
117 126 126 130 131 136 139 148 156 158
period:
∗ Seed rate: Yellow seeded - 75-80 kg/ha

Black seeded - 50-60 kg/ha
∗ Spacing: 45cm x 5cm
∗ Irrigation: Kharif – No need, summer – 5 to 6 irrigations
1. Sprouting stage
2. Flowering stage
3. Pod filling stage
4. Grain development stage
∗ Varieties: J S -2, 335, I ndira S oya-9, PK-472, 1024, Gaurav, A nkur, Brag, Clark,
NRC-2
∗ Nutrient management: 40:60:40:5 kg NPKZn/ha.
∗ Intercropping: with cotton, Arhar, maize etc.
∗ Weed control: Nitrofen @ 1.5 kg ai/ha (PRE) or Fluchloralin @ 1.0 kg ai/ha (PPI).
∗ Harvesting: Done at 20 per cent seed moisture, when leaves start dropping, pods
dried.
∗ Pod formation stage is ideal to harvest for fodder purpose
(7) Rapeseed and Mustard

∗ Botanical name: Brassica spp.
Family: Cruciferae
∗ Origin: China
∗ Evolution of Brassica species:
B. napus = B. compestris x B. oleracia
B. carinata = B. nigra x B. oleracia
B. juncia = B. nigra x B. compestris
∗ Mustard species:
1. Brassica compestris – Sarson
2. Brassica napus – Rapseed
3. Brassica juncea – Brown mustard (Indian mustard)
4. Brassica nigra – Black mustard (used for condiment purpose)
5. Brassica carinata – Ethiopian mustard
6. Brassica rapa – Toria (most widely spread in world)
7. Eruca sativa – Taramira
∗ Sowing time: October 3rd week to November 1st week
∗ Seed rate: Main crop - 4 to 6 kg/ha
Mixed crop - 2 to 3 kg/ha
∗ Spacing: Mustard/Rai - 45cm x 15cm
Toria/Rapeseed - 30cm x 10cm
∗ Irrigation: 2 irrigations, 20-30 cm water requirement
1. Rosette stage (20-30 DAS)
2. Siliqua formation stage
∗ Varieties:
1. Toria - Type-9, 36, Sangam, M-27
2. Brown sarson - BS-70, Pusa kalyani, Sufla, BSH-1
3. Yellow sarson - Benoy, Type-42
4. Mustard (Rai/Laha) - Kranti, Varuna, Krishna, Pusa bold, Vardan,
Rohni
5. Taramira - T-27
∗ Mustard hybrid – Pusa Jai Kisan (Bio 902)
∗ 00 or canola type variety of Gobhi sarson – PGSH-51
∗ Nutrient management: 60:30:30:20:10 kg NPKSZn/ha.
∗ Optimum moisture content for safe storage – 8 per cent
∗ AICRP on oilseed was started on - 1967
(D) FIBRE CROPS

(1) Cotton
∗ Cotton is also known as White gold in America.
∗ Botanical name: Gossipium spp.
Family: Malvaceae
∗ Origin - Maxico
Species of Cotton
Area Covered (per cent) of the Total
Species of Cotton Plant Height (cm) Fibre Length (cm)
Acreage of Cotton in India
Indian/Old world cotton:
Gossipium arborium 1.5-2.0 1.25-2.0 29 per cent
Gossipium herbacium 1.0-1.5 1.5-2.50 21 per cent
American/New world cotton

Gossipium hirsutum 1.5 1.8-3.0 50 per cent
Gossipium barbadence 1.5 3.6-5.0 Few thousand ha.
∗ G. barbadence is also known as Sea Island cotton.

∗ Black cotton soil is best for cotton cultivation.
∗ Choulfi method is used for square planting of co on in Maharashtra and in
Malva area of Madhya Pradesh.
Comparative Study of Indian and American Cotton
Particulars Indian Cotton American Cotton
Seed rate (kg/ha) : 10-12 18-20
Fibre colour : Dull and light brown White creamy
Ginning per cent : 36-42 28-32
Oil content (per cent) : 26.0 18.0
Varieties of Cotton
∗ Indian/Old world : G-777
∗ Interspecific : Varalaxmi, DCH-32 (hybrid), HB-224, DHB-105
∗ Intraspecific : H-4, 6, Savita, Surya (hybrid), JKHY-1
∗ Egyptian cotton : Sujata, Savin (Non hybrid)
∗ American cotton : MCU-4,5,8,9
∗ Minimum Support Prize is fixed by govt. for varieties – H4, H 777, F 414
∗ Nutrient management: 100-120:20-30:15-20 (N:P:Zn kg/ha).

∗ Water management: 80-90 cm water is required full of its life cycle.
∗ Cotton is irrigated 2-3 times, 1st irrigation – 30-40 days after sowing
∗ Cotton is irrigated 2-3 times, 2nd irrigation – Bud formation stage
∗ Cotton is irrigated 2-3 times, 3rd irrigation – Flowering stage
∗ Ginning percentage =
For G. hirsutum : 28-32 per cent (American cotton)
For G. arborium and G. herbacoum : 36-42 per cent
∗ Fibre colour of desi co on is dull or brown colour, while A merican co on has
creamy white coloured.
∗ Lint Index =
∗ H2SO4 is used for delinting of cotton seed.
∗ Categorization of staple length of cotton:
1. < 19.5 mm – short staple
2. 20-21.5 mm – medium staple
3. 22-24.5mm – superior medium
4. 24.5-26.5mm – long staple
5. > 27 mm – superior
∗ Cotton length is measured by Arealometer.
∗ The oil content in desi cotton is 14.6-25.6 per cent, while American cotton has 14-
18 per cent.
∗ 170 kg cotton = 1 bale
∗ Bt-cotton is resistant against the pest Helicoverpa (S po ed bollworm), developed
by U.S . based seed company ‘Monsanto’ and registered under the name
‘Bollgaurd’.
(2) Jute
∗ Jute is a parenchymatus fibre.
∗ Jute crop does not have hybrid seeds.
Jute Species
Sl.No. Particular White Jute Black Jute/Tosa
1. Botanical name : Corchorus capsularis Corchorus olitorius
2. Planting month : Feb-March April/May
3. Grown on : Midland & lowland Well drained high land
4. Tolerate to : Water logging –
5. Leaf taste : Bitterness - titapata(due to Corchorin) Tasteless - mitapata
6. Fibre colour : White Yellow to jute
∗ Varieties: J RC-321 (S onali), J RC-212 (S abuj sona), J RC 7447 (S hyamli), D 154,

Hybrid C (Padma), KC1 (Joydev) etc.
∗ Less no. of knots in k/s superior quality.
∗ I deal stage for harvesting - S mall pod stage/initiation of pod formation (135-140
DAS)
(3) Sunhemp
∗ Botanical Name.: Crotolaria juncia
∗ Best and most widely used green manure crop.
∗ Seed rate – 15-20 kg/ha.
∗ It is most suitable for alkaline and water logged soil.
(E) SUGAR CROPS
(1) Sugarcane
Sugacane is also known as:
1. Heavy feeder crop,
2. Intermediate day length & perennial plant,
3. Most important cash crop,
4. Highest water consuming crop.
∗ Botanical name:
1. Tropical cane - Saccharum officinarum
2. Indian cane - (a) Saccharum barberi
(b) Saccharum sinensis
3. Wild cane (a) Saccharum spontaneum
(b) Saccharum robustum
∗ Family: Poaceae
∗ Origin: Indo-Burma.
∗ India’s position in area and production of S’cane is 2nd.
Brazil > India > Cuba > China
∗ Cuba is known as Sugarcane bowl of world.
∗ India’s leading sugarcane producing states are UP>MH>TN.
∗ UP accounts for about 45 per cent of total production and 58 per cent of the total
area of sign in India.
∗ Institute/Organization related to sugarcane:
Breeding Institute (SBI), Coimbatore, Tamilnadu
Institute of Sugarcane Research, (IISR), Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh
Indian Sugar Institute (ISI), Kanpur
∗ AICRP on sugarcane was stated in 1970-71.
∗ S ’cane favours warm and humid climate with an annual rainfall between 75-120
cm and temperature of 21-45ºC.
∗ Best temperature for sugarcane growth is 28-32 ºC.
∗ Optimum soil pH required is 6.5-7.5.
∗ Saline soil is unfit for cultivation of sugarcane.
∗ Zero Tillage is mostly practised in Sugarcane.
∗ Characteristics of different sugarcane species:
Saccharum officinarum: Thick and juicy cane and good for chewing purpose,
indigenous to new Guinea, higher sugar content, low fibre, long durational
and higher sucrose content.
S. barberi & S. sinensis: N ative of N orth region of I ndia, long and thin stalks, low
sugar content, early maturity, used for breeding purpose.
∗ Inflorescence of sugarcane is called Arrow (Open panicle).
∗ Sugarcane has two types of root system:
(a) Se roots – Temporary and provide moisture and nutrients for growing
primary roots
(b) Shoot roots – Permanent and produced from lower rings of the lower nodes of
the shoots
∗ Planting of Sugarcane:
1. Planting Season
Season Month Planted in Region Crop Duration
Spring planting Feb – March North India 12 months
Autumn Planting Sept – Oct. N. India 12 months
Adsali planting July – Aug. South India 18 months
2. Planting material: Upper 1/3 to half part of cane is used for planting because it
contains higher nitrogenous and glucose which helps in better germination.
3. Planted setts should have 3 buds with 10 to 12 months age.
4. Planting Spacing: N.India – 60-90 cm
Planting Spacing: S. India & Adsali – 90-120cm
5. Seed/Sett rate: 3 budded – 35,000-40,000 setts/ha
Seed/Sett rate: 2 budded – 80,000 setts/ha
Seed/Sett rate: 1 budded – 1, 20,000 setts/ha
6. Planting Methods
Used in North India, S hallow furrow at 75-90 cm spacing with 8-10
∗ Flat bed method :
cm depth.
Used in S outh India, Dead furrow with 10-15 cm depth, ridge is
∗ Ridge & Furrow :
made, end to end method.
Used in Coastal area, Deep ‘U’ shaped trench at 75-90 cm spacing
∗ Trench method :
with 20-25 cm depth.
Developed at IIS R, L ucknow, single budded se s are planted in
∗ Distant planting : –1
nursery @ 20 qt or 1800 se s ha . After 45-60 days, single buds are
transplanted in main field.
Developed cane shoots with transplanting of single sprouted bud,
∗ Rayangans method :
not adopted in India, used for gap filling.
IIS R, L ucknow, tractor mounted sugarcane planter puts a seed se &
∗ Mechanical planting : puts a fertilizer on the side of se and after that cover the soil over
planting material, Cheap method of planting.
Combine method of Flat bed and trench method, T renches are dug 45
∗ Skip furrow : cm apart and a gap of 90 cm is left after each two rows of cane
planted at 45 cm.
P ractised in sloppy land, 20-30 cm pits dug in row along the contour
∗ Pit method : with row-row spacing of 75 cm. Canes are placed in pit in triangle
and covered with soil.
∗ Sett treatments: To get better germination and reduce seed borne diseases.
1. Cold water treatment – Whole cane is dipped in cold water for 12-48 hours.
2. Hot water treatment – S e s soaked in hot water at 52ºC for 30-40 minutes (10
minutes for upper side of sett).
3. Chemical treatment – O rgano-mercurial i.e. A gallal and A reton @ 200 gm/50 lt.
of water.
4. O ther – S e treatment with 0.1-0.5 per cent solution of KMnO4, MgSO4 for 12-24
hours
5. Mud & Dung mixture is also used in treatment of setts for 12-48 hours.
* S oaking in cold saturated Lime solution + 450 gm MgS O4 for 8-12 hours results
an increase in 10 per cent germination and 12 per cent sugar yield.
Nutrient Management (Kg/ha)
N - 150-250 kg 50 per cent basal dose
25 per cent at 3 month after planting
25 per cent at 6 month after tillering stage
P - 100-150 kg
K - 100-150 kg As basal dose
S - 15-20 kg
ZnSO4 - 10 kg
∗ Higher dose of nitrogen enhance vegetative growth, resulting in reduced

sucrose content.
∗ Water management:
∴ The water requirement is 200-250 cm.
∴ Water management starts at 50 per cent available soil moisture condition.
∴ 60-70 tonnes water is required to produce 1 tonne cane.
∴ Sugarcane needs 10-12 irrigations.
∴ 1st irrigation is applied at 20 days after planting (DAP).
∴ S ubsequent irrigation is applied at an interval of 25-30 days in winter and 10-15
days in summer season.
∴ Formative (Tillering) and Grand phase are the most sensitive for water stress.
∴ Most imp. critical stage for irrigation is Formative stage.
∗ Weed management:
∴ Most critical weed competition period in sugarcane is up to 4 month after
planting.
∴ Most commonly used herbicides are Simazine, Atrazine and Alachlor.
∗ Varieties of Sugarcane:
∴ Wonder cane - COC-617 and CO-419
∴ National level commercial - CO Pant-85004, 86032, 87263.
∴ Red rot resistant – CO-7704, 7717, 8023, 8610, 8210, 86011, 93011 etc.
∗ Most important crop rotation:
(a) North India – S’cane with Cotton, Gram, Brassica,spp, Jowar, Maize, Peas etc.
(b) South India – S’cane – Cotton - Gram
∗ Blind/light hoeing is done at 1 week after planting.
∗ Earthing up is done at 4 month after planting to protect from lodging, facilitate
irrigation and economical water use efficiency.
∗ Phases of Sugarcane:
1. Germination phase – 0 to 60 Days After Planting (DAP)
2. Formative phase – 60-130 DAP
3. Grand phase – 130- 250 DAP
4. Maturity phase – 250-365 DAP
∗ Conversion of glucose into sucrose and fructose takes place in extreme cold
temperature (generally during Nov-Feb).
∗ Potassium (K) is responsible for translocation of sugar in sugarcane.
∗ Crop Logging is a method of plant analysis for assessing nutrient requirement
st
of crops, given by H.F. Clements. It was 1 used in sugarcane at Hawai.
∗ Symptoms for Judging S’cane maturity:
(a) Arrowing and plant’s growth is stopped.
(b) Cane become bri le, produces metallic sound and breaks easily at nodes (most
important symptoms)
(c) Buds swell out at nodes.
(d) Brix (Brix hydrometer/Refractometer) reading is between 18-20%.
(e) Glucose content is < 0.5 per cent when tested by Fehling solution.
∗ Yield of Sugarcane
N. India – 60-100 tonnes/ha
S. India – 80-130 tonnes/ha
Juice yield – 65-75 per cent
Sugar yield – 6-10 per cent from juice
Sucrose content – 14-17 per cent
∗ Sugarcane recovery from sugarbeet is 15-18 per cent.
∗ By-product of S’cane is Molllasses – 3-5 per cent and Baggasses.
∗ Gasohol is a alternative source of energy, prepared from 80 per cent petrol + 20
per cent alcohol from sugarcane.
∗ Major disease of Sugarcane is Red Rot.
(F) FODDER & FORAGE CROPS

(1) Berseem/Egyptian Clover
1. Botanical name : Trifolium alexandrinum
2. Family : Leguminoceae
3. Origin : Egypt
4. Optimum temperature required : 18 - 22 ºC
5. Sowing time : October to november
6. Sowing method : Broadcasting
25-30 kg/ha (Diploid varieties) 35 kg/ha
7. Seed rate :
(Tetraploid varieties)
8. Ratio of mixing diploid and Tetraploid varieties : 1:1 and 2:1
9. Seed treatment : By Rhizobium trifolium culture
(a) Diploid - Vardan, chindwara, B L -1, 11, 22, 52,
10. Variety :
C-10 (Maskavi), IGFRI 99-1
(b) Tetraploid - Pusa giant, T-528, 560, 678
Kasni (Chicorium intybus –objectional weed),
11. Weeds : seperated from berseem crop seed through 17 per
cent salt solution.
12. NPK : 20 :60 :30 kg/ha
First cu ing at 50-55 days after sowing and
13. Cutting : subsequent cu ing is taken at 25-35 days after
previous cutting
14. Forage yield : 800 - 1000 qt/ha
15. Chemical found : Saponine
(2) Lucerne/Alfalfa
1. Botanical name : Medicago sativa
2. Family : Leguminoceae
3. Origin : South West Asia
5. Sowing time : October
7. Seed rate : 20 - 25 kg/ha
8. Seed treatment : By Rhizobium meliloti culture

Moopa, Rambler, Anand-2, 3, S irsa 1, 8, 9, T ype - 8,9,
9. Varieties :
NDRI – 1,2, IGFRI-5,54,244
10. Weeds : Cuscuta reflexa (Doddar/amarbel – parasitic weed)
11. NPK : 20-25:60-75:0-0 kg/ha
First cu ing at 50-55 days after sowing and
12. Cutting : subsequent cu ing is taken at 20-30 days after
previous cutting
13. Forage yield : 800 - 1100 qt/ha
14. Glucosides found : Saponins
15. Physiological disorder : “Lucern yellowing” (due to boron deficiency)
(3) Oats
1. Botanical name : Avena sativa
2. Family : Poaceae
3. Origin : Asia minor
5. Sowing time : Mid October to mid november
7. Seed rate 100 -120 kg/ha (for bold seeded) : 80 -90 kg/ha (for small seeded)
8. Spacing : 20-25 cm (Plant to plant)
9. Irrigation (No.) : 3-4
Kent, Algerian, UP O 50, Craig, Afterlee, Fulgham,
10. Varieties :
Fleming gold, HFO-114, Brunker-10, UPD-90
HFO 114 – Both for Fodder and grain purpose
11. Weeds : Kasni (Chicorium intybus)
12. NPK : 80:30:20 kg/ha
13. Best stage for harvesting : Dough stage
14. Cuttings : 2-3 cuttings, cutting at 70-75 days after planting
15. Fodder yield : 400 - 450 qt/ha
(4) Napier Grass

1. Botanical name : Pennisatum purpuriam
2. Family : Poaceae
3. Origin : Rhodesia (south Africa)
4. Best soil : loam soil
5. Sowing time : October
7. Seed rate : 33,000 – 40,000 rooted slips
8. Spacing : 60 x 60
P usa giant ( H y b r i d) : (P ennisatum purpuriam x
9. Varieties : P ennisatum typhoideum) NB -5, 21, E B -4, Coimbatore,
Yeshwant
10. NPK : 40:30:20 kg/ha
First cu ing at 70 days after planting and subsequent
11. Cutting :
cutting is taken at 40-45 days intervals
(5) Fodder Sorghum/Chari

1. Botanical name : Sorghum species
2. Family : Poaceae
3. Origin : Africa
North India – March to July S outh
5. Sowing time :
India – February to November
6. Seed rate : 40 - 50 kg/ha
7. Spacing : 25 - 30 cm (Plant to plant)
JS -20, 29, 263, J3, P usa chari, MP
chari, Haryana chari, Dudhiya,
8. Varieties :
Gwalior-82, 304, Vidisha 60-1, Ujjani-
6, 8, CO-11, 18, 19
9. NPK : 60:30:30 kg/ha
Dhurin/HCN (higher concentration
is found at 30-35 days age of plant
11. Chemical found : and mostly in S ummer sorghum
crop)
(6) Fodder Maize

1 Botanical name : Zea mays
2 Family : Poaceae
3. Origin : America
North India – April to August S outh India –
5. Sowing time :
February to November
6. Seed rate : 40 - 60 kg/ha (60-75 kg/ha for Hybrid variety)
7. Spacing : 25 - 30 cm (Plant to plant)
8. Irrigation (No.) : 4-5 (1-2 for kharif)
9. Mixed cropping with : Cowpea, greengram, blackgram, horse gram
Ganga 5, African tall, J1006, Vijay, Manjari,
10. Varieties :
Deccan
11. NPK : 60:40:30 kg/ha
12. Best stage for harvesting : Between 50 to 60 days of growth
13. No. of cuttings : One
(G) COMMERCIAL CROPS

(1) Potato
∗ Botanical Name: Solanum tuberosum
Family: Solanaceae
Origin: South America (Peru)
∗ Area, production & productivity during 2008-09:
Area – 1828 (000’ HA)
Production – 34391 (000’ MT)
Productivity – 18.8 (MT/HA)
∗ Major Producing States – U ar Pradesh, Bihar, West Bengal, Punjab, Karnataka,
Assam and Madhya Pradesh.
∗ Protein content of potato is 1.6 per cent.
∗ Per capita availability of potato is 50.5 kg/year.
∗ Solanin content is 5 mg/100 gm of potato.
∗ Potato is a poor’s men food because of its cheapest, richest and easiest source of
nutrients.
∗ The stolen/tuber of potato is an underground stem.
∗ Potato tuber is dormant for 8-10 weeks (65-70 days).
∗ Potato favours temperate and cool climate with moist atmospheric condition.
∗ Potato requires an average temperature of 25ºC, 17ºC and 17-20ºC for
germination, vegetative growth and for tuberization, respectively.
∗ Potato needs long day condition during growth and short day during
tuberization.
∗ Potato crop favours Alluvial/Sandy loam/Silty soil.
∗ Planting time:
1. MP and CG – Last week of October to second week of Nov.
2. Hills – Feb to March
3. Plains – Nov to Dec.
∗ Selection of seed/tuber for sowing:
1. Tuber should be pure, viable and readily sprouted.
2. Tuber sowing surface should be brown.
3. Tuber should have 2.5-3 cm diameter with 25-30 gm weight.
4. The cut tuber must have at least 3 buds.
∗ Treatment of with 1 per cent thiourea + 1 ppm GA3 for 1 hour to break the tuber
dormancy.
Seed Rate of Potato
Seed Sizes (dia) Spacing Seed Rate
2.5 – 3.0 cm 45cm × 45cm 10 qt/ha
4.0 – 5.0 cm 50cm × 20cm 25 qt/ha
2.5 – 4.0 cm 60cm × 25cm 20 qt/ha
∗ For Round shaped cultivar – 15-18 qt/ha

∗ For Oval shaped cultivar – 20-25 qt/ha
∗ Advanced Technology – Use of TPS (True Potato Seed)
∗ 40-45 gm True potato seed (TPS) is enough for planting 1 ha. crop.
∗ Methods of planting: 1) Ridge and Furrow (most popular method)
∗ Methods of planting: 2) Flat bed method
∗ Earthing-up in potato is done when plant height gets 15-20 cm.
1. In Plains – 30 – 45 DAS
2. In Hills – 40 – 45 DAS
* 2nd Earthing is done 2 weeks after 1st Earthing.
∗ Fertilizer management (kg/ha):
N – 180-200 kg
P – 100-150 kg
K – 100-150 kg
∗ Popular varieties:
1. Early duration – Kufri alankar, Kufri chandramukhi, Kufri bahar, Kufri jyoti.
2. Medium duration – Kufri badsah, Kufri chamatkar, Kufri lalima, Kufri
sheetman, Kufri swana.
3. Late maturing – Kufri sinduri, Kufri dewa, Kufri jeevan.
∗ The most popular cropping system is Potato-Sunflower-Rice/Maize
∗ Most critical stage for irrigation in potato is 25 per cent tuber formation stage.
∗ Potato is mainly intercropped with Sugarcane.
∗ Harvesting is done when hulms starts yellowing and falling to the ground.
∗ CuSO4 is used for dehulming of potato.
∗ An average yield of potato is 30-35 tonnes/ha.
∗ Processing of potato: I t is generally done to avoid browning and ro ing of
tubers due to moisture.
D rying and curing: Tuber heaped under shade in a ventilated place around 15-
20ºc for 10 to 15 days.
Sorting: Remove diseased, damaged or rough tubers for facilitating healthy tuber
grading into sizes of accepted standards.
∗ G rading of Potato: done to insure uniform quality of superior grade tubers and
to get remunerative returns.
I. Special size with ³ 8 cm diameter
II. Phool size with 3-5 cm dia.
III. Ration size with £ 2.5 cm dia.
∗ Potato tubers should be stored in ventilated closed room during day time and
opened during evening with maintenance of 4-5ºC temperature & 90-95 per
cent RH.
∗ Harvesting of potato should be completed by the end of J anuary before the
temperature rise from 30ºC.
∗ Seed plot technique (SPT) in potato was discovered by Dr. Puskarnath.
Storage Conditions
Fresh Storage Frozen
Temperature 3 - 4 ºC 23 - 18 ºC
Relative Humidity 90 - 95 per cent Vaportight - Packing
Storage Period 5 – 10 Month >1 year
∗ Sensibility to – Refrigeration and Freezing

(2) Tobacco
∗ Cultivation of tobacco in India is introduced by - Portuguese
Sl.No. Particular Nicotiana tabacum Nicotiana rustica
1. Purpose of growing Smoking & chewing Hookah, chewing & snuff
2. Nicotine content (per cent) 0.5 to 5.5 3.5 to 8.0
3. Soil Light & high land Heavy & low laying area
4. Plant height 150-250 cm 90-120 cm
7 to 9 weeks (4-5 leaf
5. Transplanting age 5 to 6 weeks
stage)
6. Harvesting method Priming Stalk cutting
∗ Indian tobacco:
(a) Flue cured virginia (FCV) – Cigara e tobacco, cover 30 per cent area & 20 per
cent production of total
(b) Non virginia – cover 70 per cent area & 80 per cent production of total tobacco
Sl.No. Types of Tobacco Prominent States
1. Cigarette tobacco AP, Karnataka
Gujarat, Karnataka,
2. Bidi tobacco
Maharashtra, AP
3. Chewing tobacco UP, TN, WB, Orissa, Bihar
4. Natu tobacco AP
5. Cigar & cheroot tobacco WB
6. Snuff tobacco TN, AP, Kerala
∗ Seed rate – 2.5 to 3.0 kg/ha.

∗ The seeds of tobacco is - positively photoblastic and protolylic.
∗ Time of nursery sowing: 15 to 30 August
∗ Types of tobacco required heavy nutrition supply including N – Chewing, Bidi,
Hookah
∗ Types of tobacco required low N – Flue-cured, Cigarette, Cigar
∗ Mutant variety – Jayashri, Bhavya
∗ Hybrid – GTH-1
∗ Most critical stages for irrigation - Topping
∗ The sequence of different operations in tobacco crop is:
Topping ® Desuckering ® Priming ® Curing
∗ Desuckering of tobacco is done by: a. NAA in triethenolemin (2 per cent)
∗ Desuckering of tobacco is done by: b. MH (2 per cent)
∗ Desuckering of tobacco is done by: c. IBA (2 per cent)
∗ Priming method of harvesting is popular in Cigarette, Wrapper & Chewing type
∗ Stalk cutting method is popular in Hookah, Bidi, Cheroot, Cigar & Chewing
∗ Curing: A drying process, where by most of the moisture of leaf is removed to
impart required colour, texture and aroma to the final product.
Sl.No. Types of Tobacco Related Curing Process
1. Cigarette Flue curing
2. Cigar, Cheroot, Chewing Rack curing
3. Hookah and Snuff Ground/Sun curing
4. Chewing/Hookah Pit curing
5. Bidi, Snuff, Chewing, Hookah Fire curing
∗ The tobacco burning quality is positively related to ‘K’ content of leaf.

∗ Nicotine content is produced in roots and accumulate in leaves of tobacco.
(H) MEDICINAL & AROMATIC CROPS
(1) Mentha
∗ Mentha is also known as Mint and pudina.
∗ Botanical names: Mentha arvensis (Japanese mint)
∗ Botanical names: M. piperata L. (Pepper mint)
∗ Botanical names: M. spicta L. (Spear mint)
∗ Botanical names: M. citrata Eheh (Orange mint or Bergamot mint)
Family: Lamiaceae; Labiatae
∗ Uses: Cosmetics, Culinary purposes, Flavouring agent, Perfumery.
∗ The fresh herb contains essential oils ranging from 0.4 to 0.6 per cent.
∗ Plant part used: Green herb
∗ The menthol content in peppermint oil varies between 35-50 per cent. O ther
constituents are methyl acetate (14-15 per cent), menthone (9-25 per cent),
menthofuran and terpenes like pinene and limonene.
∗ J apanese mint is a primary source of menthol. The main constituents of the oil
are menthol (65-75 per cent), methyl acetate (12-15 per cent), menthone (7-
10 per cent) and terpenes (pinene and limonene and comphene).
Type of Mint Menthol Content (per cent) Variety
Japanese mint : 65-75 per cent Kalka (Hyb-77), Shivalik Himalaya (MAS-1),
Pepper mint : 35-50 per cent –
E c-41911, RRL 11813,
Spear mint : 70-80 per cent
Kosi
∗ Planting season: Last week of December to the first week of March.

∗ Medium to fertile deep soil with 6-7.5 pH is best for cultivation.
∗ M ints are propogated through the Creeping stolens or suckers. A bout 400 kg
stolen are required for planting one hectare of land.
∗ Planting distance: 45-60 cm (row to row)
∗ Fertilizer requirement: 100:60:40 kg NPK/ha.
∗ Irrigation: 3-4 irrigations during the period from J uly to O ctober are required
with 12-15 days intervels.
∗ Harvesting:
1. Japanese mint is generally harvested after100-120 days of planting.
2. Cutting of the green herb by means of a sickle 4-5 cm above the ground.
3. Generally 2-3 harvesting is done.
∗ Yield: 48 t/ha of fresh herb and 0.4 per cent oil in fresh leaves.
(2) Lemon Grass
∗ Botanical name: Cymbopoban flexuosus Nees
Family: Poaceae (Graminae)
∗ Uses: I nsect repellents, Cosmetics, Culinary purposes, D rugs, Flavouring agent,
Perfumery.
∗ Plant part used: Green herb (Leaf)
∗ Lemon grass oil contains citral-b (27.7 per cent), citral-a (46.60 per cent),
terpinene (0.5 per cent) etc.
∗ Lemon grass oil is used mainy used in the manufacture of perfumes for soaps,
hair oils, scents and medicines.
∗ Loam to poor leterite soil is best for cultivation.
∗ Planting season: Last week of December to the first week of March.
∗ Propogation: Seeds (20-25 kg/ha), Vegetatively propogated and rooted slips.
∗ Spacing: 30cm x 30cm (1,11,000/ha)
∗ Varieties: Sugandhi (OD-19), Pragati, Praman, RRL-16, CKP-25
∗ Fertilizer requirement: 150:60:40-60 kg NPK per ha.
∗ Irrigation: 4-6 irrigations during February to June for an optimum yield.
∗ Harvesting:
1. The crop is perennial in nature and gives good yields for 5 years.
2. Cut the grasses 10 cm above the ground level.
3. D uring the 1 year of planting, 3 cu ings are obtained and subsequently 5-6
cuttings per year.
4. The harvesting season begins in May and continues to the end of January.
5. The first is done about 90 days after planting.
∗ The average oil content in lemon grass is 0.6-0.8 per cent with 80-85 per cent
citral content.
(3) Isabgol
∗ English name: Blond psyllium
∗ Botanical name: Plantago ovata Forsk
Family: Plantaginaceae
∗ Commercial product: ‘N ature care’ of D A BUR and many other company
producing Isabgol husk..
∗ Plant part used: Husk of the seed
∗ Silty loam soil with soil pH from 4.7 to 7.7 is best.
∗ Planting season: First week of November.
∗ Propogation: Seeds (4-8 kg/ha).
∗ Varieties: Gujarat Isabgol-1 and Gujarat Isabgol-2, Niharika
∗ Fertilizer requirement: 50:25:30 kg NPK per ha.
∗ Irrigation: 6-7 irrigations required for good productivity.
∗ Harvesting:
1. The crop is ready for harvest in February-March (110-130 days after planting).
2. W hen mature, the crop turns yellowish in colour and the spikes turn brown in
colour.
∗ Yield: 800-1000 kg of seeds/ha.
(I) FRUIT & VEGETABLE CROPS
(1) Mango
∗ Mango is also known as King of fruits/National fruit/Bathroom fruit.
∗ Botanical name: Mangifera indica, Family: Anacardiaceae
∗ Origin place: South Asia/Indo-Burma region.
∗ M ajor Producing States – A ndhra Pradesh, U ar Pradesh, Bihar,
Karnataka,Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, Orissa and Maharashtra.
∗ Botany: Fruit type – Berry
∗ Botany: Edible part – Mesocarp
∗ Mango fruit has the highest Vitamin A.
∗ Mango is the highest largest producing and exporting fruit of India.
∗ During 2008-09, mango has:
Area: 2309 (000’ HA) – highest in U.P.
Production: 12750 (000’ MT) – highest in A.P.
Productivity: 5.5 (MT/HA)
∗ Latest Production – 127.50 lakh tonnes
∗ India’s shares about 57 per cent of the total mango production in the world.
∗ Mango production is > 40 per cent of the total fruit production of India.
∗ Propagation method:
Commercially propagation - Veneer grafting and Epicotyl grafting
Insitu propagation - Side grafting
∗ Advanced Technology – High density planting (Amrapalli variety)
∗ Planting distant of mango is 10 m ×10 m.
∗ Cagging technique of breeding is used 1st time in mango by Dr. R.N. Singh.
∗ Longevity of mango seeds is 30 days (4 weeks).
Commercial Mango Varieties Grown in Different States
Andhra Pradesh : Banganapalli, Suvarnarekha, Neelum and Totapuri
Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari, Fazli, Gulabkhas, Kishen B hog, Himsagar,
Bihar :
Zardalu and Langra
Gujarat : Kesar, Alphonso, Rajapuri, Jamadar, Totapuri, Neelum, Dashehari and Langra
Haryana : Chausa, Dashehari, Langra and Fazli

H.P : Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
Karnataka : Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli, Pairi, Neelum and Mulgoa
MP : Alphonso, Bombay Green, Dashehari, Fazli, Langra and Neelum
Maharashtra : Alphonso, Kesar and Pairi
Punjab : Chausa, Dashehari and Malda
Rajasthan : Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
Tamil Nadu : Alphonso, Totapuri, Banganapalli and Neelum
Uttar Pradesh : Bombay Green, Chausa, Dashehari and Langra
West Bengal : Fazli, Gulabkhas, Himsagar, Kishenbhog, langra and Bombay Green
Mango Varieties and their Important Characteristics

Most popular variety of India, highly export qualitable, susceptible to spongy
Alphanso :
tissue.
High intensity variety (2.5 m × 2.5 m), Dwarf, regular bearers, cluster bearing,
Amrapali :
small sized fruits, good keeping quality.
Regular bearer, a ractive skin colour, medium sized, free from spongy tissue,
Arka Puneet :
good keeping quality, good sugar acid blend.
E arliest variety of North India, P ollinishing variety, highest Vit. C, it is also
Bombay green :
called Malda in UP and Sehroli in Delhi.
Banganapalli : Main commercial var. of A.P.
Chousa : Sweetest variety.
Dashehari : Most popular variety of N. India.
Fazli : Late maturing variety.
Kesar : Good processing variety.
Langra : Most prone to fruit drop.
Lal sindhu : Powdery mildew resistant variety.
Regular bearers, high T S S , good colour, uniform fruits, moderate keeping
Mallika :
quality.
Niranjan : Off season bearer.
B est combiner variety, ideal for long transportation, gives two crops in a
Neelum :
year.
Ratna : Regular bearer, free from spongy tissue and fibre.

Rosica : Mutant variety.
Rumani : Apple shaped variety.
Sindhu : Seedless variety.
∗ N orth I ndian varieties are generally alternate bearer and mono embryonic,
whereas Indian varieties are generally Regular bearer and poly embryonic.
∗ Regular bearer varieties are Ratna, N eelum, Himsagar, Gulab khas, Pairy,
Totapari.
∗ I n I ndia, 10 poly-embryonic varieties are found which are namely O lour, Goa,
S alem, Bellary, Chandrakaran, Bappakoi, Kurkan, N ileshwar dwarf, S olan
and Mulgoa.
∗ Self incompatible mango varieties are D ashehari, Langara, Chousa, Bombay
green.
∗ Hybrid varieties
Mallika – Neelam × Dashehari (NDM)
Amrapalli – Dashehari × Neelam (DNA)
Ratna – Neelam × Alphanso (NAR)
Sindhu – Ratna × Alphanso (RAS)
Arka puneet – Alphanso × Baganapalli (ABaAp)
Arka aruna – Baganapalli × Alphanso (BaAAa)
Arka Neelkiran – Alphanso × Neelam (ANAn)
Manjeera – Rumani × Neelam (RNM)
∗ New varieties released from IARI:

v Pusa surya
∴ Pusa Arumina (Amrapalli × Sensation)
∴ Akshay – selected from Dashehari
∗ Only 0.1 per cent flowers (perfect) develop into fruits to mature.
∗ N umber of perfect flower is found highest in Langra, whereas lowest in Rumani
Variety.
∗ Paclobutrazol (5-10 ppm) chemical is most commonly used for flower
induction.
∗ Housefly works as a pollinator for mango.
∗ C: N ratio is 10:1.
Requirement of Major Nutrients in Different Ages
Plant Age (in years) Quantity of Nutrients per Plant (gm)
N2 ∗2O5 K2O
1 100 50 100
2-9 + 100 in N & K and +50 in P for each forwarding year
≥ 10 1000 500 1000
∗ Cluster in mango is known as Jhumka which is due to improper pollination.

∗ Harvesting period – March to mid August.
∗ Mangoes are highly susceptible to low temperature injury, that’s why they
should be stored above 5ºc temperature.
∗ Vapour heat treatment (VHT) is recommended for disinfection of mango
against fruit flies.
∗ A good mango variety has a 20 per cent TSS.
∗ Storage Conditions:
Temperature : 13ºC
Relative Humidity : 85-90 per cent
Storage period : 23 weeks
Freezing point : 1ºC
∗ Sensibility to – Refrigeration, Freezing and Ethylene exposure.

∗ Disorders/Diseases/Pests:
1. Internal fruit necrosis – due to Boron deficiency
2. Sap burning – Post harvest disorders
3. Mango malformation – caused due to Fusarium moniliform, spray of N A A @ 200
ppm at the time of fruit bud differentiation.
4. Black tip – due to brick kiln fumes (contains S O2, CO2 & CO ), spray Borax (0.8
per cent).
5. Mango mealy bug
(2) Tomato
∗ Tomato is also known as “Wolf Apple” and it is No. 1 processing vegetable.
∗ Botanical name: Solanum lycopersicon (Old name – Lycopersicon esculentum)
Family: Solanaceae
∗ Origin: Peru & Mexican region (America)
∗ M ajor Producing States – Bihar, Karnataka, U ar Pradesh, O rissa, A ndhra
Pradesh, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh and Assam.
∗ Fruit type: Berry
∗ Tomato flower is commonly perfect.
∗ Cluster of flower is known as “Truss”.
∗ Area, production and productivity during 2008-09:
Area – 599 (000’ HA)
Production – 11149 (000’ MT)
Productivity – 18.6 (MT/HA)
∗ Latest Production – 111.49 lakh tonnes

∗ Present advance technology – Use of Hybrid seeds
∗ Forms of Tomato:
(a) Cherry tomato (b) Pear tomato (c) Common tomato
(d) Leaf type tomato (e) Upright tomato
∗ Lycopene is a pigment responsible for red colour in tomato which is highest at
21-25ºc. Production of Lycopene is drops rapidly above 27ºc.
∗ Seed Treatment is done with 2,4-D @ 2-5 ppm increases early fruit setting.
∗ Types of tomato plants
Indeterminate type – Continuous growth of main stem.
Determinate type – Main stem does not grow any more.
∗ Training and pruning and staking are only followed in indeterminate type of
tomato.
∗ Excessive rains adversely affect its fruit setting and causes fruit drop.
∗ Improved varieties:
∴ Hybrid – Pusa early dwarf (Improved Maruti × Red Cloud)
∴ Hybrid – Pusa Rubi (Sioux × Improved Maruti) – the best combiner
variety
∴ Hybrid – Pusa Gaurav (Glamour × Watch)
∴ Hybrid – DTH-41, TH 317, Marglove, Pusa Red Plum (interspecific),
Hisar lalima, Sweet-72, Pusa Sheetal, Hissar Lalit
∴ Hybrid – Punjab Uphar (suitable for processing)
∴ IARI released varieties : Pusa Ujwal, Pusa Rohani, DT-1, NSS etc
∴ Extreme early variety: Hisar Aruna
∴ Indeterminate type : Pusa Rubi, Arka sourav, Pant bahar, Best of all, Pusa divya
∴ Pusa sadabahar – for high and low temperature region
∴ Pusa Sheetal – for low temperature region
∴ Pusa H-1 – for high temperature region
∴ Arka Meghali is suitable for Rainfed condition.
∴ Arka Vikas is suitable for Drought condition.
∴ Selction-120: 1st root knot nematode resistant variety.
∴ Early blight resistant : EEB-2
∴ Nematode and Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Arka vardan
∴ Bacterial wilt resistant varieties: Shakti, Arka Alok, Arka Abha, Sonali
∴ Leaf curl resistant varieties: Hisar Gaurav, Hisar Anmol.
∗ Most important nutrients required for tomato cultivation are Boron & zinc
∗ Foliar spray of PCPA (20 ppm) is very effective in increasing fruit se ing and
yield.
∗ Sowing:
Sowing time: In Plains areas – July to August
S owing time:
– Oct to Dec
Autumn/winter season
e Summer season – March to April
Seed rate : 300-350 gm/ha

Spacing : 60cm×45 cm
Transplanting: about 3-4 weeks old seedlings are selected.
∗ Irrigation is applied at an interval of 8-10 days.
∗ Borax @ 20-25 kg/ha is sprayed during fruit formation stage for proper fruit
development.
∗ Harvesting stages
1. Mature green stage – for distant market/transportation
2. Pink stage – for local market
3. Pink to light red stage – for home/table use
4. Red ripe stage – for canning use/seed production.
∗ The average yield of tomato crop is about 200-250 qt ha–1, where as for hybrid
tomato, it is 400-500 qt ha–1
∗ F or artificial ripening, tomatoes are harvested at green stage and kept under
room temperature (15-25ºC) and then Ethrel @1000-2000 ppm/litre. of water
is sprayed for ripening.
∗ Methods of extraction of tomato seed:
1 . A lkali method – Best and safest method, S eed slurry treated with 10 per cent
washing soda (Ca. carbonate) and kept for overnight.
2. Fermentation method – Ripe fruits are crushed and then kept for 2-4 days at 15-
24ºC.
3. A cid fermentation method – 250 ml of HCL is treated with 10 ml of seed slurry
and kept for 30 minutes.
Storage Conditions
Mature Green Pink Ripe
Temperature 13–18 ºC 10–13 ºC 7–10 ºC
Relative Humidity 85–90% – –
Storage Period 2–3 weeks 7–10 days 3–5 days
∗ Sensibility to – Refrigeration and Freezing.

∗ Disorders of tomato:
∴ Fruit cracking & Puffiness – Boron (B) deficiency
v Blossom end rot – Calcium (Ca) deficiency
v Blotchy ripening – Potassium (K) deficiency and imbalance of N
∗ Root knot nematode is a very serious pest for tomato plant.
∗ Leaf curl disease is caused by virus and transmitted through Bemasia tabaci.
∗ Treatment for Quality – Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
∗ System of Rice Intensification (SRI) is one such alternative, integrated and agro-
ecological sound approach that claims to boost yield with fewer plants and
fewer inputs resulting lower cost to farmers and save 50 to 60 per cent of
nutrient use efficiency compared to conventional practice.
∗ Retting – A biochemical process in which fibre plants like sunhemp, jute etc are
kept in water for few days to safer the fibres and easily repeated out from
the stalk.
∗ Soybean is called as wonder crop because of richest, cheapest and earliest
source of best quality protein and fats.
∗ Potato is known as World food and poors man’s food.
∗ Golden rice is known as Genetically modified rice.
∗ Real value of seed =
∗ Tetraploid varieties of Berseem are winter hardy, quick growing, very leafy and
succulentus. However, regrowth after harvest (cu ing) is not possible, if
day temperature goes beyond 27ºC in the month of A pril. D ipoid varieties
are succeptible to extremely low and very high temperature, but still they
perform be er as compared to tetraploid during A pril and May when
temperature is above 27ºC.
∗ Highly lime required crops – Soybean and Sugarbeet
∗ Salt tolerant crops – Sugarbeet and Barley
∗ Drought tolerant crops – Sorghum, Pearlmillet and Barley
∗ IR-36 rice variety has highest coverage of the world.
∗ The polish percentage in paddy – 2 per cent
∗ Soybean is also called as yellow jewel.
∗ Present cultivated varieties of soybean are yellow seeded varieties.
∗ Early maturing bold & black seeded urdbean – Vigna mungo var. niger
∗ Bacterial nodules are formed mostly on the secondary roots in all legumes.
∗ Square is the appearance of flower bud in co on, whereas Tirak is the bad
opening of flower in cotton.
∗ Ragi is known as poor man’s grain.
∗ Sunflower moves towards sun due to auxins activity.
∗ The head of sunflower is called as ‘Capitulai’.
∗ Ray floret of sunflower head meant for beautifulness, while disk floret form
male and female flower.
∗ S unflower is Protandrous in nature (male and female flower parts mature at
different time about 18-24 hours difference).
∗ For harvest of sugarcane, the brix ratio of the lower and above portion of the
stem should be 0.9-1.0.
∗ Lathyrus is normally grown as utera crop, while Lentil is as relay crop.
∗ For hybrid variety release, we use:
1. Rice – CMS line
2. Pigeonpea – GMS line
3. Maize (DCH) – CGMS line
4. Chilly – GMS line
∗ Contribution of flag leaf in photosynthesis is 52 per cent.
∗ Maize is the crop, having susceptibility to both excess moisture and drought.
∗ As groundnut is a fruit, while potato is modified stem.
∗ Recently developed Terminator technology is used in cotton.
∗ T he first G M potato (Proteto) developed at CPRI , S himla for increasing protein
content in tubers consists of genes form Grain amaranthus.
∗ Choulfi method of co on cultivation is a square planting method used in
Maharashtra with a normal spacing of 50cm x 50cm.
∗ Neelum, Hira, Mukta and K-2 are the varieties of linseed.
∗ H-777 is a cotton variety.
∗ Type-44 (a moong variety) is suitable for cultivation in both rainy and summer
season.
∗ Cowpea is also known as vegetable meat, used as vegetable, pulse, fodder and
green manure crop.
∗ Varieties of cowpea:
1. Grain + fodder purpose - Type 2, C152 and Cowpea74
2. Grain + vegetable purpose - FS68
3. Fodder purpose - Sirsa10, Rassian giant, CO 18
∗ Horse gram is a ideal catch crop raised for fodder purpose.
∗ RMO-40 is a wonder variety of moth bean.
∗ Napier grass does not produce viable seeds, hence it is vegetatively propagated.
∗ The fodder which has maximum protein content (on dry wt. basis) – Lucerne.
∗ Variety released from public sector – Pusa Chari Hybrid 106
∗ Rapeseed and mustard contain 38-57 per cent erucic acid.
∗ Genes used in crops:
1. Rice – Dee-gee-woo-gene
2. Maize – Opequa-2, T-cytoplasm
3. Wheat – Norin (Rh1, Rh2)
4. Bajra – Tift-23 D1A
Chapter 6
Irrigation Water Management
(A) CONCEPT OF IRRIGATION

Irrigation
I rrigation is the artificial application of water to land for growing crops or
trees.
I rrigation is the artificial application of water for the purpose of supplying
moisture essential to plant growth. (Hansen et al., 1980)
Purpose of Irrigation
∗ To add water to the soil for supplying the moisture essential for the plant
growth
∗ To provide crop insurance against short duration drought
∗ To cool the soil atmosphere, thereby making more favourable environment for
plant growth
∗ To washout or dilute salts in the soil
∗ To reduce the hazards of soil piping
∗ To soften the tillage pans
Advantages of Irrigation
1. I rrigation plays a key role in increasing food production to feed the expanding
population
2. I rrigation can ensure a stable production in traditional dryland farming
systems, subjected to frequent vagaries of rainfall
3. I rrigation can prolong the effective growing period in areas with dry seasons,
plant permitting multiple cropping and employment generation
4. With the security of cropping under irrigation, additional inputs (tillage,
fertilizers, plant protection etc) become economically feasible
5. Irrigation reduced the risk of expensive inputs being wasted by drought
Adverse Effects of Excess Irrigation
1. I rrigation without appropriate drainage leads to land degradation
(waterlogging and soil salinisation) leading to reduce crop productivity
2. Ground water pollution, especially with nitrates, due to seepage of water
carrying nitrate from applied fertiliser to the ground water
3. I rrigation may lead to colder and damper climate conductive to out break of
pests and diseases.
∗ Infiltration (movement of water into soil)

First entry of water from the upper layer of soil, generally occurs in unsaturated
soil.
∗ Percolation
Vertical or downward movement of water from different soil layer, generally
occurs in water saturated soil.
∗ Seepage
Horizontal flow of water in irrigation channels or through canals.
∗ Leaching
Downward movement of nutrients and salts from the root zone with the water.
∗ Runoff
The flow of excess water from the field after saturation of soil.
∗ Life saving irrigation
It is also known as contingency irrigation
1. Supplemental irrigation applied to dry land crops
2. The land is not prepared for irrigation
3. I rrigation water is applied to the fields by dividing them into plots of 20-25 m
width with a small bund to guide the water
Disadvantage: 1) Uneven distribution of water required more labour
∗ Kor watering
Crop water requirement is nor uniform all through base period. The first watering
is known as Kor watering.
∗ Duty of water
Volume or quantity of water required for irrigation to bring a crop to maturity
Duty of water =
∗ Base period
The period (days) during which irrigation water is supplied to the crop.
∗ Delta
D elta is the total depth of water (cm) required by a crop during its duration in the
field.
∗ Rostering/Water regulation
The process of distribution of irrigation water.
∗ Palco
Palco is the first irrigation before sowing the crop for seed germination and
seedling establishment.
∗ Irrigation requirement
I.R. = (WR) – (ER + GW)
where, WR = Water requirement, ER = Effective rainfall, GW = Ground water
∗ Irrigation Efficiency:
“The percentage of applied irrigation water stored in the soil and made available
for consumptive use by the crop”.
I. E. =
∗ Irrigation period
I.P. =
(B) WATER RESOURCES IN INDIA

∗ Average annual rainfall (1250 mm over 329 mha) over the country is about 400
mha.m.
∗ O ut of the 400 m.ha.meter of rainfall – 75 per cent is received by S -W monsoon
period (June-Sept) and rest 25 per cent in remaining 8 months.
3
∗ Water availability per capita is 2300m /year.
∗ A nnual water resources in the various river basins is estimated to be about 187
mha.m. and the rechargeable ground water resources is 43.2 mha.m. I t
means the total water availability in the country is about 230 mha.m.
IRRIGATION PROJECTS
1. Major I rrigation Projects - Projects covering >10,000 ha of catchment command
area
2. Medium Irrigation Projects - 2,000 - 10,000 ha of catchment command area
3. Major Irrigation Projects - Less than 2,000 ha of catchment command area
(C) SCHEDULING OF IRRIGATION

“I rrigation scheduling is the process of determining when to irrigate and how
much water to apply”.
Why Need of Irrigation Scheduling
1. For maximize water use efficiency
2. To maximize yield
3. To increase cropping intensity
4. Improve and quality produce
5. To maintain soil and environmental balance
Purpose of Irrigation Scheduling
“To maximize irrigation efficiency by applying the exact amount of water
needed to replenish the soil moisture to the desired level.”
Effect of Poor Scheduling of Irrigation
1. Non efficient use of irrigation water and production inputs i.e. fertilizers
2. Lower crop yield
3. Decrease in production per unit of water
Scheduling of Irrigation is Based on
(a) When to irrigate
(b) How much to irrigate
(a) When to Irrigate
1. More nutrient availability and most crops taken up water when soil moisture is
near field capacity
2. Maximum production when irrigation is given at 50 per cent soil moisture
content in root zone of the crop
3. Determination of soil moisture content by:
a) Gypsum block
b) Tensiometer
c) Gravimetric method
(b) How much to Irrigate
It is the net quantity of water to be applied
The quantity of water given for irrigation is depend upon the amount of
available moisture in the soil.
Approaches of Irrigation Scheduling
1. Soil moisture depletion approaches
2. Climatological approaches
3. Plant approaches
(1) Soil Moisture Depletion Approaches
(a) The available soil moisture is between field capacity (-1/3 bar) to wilting point
(-1/15 bar).
(b) For crops like maize, wheat, rice-25 per cent depletion of available soil
moisture is adequate.
(c) For drought resistant crop like sorghum, bajra, co on - 50 per cent depletion of
available soil moisture is adequate.
(d) I rrigation water applied at a predetermined soil moisture tension at a specific
depth by tensiometer at 0.85 bar.
(e) S oil moisture content is estimated by farmers by feel and appearance of soil
condition.
(2) Climatological Approaches
(a) It is also termed as Book Keeping Method.
(b) It is related to the rate of consumptive use by crops and rate of evaporation.
(c) D ifferent methods used are I W /CPE ratio method, US W B – Class A pan
evaporimeter measurement method.
(d) A fixed amount of irrigation water (I W ) is applied when cumulative pan
evaporation (CPE) reaches a predetermined level. The amount of water
given at each irrigation ranges from 4-6 cm (5 is most common).
(e) I rrigation scheduled at I W /CPE ratio of 1.0 with 5 cm of I W means 5 cm of
irrigation water is applied when cumulative pan evaporation reaches 5 cm.
(f) This technique is simple, rapid, reliable and has high extension value.
(3) Plant Approaches
A ny plant character relative directly or indirectly to plant water deficit which
respond readily to influence soil water, plant and evaporation demand of
atmosphere may serve as a critieria for timing of irrigation to plant
(a) I ndicator plant – The plant under moisture stress indicates the change in
colour of leaf i.e. Co on, beans, groundnut, alfalfa etc. Sunflower show
wilting symptoms.
(b) Relative water content
(c) Leaf water potential
(d) Plant temperature
(e) Water diffusion resistant
(f) Computer modelling
(g) Cell elongation rate
But these methods require extensive research, expensive equipments and
standardization.
(D) IRRIGATION WATER MEASUREMENT
S everal devices are commonly used for measuring irrigation water. They
grouped into four categories
1. Volumetric Methods
2. Velocity Area Methods
(a) Float Method
(b) Water Meters
3. Measuring Structures/Devices
(a) Orifices
(b) Weirs
(c) Flumes
4. Tracer Methods
1) Volumetric Methods (Using a container)
A simple method of measuring a small irrigation stream is to collect the flow in
container of known volume for a measured period. A n ordinary bucket or barrel is
used as container. The time required to fill the container is recorded with a
stopwatch or with seconds on wristwatch. The rate of flow is measured as below:
Discharge rate liter/second =
PRO BLEM: A 24 liter capacity bucket is filled in 10 seconds by discharge from a
Persian wheel. What is rate of flow?
Solution: Discharge ratio lt./sec = = 2.4 lt./sec or 144 lt./min.
2) Velocity Area Method
(a) Float Method
To determine the velocity of water at the surface of the channel, the length of
the trial section is divided by the average time taken by the float to cross it. S ince
the Velocity of the float on the surface of the water will be greater than the
average velocity of the stream; it is constant factor, which is usually assumed to be
0.85. To obtain the rate of flow, this average velocity (measured velocity x co-
efficient) is multiplied by the average cross sectional area of the stream.
Q=A×V
where,
Q: Discharge rate in m3/sec.,
v: Velocity of flow in m/s
a: Cross section al area of channel in m2
(b) Water Meters
Water meters utilize a multi blade propeller made of metal, plastic or rubber,
rotating in a vertical or horizontal plane and geared to a totaliser in such a way
that a numerical counter can totalize the flow in any desired volumetric units,
water meters are available for a range of sizes suiting the pipe size commonly
used on the farm.
Basic requirements for accurate operation of the water meter are:
1. The pipe must flow full at all times.
2. The rate of flow must exceed the minimum for the rated range.
Meters are calibrated in the factory and field adjustments are usually not
required. W hen water meters are installed in open channels, the flow must be
brought through the pipes of known cross sectional area. Care must be taken that
no debris or other foreign materials obstruct the propeller.
3) Water Measuring Devices
(a) Orifices
O rifices in open channel are usually circular or rectangular openings in vertical
bulk head through which water flows. The edges of opening are sharp and often
constructed of metal. The cross sectional area of orifice is small in relation to the
stream cross section. O rifice may operate under free flow or submerged flow
conditions. The types of orifices are:
(b) Weirs
Weir means a notch in a well built across a stream which is used to measure
the flow in a irrigation channel, or the discharge of a well or canal outlet at a
source.The notch may be (a) rectangular (b) Trapezoidal and (c) 90 degree V
(Triangular) notch or weir. Weirs measures the flow in an irrigation channel or
discharge of a well or channel outlet.
1. Common weir type for water measurement in canal - Broad crested weir,
Parshall flume Cut throat weir
2. Volumetric method of water measurement - Furrows, Sprinklers and Drippers
3. If water flow from the pipe - Venturi meter
4. Measuring uniform flow of water - Rectangular and Trapezoidal weir
5. For highly variable water flow and desired greater - Triangular and Parabolic
weir accuracy
* 90º V notch weirs measure small and medium size streams.
(c) Parshall Flume or (Venturi flume)
Parshall flume is a device in which the discharge is obtained by measuring the
loss in the head caused by forcing a stream of water through a throat or converged
section of a flume with a depressed bo om. The loss in head is very small in this
device. The accuracy of measurement in the Parshall flume is within allowable
limits of 5 per cent the flumes ranging from 3 inches to 10 feet throat width are
used, which gives the range of discharge of 1/30 to 200 cusecs. The flumes of 3, 6
and 9 inch size are generally used in field measurement.
* Parshall/Venturi flume is the most common water flow measuring device
which measures water flow in open conduit.
Cut-throat flumes: Cut-throat flumes are developed for measurement of water.
S ince there is no throat section (Zero throat flumes), the flumes have been given
the name as out throat flumes by the designers.
4) Tracer Methods
These methods are independent of stream cross section and are suitable for
field measurements with out installing fixed structures. I n these methods, a
substance (tracer) is concentration form is introduced into flowing water and
allowed to thoroughly mix. The concentration of the tracer is measured at down
stream section. S ince only the quantity of water is necessary to accomplish the
dilution is involved, there is no need to measure velocity, depth, and head, cross
sectional or any other hydraulic factor usually considered in discharge
measurement.
The relationship between size of stream, time of application, area to be
irrigated and depth of water to be applied is as below:
Qt = ad
where,
Q: Size of stream or discharge (liter/second) or (ha. cm per hour)
t: The time of application of water (seconds or hour)
a: Area (sq. m or hectare)
d: D epth in cm that the volume of water used would cover the land irrigated, if
quickly spread uniformly over its surface.
(E) METHODS OF IRRIGATION

Methods of Irrigation
1. Surface method
2. Sub surface method
3. Micro methods
1) Surface Irrigation Methods
(a) Flooding
(b) Check basin
(c) Ring basin
(d) Border strip
(e) Furrow method
(f) Surge method
(a) Flooding
1. Used for lowland rice and other crops.
2. Water is allowed from the channel into the field without much control on either
sides of the flow.
3. It covers the entire field and move almost unguided.
4. The height of bunds around the field should be 15 cm for effective use of
rainfall.
5. It is a minimum labour intensive method.
6. Most suitable to irrigated saline soils.
Advantage
1. Less labour required
2. No extra care required
3. Large stream can be easily managed.
Disadvantage
1. Uneven distribution of water,
2. Low water application efficiency.
(b) Check Basin
1. Most common method of surface irrigation.
2. The field is divided into small plots surrounding by small bunds on all four
sides.
3. Water from head channel is supplied to the field channel one after another.
4. Each field channel supplied water to 2 row of check basin and water is applied
to one basin after another.
5. The size of check basin ranges from 4 m x 3 m to 6 m x 5 m depending upon
stream size and soil texture.
Advantages
1. Uniformly water application,
2. S uitable for those fields which are quite large and not easy to level the entire
field.
Disadvantage
1. More labour required for field layout and irrigation
2. Wastage of field/land is more under irrigations and bunds. Mostly 5 per cent of
land is waste for making bunds.
(c) Ring Basin Method
1. Basins around the trees are made.
2. It is suitable for fruit trees.
3. It enhances the water use efficiency and fewer losses.
4. Basins are generally round in shape and occasionally square shaped.
5. Basins are small when the fields are young and the size is increased with age of
trees.
6. Basins are connected by channel irrigation.
(d) Border Strip Method
1. Field divided into number of strips by bunds of around 15 cm height.
2. These parallel earth ridges (called border) are formed to guide the flow of the
water across the field.
3. Length of strip ranges from 30m – 50m, while width is from 3m - 5m
4. The slope ranges from 0.1-1 per cent.
5. Water from the channel is allowed into each strip at a time
6. This method is suitable for close growing crops and medium to heavy texture
soils, but not suitable for sandy soils.
Advantages
1. Large irrigation streams can be efficiently used,
2. This method gives highest water use efficiency than other surface irrigation
methods.
Disadvantages
1. No uniform distribution of water.
2. This method can not applied for sandy soil.
(e) Furrow Method
1. Furrows are formed along or across the slope and water from pipes is diverted
into the furrows.
2. Water infiltrate from the bo om and sides of the furrow moving downward and
laterally to wet the soil.
3. Water is allowed into 3-5 furrows at a time from open ditches and or pipes.
4. This method is adapted to crops grown with ridges and furrows.
5. This method is suitable for crops i.e. S orghum, co on, maize, tobacco, potato,
sugarcane etc.
(f) Surge Method
1. I ntermi ent application of water to the field surface under gravity flow which
results in a series of “O n and O ff” modes of constant or variable time
spans.
Advantages
1. Infiltration uniformity is increased,
2. D eep percolation is reduced compared to continuous water application due to
intermittent wetting and drying process.
2) Sub Surface Irrigation Method
1. Through under ground perforated pipes or through deep trenches at 15-30 m.
intervals water gradually wet root zone through capillary movement.
Advantages
1. Evaporation loss is less due to dry surface
2. Less weed management
3. Deep trenches should be made for drainage.
Disadvantages
1. Deep percolation through trenches.
2. Maintenance of pipe lines is difficult
3. High initial cost
3) Micro Irrigation Methods
(a) Sprinkler irrigation
(b) Drip Irrigation
(a) Sprinkler Irrigation
1. Water is applied as spray or as rain over the crop.
2. Rate of water delivery is > 1000 litre/hrs.
3. I t operates at the pressure of > 2.5 bar and through water as a spray upto the
distance of > 10 m.
Advantages
1. Uniform distribution of water.
2. Saving of water from 25-50 per cent.
3. Saving of land 10-20 per cent.
4. Irrigation area is increased by 1-2 times with the same amount of the water.
5. No risk of runoff and erosion.
6. Suitable for undulating land and steep sloppy.
7. Suitable for areas where water and labour scarcity.
8. Suitable for saline soils to leach salts.
Disadvantages
1. Not followed under high wing velocity (>12 km/hour).
2. High initial costs.
3. High energy is required (0.50 to >10 kg/cm2).
4. More spreading of diseases.
5. Can not be used for rice and jute crops.
(a) Drip Irrigation: Discovered in Israel
1. It is also known as trickle irrigation.
2. Discharge rate of water per dripper is 1-4 litre/hrs.
3. it consists of main line, sub pipe line, laterals and emitters.
4. The discharge is from emitters.
5. The irrigation interval is 1-4 days.
6. It saves 50-70 per cent water.
Advantages
1. Well suited for areas of acute water shortage.
2. Minimization of soil erosion and deep percolation and runoff losses.
3. Water is maintained at field capacity.
4. Salt concentration is less.
5. No land leveling is necessary.
6. Herbigation and Fertigation can also be applied.
7. Less disease and weed infestation.
Disadvantages
1. Clogging of emitter.
2. Damage to lateral systems due to rodents and other animals.
3. Salt accumulation near plants due to lack of sufficient moisture for leaching.
4. High initial cost.
5. Most suitable for wider spaced orchard crops and sugarcane.
6. Inadequate root development.
Comparative Study Between Sprinkler and Drip Irrigation
Sl.No. Particulars Sprinkler Irrigation Drip Irrigation
1. Form of water Spray or rain Drop
2. Rate of delivery > 1000 litre/hrs 1-4 litre/hr
3. Water saves 25-50 per cent 60-70 per cent
4. Land saving 10-16 per cent -
Uniform application of water
5. Uniformity Root zone application
(up to10 m)
Undulating land, sandy soil, Wider spaced crop, orchard and
6. Suitable for areas where water and labour vegetable garden, areas where
scarcity is common, saline soil acute water shortage
Efficient and technical labour
7. Not used under High wind velocity
scarcity
Irrigation Methods Suitable for Different Crops

Sl.No. Irrigation Method Crops
1. Flooding : Rice and Jute
2. Check basin : Groundnut, Pulses, Finger millet
3. Border strip : Close growing crops

Co on, Maize, T obacco, P otato, S orghum, S ugarcane,
4. Furrow :
Vegetables
5. Surge : Maize, Sorghum
Corrugation (shallow and small
6. : Wheat, Groundnut, Setaria sp.
furrow)
7. Drip : Sugarcane
8. Sprinkler : Vegetable and fruit crops
Moisture Sensitive (Critical) Stages of Major Crops

Sl.No. Crop Sensitive Stages
1. Rice Panicle initiation, flag leaf and milky stage
2. Sorghum Booting and flowering
3. Maize Silking and tasseling
4. Pearlmillet Booting and flowering
5. Finger millet Flowering
6. Groundnut Peg penetration and pod development
7. Sunflower Head formation and early grain filling
8. Sesame Flowering
9. Soybean Flowering and pod filling
10. Mustard Flowering and Siliqua development
B lackgram and
11. Flowering and early pod development
Greengram
12. Cotton Square formation and boll formation and development
13. Sugarcane Cane formation (Upto 120 days after sowing)
14. Tobacco Topping
15. Banana All stages especially shooting stage
16. Tomato Flowering and fruit development
17. Onion Bulb formation and development
18. Flower crops Bud formation and development
19. Ornamental Flowering
(F) CONCEPT OF AVAILABLE SOIL MOISTURE

∗ The range of available water that can be stored in soil and be available for
growing crops is known as available soil water/moisture.
∗ I t is the difference between the amount of water in the soil at field capacity and
the amount at the permanent wilting point referred to as the available water
or moisture.
∗ Readily available water (RAW ) is that portion of available water which the crop
use without affecting its evapotranspiration and growth. This portion is
often indicated as a fraction of available water which is dependent primarily
on the type of crop and evaporative demand. Many shallow rooted crops,
such as most vegetables, require high moisture levels for acceptable yields.
Deeper rooted crops will generally tolerate higher depletions.
∗ The water readily available to plants is the difference between water content at
field capacity (θfc ) and permanent wilting point (qpwp):
θa º θfc – θpwp
the term availability involves two notions: (a) the ability of plant root to absorb
and use the water with which it is in contact and (b) the readiness or
velocity with which the soil water moves in to replace that which has been
used by the plant.
∗ The water is readily absorbed by the plant roots between field capacity
(–0.33 bar) to Permanent wilting point (-15 bar).
1) Field Capacity
∗ Field capacity is the amount of soil moisture or water content held in soil after
excess water has drained away and the rate of downward movement has
materially decreased, which usually takes place within 2–3 days after a rain
or irrigation in pervious soils of uniform structure and texture. The physical
definition of field capacity (expressed symbolically as θfc ) is “the bulk water
content retained in soil at -33 J /kg (or -0.33 bar) of hydraulic head or suction
pressure”.
∗ Field capacity (FC) is the amount of water that a soil can hold against drainage
by gravity. This usually occurs between 1/10 atm. (coarse soils) and 1/3 atm
(heavy soil).
∗ Field capacity is considered as upper limit of available water.
∗ Field capacity is characterised by measuring water content after we ing a soil
profile, covering it (to prevent evaporation) and monitoring the change in
soil moisture in the profile. Water content when the rate of change is
relatively small is indicative of when drainage ceases and is called Field
Capacity, it is also termed drained upper limit (DUL).
2) Permanent Wilting Point (PWP) or Wilting Point (WP)
∗ The soil moisture content at which the plant will wilt and die. W hile there still
may be water in the soil, the plant is not able to extract sufficient water
from the soil to meet it’s needs.
∗ Permanent wilting point (PW P) is the moisture content of a soil at which plants
permanently wilt and will not recover. This occurs between 10 and 20 atm.
of tension.
∗ Permanent wilting point is defined as the minimal point of soil moisture that
plant requires not to wilt.
∗ I f moisture decreases to this or any lower point a plant wilts and can no longer
recover its turgidity when placed in a saturated atmosphere for 12 hours.
∗ The physical definition of the wilting point (symbolically expressed as èpwp or
èwp) is defined as the water content at -1500 J /kg (or -15 bars) of suction
pressure, or negative hydraulic head.
∗ PW P values under field conditions are not constant for any given soil, but are
determined by the integrated effects of plant, soil and atmospheric
conditions.
∗ PWP is considered as lower limit of available water.
∗ Kinds of soil water:
1. Gravitational water
2. Capillary water
3. Hygroscopic water
G ravitational water: Water in the micropores that moves downward freely under
the influence of gravity (< 1/3 bar) beyond the root zone is called
gravitational water. It is not available to plants.
Capillary water: Water retained by the soil in capillary pores (micropores), against
gravity (-1/3 to -31 bar) by the force of surface tension as continues film
around soil particles is called capillary water. I t is available for plant
growth.
H ygroscopic water: W hen water is held tightly as thin film around soil particles
by adsorption forces and no longer moves in capillary pores, is called
hygroscopic water. It flows at gravity of > -31 bar.
Factors Affecting Soil Water Availability
Fine textured soils have more water holding and retention capacity, so
1. Soil texture
more water availability.
Well aggregated soils have more retention of water, so have more
2. Soil structure
available water.
S oils with higher organic ma er have higher water holding, thus
3. Organic matter
more water is available for plants
L ess compact soils have higher number of total pore space which
4. Soil compaction
results in high water retention.
P resence of high soluble salts in the soil increase osmotic potential
5. Soluble salt
results in low available water content.
6. Soil depth High soil depth has high available water content.
∗ Saturation: O ccurs when all the voids in the soil are completely filled with
water. Although there is plenty of water available to the crop at saturation.
(G) EVAPOTRANSPIRATION
∗ Evaporation
"The process by which any liquid escapes from the surface into the atmosphere in gaseous
states is known as evaporation."
Evaporation of water from surface or free water surface is a diffusive process by which
liquid water in the form of vapour is lost in the atmosphere.
∗ Transpiration
Transpiration is the process in which soil water in the form of vapour leaves the
plant canopies and enters the surrounding atmosphere.
∗ Evapotranspiration
The cycle of water in the field consists of its entry into the soil (infiltration),
redistribution, downward drainage within the soil, uptake by the plants and
its return to the atmosphere in the twin process of transpiration and
evaporation.
The combine loss of water through evaporation and transpiration is called as
evapo-transpiration.
(H) WATER REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS
“Water requirements of a crop is the quantity of water needed for normal crop
growth and yield in a period of time to a place and may be supplied by
precipitation or by irrigation or by both”
Water is needed mainly to meet the demand of evaporation (E), transpiration
(T) and metabolic activity of plant together known as consumptive use (C.U.)
So, water requirement = IW + ER + S
I rrigation water + Effective rainfall + S oil profile contribution (I W , in cm) (ER,
in cm) (S)
Water Requirement of Different Crops
Sl.No. Crops Water Requirement (cm)
1 Rice 90-250
2 Wheat, Sorghum, Soybean, Tobbaco 45-65
3 Maize, Groundnut 50-80
4 Sugarcane 150-250
5 Soybean 45-70
6 Cotton 70-130
7 Potato 60-80
The period when water requirement is maximum is called as peak period of

water requirement/critical stages.
Critical Stages of Crops for Irrigation
Cereals:
1. Rice : Booting stage (PI to flowering)
2. Wheat : CRI, Tillering, Late jointing, Flowering, milking and dough stage
3. Maize : Tasseling and Silking to Dough Stage
4. Sorghum : Booting, Blooming, Milking and Dough Stage
5. Pearl millet : Heading and Flowering
6. Finger millet : Primordial Initiation and Flowering
Pulses:
1. Chickpea : Late vegetative phase and Pod development
2. Pea : Flowering and Early pod formation
3. Blackgram : Flowering and Pod setting
4. Greengram : Flowering and Pod setting
5. Lucern : After cutting and Flowering
6. Beans : Flowering and Pod setting
Oilseeds:
1. Groundnut : Flowering, Peg formation and Pod development
2. Soybean : Blooming and Seed formation
3. Sunflower : Buttoning, Knee high, Flowering and Early seed formation
4. Sesamum : Blooming to Maturity
(I) WATER USE EFFICIENCY

Water use efficiency means how to use limited quantity of water very
efficiently.
“Ratio of marketable crop produced per unit of water is known as water use
efficiency”. Water use efficiency is measured in kg/ha-cm.
Types: (1) Field WUE =
Types: (2) Crop WUE =
where,
ET: Evapotranspiration loss of water
S: Ground water contribution
D: Deep percolation losses
E: Evaporation loss
T: Transpiration loss
G: Metabolic use of plant
(J) IRRIGATION WATER QUALITY
∗ Water, either from precipitation or ground, never remains pure as the
movement it is converted into liquid form from vapour it gets mixed with
atmospheric gases and after reaching on the earth it is mixed with various
salts, minerals and even heavy metals.
∗ The prime contaminations of irrigation water are irons like sodium, calcium,
magnesium and potassium while anions are like carbonate bicarbonate,
chloride, sulphate and nitrate.
∗ The quality of irrigation water is mostly expressed on the basis of total salt
concentration in water, relative N a concentration to other cations,
bicarbonate content and boron concentration.
Evaluation of Salt Content in Irrigation Water (USSAR)
Salt Content (g l–1) Evaluation
0.2 to 0.5 : Water of the best quality
1 to 2 : Water causing salinity and alkalinity hazard
3 to 7 : Leaching and perfect drainage
US Soil Salinity Laboratory’s Grouping of Irrigation Water

EC Salt Concentration
Classification of Water Remarks
(m.mhos/cm) (g/lt)
C1 Low salinity water : 0 - 250 < 0.16 Safe
C2 Medium salinity water : 250 - 750 0.16 - 0.5 Needs leaching
C3 High salinity water : 750 - 2250 0.5 - 1.5 Not suitable
C4 Very high salinity water : 2250 - 5000 1.5 - 3.0 Not suitable
Bicarbonate Content of Irrigation Water

∗ Carbonate associates quickly with Ca and Mg and form CaCO3 and MgCO3. The
N a replaces Ca and Mg and synthesises N a2CO3 which again causes sodium
hazard (called as Residual Sodium Carbonate. RSC)
RSC in water (m.eq/l) Suitability for irrigation Remarks
> 2.5 : Not suitable for irrigation Needs gypsum
1.25 – 2.5 : Marginal Needs gypsum
Less than 1.25 : Safe –
Sodium Hazard of Irrigation Water

SAR =
Sodium Hazard Class SAR
Low : S1 <10
Medium : S2 10 - 18
High : S3 18 - 26
Very high : S4 26 - 31
Boron Hazard of Irrigation Water

Class Boron (ppm) Suitability
Normal water C1 <3 Ideal for all crops on all soils

L ow boron C All crops on heavy and medium
2 3-4
water soils
Medium boron C Can be used for most crops on
3 4-5
water heavy soils
C4 S emi-tolerate and tolerate crops

Boron water 5 - 10
on heavy soils
High boron C
5 >10 Not suitable for irrigation
water
Relationship Between EC, SAR and RSC (meq l–1)

Rating ECx103 SAR RSC
A Good : <2 < 10 < 2.5

B Normal : 2-4 < 10 < 2.5
C Sodic : < 4.0 > 10 > 2.5
D Marginally saline 4-8 < 10 0.0
E Poor > 8.0 < 10 > 2.5
(K) AGRICULTURAL DRAINAGE

∗ “D rainage (agriculture) is saturation of removal of excess water from the field to
ensure a favourable salt balance in the soil and water table optimum for
crop growth and developemnt”.
D rainage aims at maintenance of soil moisture within the range required for
optimum crop growth.
∗ Waterlogging: A land is called water logged when water stagnates or flow over
the soil surface.
Causes of Waterlogging
∴ Poor natural drainage.
&nbsvp; ∴ Spilling of river and continuous submergence.
∴ Poor irrigation management without considering soil properties.
∴ Heavy seepage from canal, distributaries and water sources.
∴ Development activities (road/bridges/railway lines chocking) of natural drains.
∴ Poor drainage system.
∴ Poor uptake of watersheds.
∴ Hydraulic pressure from upper irrigation areas/seepage in low lying areas.
Effects of Poor Drainage
∴ Causes relatively poor root growth.
∴ Accumulation of excess soluble salts in shallow water table.
∴ Reduction of soil strength.
∴ Oxygen diffusion is 10,000 times lesser than running water.
∴ Redox potential is – 400 mV.
∴ Accumulation of Co2, CH4, HCo3–, Co32– and H2S.
∴ Change in the pH and natural stabilization.
∴ Anaerobic microbes exits with low energy level.
∴ Reduced nutrient availability.
∴ Accumulation of toxicants (H2S, CH4).
∴ Poor crop growth/nutritional disorders and yield reduction.
∴ Can impair the N-nutrition of legumes by interfering with nodulation.
∴ Waterlogging injury caused primarily Mn toxicity occurs in plant species with
low inherent. Mn tolerance e.g. Lucerne
∴ D rainage coefficient (D C) is defined as the depth of water (cm) to be drained
in 24 hours period from the entire drainage area. D rainage of one ha cm (105
lt) in 24 hrs equals drainage of 1.157 litre per second (lps). D rainage
coefficient helps to determine drainage depth (drainage size). For open
ditches in small areas, DC ranges from 0.6 to 2.5 cm.
Methods of Drainage
1. Surface drainage
2. Sub-surface drainage
1) Surface Drainage
S implest and most common in I ndia by digging open drainage at suitable
intervals and depth
(A) Drainage of flat areas - < 2 per cent land slope
(i) Random system
(ii) Parallel system – ideal both in irrigated and rainfed areas, also known as Field
ditch system
(iii) Parallel ditch system – also known as Diversion ditch system
(iv) Bedding system – dead furrow formed, adopted when slope up to 0.5 per cent.
(v) Interception system – slope > 2 per cent, also known as Slope ditch system.
(vi) Broad bed & furrow system (BBF) – bed width 120-150 cm, furrow width 45 cm
and 15 cm raised, widely practiced in groundnut crop in clay soil.
v Minimum recommended size of tile is between 10 to 15 cm.
v Surface drainage is generally carried out by - Land shaping.
v The flow rate from soil to drains depends on:
1) Hydraulic conductivity of the soil (HC)
2) Depth of the drains
3) Horizontal spacing between drains
2) Sub-surface Drainage
A) Tile drains - < 2 per cent slope, it includes perforated pipes
(i) Gridiron system - Laterals are provided only on one side of mains
(ii) Herringbone system
(iii) Double main system
(iv) Cut off or intercepter - adopted when main source of drainage is from a hilly
land
B) Mole drains - Suitable for clay soils, made with the help of mole plough
C) Vertical drainage - D rainage by wells. Wells collect water through seepage and
collected water is pumped out.
D) Deep open drainage - Water collected by seepage
E ) Burried drainage - D raining channel is made below the ground surface and
thus filled with tiles, fibres or plastics.
∗ 1m3 = 1000 litre
1 litre = 1/1000 m3 = 1000 cm3
1 ha. cm = 100 m3
1 ha. m = 10,000 m3 = 1×107 lt.
∗ The volume (in litre) of one cusec flow of water in one hour is 3.6 x106.
∗ 1 cusec water discharge for 1 hour = 1,01,000 litre
∗ 1 bar = 1023 cm of water column = 0.99 atmosphere (kg/cm2) = 10–6 dynes/cm2
∗ pF value: p = potenz, F = force
“pF is a scale like pH through which we measure the force with which water is
retained in capillary or soil”. It is first time defined by Schoefield, 1935.
h
pF = Log10 , where h = soil moisture in cm of soil
∗ Flopping is wilting of tobacco due to water logging.
∗ TDR measures soil water content insitu.
∗ Soil moisture measurement is important for irrigation scheduling to estimate
how much water to irrigate. The soil moisture measuring instruments are:
1. I nstrument used under laboratory condition - Pressure plate membrane
apparatus
2. Instrument required quick and minimum equipment - Alcohol burning method
3. Instrument for in situ measurement - Neutron probe
4. Most widely used method - Gravimetric method
5. Standard method - Oven dry method
∗ Methods to estimate evapotranspiration (ET):
1. Best and widely followed method for measuring ET - Modified Penmann
2. Best and extensively used method for more than 1 month - Blaney and Criddle
∗ Modified Penmann method was proposed by Doorenbos and Prutt.
∗ Most widely used method to measure potential evapotranspiration (PET) is
Thornthwaite formulae
∗ Consumptive use of water is determined by (1) Lysimeter (2) water balance
method (3) empirical method.
∗ Cablegation is an automatic irrigation method, consisting of controlled rated
plug and gated system.
∗ Fertigation (Pressurised irrigation system) is a sophisticated and efficient
method of applying fertilizers or mineral fertilizers, in which the irrigation
system is used as the carrier and distributor of the plants. The synergism
and combination of water and nutrient leads to an efficient use of both by
the plant. The fertilizers, used in Fertigation are urea, ammonium sulphate,
DAP, MOP and potassium sulphate.
∗ Check irrigation is also known as check flooding, level border and flat bed
irrigation.
∗ Application efficiency of normal surface irrigation methods is 60 per cent.
∗ Water U se Efficiency (W UE) represents the amount of dry ma er that can be
produced from a given quantity of water and it is also described as wt. of
dry matter derived from a hectare centimetre of water.
∗ D rip irrigation method is most widely used in Maharashtra, while S prinkler
method in Karnataka and Haryana.
∗ World water day is celebrated on March 22 in every year.
∗ Ultimate irrigation potential of India is about 140 mha.
∗ Classification of soil water:
A. Physical -
1. Gravitational water: < - 1/3 bar
2. Capillary water: 1/3 to -31bar
3. Hygroscopic water: > - 31 bar
B. Biological -
1. Available water : 1/3 to -15 bar
2. Unavailable water : > -15
3. Super flow water : beyond field capacity
∗ Water in excess of field capacity is termed as Gravitational water.
∗ Runoff coefficient =
∗ Maharashtra has the highest area under drip irrigation.
∗ Haryana has the highest area under sprinkler irrigation.
∗ Spacing between drain (s) =
∗ Permissible limt of Fe in drinking water is 1 ppm.
Chapter 7
Watershed Management
WATERSHED
The word “watershed” introduced in 1920 was used for the “water parting
boundaries”. Watershed is that land area which drains or contributes runoff to a
common outlet.
Watershed is defined as a geohydrological unit draining to a common point by a
system of drains.
A watershed is an area of land and water bounded by a drainage divide within
which the surface runoff collects and flows out of the watershed through a single
outlet into a lager river or lake. Watershed technology is used in Rainfed areas.
Watershed management implies an effective conservation of soil and water
resources for sustainable production with minimum non point resources (N PS )
pollutant losses. I t involves management of land surface and vegetation so as to
conserve the soil and water for immediate and long term benefits to the farmers,
community and society as a whole.
Catchment area is the water collecting area. “All the areas from which water
flows out into a river or water pool”.
TYPES OF WATERSHED
Watershed is classified depending upon the size, drainage, shape and land use
pattern.
1. Macro watershed : 1000 - 10,000 ha
2. Micro watershed : 100 - 1000 ha
3. Mini watershed : 10 - 100 ha
4. Mili watershed : 1 - 10 ha
MAIN AIMS OF WATERSHED CONSTRUCTION

1. To harvest maximum total quantity of runoff water throughout the year for
irrigation and drinking purposes.
2. To reduce the peak rate of runoff for minimizing soil erosion and sediment
yield or to increase ground water recharge.
OBJECTIVES OF WATERSHED MANAGEMENT

1. To control damaging runoff and degradation and thereby conservation of soil
and water.
2. To manage and utilize the runoff water for useful purpose.
3. To protect, conserve and improve the land of watershed for more efficient and
sustained production.
4. To protect and enhance the water resource originating in the watershed.
5. To check soil erosion and to reduce the effect of sediment yield on the
watershed.
6. To rehabilitate the deteriorating lands.
7. To moderate the floods peaks at down stream areas.
8. To increase infiltration of rainwater.
9. To improve and increase the production of timbers, fodder and wildlife
resource.
10. To enhance the ground water recharge, wherever applicable.
MAIN COMPONENTS OF WATERSHED
1. Soil and water conservation,
2. Water harvesting and water management,
3. Alternate land use system.
Water Resources Development Plan
Water resource management plays a vital role in sustainable development of
watershed which is possible only through the implementation of various water
harvesting technique. The efficient way for sub-surface water storage, soil
moisture conservation or ground water recharge technologies should be adopted
properly under water resource development plan. The various measures adopted
under soil and water harvesting is:
∗ Vegetative barriers
∗ Building of contour bunds along contours for erosion
∗ Furrow/Ridges and Furrow ridge method of cultivation across the slope.
∗ Irrigation water management through drip and sprinkler methods.
∗ Planting of horticultural contour species on bunds.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PROGRAMMES
1. Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP)
Year of start : 1970-71
Objectives : A rea development programme through restoration of ecological
balance and optimum utilization of land, water, livestock and human resources to
mitigate the effect of drought.
2. Desert Development Programme (DDP)
Objectives : Mitigate the effect of drought in the desert area and restore
ecological balance.
3. National Watershed Development Programme for Rainfed
Agriculture (NWDPRA)
Objectives : To conserve and utilize rain water from both arable and non arable
lands on watershed basis. To increase the productivity of crops and to increase the
fuel, fodder and fruit resources through appropriate alternate land use system.
4. Control of Shifting Cultivation
Objectives : Restoring ecological balance in hilly areas and improving socio-
economic conditions.
5. World Bank Assisted Integrated Watershed Development
Project
Year of start : 1990
Objectives : To arrest the problems of environmental degradation and promote
sustainable increase in agriculture production and to enhance vegetative
technology of soil and water conservation for rain water conservation and for
increasing crop, forage, fuel wood and timber yield of the area.
WATERSHED MANAGEMENT PRACTICES
A. In Terms of Purpose
1. To increase infiltration
2. To increase water holding capacity
3. To prevent soil erosion
B. Method and Accomplishment
1. Vegetative measures/Agronomical measures:
(a) Strip cropping
(b) Pasture cropping
(c) Grass land farming
(d) Wood lands
2. Engineering measures/Structural practices :
(a) Contour bunding
(b) Terracing
(c) Construction of earthern embankment
(d) Construction of check dams
(e) Construction of farm ponds
(f) Construction of diversion
(g) Gully controlling structure
(i) Rock dam
(ii) Establishment of permanent grass and vegetation
(h) Providing vegetative and stone barriers
Rainwater Harvesting
Rainwater harvesting means collection and storage of rainwater by some
mechanism to make water available for future use. A n appreciable amount of
precipitation, which is generally lost as surface flow, can be harvested and stored
for useful purposes like drinking and providing supplemental irrigation to the
crops.
∗ Watershed is also called as Hydrological unit.
∗ The most important approach in micro watershed is soil conservation, soil
improvement and storage of run-off water.
∗ S ilt distension tanks (water storage structure) will recharge ground water and
ultimately used for protective irrigation.
∗ Insitu water harvesting is the potential life saving measure under moisture
stress.
∗ Micro catchments are beneficial because:
1. Increase moisture storage in deeper layer,
2. Suitable for all soils,
3. Specifically suitable for horticultural tree crops.
Chapter 8
Weed Management
WEED
∗ “Weed is an unwanted plant growing where it is not desired.” - Jethro Tull
∗ “Unwanted, undesirable plants that interfere with the utilization of land, water
resources and thus adversely affects the crop production and human
welfare”.
CHARACTERISTICS OF WEEDS
1 . Prolific seed production: Amaranthus spp. – 1,96,000 seeds/plant, Chenopodium
sp. 72,000 seeds/plant
2. Dormancy in seed: Chenopodium sp. - 20-25 years, Phalaris minor - 4-5 years
3. Competitiveness and A gressiveness: High and fast growth rate, having higher
leaf area
4. Vegetative propogated: Propogated by rhizomes, bulbs, tubers, stolens, suckers
etc.
5. Mophological similarities: Phalaris minor in wheat and Echinochloa sp. in rice
6. Deep root system: Roots of Convolvulus sp. has up to 20 feet deep roots, whereas
Cyperus rotundus has 5-7 feet deep.
7. Early seed setting and early maturity
8. Evasiveness
IMPORTANCE OF WEEDS WITH EXAMPLE
1. Maintain soil fertility : Typha spp. (add 1-35 per cent nitrogen)
2. Control soil erosion : Cynodon dactylon, Convolvulus arvensis
3. Used as fodder : Cichorium intybus, Cynodon spp.
Leucas aspera is used in snake bite Striga spp. is used in diabetes
4. Have medicinal value : Phyllanthus niruri is used in Jaundice Argemone maxicana is used in skin
disease
Roots of Cichorium intybus is used in adding flavour to coffee Cyperus
5. Have economical value : rotundus is used in making agarba i Saccharum spontaneum is used in
roof making
Argemone maxicana is used for making alkaline soil to acidic Rumex
6. Maintain pH :
acetocella is used for making acidic soil to alkaline
7. Used as ornamental plants : Lantana camara, Eichhornia crassipes
8. Used in cleaning water : Eichhornia crassipes
9. Adds organic matter to soil : Amaranthus viridis, Convolvulus arvensis
10. Used as vegetables : Chenopodium album, Amaranthus viridis
11. Religious purpose : Cynodon spp.
12. Useful for cottage industries : Saccharum spontaneum, Typha spp.
Donating genes to crop
13. : Saccharum spontaneum (used in sugarcane)
plants (crop breeding)
14. Used as nematicides : Crotolaria, Parthenium
15. Used as pollution indicator : Brassica kaber (Wild mustard) to indicate NO2 pollution
Stellaria redia (Chick weeds) to indicate SO2 pollution
CLASSIFICATION OF WEEDS
(A) Basis of Life Cycle
Annual: (a) Kharif: Eleusine, Echinochloa, Celosia, Cyperus
Annual: (b) Rabi : Argemone, Phalaris, Chenopodium, Euphorbia, Solanum sp.
Binnial: Dacus carota, Cirsium vulgare, Alternanthera pungens, Eichornia intybus
P errenial: Cyperus rotundus, Convolvolus, Cynodon sp., Ageratum conizoids,
Achyranthus, Saccharum spontanium, Zyziphus rotundifolia
(B) Basis of Site of Predominance
1. O bligate weeds : S uch weeds are grown in cultivated field, e.g. Anagallis,
Chenopodium
2. Facultative weeds: Grown both in wild and cultivated field, e.g. Argemone,
Euphobia
(C) Basis of Parasitic Nature
Parasitic Nature Weed Host Crop/Plant
1. Semi root : Striga spp. Sorghum & Sugarcane
2. Semi stem : Loranthus spp. Mango
3. Total root : Orabanchi spp. Tobacco
4. Total stem : Cuscuta spp. Lucerne
(D) Basis of Morphological Characteristics

1. Grasses : All graminaceous weeds, e.g. Avena, Cynodon, Echinochloa spp.
2. Sedges : All weeds belong to Cyperaceae family, e.g. Cyperus spp.
3. Broad leafy : All dicot weeds, e.g. Chenopodium, Camellina etc
(E) Other Basis
1. Relative weeds : Rice in wheat field.
2. Absolute weeds : Cyperus rotundus
3. Rogue : The off type crop varieties
4. Mimicry weeds : Phalaris in wheat field, wild rice in rice field
5. Noxious weeds : Parthenium sp. (difficult to control)
6. O bjectionable weeds : Convolvulus arvensis & Phalaris in wheat and wild rice in
rice field.
7. A ssociated weeds : Phalaris minor and Avena fatua in wheat, Echinochloa spp. in
rice
Explanation of Weed
Terms Explanation
Obligate weed : Cropped land weed
Facultative weed : Cropped along with wild land weed
P roblematic weed, whose seed once mixed with crop seed is extremely
Objectionable weed :
difficult to control/separate
Noxious weed : Undesirable, troublesome weed difficult to control
Satellite weed : Weed that become an integral part of at crop ecosystem
Parasitic weed : Weed that depends for its growth on its host plant
Aquatic Weeds
Submersed weeds : Weeds grow under water e.g. Lemma polyrrhiza
Emerged weeds : Anchored weeds growing in water with major foliage
on the above surface e.g. Nilumbium speciosum
Weeds grown mostly in shore line areas with a depth of 60-90 cm water
Marginal weeds :
e.g. Typha sp., Polygonum sp.
Weed leaves float on water surface either single or in cluster e.g. Echhornia
Floating weeds :
crassipes, Pistia, Nymphaea sp.
Noxious Weeds
1. Prohibited N oxious – Perennial weeds reproduce by the seeds, under ground
roots, stems or other parts and difficult to control.
2. Restricted N oxious – Perennial weeds objectionable in cropping areas but can
be controlled.
Ex. Parthenium hysterophorus
∗ Most problematic weeds are Solvinia molesta, Cyperus rotundus, Cynodon dactylon,
Echinochloa colona, Sorghum helepense etc.
Exotic/Alian Weeds
∗ Parthenium hysterophorus – Introduced from USA
∗ Lantana camara – Sri Lanka
∗ Tribulus terrestris – Mediterranean region
∗ Eichornia cresipes
Weed Ecology: “Interrelationship between weed plants and their environment”
or “Growth characteristics and their adoption that enable weeds to survive the
changes in the environment”.
A sound knowledge about the biology of weed plants that essential for their
effective management. This includes knowledge regarding propagation, dispersal
and persistency behavior of weeds.
Dormancy Mechanism of Weeds Seeds
1. Enforced dormancy – due to their presence in deeper layer
2. Innate dormancy – due to genetic factor (hard seed coat)
3. I nduced dormancy – due to imbalance of O2 and CO2, and water logging
condition
Major Weeds Flora Shifts in Cropping System
IMPORTANT WEEDS OF DIFFERENT CROPS

(A) Kharif crops:
E chinochloa spp., Cyperus spp., wild rice, Celosia sp., E clipta, Cynodon
1. Paddy :
sp.
P hyllanthus sp., Amaranthus sp., Johnson grass, Cynodon sp., Cyperus
2. Maize, Sorghum, Bajra : spp., Partulaca sp
.,
3. Soybean, Moong, : Phyllanthus sp., Solanum nigrum, Amaranthus sp., Wild
Urd, Arhar, oat, Johnson grass, Celosia sp., Kodo, Cynodon sp., Cyperus
Groundnut & Cotton spp., Partulaca sp.,
(B) Rabi crops:
Chenopodium sp., Anagallis sp., P halaris minor, Wild oat, Melilotus spp.,
1. Wheat and Barley : Cynodon sp., Cyperus spp., Convolvulus sp., Vicia hirsute, Asphodelus sp.
Gram, P ea, L entil, Fumaria parviflora, Anagallis sp., Chenopodium sp., Melilotus sp.,
2. P otato, Mustard & : Asphodelus sp., Cynodon sp., Cyperus spp., Convolvulus sp., Vicia
Linseed hirsute, wild safflower, Cyperus spp., Argemone maxicana
3. Berseem : Chicorium intybus, Cynodon, Anagallis, Cyperus spp.
4. Tobacco : Orobanche sp., Melilotus sp., Convolvulus sp., Cynodon, Cyperus spp.
5. Sugarcane : Most of kharif and rabi weeds
ECONOMIC LOSSES DUE TO WEEDS

1. Economic impact of weed on the I ndian economy is estimated about 2 decades
ago ranged from Rs.20 to 28 billion.
2. Recent study suggested that nearly one third of oilseeds, half of the foodgrains
and an equal amount of pulses produced currently are lost due to weeds.
3. I f proper weed management is adopted, an additional production of 103 mt of
foodgrains, 15 mt of pulses, 10 mt of oilseeds and 52 mt of commercial
crops per annum may be obtained.
4. This amounts to an additional income of Rs.1,05,036 crores per annum (D W S R
2007)
5. This can increase the share of agriculture in India’s GDP by 15 per cent.
6. At a conservative estimate, an amount of Rs.100 billion is spent on weed
management annually in India.
CRITICAL PERIOD OF CROP WEED COMPETITION
“The shortest time span during the crop growth when weeding results in
highest economic returns”
The crop yield level obtain by weeding during this period is almost similar to
that obtained by the full season weed free competition.
Critical Period of Crop-Weed Competition
Reduction in Grain
Crops Critical Period (Days)
Yield (per cent)
(A) Cereals:
Paddy - Direct sown 20-45 15-90
Paddy - Transplanting 30-45 15-40
Paddy - Upland condition Entire period 40-90

Wheat 30-45 20-40
Maize 15-45 40-60
Sorghum 15-45 15-40
Pearlmillet 30-45 15-60
(B) Pulses:
Pigeonpea 15-60 20-40
Green gram 15-30 25-50
Black gram 15-30 30-50
Cow pea 15-30 15-30
Chickpea 30-60 15-25
Peas 30-45 20-30
Lentil 30-60 20-30
(C) Oilseed:
Soybean 20-45 40-60
Groundnut 40-60 40-50
Sunflower 30-45 30-60
Castor 30-50 30-35
Safflower 15-45 15-40
Sesamum 15-45 15-40
Rapeseed mustard 15-40 15-30
Linseed 20-45 30-40
(D) Commercial crops:
Sugarcane 30-120 20-30
Potato 20-40 30-60
Cotton 15-60 40-50
Jute 30-45 50-80
(E) Vegetable crops:

Cauliflower 30-45 50-60
Cabbage 30-45 50-60
Okra 15-30 40-50
Tomato 30-45 40-70
Onion 30-75 60-70
ALLELOPATHY
“I nhibition or stimulation of target plant due to different chemicals exuded by
the weeds or crop”.
∗ The A llelopathy compounds may be released from the plants into the soil as
either root exudates or as decomposition product of their dead worm out
tissue. S ome weed plants have also been found to release volatile
compounds from their foliage which prove unhealthy to the nearby crop
plants.
∗ The A llelopathy chemicals are the derivatives of benzoic acids, cinnamic acids,
phenolic acids, benzo quinines, hydro quinines, cumarines, thiopens,
cineoles etc.
∗ Plants species show A llelopathy effect are Agrophyron repens, Sorghum helepense,
Lantana camara, Euphorbia maculate, Cyperus rotundus etc.
CROP WEED COMPETITION
“The mutual adverse effect between crop (s) and weed (s) for utilizing common
resources which are in short supply and required for growth i.e. nutrients, space,
light, moisture etc is called as crop weed competition”.
∗ The competition may be interspecific and or intraspecific.
∗ Crop weed competition effect is always negative.
STALE SEEDBED
“ A stale seedbed is one where initial one two flushes of weeds are destroyed
before planting of a crop”. This is achieved by soaking a well prepared field with
either irrigation or rain and allows the weed seeds to germinate.
At this stage, a shallow tillage or a non-residual herbicide like paraquat or
glyphosate may be used to control the dense flushes of young weed seedlings.
This may be followed immediately by sowing a desire crop.
CLASSIFICATION OF HERBICIDES
A) Acc. to Selectivity of Herbicides
1 . Selective herbicides : 2, 4-D , S imazine, Atrazin, Butachlor, Pendimethalin,
Fluchloralin, Fenoxaprop, Isoproturon etc.
2. Non-selective herbicides: Diquat, Paraquat, Pendimethalin etc.
B) Time of Application of Herbicides
1. Fallow application : A pplication of herbicides well in advance of sowing i.e. >10
days before sowing. It is applied for problematic weeds with higher dose.
2. Pre-plant incorporation: Applied 1 days before sowing/planting i.e. Fluchloralin,
Alachlor etc.
3 . Pre-emergence : 1-4 days after sowing, i.e. S imazine, Atrazin, Butachlor,
Pendimethalin, Alachlore, Chlorimuron etc.
4. Post-emergence : 30-40 D A S ,i.e. 2, 4-D , D iquat, Paraquat, I soproturon, D alapan,
Sulfosulfuron, Fenoxaprop ethyl.
C) Their Chemical Groups
Sl.No. Chemical Groups Associated Herbicides
S ulpho sulfuron, Chlorimuron-
1. Sulphonyl ureas :
ethyl, Meta sulfuron-ethyl
2. Aliphatic : TCA, Dalapan
3. Amide : Alachlor, Butachlor and Propanil
4. Bipyridiums : Paraquat, Diquat
5. Dinitroanilines : Fluchloralin, Pendimethalin
6. Chloro phenoxy compound : 2, 4-D, 2,4,5-T, 2,4-5T etc.
7. Triazines : Atazine, Simazine
8. Ureas : Monuron, Diuron, Isoproturon
9. Dipheyl ether : Nitrophen, Oxyflorefen
10. Phenoxy phenoxy alkanoic acid : Clodinofop, Fenoxa prop-ethyl
11. Thiocarbamate : Benthiocarb
12. Organophosphorus : Glyphosate, Anilophos
13. Imidazolines : Imazethapyr, Imazapic
METHODS OF HERBICIDES APPLICATION

A) Soil Application
1. Soil surface application ® Most of the Triazines, ureas and amide group
2. Soil application ® Anilines group i.e. Fluchloralines
3. Sub-surface application ® Only for deep rooted and perennial weeds
4. Band application ® Weeds in maize (spraying of Atrazine)
B) Folier Application
1. Blanket application ® A pplication of herbicides over the entire leaf area (only
selective herbicides)
2. D irect application ® A pplication of herbicides in between the crop rows
directly towards weeds.
3. S pot application ® Herbicide solution is poured on weeds in cropped and non
cropped fields infested with abnoxious weeds in isolated patches.
4. Basal application ® Brush wood and unwanted trees are treated with
herbicides. Generally, the bark of the trees at the base of the stem up to 30
cm height is removed and a drenching spray of herbicides is given to the
base.
HERBICIDAL SELECTIVITY
“W hen a herbicide is applied in a mixed plant population, herbicide harm or
kill target weeds whereas crop-plants are not affected. This phenomenon is called
selectivity”.
S electivity is mainly depending upon weed nature and dosage of herbicide. Ex.
Recommonded dose of Atrazine (0.5-1.0 kg/ha) kills weeds of sorghum, means it
acts as selective herbicide. But when Atrazine is applied at 10 kg/ha, it is non-
selective in nature.
TRADE NAME OF DIFFERENT HERBICIDES
Chemical Name Trade Name
Acifluorfen : Blazer
Acrolein : Aqualin, Weedazol
Anilophos : Azalin
Atrazine : Atratof, Anilogaurd
Alachlor : Lasso, Lazo
Butachlor : Machete, Delachlor
Benthiocarb : Saturn
Chlorimuron-ethyl : Classic, Kloben
Chlosulfuron : Glean
Chlorimuron 10 per cent + Metasulfuron-methyl 10 per cent : Almix
Diuron : Cormex
Diquat : Reglone, Dextrone
Dalapan : Tafapan, Radapan
Ethoxy sulfuron : Sunrise
Fluchloralin : Basalin
Fenoxa prop-ethyl : Puma super, Whip super, Rice star
Glyphosate : Roundup
Linuron : Afalan
Metalachlor : Dual
Metribuzine : Sencor
Nitrofen : Toke E-25
Oxiflurofen : Goal
Oxadiazone : Ronstar
Paraquate : Gramoxone
Pendimethalin : Stomp
Propanil : Stam F-34
Simazine : Tafasine
Sulfosulfuron : Leader
2, 4-D : Plantgard, Weedmar
2, 4-DB : Butoxone
PHYTOTOXICITY OF HEBICIDES
Herbicide Type Symptoms
Pre-emergence herbicides 1. Reduce germination
2. Suppresses crop growth
3. Produces deformility in crop plants
Post-emergence herbicides 1. Leaf injury
2. Wilting
3. Vein clearing
4. Necrosis
5. Epinasty
6. Hyponasty
7. Yellowing or chlorosis
8. Sunting or scorching
HERBICIDES AND THEIR RESPECTIVE MODE OF

ACTION
Herbicides Mode of Action
1. IPC : Causes of epindal to boundry layer
2. 2,4-D ethyl ester : Highly volatile - Abnormal cell division
3. 2,4-D sodium salt : Highly soluble - Abnormal cell division
4. Glyphosate : Non selective, translocated and zero persistence and
general metabolic inhibitors
5. Diquate : Disturb of cell permeability
6. Triazines group : Photosynthesis inhibitor
7. Atrazine : Selective (Conjugation)
8. Pendimethaline : Microtubule assembly inhibition
9. Paraquate : Contact herbicide; inhibition of DNA synthesis
10. Dinitroaniline : Inhibition of respiration
herbicides
11. Oxadiazone : Inhibition of CO2
12. Trifluralin : Inhibition of RNA synthesis
13. Btachlor and : Inhibition of protein synthesis and GA production
Alachlor during germination
14. Dalapan : Inhibition of vitamin synthesis
15. Thio-carbamate : Inhibition of lipid synthesis
16. Carbamate groups : Inhibition of cell division
17. Auxin type : Abnormal tissue development
herbicides
18. Propanil : Degradation or metabolism
19. 2,4-DB : Reverse metabolism
20. Paraquate, Diquate : Knock down effect
and Glyphosate
CHEMICAL WEED CONTROL OF FIELD CROPS
BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF WEEDS
Sl.No. Weeds Bio-agent Remark
1. Lantana camara Crosidosema lantani A moth
2. Opuntia spp.(Cactus) Cactoblastic cactorum An Insect
3. Cyperus rotundus Bactra varutana Shoot boring moth
4. Eichornia crassipes Rhizoctonia solani A fungus
5. Orabanchi spp. Sclerotia spp. A fungus
6. Xanthium stramarium Nupserha vextor A beetle
Chinese grass carp (T.
7. Aquatic weeds Grass carp fish
idella)
8. Parthenium hysteroforus Cassia cerassia/tora Competitive plant Mexican beetle
Zygrogramma bicolarata
9. Water hycinth Neochetina bruchi –-
Commercialized Bio-herbicides
Product Content Target Weeds Controlled
1. DEVINE Phytophthora palmivora Strangle vine
2. BIPOLARIS Bipolaris sorghicola Johnson grass
3. COLLEGO Colletrotrichum gloesporiodes Saccharum spontanium
4. TRIPOSE Shrimp Echinochloa spp. in rice
5. DR. BIO SEDGE Puccinia coriculata Cyperus exculentus
6. LUBOE-2 Colletrotrichum gloesporiodes Cuscuta reflexa
Volvet leaf in soybean and
7. VELGO Colletrotrichum coccoids
maize
Colletrotrichum gloesporiodes f.sp.
8. BIOMAL Cassia obtusifolia
malvae
9. ABG 500B Cercospora rodmanii Abutilon theopharsti
10. CASST Alternaria cassiae Morrenia odorata
Integrated Weed Management

“I ntegration of cultural, Mechanical, manual weeding, chemical and even
biological method for effective and long term weed control that are environmental
friendly”.
(A) Rice
1. Summer plough
2. Stale seedbed
3. Cropping system: Mono cropping - Rice
3. Cropping system: Double cropping - Rice + Wheat
3. Cropping system: Triple cropping - Rice + Wheat + Vegetable
4. Pre-emergence application of Butachlor @ 1.0 kg ai/ha.
5. Anilogaurd (for grasses) + 2,4-D (for broad leafy weeds)
6. Hand weeding at 30 DAS
7. Crop rotation: upland rice with lowland rice
8. Biological control
(B) Wheat
1. Two hand weeding: 1st at 20-25 days after sowing and 2nd after 2 weeks interval
2. Higher seed rate – decrease Avena fatua competition
3. Changing planting date
4. Competitive cultivars
5. Criss cross sown at 22.5 cm spacing
6. For grasses – Fenoxaprop-ethyl @ 100 gm ai/ha or Meta sulfuron @ 4 gm ai/ha at
30-35 days after sowing
7. For Broad leafy weeds – 2,4-D 80 per cent sodium salt @ 0.5 kg ai/ha at 30-35 days
after sowing.
8. For Phalaris minor and Avena fatua – I soproturon @ 1.0-1.5 kg ai/ha in 700-800 lt.
of water at 35 DAS.
(C) Soybean
1. 1-2 hoeing with khurpi or wheel hoe
2. Pendimethalin (Stomp 30 EC) @ 0.45 kg ai/ha (PRE)
3. Alachlor @ 1-2 kg ai/ha (PRE)
Herbicidal Resistancy of Weeds
“N atural occurring habitate ability of some weeds biotypes within a population
to survive against a herbicidal treatment”.
Ex. Phalaris minor – Isoproturon (in Punjab)
Echinochloa sp. – Propanil
Formulations of Herbicides
1. Soluble powder - 2,4-D sodium salt, Dalapan, TCA
2. Soluble Concentrates - 2,4-D amine aster, Diquat, Paraquat
3. We able Powder - Atrazine 80 per cent, S imazine 50 per cent, I soproturon
70WP
4. Liquid Suspension - Atrazine, Cyprazin, Nitralin
5. Emulsifiable Concentration - 2,4-D ester, Alachlor, Nitrofen
6. Granules - Granules of Butachlor, 2,4-DEE
Toxicity Category of Herbicides
Toxicity Category Acute Toxicity LD 50 (mg/kg) Colour of Triangle
Extremely toxic : 0-50 Bright Red
Highly toxic : 51-500 Bright Yellow
Moderate toxic : 501-5000 Bright Blue
Slightly toxic : > 5000 Bright Green

∗ Solvinia malesta is the world’s worst weed.
∗ H erbicidal selectivity – refers to the killing of target plant species in a mixed
population without harming or only slightly affecting another plants.
∗ Phalaris minor come in India in 1960.
∗ Agropyron repens is a soil binding grass.
∗ Eichornia cressipes is known as ‘weeds of fisherman’.
∗ 2, 4-D was discovered in 1940 and 1st time used in 1946.
∗ Herbigation - Application of herbicide along with irrigation eg. Benthiocarb in
paddy.
∗ Lay by application – I t is the application of herbicide after the last cultivation of
crops i.e. earthing up in sugarcane.
∗ Herbicides move or absorbed faster in young plants than in old ones.
∗ Mexican poppy (Argemon mexicana, weed) has Censer mechanism.
∗ A ll type of dormancy mechanisms (I nnate, I nduced and Enforced) exist in wild
oat.
∗ For control of aquatic weeds, 2, 4-D and Copper sulphate is used.
∗ Highest yield reduction through weeds is found in sugarbeet.
∗ A poplast herbicides absorb through roots, while S ymplast herbicides through
shoots and foliage.
∗ Allelopathy effect is given by Molish (1937).
∗ Critical period of crop weed competition may be defied as ”the shortest time
span during the crop growth, when weeding results in the highest economic
returns”. The crop benefit obtained by weeding during this period is almost
similar to that about by the full season weed free conditions.
∗ Herbicides are not used in fodder crops.
∗ M ode of action of herbicides indicates that how the herbicide kills or inhibits
growth of plants.
∗ Atrazine is non selective when it is applied @ 10 kg/ha and selective, when
applied @ 1 kg/ha.
∗ Paraquat is the contect, non-selective and zero persistent herbicide in soils.
∗ Glutathio-S-transferase is responsible for selectivity of – Triazines
∗ Triazine herbicides are said as notorious herbicide because of - Long residual
toxicity
∗ Triazines tolerate broad leafy weed biotype – Chenopodium album
∗ Herbicides have low residual toxicity – Diquat, Paraquate
∗ Herbicides have high residual toxicity – Diuron, Atrazine
∗ Propanil has to be applied to rice crop at 2-3 leaf stage.
∗ Chlorfenac herbicide has the longest persistency.
∗ Bio or organic or mycoherbicides are native pathogen, which are artificially
cultured and spread as post emergence.
∗ Devine is 1st commercial bio-herbicide/mycoherbicide.
Chapter 9
Dryland Agriculture
“D ryland A griculture refers to growing of crops entirely under rainfed

conditions”.
Based on the amount of rainfall received, dryland agriculture can be grouped
into three categories:
1. Dry Farming : Cultivation of crops in areas where average annual rainfall is less
than 750 mm per annum.
2 . D ryland Farming : Cultivation of crops in areas receiving rainfall from 750 to
1150 mm per annum.
3. Rainfed Farming : Cultivation of crops in regions receiving more than 1,150 mm
per annum.
Comparison Study of Dry Farming, Dryland Farming
and Rainfed Farming
Sl.No. Particular Dry Farming Dryland Farming Rainfed Farming
1. Rainfall/annum (mm) < 750 750 - 1150 > 1150
2. Moisture availability Acute shortage Shortage Enough
3. Crop growing season < 75 days 75 – 120 days > 120 days
4. Growing region Arid Semi arid Humid
5. Cropping systems Single crop/ Single crop/ Inter/
Inter cropping Inter cropping multicropping
6. Dry spells Most common Less frequent No occurrence
7. Crop failture More frequent Less frequent Rare
Wind erosion/ water

8. Constraints Wind erosion Water erosion
erosion
Moisture Moisture conservation
Proper drainage
9. Measures required conservation practices & drainage
required
practices for vertisols
∗ AICRP on Dryland Agriculture is started in 1971.

∗ ABERRANT WEATHER CONDITION IN DRYLAND AREAS
1. Inadequate and uneven distribution of rainfall
2. Long gap in rainfall (RF)
3. Early onset of monsoon
4. Late onset of monsoon
5. Early cessation of rains/Early withdrawl of RF
6. Prolonged Dry spells/mid term correction during the crop period
CO N T I N G EN T CRO P PLA:NChange
S in normal crop planning to meet
weather abnormalities.
1) Inadequate and Uneven Distribution of Rainfall
I n general, the rainfall is low and highly variable which results in uncertain
crop yields. Besides its uncertainty, the distribution of rainfall during the crop
period is uneven, receiving high amount of rain, when it is not needed and lack of
it when crop needs it.
(a) Cultivation of low water required crops
(b) Short duration crops grown
(c) Providing life saving irrigation
2) Long Gap in Rainfall
(a) Increase in seed rate to obtain more population
(b) Spraying of urea solution
(c) Providing life saving irrigation at critical growth stages
(d) Weeding and intercultural operations
3) Early Onset of Monsoon
(a) Cultivate Pearlmillet, Sesamum etc.
4) Late Onset of Monsoon
Due to late onset of monsoon, the sowing of crops are delayed resulting in poor
yields.
(a) Alternate crop & varieties: Castor (Aruna), greengram, cowpea, sunflower
(b) Dry sowing/Kurra sowing
(c) Pre sowing
(d) Seed soaking/treatment
(e) Transplanting of one month old Bajra seedlings.
(f) Complete weed control
(g) Grow legumes/oilseed crops in place of cereals
(h) Most suitable crop for this condition is Sunflower.
5) Early Cessation of Rains
S ometimes the rain may cease very early in the season exposing the crop to
drought during flowering and maturity stages which reduces the crop yields
considerably
(a) Select short duration varieties
(b) Using mulching/mulches
(c) Life saving irrigation applied
(d) Decrease in plant population
6) Prolonged Dry Spells
Long breaks in the rainy season is an important feature of I ndian monsoon.
These intervening dry spells when prolonged during crop period reduces crop
growth and yield and when unduly prolonged crops fail.
(a) If dry spell in 10 days of sowing, resowing
(b) I f mild moisture stress at 30-35 days after sowing, thinning of alternate rows of
Sorghum and Pearlmillet
(c) I f severe moisture stress at 30-35 days afer sowing, cu ing of sorghum and
Pearlmillet and rationing
(d) I f moisture stress at blooming stage, cu ing of sorghum and Pearlmillet and
rationing
(e) Breaking of monsoon for short while, shallow inter cultivation for eradicating
weeds/soil mulch
(f) Wider spacing for moisture conservation
(g) S pray of 2 per cent urea after drought period is useful for indeterminate crops
like castor, pigeonpea and groundnut
(h) Soil mulching to reduce evaporation losses
(i) In situ water harvesting
(j) Life saving irrigation
(k) Weed control to save water, nutrients etc.
DRYLAND IMPLEMENTS
1. CRIDA-Drill-plough : Seed cum fertilizer device attached to country plough
2. Ridge seeder : Two row bullock drawn seeder (developed in AICRPDA, Hisa)
3. CRIDA seed cum fertilizer drill : Three row seed cum fertilizer drill, no covering
of seed and fertilizer.
4. Fepso plough : Bullock drawn implement for seeding and band placement of
fertilizer (developed in CRIDA, Hyderabad)
5. Rayala Gorru : S eed cum fertilizer device cover the same simultaneously
(developed in AICRPDA, Anantapur)
LENGTH OF GROWING PERIOD (LGP)
Length of growing period is defined as “a period in which the available soil
moisture is enough to meet the evapotranspiration requirement of dry land crops
and hence the dry land productivity is assured”.
The length of growing period is given as ‘G’ with starting and ending of length
of growing period in terms of Meteorological standard weeks.
Length of Growing Period (LGP) Crop Status
< 5 weeks : Crop failures will occur
Minimum of 14 weeks (98 days) : Permit the dry land crop to attain its potential productivity
14 weeks : A single dry land crop can be cultivated
14 to 20 weeks : Suitable inter cropping system can be cultivated
> 20 weeks : Long duration crop/double crop can be cultivated
CHARACTERISTICS OF DRY FARMING ECOZONES

Dry Farming Ecozones Their Characteristics
Rainfall (mm) LGP (days) Soil Cropping Pattern
Single short
1. Arid-subtropics 350 0-90 Aridisols
duration crop
Inter/mono
2. Semi arid tropics 500-700 90-180 Alfisols, Vertisols
cropping
Alfisols, Vertisols
3. Semi arid sub tropics 900 120-180 Intercropping
and Entisols
Alfi, Verti, E nti Inter/Double
4. Sub humid tropics 1200 210-300
and Inseptisols cropping
>700 in both
5. Bi-model rainfall area – Alfi and Vertisols Double cropping
season
DROUGHT
The moisture deficit which results when the amount of water vapour available
in the soil is not sufficient to meet the demand of potential evapo-transpiration.
Drought condition initiate: (1) Accumulation of proline
Drought condition initiate: (2) Synthesis of ABA
Drought condition initiate: (3) K and Mg deficiency occurs
Remedies: (1) Spraying of 2 per cent DAP
Remedies: (2) Foliar spray of 0.5 – 1 per cent KCl
Remedies: (3) Use of Antitranspirents
Remedies: (4) Foliar spray of 500 ppm CCC
ANTITRANSPIRENTS
Any material applied to transpiring plant surfaces for reducing water loss.
2,4-D, Atrazine, P MA, P hosphon D, P otassium
1. Stomatal closure type :
metabisulphate
2. Film farming type : Thin - Hexadeconol, Cetyl alcohol, Paclobutrazole
Thick -Mobileaf, Waxol, S -800, Hico-110R, Folicot,

Silicon
Kaoline (5 per cent), China clay, Ca. bicarbonate, L ime
3. Reflectant type :
water
4. Growth retardant type : Cycocel (CCC), Phosphor

∗ A rea under D ryland agriculture in I ndia is about 70 per cent, whereas its
contribution of D ryland agriculture to I ndian A griculture economy is 42 per
cent.
∗ Rainfall is the main factor who will decide the time of sowing in D ryland
condition.
∗ Water harvesting is collecting and storage water on the surface of soil for
subsequent use.
∗ Thornthwaite classified the climate on the basis of Precipitation effectiveness
index, temperature effectiveness index and seasonal distribution of rainfall.
∗ Troll considered the parameters for classification of climate are temperature
and humid months.
∗ A ccording to modified Troll’s climatic classification, S emi arid area has higher
area in India.
∗ A rid climate means extremely dry climate with an annual average precipitation
usually less than 250 mm.
∗ Shallow tillage in red soils in Drylands improves moisture conservation.
∗ About 75-90 per cent water is lost through evaporation under Dryland situation.
∗ During drought condition, Mg deficiency occurs in cotton leaves.
∗ Percentage reduction in yield of food grains due to drought – 15 per cent
∗ S eed hardening is the process of subjecting seeds before sowing to alternate
cycle of wetting and drying to induce tolerance to drought.
Chapter 10
Soil and Water Conservation
The problem of conserving soil and moisture (water) is having very great
importance in the extensive regions of low and uncertain rainfall forming parts.
These tracts are characterized by scanty, ill-distributed and highly erosive rains,
undulating topography, high wind velocity and generally shallow soils.
Wind erosion also has been responsible for destroying the valuable top soil in
many areas. Halting the march of desert in Rajasthan is one of the vital and
outstanding problems facing the country today. A n extreme example of sand
movement from the coast is to be seen in the S aurashtra region of Gujarat where
the once-flourishing ports are now covered with advancing sand-dunes.
I n addition to the erosion of the cultivated fields, neglected pastures and
wastelands, considerable roadside erosion also takes place owing to the defective
highway engineering. D efective drainage and water-logging throw appreciable
areas out of cultivation every year and indirectly increase the erosion hazards.
EXTENT OF SOIL EROSION
I n I ndia, there is very li le area free from the hazard of soil erosion. I t is
estimated that out of 305.9 million hectares of reported area, 145 million hectares
is in need of conservation measures. S evere erosion occurs in the sub-humid and
per-humid areas due to high rainfall and improper management of land and
water.
A gricultural land in the major part of the country suffers from erosion. A part
from reducing the yields through the loss of nutrients, erosion destroys the soil
resources itself every year.
SOIL EROSION
“Soil erosion is the wearing away of land surface by the action of such natural
agencies as water and wind”.
“D etachment and transportation of top soil particles by wind and/or by water is
known as soil erosion”.
The detaching agents are rain drops, channel flow and wind.
TYPES OF EROSION
1) Natural or Geological Erosion
∗ This is a normal soil forming/soil weathering feature of any landscape.
∗ Geologic erosion takes place steadily but long time slowly which developed the
present topographic features like Valley, Plains, Stream channels etc.
2) Accelerated Soil Erosion
∗ I t occurs due to disturbance in natural equilibrium by the activity of men and
animals through land mismanagement, destruction of forests, over grazing
etc.
∗ N ature requires, on an average, about 1000 years to build up 2.5 cm of top soil,
but wrong farming methods may take only a few years to erode it from
lands of average slope.
MECHANISM OF EROSION
A) Wind Erosion
∗ Wind erosion takes place normally in arid and semi-arid areas devoid of
vegetation, where the wind velocity is high.
∗ The soil particles on the land surface are lifted and blown off as dust storms.
W hen the velocity of the dust-bearing winds is retarded, coarser soil
particles are deposited in the form of dunes and thus fertile lands are
rendered unfit for cultivation.
∗ I n other places, fertile soil is blown away by winds and the subsoil is exposed, as
a result the productive capacity of the soil is considerably reduced.
Wind is responsible for three types of soil movement in the process of wind
erosion. They are known as: (i) Saltation (ii) Suspension and (iii) Surface creep.
(i) Saltation
∗ The major portion of the soil carried by the wind is moved in a series of short
bounces called “saltations”.
∗ The soil carried in a saltation consists of fine particles ranging from 0.1 to 0.5
mm in diameter.
∗ About 50-75 per cent of soil erosion by wind carried out by saltation.
∗ S altation is caused by the direct pressure of wind on soil particles and their
collision with other particles. A fter being pushed along the ground surface
by the wind, the particles leap almost vertically in the first stages of
saltation.
∗ S ome grains rise only a short distance; others leap 30 cm or higher, depending
on the velocity of the rise from the ground.
(ii) Suspension
∗ Very fine soil particles, less than 0.1 mm in diameter, are carried into
suspension, being kicked up into the air by the action of particles in
saltation.
∗ About 3-4 per cent of soil erosion carried out by saltation mechanism of wind.
∗ The movement of fine dust in suspension is completely governed by the
characteristic movement of the wind. S uspended material is carried long
distances from its original location and is thus a complete loss to the eroded
area, especially when erosive winds are from different directions.
(iii) Surface Creep
∗ S oil particles, larger than about 0.5 mm in diameter but smaller than 3.0 mm,
are too heavy to be moved in saltation but are rolled and sliding along the
surface by the pressure of wind and hitting during saltation.
∗ 5-25 per cent of soil erosion is carried out by surface creep.
∗ About 90 per cent of the total soil movement in wind erosion is below the height
of 30 cm, and about 50 per cent of it is within 5 cm of the ground level. The
control of wind erosion is mainly based on the reduction or elimination of
movement in saltation.
B) Water Erosion
∗ S oil erosion caused by rainfall is the result of the application of energy from two
distinct sources, namely (i) the falling rain drops, and (ii) the surface flow.
∗ The energy of a falling rain drop is applied slantingly or vertically from above,
whereas that of a surface flow is applied more or less horizontally along the
surface of the ground.
∗ The chief role of the falling rain drop is to detach soil particles, whereas that of
the surface flow (outside the rills and gullies) is to transport the soil.
∗ The falling rain drop also makes a major contribution to the movement of the
soil on unprotected sloping lands during the period of heavy-impact
storms, by splashing large quantities down slope and by imparting
transporting capacity to the surface water by keeping it turbid.
∗ More than 100 tones of soil per hectare can sometimes be lost yearly in this
fashion from a bare and highly detachable soil on sloping land.
S oil erosion caused by water can be distinguished in different forms, viz. (1)
splash erosion, (2) sheet erosion, (3) rill erosion, (4) gully erosion, (5) ravines (6)
land slides, and (7) stream-bank.
(i) Splash Erosion
∗ Removal of soil particles due to rain drops is called as splash erosion.
(ii) Sheet Erosion
∗ It is also known as Death of farmers.
∗ S heet erosion removes a thin and uniform covering of top productive/surface
soil from large areas, often from entire fields, more or less, during every
rain which produces a run-off.
∗ This type of erosion is very insidious, since it keeps the cultivator almost
ignorant of its ill-effects.
(iii) Rill Erosion
∗ Chanalization begins from rill erosion.
∗ When runoff starts, soil is lost from small channels or rills by water.
∗ The formations of rills depend on flow of rain drops (runoff).
∗ Rills can be removed by timely tillage operations.
(iv) Gully Erosion
∗ S ize of unchecked rills increase due to continuous and high volume runoff and
form gullies.
∗ Gullies are the most spectacular evidence of the destruction of soil. T he gullies
tend to deepen and widen with every heavy rainfall.
∗ They cut up large fields into small fragments and, in course of time, make them
unfit for cultivation.
(v) Ravines
∗ Prolonged and advanced stage of gully erosion leads to ravines found in deep
alluvial soils.
∗ Ravines are deep and wide gullies.
(vi) Landslides or Slip Erosion
∗ A landslide is defined as an outward and downward movement of the slope-
forming material, composed of natural rocks, soil, artificial fills, etc.
∗ The fundamental causes of landslides are topography of the region and
geological structure, the kinds of rocks and their physical characteristics.
∗ Mountains ranges with > 20 per cent slope areas suffer from land slides.
∗ The immediate cause of a slide may be an earthquake, or a heavy rainfall, which
unduly saturates the ground or a part of a road.
(vii) Stream-bank Erosion
∗ S tream banks are eroded by water either flowing over the sides of a stream or
scouring at the base.
∗ Usually, they are dry water-courses, except during the rainy season when with
every downpour in their catchments, they get very much swollen with flood
and subside almost to its normal tiny size immediately after the storm is
over.
SOIL AND WATER-CONSERVATION MEASURES
The key to soil and water conservation is the utilization and treatment of land
according to its capability.
Land-capability classification: Any soil and water-conservation project includes
two distinct sets of operations, viz.
1. The mapping of land for classification according to its capability, and
2. Planning and executing measures to check erosion, improve land productivity
and reclaim wasteland.
The farm plans for effective soil and water conservation are based largely on
the capability of the land. The land-capability classification map is normally
prepared by interpreting a standard soil-survey map.
“Land-capability classification is a systematic arrangement of different kinds
of lands according to those properties that determine the ability of the land to
produce crops on a virtually permanent basis.”
T he factors determining land-capability: There are the major soil
characteristics of the land, e.g. the texture of the top soil, its effective depth,
permeability of the top soil and subsoil, and associated land features, e.g. the
slope of the land, the extent of erosion, the degree of wetness and susceptibility to
overflowing and flooding.
The grouping of soils into capability classes is done primarily on the basis of
their capability to produce common cultivated crops and pasture plants without
deterioration over a long period.
Land-capability Classes
The land-capability classes are based on the intensity of hazards and the
limitations of use. The land-capability classes range from the best and most easily
farmed land to that which has no value for cultivation, grazing or forestry, but
which may be suited to wild-life, recreation or for watershed protection. They are
fall into 2 broad groups: one suitable for cultivation and other land uses, and the
other not suitable for cultivation, but suitable for other land uses.
LAND SUITABLE FOR CULTIVATION AND OTHER
USES
CLASS I (Green Color)
∗ Soils in class I have very few or no limitations that restrict their use.
∗ This type of land is nearly level (1 per cent land slope) and the erosion hazard is
low.
∗ The soils are deep, well-drained, easily worked, hold water well and are either
fairly well supplied with plant nutrients or highly responsive to the
application of fertilizers.
∗ The soils are not subject to damage because of overflow.
∗ The local climate must be favorable for growing many of the common field
crops.
∗ I n irrigated areas, the soils may be in class I , if the limitation of the arid climate
has been removed by relatively permanent irrigation works.
∗ These soils need ordinary management practices to maintain productivity. S uch
practices may include the use of one or more of the following: fertilizers,
lime, cover and green-manure crops, conservation of crop residues and crop
rotations.
∗ S oils in this class are suited to a wide range of plants, may be used for cultivated
crops, pastures, forests, and wildlife, food and cover.
CLASS II (Yellow Color)
∗ S oils in class I I have some limitations which reduce the choice of plants or
require simple conservation practices.
∗ The limitations of soils in class I I may result from the effects of one or more of
the following factors: (i) a gentle slope, (ii) a slight susceptibility to erosion,
(iii) less than ideal soil depth, (iv) occasional damaging overflow, (v)
wetness which can be corrected by drainage, but existing permanently as a
moderate limitation, (vi) slight to moderate salinity or sodium, easily
corrected but likely to recur, and(vii) a slight climatic limitation on soil use
and management.
∗ The length of slope of land is 1-3 per cent and the depth of soil is from 22.5 to
45cm.
∗ These soils require careful management. The limitations are only a few and the
practices are easy to apply.
∗ They may need one or more of the following practices: terracing, strip cropping,
contour cultivation, water disposal area, covered with vegetation crop
rotation, cover and green-manure crops, stubble mulching, use of
fertilizers, manure and lime.
∗ These soils may be used for growing cultivated crops, A gri-horticulture, A lley
cropping, raising pastures, forests, and for wild-life, food and cover.
CLASS III (Red Color)
∗ S oils in class I I I have moderate limitations which reduce the choice of plants or
require special conservation practices.
∗ The length of slope of land is 3-5 per cent.
∗ S oils in class I I I have more restrictions than those in class I I and, when used for
cultivated crops, the conservation practices are usually more difficult to
apply and to maintain.
∗ Limitations of soils in class I I I may result from the effects of one or more of the
following factors: (i) a moderately sloping land, (ii) moderately
susceptibility to water or wind erosion, (iii) frequent overflow accompanied
with some crop damage, (iv) very slow permeability of the sub-soil, (v)
wetness or continuing water-logging after drainage, (vi) shallow soil depth
up to the bed-rock, hard-pan or clay-pan which limits the rooting-zone and
water storage, (vii) low moisture-holding capacity, (viii) moderate salinity or
sodium, and (ix) moderate climatic limitations.
∗ These soils may be used for Agri-horticulture and Alley cropping.
CLASS IV (Blue Color)
∗ S oils in class I V have severe limitations that restrict the choice of plants and
require careful management.
∗ The restrictions in the use of these soils are greater than those in class I I I and
the choice of plants is more limited. W hen these soils are cultivated, very
careful management is required and the conservation practices are more
difficult to apply and to maintain.
∗ The use of these soils for cultivated crops is limited as a result of the effect of
one or more of the permanent features, such as (i) steep slopes, (ii) severe
susceptibility to water or wind erosion, (iii) severe effect of past erosion, (iv)
shallow soil, (v) low moisture-holding capacity, (vi) frequent overflow
accompanied with severe crop damage, (vii) excessive wetness or continuing
hazard of water-logging after drainage, (viii) severe salinity or sodium, and
(ix) moderately adverse climate.
∗ These soils can be used for close growing crops, forage cultivation, A gri-
S ilviculture, A gri-Horticulture, fish culture, pastures, forests, and wild-life
food and cover.
LAND NOT SUITABLE FOR CULTIVATION
BUT SUITABLE FOR OTHER LAND USES
CLASS V (Dark Green)
∗ S oils in class V have li le or no erosion hazard, but have other limitations, the
removal of which is not practicable. They are used largely for pastures,
forests, and wild-life food and cover.
∗ S uch land is nearly level and is not subject to more than slight wind or water
erosion.
∗ Cultivation is not feasible because of one or more limitations, such as overflow,
stoniness, steep slope, wetness or severe climate. Examples of class V land
are (i) soils of lowlands subject to frequent overflows which prevent the
normal production of cultivated crops, (ii) nearly level soils with growing
season that prevents the normal production of cultivated crops,(iii) the level
or nearly level stony or rocky soils, and (iv) ponded areas where drainage
for cultivated crops is not feasible but where soils are suitable for grasses or
trees.
∗ S oils in class V are not suitable for raising cultivated crops, but are suitable for
perennial vegetation (silvipasture). Pastures can be improved, and benefits
from proper management can be expected. Physical conditions of soils are
such that it is practicable to apply pasture improvements, if needed, such as
seeding, liming, fertilizing, and water control with contour furrows,
drainage ditches, diversions of water spreaders.
CLASS VI (Orange Color)
∗ S oils in class VI have severe limitations that make them unsuitable for
cultivation and limit their use largely for pastures, or forests, or wild-life
food and cover.
∗ The land slope varies from 15-25 per cent.
∗ S oils in class VI have continuing limitations which cannot be corrected, such as
(i) steep slope, (ii)very severe erosion hazard, (iii) very severe effect of past
erosion (iv) stoniness, (v) shallow rooting-zone, (vi) excessive wetness or
overflow, (vii) low moisture capacity, (viii) salinity or sodium, and (ix)
severe climate.
∗ S oils in this class are subject to moderate limitations under grazing or forestry
use.
CLASS VII (Brown Color)
∗ S oils in class VI I have very severe limitations that make them unsuitable for
cultivation and restrict their use largely to grazing, or forestation, or wild-
life food and cover.
∗ The land slope varies from 25-33 per cent.
∗ The soils in this class are subject to dry and marshy conditions, eroded and
undulated land and steep slope.
∗ After well care, the soils of this class can be used for forestry and pasture.
CLASS VIII (Purple Color)
∗ S oils and land forms in class VI I I have limitations that preclude their use for
commercial plant production and restrict their use to recreation, wild-life
food and cover or to water-supply, water shed protection or for aesthetic
purposes.
∗ The land have highly steepness (>33 per cent).
∗ Limitations which cannot be corrected may result from the effects of one or
more of the following factors: (i) erosion or erosion hazard, (ii) severe
climate, (iii) wet soil, (iv) stones, (v) low moisture capacity, (vi) salinity or
sodium.
∗ Bad lands, rock outcrops, sandy beaches, marshes, deserts, river wash, mine
tailings and other nearly barren lands are included in class VI I I in order to
protect other more valuable soils to control water or for wild-life or for
aesthetic reasons.
The land-capability class is indicated on the maps by roman numerals I to VI I I
or by standard colors or by both.
LAND-CAPABILITY SUBCLASS
A land-capability class is determined by the degree of limitations in land use
together with the hazards involved. For example, in class I I I land, we have land
suitable for cultivation but subject to moderate hazard of water erosion because
of a steep slope or a moderate hazard of wind erosion on smooth land or
moderate hazard of water-logging or overflow and a shallow depth to the bed-
rock. Each of these kinds of limitations are recognized at the subclass. Four kinds
of limitations are recognized at the subclass level.
∗ SU BCLA SS (E) ERO SI O : N
I t is made up of soils where the susceptibility to
erosion is the dominant hazard in their use. S usceptibility to erosion and
damage due to past erosion are major factors that govern the placing of
soils in this class.
∗ SU BCLA SS (W ) EXCESS WAT: ER I t is made up of soils where excess water is
the dominant hazard in their use. Poor soil drainage, wetness, high water-
table and overflow are the criteria for determining which soils belong in
this subclass.
∗ SU BCLA SS (S) SO I L LI M I TAT I O N S W I T H I N T H E RO O T I N G: IZO t N
includes soils which have such limitations as the shallowness of the rooting-
zone, stones, low moisture-holding capacity, low fertility difficult to correct
and salinity or alkalinity.
∗ SU BCLA SS (C) CLI M AT I C LI M I TAT I O : IN
t includes
S soils where the climate
(temperature or lack of moisture) is the only major hazard of limitations in
their use.
The land-capability subclass is designated by the small le ers which follow the
land-capability classes. Roman numerals, e.g. I I e, I I I s, I Vw capability class I has
no subclass. W here two kinds of limitation can be modified or corrected and are
essentially equal.
SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION ON
AGRICULTURAL LAND
Broadly speaking, the practical methods of soil and water conservation fall into
two important classes, viz. Agronomic measures and Engineering measures.
A) AGRONOMIC MEASURES
A gronomic practices for soil and water conservation help to intercept rain
drops and reduce the splash effect, help to obtain a be er intake of water rate by
the soil by improving the content of organic ma er and soil structure, help to
retard and reduce the overland run-off through the use of contour cultivation,
mulches, dense-growing crops, strip-cropping and mixed cropping. Agronomical
measures are adopted where land slope is <2 per cent, which are followings:
1. Conservation Tillage
2. Deep tillage
3. Conservation Farming
4. Contour Farming
5. Mulching
6. Growing of cover crops
7. Strip cropping
8. Mixed cropping
1) CONSERVATION TILLAGE
∗ This umbrella term can include reduced tillage, minimum tillage, no-till, direct
drill, mulch tillage, stubble-mulch farming, trash farming, strip tillage,
plough-plant.
∗ With advanced soil conservation programmes, the concept of conservation
tillage is the main theme of the recommendations for cropland.
∗ The application is mainly in mechanized high production farming with good
rainfall, or for the control of wind erosion where there is large-scale
mechanized cereal production. I t is less applicable to low input level crop
production, or subsistence agriculture.
∗ The principles are equally effective in any conditions - to maximize cover by
returning crop residues and not inverting the top soil, and by using a high
crop density of vigorous crops.
∗ Conservation tillage also has the advantage of reducing the need for terraces or
other permanent structures. However there are several disadvantages which
hinder the application of conservation tillage in semi-arid conditions:
∗ D ense plant covers may be incompatible with the well-tested strategy of using
low plant populations to suit low moisture availability;
∗ Crop residues may be of value as feed for livestock;
∗ Planting through surface mulches is not easy for ox-drawn planters although
there may be no problem with hand job planters.
2) DEEP TILLAGE
∗ O ne of the reasons for low yields in semi-arid areas is the limited amount of
moisture available to crop roots.
∗ The available moisture will be increased if the rooting depth is increased and it
has been shown that in some cases deep tillage can help, for example on the
dense sandy soils.
∗ D eep tillage is beneficial for some crops but not all, and on some soils but not
all.
∗ D eep tillage requires greater draught power which is usually in short supply in
semi-arid areas.
∗ Ripping or subsoiling can be beneficial, either to increase the porosity of the
soil, or to break a pan which is reducing permeability.
∗ The deep placement of fertilizer can also be used to encourage more rooting at
depth, but again the application of this technique to subsistence farming
will be difficult.
3) CONSERVATION FARMING
∗ I t includes any farming practice which improves yield, or reliability, or
decreases the inputs of labour or fertilizer, or anything else leading towards
improved land husbandry, which we have defined as the foundation of
good soil conservation.
∗ I t includes strip cropping, crop rotations, alternate cropping, mixed cropping
and interplanting, surface and mulching, organic mulches, deep planting of
varieties, dry seeding etc.
4) CONTOUR-FARMING
∗ D uring intense rain storms, the soil cannot absorb all the rain as it falls. The
excess water flows down the slope under the influence of gravity. I f farming
is done up and down the slope, the flow of water is accelerated, because
each furrow serves as a rill. The major part of the rain is drained away
without infiltrating into the soil. The top fertile soil, along with plant
nutrients and seeds, is washed off. A ll this results in a scanty and uneven
growth of a crop.
∗ “A simple practice of farming across the slope, keeping the same level, as far as possible
is technically called contour-farming.
∗ The ridges and the rows of the plants placed across the slope form a continual series of
miniature barriers to the water moving over the soil surface. The barriers are
small individually, but as they are large in number, their total effect is great in
reducing run-off, soil erosion and loss of plant nutrients.”
∗ A dvantages: 1) Contour-farming reduces run-off and prevents soil erosion as
compared with the up and down cultivation in the major groups of soils in
India, viz. Alluvial soils, black soils and deep lateritic soils.
2) Contour-farming conserves soil fertility and increases crop yields.
5) MULCHING
∗ S urface mulches are used to prevent soil from blowing and being washed away,
to reduce evaporation, to increase infiltration, to keep down , to improve
soil structure and eventually to increase crop yields.
∗ I nter-culture kills weeds and produces a five or seven cm thick soil mulch which
helps to reduce evaporation from the top soil.
∗ It also breaks the surface crust which forms after each downpour.
6) GROWING OF COVER CROPS
∗ Cultivated legumes, in general, furnish a be er cover and hence be er
protection to cultivated land against erosion than ordinary cultivated crops.
∗ The crops and the cropping systems will naturally vary from region to region,
depending on the soil and climatic conditions.
∗ The mostly preferred cover crops are green gram, black gram, cowpea,
groundnut etc.
7) STRIP CROPPING
S trip cropping is the system of growing alternate strips of erosion permi ing
crops (row crop such as maize, jowar, bajra, co on etc) and erosion resisting crops
(close growing crops such as green gram, black gram, moth, groundnut etc.) in the
same field. This practice reduces the velocity of runoff and checks the eroded soil
from being washed away.
∗ S trip cropping is essentially for controlling the run-off erosion and thereby
maintaining the fertility of the soil is now universally recognized. S trip
cropping, in effect, employs several good farming practices, including crop
rotation, contour cultivation, proper tillage stubble mulching, cover
cropping, etc.
∗ Strip cropping is of the following different forms :
(i) Contour strip cropping
(ii) Field strip cropping
(iii) Wind strip cropping
(iv) Permanent or temporary buffer strip cropping
(i) Contour Strip Cropping
∗ Contour strip cropping is the growing of soil exposing and erosion permi ing
crops in strips of suitable widths and placed across the slopes on contour,
alternating with strip of soil protecting and erosion resisting crops.
∗ Contour strip cropping shortens the length of the slope, checks the movement
of runoff water, helps to desilt it and increases the absorption of rainwater
by the soil.
∗ Further, the dense foliage of the erosion resistant crops prevents the rain from
beating the soil surface directly.
∗ I t is advisable to rotate the strip planting by sowing a non-resistant crop,
following an erosion resistant crop and vice versa.
(i) Groundnut, Moth bean (Phaseolus acontifolius) and Horse gram (Dolichos
biflorus) are the most efficient and suitable crops for checking erosion.
(ii) The normal seed-rates of leguminous crops, other than groundnut, do not give
sufficiently dense canopies to prevent rain drops from beating the soil
surface in many cases. The seed rate should be trebled.
(iii) The most effective width of the contour strips for cereals, such as
Jowar and Bajra, is 21.6 m and for the intervening legume, it is 7.2 m
Strip Widths as Suitable for Erosion Permitting and
Resistant Crops on Different Slopes
Width of Erosion- Permitting
Slope Width of Erosion- Resistant Crops
Crops
1/2 per cent and below 45.0 m 9.0 m
Between 1 and 2 per cent 24.0 m 6.0 m
Between 2 and 3 per cent 13.5 m 4.5 m
(ii) Field Strip Cropping

I t is the planting of field crops in more or less parallel strips across fairly
uniform slopes, but not on exact contours. This system is useful on regular slopes
and with soils of high infiltration rates.
(iii) Wind Strip Cropping
∗ I t consists of planting tall growing crops such as jowar, bajra, maize, and short
growing crops in alternately arranged straight and long, but relatively
narrow, parallel strips laid out right across the direction of the prevailing
wind, regardless of the contour.
(iv) Permanent or Temporary Buffer Strip Cropping
∗ I n the case of permanent or temporary buffer strip cropping, permanent strips
of grasses or legume or mixture of grass and legume are laid either in badly
eroded areas or in areas that do not fit into a regular rotation, i.e. steep or
highly eroded, slopes in fields under contour strip cropping.
∗ These strips do not form part of the rotation practiced in normal strip cropping
and they are generally planted with perennial legumes, grasses or shrubs
on a permanent or temporary basis.
8) MIXED CROPPING
∗ Mixed cropping is the growing of 2 or more crops simultaneously in the same
field without any definite row pattern. This is done by mixing their seeds.
∗ I mportant objectives of mixed cropping are a be er and continuous cover of the
land, good protection against the beating action of the rain, almost a
complete protection against soil erosion and the assurance of one or more
crops to the farmer.
B) ENGINEERING MEASURES
Engineering/Mechanical measures are construction of mechanical barriers
across the direction of the flow of water to retain the runoff for reducing soil and
water loss. They play a very vital role in controlling erosion on agricultural land.
They are generally adopted where land slope is >2 per cent and to supplement the
agronomical practices when the la er alone are not adequately effective. These
measures include:
1. Bunding
2. Terracing
3. Trenching
4. Basin-listing
5. Subsoiling
The main objectives of the mechanical measures for controlling erosion are:
(i) To increase the time of concentration by intercepting the run-off and thereby
providing an opportunity for the infiltration of water, and
(ii) To divide a long slope into several short ones so as to reduce the velocity of the
run-off and thus prevent erosion.
1) BUNDING
Bund is an earthen embankment constructed to control runoff and minimize
soil erosion by reducing the length of slope.
(a) Contour Bunding
∗ Contour bunding is most popular mechanical measure to control soil erosion
and conserve moisture in arid and semi-arid areas with high infiltration and
permeability.
∗ This practice consists in making a comparatively narrow-based embankment at
intervals across the slope of the land on a level that is along the contour.
∗ I t is commonly adopted on agricultural land up to a slope of about 6 per cent
and in areas where average annual rainfall is < 600 mm.
(b) Graded Bunding/Channel Terraces
∗ I n graded bunding water flows in graded channels constructed on up-stream
side of bunds and leads to safe outlet on grassed water ways.
∗ Graded bunds may be narrow-based or broad-based. A broad-based graded
terrace consists of a wide-low embankment constructed on the lower edge
of the channel from which the soil is excavated. The channel is excavated at
suitable intervals on a falling contour with a suitable longitudinal grade.
∗ I t is adopted at about 2-10 per cent land slope and in areas where average
annual rainfall is > 600 mm.
Grassed Waterways
∗ Grass waterways are natural or constructed watercourses covered with erosion
resistant grasses and are used to dispose surface water from the crop land.
They are constructed along the slope of the land.
∗ Grassed waterways are associated with channel terraces for the safe disposal of
concentrated runoff, thereby protecting the land against rills and gullies.
∗ Grass waterways are also used to handle natural runoff or to carry the discharge
from contour furrows, diversion channels or to serve as emergency spillway
in farm ponds.
∗ The suitability of a grass was based on the cover it gave, the ease with which it
was established and the forage yield obtained from it.
∗ Panicum repens was the best suited grass, followed by Brachiara mutica, Cynodon
plectostachyus, Cynodon dactylon and Paspalum notatum.
2) TERRACING
A terracing is a combination of ridge and channels built across the slope. This
is generally practiced in steep hill slope.
(a) Bench Terracing
∗ Bench terrace consists of construction of step like fields along the contour by
half cutting and half filling. Original slope of the land is converted into level
fields and thus all hazards of erosion are eliminated.
∗ The vertical drop may vary from 60 to 180 cm, depending upon the slope and
soil conditions, as also on the economic width required for easy cultural
operations.
∗ The material excavated from the upper part of the terrace is used in filling the
lower part.
∗ A small ‘shoulder’ bund of about 30 cm in height is also constructed along the
outer edge of the terrace.
∗ It is generally practiced on steep sloping (16-33 per cent) and undulated land.
∗ It helps to bring sloping land into different level strips to enable cultivation.
∗ Bench terraces may be ‘table top’ or sloping outward or inward with or without
a slight longitudinal grade, according to the rainfall of the tract - medium,
poor or heavy, and the soil and the subsoil are fairly absorptive or poorly
permeable
(i) Table top (level): adopted in medium rainfall (750 mm) areas, permeable soils
and ideal where irrigation facility is available.
(ii) Sloping inward: adopted in heavy rainfall (>750 mm) areas
(iii) Sloping outward: adopted in low rainfall (<750 mm) areas
(b) Zing Terracing
∗ Zing terracing is adopted in 3-10 per cent land slope.
∗ It is constructed in medium to deep soils in high rainfall areas.
∗ The aims of constructing zing terracing is:
∴ To cut down the length of slope
∴ To harvest the runoff from upper areas for the benefits of crops grown in lower
areas.
3) TRENCHING
Trenching is made along the contour for soil & moisture conservation and
afforestation purpose.
∗ The size of trenches – 60cm x 48cm
∗ spacing between trenches – 10-30 meter
∗ Trenches are half refilled with excavated materials and remaining half of the soil
forms the spoil bank.
∗ The remaining water in the trenches help in conserving the moisture and
provides benefits for sowing and planting.
4) BASIN-LISTING
Basin-listing consists in making of small interrupted basins along the counter
with a special implement, called a basin lister. Basin-listing helps to retain
rainwater as it falls and is specially effective on retentive soils having mild slopes.
5) SUBSOILING
This method consists of breaking the hard and impermeable subsoil with a
subsoiler to conserve more rainwater by improving the physical conditions of a
soil. This operation, which does not involve soil inversion and promotes greater
moisture penetration into the soil, reduces both run-off and soil erosion. The
subsoiler is worked through the soil at a depth of 30-60 cm at a spacing of 90-180
cm. S ub soling by tractor drawn chisel plough at 2 m horizontal interval is the
most effective insitu soil and water conservation practice for early establishment
and improving the pasture. I t will also increase the efficiency of work and a large
area can be covered in a few cost and limited time.
MICROCATCHMENTS FOR SLOPING LANDS
It is useful for insitu moisture conservation and erosion control for tree crops.
MICROCATCHMENTS
Salient Features
∗ Slope ranges from 2 –8 per cent
∗ Around 16 m2 area surrounded by 15-20 cm dirtwall
∗ Bund height - 30 to 45 cm.
∗ Soil type - Light to moderate texture
∗ Insitu moisture conservation with staggered planting
∗ Suitable for dry land Horticulture & Agroforestry
CHECK DAM
∗ A low weir normally constructed across the gullies.
∗ Constructed on small streams and long gullies formed by erosive activity of
flood water.
∗ It cuts the velocity and reduces erosive activity.
∗ The stored water improves soil moisture of the adjoining area and allows
percolation to recharge the aquifers.
∗ S pacing between the check dams water spread of one should be beyond the
water spread of the other.
∗ Height depends on the bank height, varies from a metre to 3 metre and length
varies from less than 3m to 10m.
PERCOLATION POND
To augment the ground water recharge
Salient Features
∗ S hallow depression created at lower portions in a natural or diverted stream
course.
∗ Preferable under gentle sloping stream where narrow valley exists.
∗ Located in soils of permeable nature.
∗ Adaptable where 20-30 ground water wells for irrigation exist with in the zone of
influence about 800 – 900m.
3
∗ Minimum capacity may be around 5000 m for the sack of economy.
∗ Also act as silt detention reservoir.
BROAD BEDS AND FURROWS
The broad bed and furrow system is laid within the field boundaries. The land
levels taken and it is laid using either animal drawn or tractor drawn ridgers.
Maize/Sorghum is grown in beds and rice in furrows.
Salient Features
∗ Conserves soil moisture in Dryland.
∗ Controls soil erosion.
∗ Acts as a drainage channel during heavy rainy days.
Classification of Gullies
A ny system of gullies has an independent catchment, with a regular stream
which has been termed the “drainage system”. I n each drainage system, it has
been observed that gullies with defined side slopes, bed width and depths occur
in a regular order. I n the upper reaches of the drainage system, the gullies are
wide and shallow, with varying side slopes. The middle part of the drainage
system is usually deeper, wider and has uniform side slopes normally up to about
15 per cent. The lower portion of the drainage system which is nearer to the main
river is usually very deep, has steep side slopes and is associated with intricate
branch gullies.
The gullies have been classified as follows:
Symbol Description Specifications
G1 Very small gullies Up to 3 m deep and bed width 18 m.
G2 Small gullies Up to 3 m deep and bed width >18 m.
G3 Medium gullies Depth between 3-9 m and bed width > 18 m.
G4 Deep and narrow gullies 9 m deep with < 18m bed width.
UNIVERSAL SOIL LOSS EQUATION

A = RKLSCP
where,
A: Predicted soil loss (tonne/acre/year)
R: Rainfall and runoff factor
K: Soil erodibility
S: Steepness (land slope)
C: Soil cover management
P: Erosion control practices
Design of Composite Check Dams
The design discharge (maximum run-off) through the drainage channel is
computed from the empirical formula
Q = 0.0028 C.I.A.
where,
3
Q: Run-off in cubic metres per second (m /sec).
C: Run-off coefficient (a value calculated by constants of slope and soil type).
I: Rainfall intensity in mm/hr.
A: Watershed area in hectare.
The length of the spillway is determined from the formula:
Q = 1.70 LH3/2
where,
Q: Run-off in cubic metres per second (m3/sec).
L: Length of the weir notch in metres.
H: Height in metres of water flow above the spillway level.
Institute Involved in Soil and Water Conservation
1. Central S oil and Water Conservation Research and Training I nstitute
(CSWCRT), Dehradun, Uttarakhand.
2. S oil Conservation Research D emonstration and Training Centre, Hyderabad
(AP).
∗ Wave erosion is the erosion caused by combined action of water and wind.
∗ Father of soil erosion is H.H. Bennett.
∗ I n I ndia, the loss of fertile soil is 16.3 t/ha/year, whereas permissible limit is 11
t/ha/year.
∗ About 60-75 per cent rainfall is lost through evaporation.
∗ Under inter row water harvesting; Maize is grown in beds and rice in furrows.
∗ For runoff induction, pores are filled with chemicals i.e. Latexes, A sphalts, Wax
and sodium salts of silicon.
∗ Popular vegetative barriers are Vetivar (Khus) and Tripsacum sp.
∗ The grasses used for grassed water ways are Panicum repens, Paspalum notatum,
Cynodon dactylon, Bracharia mutica etc.
∗ Zind terracing have 2:1 ratio of Donor and Recipient areas.
∗ Abcisic acid (ABA) and Butane act as indicator of moisture stress.
∗ S helterbelt provides protection form winds to the extent of 5-10 per cent of their
height in windward side and up to 30 times in leeward side.
∗ Channel erosion suffers severe sheet erosion.
∗ Contour bunding is the most widely adopted mechanical measure of soil and
water conservation method in hilly area.
∗ Generally, 250-300 m2 size of farm pond is taken for one hectare of area.
∗ Lining materials commonly used in farm pond are clay, bituminous, cement
mixture and brick material, cement concrete and chemical additives.
∗ Oil emulsions and wax are used as evaporation reducing materialin farm pond.
Chapter 11
Cropping and Farming Systems
CROP ROTATION
“The repetitive cultivation of an ordered succession of crops or crops and fallow on the
same land”.
1. Crop rotation is the reverse of land rotation. I n this, crop is rotated year after
year.
2. The main objective of crop rotation is to maintain and even improves soil
fertility and stabilize income.
CROPPING PATTERN
1. The yearly sequence and spatial arrangement of crops or of crop and fallow on a given
area.
2. Crop rotation practiced by the majority of the farmers in a given area or locality.
(A) Rice Based Cropping Pattern
1. This cropping pattern is found in heavy rainfall areas.
2. The most traditional areas for rice based cropping pa erns are UP, Bihar, MP,
WB, Orissa, AP, Tamilnadu, Kerala etc.
3. The non traditional areas are Punjab, Haryana and Western UP.
4. Total 30 rice based cropping patterns are adopted in India.
5. The most prominent and adopted cropping pattern in India is Rice - Wheat.
6. In Bihar, WB & Orissa – summer rice is emerging competing crop to Jute.
(B) Wheat Based Cropping Pattern
1. The non traditional areas are North West India.
2. Total 19 wheat based cropping patterns are adopted in India.
3. Wheat rotation – Rice – Wheat, Pigeonpea – Wheat, Moong – Wheat etc.
(C) Kharif Sorghum Based Cropping Pattern
1. The most prominent areas are Maharashtra, MP, Karnataka, Gujarat, Rajasthan
& AP.
2. Total 17 kharif sorghum based cropping patterns are adopted in India.
(D) Rabi Sorghum Based Cropping Pattern
1. Total 13 rabi sorghum based cropping patterns are adopted in India.
(E) Pearlmillet Based Cropping Pattern
1. This cropping pa ern is most prominent in arid and semi arid tropics i.e.
Gujarat & Rajasthan.
2. 20 pearlmillet based cropping patterns are adopted in India.
(F) Maize Based Cropping Pattern
1. This cropping pattern is most prominent in UP, Bihar, Rajasthan, MP & Punjab.
2. 12 maize based cropping patterns are adopted in India.
(G) Cotton Based Cropping Pattern
1. 16 co on based cropping pa erns are adopted in I ndia mostly in Maharashtra,
Gujarat & AP.
(H) Chickpea and Other Pulses Based Cropping Pattern
1. The non traditional areas are Karnataka, AP & Tamilnadu.
(I) Groundnut Based Cropping Pattern
1. The raditional growing areas are Gujarat, Karnataka, AP & Tamilnadu.
2. Total 9 groundnut based cropping pa erns are adopted in I ndia particularly in
rainfed condition.
CROPPING SYSTEM
The cropping pa ern used on a farm and its interactions with farm resources,
other farm enterprises and available technology which determine their makeup.
FARMING SYSTEM
A n appropriate combination of farm enterprises viz. cropping system,
livestock, poultry, fisheries and the means available to the farmer to raise them
for increasing profitability.
MIXED FARMING
1. A system of farming on a particular farm which includes crop production,
raising livestock, poultry, fisheries, bee keeping etc. to sustain and safety as
many needs of the farmer as possible. The objective is subsistence while
higher profitability without altering ecological balance is important in
farming system.
2. Cropping pattern which involve the raising of crops, animals and or trees.
RATOONING
O ne of the important methods of intensive cropping, allowing the stubbles of
the original crop to strike again after harvesting and to raise another crop.
LIVE MULCH SYSTEM
Live mulch crop production involves planting a food crop directly into a living
cover of an established cover crop without tillage or the destruction of the fallow
vegetation.
SOLE CROPPING/SOLID PLANTING
1. It is opposite of intercropping.
2. “One crop variety grown alone in pure stands at normal density in a field”.
MONOCULTURE
The repetitive growing of the same sole crop on the same land.
Multiple Cropping
1. “The growing of more than one crop on the same land in one year”.
2. Types of multiple cropping:
(a) Inter cropping
(b) Mixed cropping
(c) Sequential/non-overlapped cropping
(d) Relay/overlapped cropping
(a) Inter Cropping
“Growing of two or more crops simultaneously in alternate rows or otherwise
in the same area, where there is significant amount of inter crop competition”.
Advantages of Inter Cropping
1. Hreater stability of yield over different seasons,
2. Better use of growth resources,
3. Better control of weeds, pests and diseases,
4. One crop provides physical support to the other crop,
5. One crop provides shelter to the other crop,
6. Erosion control through providing continuous leaf cover over the ground
surface, and
7. It is the small farmers of limited means who is most likely to benefit.
Disadvantages of Intercropping
1. Yield decrease because of adverse competition effect,
2. Allelopathic effect,
3. Creates obstruction in the free use of machines for intercultural operations and
4. Large farmers with adequate resources may likely to get less benefit out of
intercropping.
(b) Mixed Cropping
Cultivation of two or more than two crops simultaneously on the same piece of
land without any definite row pattern or fixed ratio.
1. Scientific study of mixed cropping was firstly done by La-Flitze in 1929.
2. Mixed cropping is commonly practiced in Dryland areas of India.
3. Sowing of seeds is generally by broadcasting method.
4. Main objective is to lessen the risk of total crop failture, and to satisfy the
farmers in food and fodder.
5. Mixed cropping needs irrigation through out the year.
(c) Sequential/Non-overlapped Cropping
Growing of two or more crops in quick succession on the same piece of land in
a farming year. The swing of the succeeding crop and harvesting of the preceding
crop may be done simultaneously or in a quick succession e.g. J ust after the
harvest of Maize, Potato is sown and just after digging of potato, Chilli is sown.
(d) Relay/Overlapped Cropping
Relay planting is inter planting or inter sowing of seeds/seedlings of the
succeeding crop before harvesting the preceding/maturing crop.
1. Generally 2nd crop is planted after the first crop has reach its reproductive stage
of growth e.g. Potato is planted before the harvest of Maize and Radish is
sown before harvesting of Potato.
2. Paira (Bihar & W B) and Utera (MP) cropping are also referred as an example of
relay cropping. Paira/Utera cropping means sowing of Lathyrus or Lentil
before the harvest of rice in lowland area with an objective to use the
residual moisture of rice field.
MULTISTOREYED/MULTITIRED/MULTILEVEL
CROPPING
Two or more than two crops of different heights cultivated simultaneously on the
same field. I t is generally practised in Karnataka and Keralae.g. S ugarcane +
Mustard + Onion/Potato
PARALLEL CROPPING
Such crops have different growth habits and zero competition to each other.
e.g. Urd/Moong + Maize
COMPANION CROPPING
When the production of both inter crops is equal to that of its solid planting.
e.g. Mustard/Potato/Onion + Sugarcane
SYNERGETIC CROPPING
I n this type of cropping, yield of both the crops are higher than their pure
crops on unit area e.g. Sugarcane + Potato
CROPPING INDEX
C.I. =
LAND EQUIVALENT RATIO
Ratio of the area needed under sole cropping to one of intercropping at the
same management level to give an equal amount to yield. LER is the sum of the
fractions of the yield of the intercrops, relative to their sole crop yields.
Intercropping system accepts advantageous, when LER is more than 1.0
PRECISION FARMING
Precision farming means high tech agriculture, spatial variability management
“Precision farming is a site specific crop management approach in modern
crop production for applying agro-chemicals to the field in an economical and
environmentally sound fashion”. I t is the technique or method to find out the use
of appropriate inputs, appropriate technology, decreasing cost of cultivation
decisions, optimizing outputs for safety and security of food acc. to site or soil
condition.
Precision farming is useful in (1) be er fertilizer management (2) nutrient and
water management determination (3) pest and disease a ack detection and
management by infra red narrow band sensors.
Components: (1) Integration (2) Technology (3) Management
Technology Requirement
1. Computers – used as source for information gathering and processing.
2. G lobal Positioning System – satellites based information received by a mobile
field instrument. GPS helps in identifying any location in the field to assess
the special variability and site specific application of inputs.
3. G lobal I nformation System– a tool used to capture, store, update, manipulate,
analyze and display all forms of geographically referred information.
4. Remote Sensing – a tool for collection, processing and analyzing data to extract
information from earth surface without coming into physical contact with it.
I t is based on either through satellites based sensors or CI R video digital
cameras hold on small aircraft.
Remote Sensing
∗ Remote S ensing is the sensing of objects or a phenomenon without being in
contact.
∗ In Remote Sensing, optical wave lengths ranges between 0.3 to 15 µm are used.
∗ N ear I nfra Red wave length ranges between 0.7 to 1.3 µm and Middle I nfra Red
ranges between 1.3 to 3.0 µm.
∗ Velocity of light in air : 3x108m/s.
∗ S imple Vegetation I ndex = Reflectance in I nfra Red band/Reflectance in Red
band.
∗ Vegetation I ndex is used in identifying the crop stress that can be used in crop
management.
∗ Indian Satellites : IRS-1A/1B, IRS-1C, IRS-1D
∗ I RS -4 launched in 1999 is used to measure physical and biological
oceanographic parameters.
∴ Human eye respond to wave length between 0.4 – 0.7, which is also same for
Photosynthetic Active Radiation (PAR).
∴ LISS stands for Linear Image Self Scanner
∴ WiFS stands for Wide Field Scanner
∴ Near infra red – wave length ranges between 0.7 to 1.3mm.
ORGANIC FARMING (Biological husbandry)
“I t is agricultural production system which avoids or largely excludes the use
of synthetically compounded fertilizers, pesticides, growth regulators and
livestock feed additives. To the maximum extent feasible organic farming system
rely upon crop rotation, crop residues, and animal manure, legumes, green
manure, mineral-bearing rocks and aspects of biological pest control to maintain
soil productivity and tilth to supply plant nutrients and to control insects, weeds
and other pests”.
Aims of Organic Farming
1. To produce crop with a high nutritional value
2. To maintain and improve long term fertility and sustainability of farm land.
∗ LEISA is recent term related to organic farming.
Chapter 12
Soil Science
“Soil is the fine earth covering land surface that has the important function of
serving as a substratum of plant, animal and human life and acts as a reservoir of
nutrients and water”.
O r “S oil is the material on the earth’s surface that results from the interactions
of weather and biological activities with the underlying geologic formation. S oil is
produced from broken down rocks, organic ma er (decayed animals and plant
life), water, and air”.
Rocks
∗ Igneous Rocks : Granite, Basalt and Syenite
∗ Sedimentary Rocks : Lime stone, Sand stone and Dolomite
∗ Metamorphic rocks : Gneiss, Marble, Quartzite and Slate
Gneiss from Granite, Marble from Lime stone, Q uar ite from S and stone and
Slate from Shales.
∗ Weathering minerals: Most resistant - Quartz
∗ Weathering minerals: Moderate resistant - Feldspar
∗ Weathering minerals: Least resistant - Calcite
∗ Chemical composition of earth’s crust:
Sl.No. Element Percentage ((%) Sl.No. Element Percentage (%)
1. O2 49.20 2. Si 25.67
3. Al 7.50 4. Fe 4.70
5. Ca 3.39 6. Mg 1.93
∗ Pedology : Acc. to pedology “Soil is a natural body”.

Pedology is the science to study the origin, classification and description of soil.
∗ Edaphology : Acc. to edaphology “Soil is natural habit for plant”.
Edaphology is the science to study the soil from the stand point of higher plants.
∗ Soil Profile: Soil profile is a vertical section of soil through all its horizons.
Soil Profile
Higher mineral soil, occurs commonly in forest areas,
1. ‘O’ horizone :
1. ‘O’ horizone : absent in arable land.
2. ‘A’ : Topmost mineral horizon.
‘E’ or ‘A2’ Horizon of maximum E luviation of clay, Fe and Al,
3. :
maximum leaching take place so also called as Wash-out.
4. ‘AB’ or ‘EB’ : –-
Absent in black soil, Maximum accumulation (Illuviation)
5. ‘B’ :
so also called as Wash-in.
6. ‘C’ : Rock, Regolith
(A) SOIL STRUCTURE & TEXTURE

Soil Structure
∗ “S oil structure refers to the arrangement of primary particles of soil and their
aggregates into certain defined pa erns”. I t is one of the important
property of soil, since it influences aeration, permeability and water
capacity.
∗ S oil structure refers to the shape of the soil clumps in any given soil. S oil
structure is an important factor for water drainage through a soil and the
suitability of a soil to hold structures etc.
∗ S oil structure tells how the soil affects the movement of water, air and root
penetration into the soil. The geometric shapes of the soil determine how it
is put together.
Types of Soil Structure
Six principal types of soil structure are recognized.
1 . Granular - rounded, nearly spheroidal aggregates, usually present in surface
(A) horizons; subject to wide and rapid changes; when the spheroidal peds
are especially porous the term crumb is used; granular structure is common
in soils high in organic ma er and is often associated with grassland
vegetation.
2. Platy - aggregates are flat usually parallel to the earth’s surface; usually present
in A e horizons (or E in U.S . system); often inherited from parent material
(especially those laid down by water and ice) of soil or caused by
compaction of clay soils by heavy machinery.
3 . A ngular blocky - aggregates are in a form of irregularly six-faced blocks with
three dimensions more or less equal (cube-like units), common in B-
horizons, particularly in humid regions; may also occur in A horizons; these
aggregates promote good drainage, aeration, and root penetration.
4. Subangular blocky - polyhedral units with somewhat rounded edges.
5 . Columnar - relatively tall, vertically oriented aggregates with rounded tops,
usually present in B-horizons, especially in subsoils high in N a; most
commonly in soils of arid and semi-arid regions; commonly associated with
swelling type of clays (e.g. montmorillonite).
6 . Prismatic - relatively tall, vertically oriented aggregates with flat tops,
sometimes occur in poorly drained soils.
Soil Texture
∗ “Refers to the relative percentage of sand, silt and clay sized particles in the soil
material”.
∗ The varying proportions of particles of different size groups in a soil constitute
is known as soil texture.
∗ The principle textural classes are clay, clay loam, sandy clay, silt clay, sandy clay
loam, silty clay loam, sandy loam, silt loam, sand, loamy sand and silt.
Types of Soil Texture
1 . Sand: S and particles may be rounded or irregular with quite jagged surfaces,
exhibit no plasticity and stickiness, low water holding capacity, low
percolation rate, facilitate good drainage and good air movement.
2. Silt is intermediate between sand and clay in size, (I S S S - 0.02–0.002 mm; US D A
- 0.05–0.002 mm) and irregular in shape. Mineralogically and physically, silt
particles greatly resemble sand particles. S ilt is dominated by quar and
micas like primary minerals; and posses some plasticity, cohesion and
adsorption. They hold moisture but lesser than clay.
3. Clay fraction is less than 0.002 mm in size and forms the decisive fraction of the
soil. Clay particles are plate like or needle like in shape. They adsorb water
and hydrate, thereby causing the soil to swell upon we ing and then shrink
upon drying. They are very plastic and sticky in moist condition; and
become hard and cloddy when dry.
Classification of Soil Particles on the Basis of Size (diameter in mm)
Classification IISS USDA
Stone : > 250 > 250
Cobble : 75–250 75–250
Gravel : 2–75 2–75
Very course sand : – 1.0–2.0
Course sand : 2–0.2 0.5–1.0
Fine sand : 0.2–0.02 0.1–0.25

Very Fine sand : – 0.05–0.1
Silt : 0.02–0.002 0.002–0.05
Clay : < 0.002 < 0.002
Soil Types
1. Alfisols : Relative young soils, acid soils
2. Andisols : Volcanic soils
3. Aridisols : Desert/Arid soils
4. Entisols : Alluvial soils
5. Histosols : Organic soils
6. Inceptisols : Young soils
7. Mollisols : Prairie soils
8. Oxysols : Highly weathered soils/dry soil
9. Ultisols : Low nutrient soils
10. Vertisols : Black soils, Swelling clay soils
(B) SOILS OF INDIA

I ndian Council of A gricultural Research (I CA R) has divided I ndian soils into
eight major groups:
1) Alluvial Soils
∗ Largest and the most important soil group of India.
∗ They are composed of sediments deposited by rivers and the waves.
∗ Their chemical composition makes them one of the most fertile in the world.
∗ They are mainly gray coloured.
∗ Usually deficient in nitrogen and humus (thus fertilizers are needed).
∗ O ccupy the plains (from Punjab to A ssam) and also occur in the valleys of
N armada and Tapti in M.P. & Gujarat, Mahanadi in the MP and O rissa,
Godawari in A.P. and Cauvery in T.N.
∗ Can be divided into Khadar (new formed) and Bhangar (older, more clayey and
kankary) alluvium.
2) Black Soils
∗ Also called Regur and is ideal for cotton crop.
∗ These soils have been formed due to the solidification of lava spread over large
areas during volcanic activity in the Deccan Plateau, thousands of years ago.
∗ They are black due to compounds of M n (also because of titaniferous
magnetite).
∗ Presence of montmorillonite clay (2:1).
∗ Vertical Cracking problem is most occurs.
∗ They have high moisture retention level, so best suitable for D ryland
agriculture.
∗ Rich in Mn and Ca.
∗ Deficient in N, P, Zn and organic matter.
∗ Mainly found in D eccan Plateau - Maharashtra, Gujarat, M.P, Karnataka, A ndhra
Pradesh, Tamil Nadu.
∗ A part from co on cultivation, these fertile soils are suitable for growing cereals,
oilseeds, citrus fruits and vegetables, tobacco and sugarcane.
3) Red Soils
∗ They are mainly formed due to the decomposition of ancient crystalline rocks
like granites and gneisses and from rock types rich in minerals such as iron
and magnesium.
∗ T he red colour of soil is due to the wide diffusion of iron oxides through the
materials of the soil.
∗ Covers almost the whole of Tamil N adu, Karnataka, A ndhra Pradesh, S .E.
Maharashtra, Chhattisgarh, parts of Orissa, Jharkhand and Bundelkhand.
∗ Generally deficient in nitrogen, humus and phosphorus, but rich in potash.
∗ High phosphorus (P) fixation capacity due to pressure of kaolinite.
∗ S uitable for rice, millets, tobacco and vegetables (also groundnuts and potatoes
at higher elevations).
4) Laterite Soils
∗ Found in typical monsoon conditions - under conditions of high temperature
and heavy rainfall with alternate wet and dry periods.
∗ The alterations of wet and dry season leads to the leaching away of siliceous
ma er and lime of the rocks and a soil rich in oxides of iron and aluminium
compounds is left behind.
∗ Found in parts of Western Ghats, Eastern Ghats, Rajmahal hills, Maharashtra,
Karnataka, Kerala, Orissa, West Bengal, Assam, Tamil Nadu, etc.
∗ Poor in nitrogen and minerals.
∗ Phosphorus fixation is most probable in this soil.
∗ Best for tea, coffee, rubber, cinchona, coconut and suitable for rice and millet
cultivation if manured.
5) Forest and Mountain Soils
∗ Such soils are mainly found on the hill slopes covered by forests.
∗ The formation of these soils is mainly governed by the characteristic deposition
of organic matter derived from forest growth.
∗ I n the Himalayan region, such soils are mainly found in valley basins,
depressions and less steeply inclined slopes. A part from the Himalayan
region, the forest soils occur in higher hills in south and the peninsular
region.
∗ They are generally brown coloured.
∗ Very rich in humus but are deficient in Potash, phosphorous and lime and
needs fertilizers.
∗ Plantation of tea, coffee, spices and tropical fruits.
6) Arid and Desert Soils
∗ A large part of the arid and semi-arid region in Rajasthan and adjoining areas of
Punjab and Haryana lying between the I ndus and the A ravallis receiving
less than 50 cm of annual rainfall is affected by desert conditions.
∗ This area is covered by a mantle of sand which inhibits soil growth.
∗ The phosphate content of these soils is as high as in normal alluvial soils.
N itrogen is originally low but its deficiency is made up to some extent by
the availability of nitrogen in the form of nitrates. Thus the presence of
phosphates and nitrates make them fertile soils wherever moisture is
available.
∗ The changes in the cropping pa ern in the I ndira Gandhi Canal Command A rea
are a living example of the utility of the desert soils.
7) Saline and Alkaline Soils
∗ I n the drier parts of Bihar, U.P. Haryana, Punjab, Rajasthan and Maharashtra,
are the salt-impregnated or alkaline soils. Known by different names: Reh,
kallar, USAR, etc.
∗ S ome of the salts are transported in solution by the rivers and canals, which
percolates in the sub-soils of the plains.
∗ The accumulation of salts makes the soil infertile and renders it unfit for
agriculture.
∗ Peaty soils originate in the humid regions as a result of accumulation of large
amounts of organic matter in the soil.
∗ They contain considerable amounts of soluble salts and 10 - 40 per cent of
organic matter.
∗ Peaty soils are found in Ko ayam and A lappuzha districts of Kerala, where it is
called Kari.
∗ Peaty soils are generally Copper (Cu) deficient and Acidic in nature.
∗ Marshy soils, high in vegetable ma er, are found in northern Bihar, coastal
parts of Orissa, Tamil Nadu and West Bengal and parts of UP.
∗ Marshy soils are Zinc (Zn) deficient.
(C) SOIL FERTILITY & PRODUCTIVITY
Soil Fertility
“The capability of the soil to provide all the essential plant nutrients in available
form is called as soil fertility”.
“The inherent capacity of the soil to supply nutrients to plants in adequate amount
and in suitable proportions is called as soil fertility”.
Types of Soil Fertility
1) Inherent or Natural Fertility
∗ The soil, as a nature contains some nutrients, which is known as inherent
fertility.
∗ A mong plant nutrients nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium is essential for the
normal growth and yield of crop. The inherent fertility has a limiting factor
from which the fertility is not decreased.
2) Acquired Fertility
∗ The fertility developed by application of manures and fertilizers, tillage,
irrigation, etc., is known as acquired fertility.
∗ The acquired fertility has also a limiting factor. I t is found by experiment that
the yield does not increase remarkably by application of additional quantity
of fertilizers.
Factors Effecting Soil Fertility
The factors that are affecting soil fertility may be of two types:
1) Natural Factors
T h e natural factors are those which influence the soil formation and the
artificial factors are related to the proper use of land.
2) Artificial Factors
The factors effecting the fertility of soil are parent material, climate and
vegetation, topography, inherent capacity of soil to supply nutrient, physical
condition of soil, soil age, micro-organisms, availability of plant nutrients, soil
composition, organic ma er, soil erosion, cropping system and favourable
environment for root growth.
Maintenance of Soil Fertility
Maintenance of soil fertility is a great problem of our farmers. Cultivation of
particular crop year after year in the same field decreases the soil fertility. To
increase the soil fertility, it is necessary to check the loss of nutrient and to
increase the nutrient content of soil.
The following things must be properly followed for increasing the fertility of
soil.
1. Proper use of land,
2. Good tillage,
3. Crop rotation,
4. Control of weeds,
5. Maintenance of optimum moisture in the soil,
6. Control of soil erosion,
7. Cultivation of green manure crops,
8. Application of manures,
9. Cultivation of cover crops,
10. Removal of excess water (drainage),
11. Application of fertilizers,
12. Maintenance of proper soil reaction.
Soil Productivity
“S oil productivity is the capacity of the soil to produce plants under a specified
programme of management and it is expressed in terms of yields”.
∗ A ll productive soils are fertile, but all fertile soils need not be productive due to
some problems like water logging, alkali, saline, adverse land situation etc.
(D) PLANT NUTRIENTS

Plant contains more than 90 elements, out of which, 17 elements are known to
be essential which are classified as macronutrients and micronutrients, based on
their relative abundance in plants.
C, H, O, N, P , K, Ca, Mg, S , Fe, Mn, Mo, Cu, Cl, B , Zn, Ni = 17 *
Essentials - Nickel (Ni) is the latest (1987) addition to the list of essential
nutrients
Primary - N, P & K = 3
Secondary - Ca, Mg & S = 3
Macro - N, P, K, Ca, Mg & S = 6
Micro - Fe, Mn, Mo, Cu, Cl, Co, B, Zn = 8
Functional - Essential elements + Co, V, Si, Na
Beneficial - Ru, Sr, Ni, Cr, As.

Energy Exchange - H, O
Energy Storage - C, N, P, S
Translocation regulator - Ca, Mg, K, Na
Oxidation reduction - Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Co
ESSENTIALITY OF ELEMENTS IN PLANT NUTRITION

A rnon and Stout (1939) and A rnon (1952) proposed the following criteria of
essentiality of mineral nutrients:
1. A deficiency of the element in question results in failure to complete the life
cycle,
2. D eficiency of element in question can be corrected only by supplying that
particular element, and
3. The element must extend its effect directly on growth or metabolism and not by
indirect effect such as antagonism of another element present at a toxic
level.
Essential Nutrients for Plant Growth and their Principal Forms for Uptake
Nutrient Chemical Symbol Principal Forms for Uptake
Carbon C CO2
+
Hydrogen H H2O, H
Oxygen O H2O, O2+
Nitrogen N NH4+, NO3–
– 2– 3–
Phosphorus ∗ H2PO4 , HPO4 , PO4
Potassium K K+
Calcium Ca Ca2+
2+
Magnesium Mg Mg
Sulfur S SO42–, SO2
2+ 3+
Iron Fe Fe , Fe
Manganese Mn Mn 2+
Boron B H2BO3–, B 4O72–, BO33–
Zinc Zn Zn 2+
Copper Cu Cu 2+
2–
Molybdenum Mo MoO4
Chlorine Cl Cl–
FUNCTIONS OF ESSENTIAL NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS

Nutrient Functions
Carbon Basic molecular component of carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids.
Oxygen is somewhat like carbon in that it occurs in virtually all organic compounds of
Oxygen
living organisms.
Hydrogen plays a central role in plant metabolism. Important in ionic balance and as
Hydrogen
main reducing agent and plays a key role in energy relations of cells.
Nitrogen is a component of many important organic compounds ranging from proteins
Nitrogen
to nucleic acids.
Phosphorus Central role in plants is in energy transfer and protein metabolism.
Helps in osmotic and ionic regulation. P otassium functions as a cofactor or activator for
Potassium
many enzymes of carbohydrate and protein metabolism.
Calcium is involved in cell division and plays a major role in the maintenance of
Calcium
membrane integrity.
Magnesium Component of chlorophyll and a cofactor for many enzymatic reactions.
Sulfur Sulfur is somewhat like phosphorus in that it is involved in plant cell energetic.
An essential component of many heme and nonheme Fe enzymes and carries, including
the cytochromes (respiratory electron carriers) and the ferredoxins. T he la er are
Iron
involved in key metabolic function such as N fixation, photosynthesis, and electron
transfer.
E ssential component of several dehydrogenases, and peptidases, including carbonic
Zinc anhydrase, alcohol dehydrogenase, glutamic dehydrogenase, and malic dehdrogenase,
among others.
Manganese Involved in the O2 – evolving system of photosynthesis and is a component of the
enzymes arginase and phospho transferases.
Constituent of a number of important enzymes, including cytochrome oxidize, ascorbic
Copper
acid oxidase, and laccase.
Boron Involved in carbohydrate metabolism and synthesis of cell wall components.
Required for the normal assimilation of N in plants. An essential component of nitrate
Molybdenum
reductase as well as nitrogenase (N2 fixation enzyme)
E ssential for photosynthesis and as an activator of enzymes involved in spli ing water.
Chlorine
It also functions in osmo-regulation of plants growing on saline soil
s.
NUTRIENT DEFICIENCY SYMPTOMS OF PLANTS

Growing plants act as integrators of all growth factors and are the products in
which the grower is interested. Therefore, careful inspection of the growing plant
can help identify a specific nutrient stress. I f a plant is lacking in a particular
nutrient, characteristic symptoms may appear. D eficiency of a nutrient does not
directly produce symptoms. Rather, the normal plant processes are thrown out of
balance, with an accumulation of certain intermediate organic compounds and a
shortage of others. This leads to the abnormal conditions recognized as
symptoms. Visual evaluation of nutrient stress should be used only as a
supplement to other diagnostic techniques (i.e., soil and plant analysis).
Nutrient deficiency symptoms may be classified as follows:
1. Complete crop failure at the seedling stage.
2. Severe stunting of plants.
3. Specific leaf symptoms appearing at varying times during the season.
4. Internal abnormalities such as clogged conductive tissues.
5. Delayed or abnormal maturity.
6. Obvious yield differences, with or without leaf symptoms.
7. Poor quality of crops, including differences in protein, oil, or starch content, and
storage quality.
8. Yield differences detected only by careful experimental work.
Generalized Visual Leaf of Plant Nutrient Deficiency and Excess/Toxicity
Element/Status Visual Symptoms
Nitrogen (N)
Uniform yellowing of older leaves including veins, leaves that will eventually turn brown
and die. P lant growth is slow; plants will be stunted, and will mature early, Cereal crops
Deficiency
show ‘V’ shaped pale yellowing at lower leaf tips. Deficiency causes ‘Bu oning in
Cauliflower’.
P lants will be dark green in color and new growth will be succulent; susceptible if
Excess subjected to disease and insect infestation; and subjected to drought stress, plants will
easily lodge. Blossom abortion and lack of fruit set will occur.
Phosphorus (P)
Plant growth will be slow and stunted, and the older leaves will have a purple coloration,
Deficiency particularly on the underside, rear sides develop bronzy appearance, premature leaf falling
is most common. Deficiency causes ‘Sickle leaf disease’
P hosphorus excess will not have a direct effect on the plant but may show visual
Excess deficiencies of Zn, Fe, and Mn. High P may also interfere with the normal Ca nutrition,
with typical Ca deficiency symptoms occurring.
Potassium (K)
Yellowing starts from tip/margin of lower leaves and extend to center of leaf base.
Yellowing parts become dead spots (necrotic). T he edges of older leaves will look burned,
Deficiency
a symptom known as scorch. S corching and burning on margins of bo om leaves are
most common.
P lants will exhibit typical Mg, and possibly Ca deficiency symptoms due to a cation
Excess
imbalance.
Calcium (Ca)
Terminal bud leaf becomes chlorotic white with base remains green. 1/3 chlorotic portion
Deficiency of tip hooks downward and bri le. Death of terminal buds. Deficiency causes ‘Blossom
end rot’ in Tomato and Ber and ‘Tip hooking in Cauliflower’.
P lants may exhibit typical Mg deficiency symptoms, and when in high excess, K
Excess
deficiency may also occur.
Magnesium (Mg)
Older leaves will be yellow between veins and veins remain green (Interveinal chlorosis).
Deficiency L eaves become mo led. Also affects chlorophyll formation. Deficiency causes ‘S and
drawn disease’ in tobacco.
Excess Results in a cation imbalance showing signs of either a Ca or K deficiency.
Sulfur (S)
Yellowing of leave, leaves are paler than interveinal portion. Occurrence of ‘Downward
Deficiency
cupping of leaves in Tobacco and Tea.
Excess A premature senescence of leaves may occur.
Boron (B)
Yellowing/chlorosis starts from base of terminal bud leaf and extends to tip results in
appearance of ‘Whip like structure’ and become brownish/blackish brown. Deficiency
Deficiency
causes ‘Internal necrosis in Aonla and Mango’, ‘Hen and Chicken disorder in Grape’
and ‘Heart rot in Sugarbeet’.
Excess Leaf tips and margins will turn brown and die.
Chlorine (Cl)
Younger leaves will be chlorotic and plants will easily wilt. For wheat, a plant disease will
Deficiency
infest the plant when Cl is deficient.
P remature yellowing of the lower leaves with burning of the leaf margins and tips. L eaf
Excess abscission will occur and plants will easily wilt. E xcess of Cl ions in water or excess of
MOP (KCl) causes ‘Leaf scorching’.
Copper (Cu)
L eaves including veins become yellow and tending towards whiteness. Occurrence of
Deficiency
‘Marginal leaf burning’. Deficiency causes ‘Dia back and Little leaf disease in Citrus’.
Excess Fe deficiency may be induced with very slow growth. Roots may be stunted.
Iron (Fe)
Veins remain conspicuously green and other leaf portion turn yellow and tending
Deficiency towards whiteness. Interveinal chlorosis will occur. Deficiency causes ‘Leaf bleaching in
sugarcane and ‘Ivory white of paddy’.
A bronzing of leaves with tiny brown spots on the leaves, a typical symptom frequently
Excess
occurring with rice.
Manganese (Mn)
Interveinal yellowing of young leaves but not tending towards whiteness. Veins remain
Deficiency
green. Deficiency causes ‘Marsh disease in Pea’.
Excess Older leaves will show brown spots surrounded by a chlorotic zone and circle.
Molybdenum (Mo)
Older and middle leaves become chlorotic first. T ranslucent spots of irregular shape
between veins; spots become impregnated with resinous gum. Occurrence of ‘Typical
Deficiency
interveinal chlorosis’. Deficiency causes ‘Whiptail disease and Browning in
Cauliflower’.
Excess Not of common occurrence.
Zinc (Zn)
Upper leaves will show chlorosis on midrib. Veins green and dead spots occur in all parts
Deficiency of leaf (veins, tips and margins). P lants appear bushy due to reduced internodal
elongation. ‘White bud of Maize’ is caused by the deficiency.
Excess Fe deficiency will develop.
DISEASES OR SYMPTOMS CAUSED

DUE TO DEFICIENCY OF NUTRIENTS IN PLANTS
Deficiency of Nutrient Causes Diseases/Symptoms
N - Buttoning in cauliflower
Ca - Cavity spot in carrot
Cu - Dieback and little leaf in citrus, Reclamation disease in cereals
Bo - Internal necrosis in aonla, jackfruit and mango, Browning in cauliflower
Zn - Little leaf in Brinjal and mango, Bronzing in guava, Bunchy
disease in peacan nut, White bud in maize, Khaira disease in paddy
Mn - Water core in Brassica, Marsh disease in pea, Spotted
yellow disease in sugarbeet
Mo - Yellow spot disorder in citrus, Whip tail in cauliflower
∗ Deficient: W hen the concentration of an essential element is low enough to limit

yield severely and distinct deficiency symptoms are visible. Extreme
deficiencies can result in plant death. With moderate or slight deficiencies,
symptoms may not be visible, but yields will still be reduced.
∗ C ritical range: The nutrient concentration in the plant below which a yield
response to added nutrient occurs. Critical levels or ranges vary among
plants and nutrients, but occur somewhere in the transition between
nutrient deficiency and sufficiency.
∗ Sufficient: The nutrient concentration range in which added nutrient will not
increase yield but can increase nutrient concentration. The term luxury
consumption is often used to describe nutrient absorption by the plant that
does not influence yield.
∗ Excessive or toxic: W hen the concentration of essential or other elements is high
enough to reduce plant growth and yield. Excessive nutrient concentration
can cause an imbalance in other essential nutrients, which also can reduce
yield.
∗ H idden H unger: H idden hunger is a term used to describe a plant that shows no
obvious symptoms, yet the nutrient content is not sufficient to give the top
profitable yield.
Hidden hunger refers to a situation in which a crop needs more of a given nutrient
yet has shown no deficiency symptoms. The nutrient content is above the
deficiency symptom zone but still considerably needed for optimum crop
production. With most nutrients on most crops, significant responses can
be obtained even though no recognizable symptoms have appeared.
∗ Chlorosis is a physiological disorder that occurs to deficiency of mineral
elements (eg; Mn, K, Zn, Fe, Mg, S and N ). Leaves or plant parts become
abnormally yellow.
∗ Mottled is surface marked with coloured spots (anthocyanin develops) eg. D ue
to deficiency of N, Mg, P, S.
∗ Necrosis refers to patch of dead tissues, due to the deficiency of Mg, K, Zn, Ca
and Mo.
ANTAGONISTIC EFFECT
Excess of Nutrient Causes Deficiency
N, P & K - Cu
∗ - Fe, Zn & Cu
N, K & Ca - B
K, NH4 - Mg
Ca - ∗
Ca, Mg - K
Fe, SO4 - Mo
Zn & Al - Cu
Zn, Mo, Cu & NO3 - Fe
B - Mo
INDICATOR PLANT SPECIES/CROPS

FOR VARIOUS DEFICIENCY
Deficient Elements Indicator Plant/Crop
N - Maize, Mustard, Small millets
∗ - Maize, Barley
K - Maize, Potato, Tobacco, Lucerne, Beans
Ca - Lucerne & other legumes
Mg - Potato, Maize, Oat, Wheat, Pea, Beans
Fe - Sorghum, Barley
S - Lucerne, Raya
Co - Oat, Maize, Tobacco
Bo - Sunflower, Lucerne
Mo - Oat, Brassica spp
Na - Sugarbeet
(E) MANURES AND FERTILIZERS

Manures
Manures are plant and animal wastes that are used as sources of plant
nutrients. They release nutrients after their decomposition. Manures can be
grouped into bulky organic manures and concentrated organic manures based on
concentration of the nutrients.
1) Bulky Organic Manures
Bulky organic manures contain small percentage of nutrients and they are
applied in large quantities. Farmyard manure (FYM), compost and green manure
are the most important and widely used bulky organic manures.
∗ Use of bulky organic manures have several advantages:
1. They supply plant nutrients including micronutrients,
2. They improve soil physical properties like structure, water holding capacity etc.,
3. They increase the availability of nutrients,
4. Carbon dioxide released during decomposition acts as a CO2 fertilizer, and
5. Plant parasitic nematodes and fungi are controlled to some extent by altering
the balance if microorganisms in the soil.
(A) Farmyard Manure
Farmyard manure refers to the decomposed mixture of dung and urine of farm
animals along with li er and left over material from roughages or fodder fed to
the cattle.
∗ O n an average well decomposed farmyard manure contains 0.5 per cent N , 0.2
per cent P2O5 and 0.5 per cent K2O.
∗ Gypsum and super phosphate are commonly used chemicals which helps in
reducing nutrient losses in FYM and also increases phosphorus content.
∗ Vegetable crops like potato, tomato, sweet-potato, carrot, radish, onion etc.,
respond well to the farmyard manure. The other responsive crops are
sugarcane, rice, napier grass and orchard crops like oranges, banana, mango
and plantation crop like coconut.
∗ The entire amount of nutrients present in farmyard manure is not available
immediately. A bout 30 per cent of nitrogen, 60 to 70 per cent of
phosphorous and 70 per cent of potassium are available to the first crop.
(B) Compost
A mass of rotted organic matter made from waste is called compost.
∗ The compost made from farm waste like sugarcane trash, paddy straw, weeds
and other plants and other waste is called farm compost.
∗ The average nutrient contents of farm compost are 0.5 per cent N , 0.15 per cent
P2O5 and 0.5 per cent K2O.
∗ The nutrient value of farm compost can be increased by application of
superphosphate or rock phosphate at 10 to 15 kg/t of raw material at the
initial stage of filling the compost pit.
∗ The compost made from town refuses like night soil. S treet sweepings and
dustbin refuse is called town compost. I t contains 1.4 per cent N , 1.00 per
cent P2O5 and 1.4 per cent K2O.
(C) Night Soil
Night soil is human excreta, both solid and liquid.
∗ It is richer in N, P and K than farmyard manure and compost.
∗ N ight soil contains on an average 5.5 per cent N , 4.0 percent P2O5 and 2.0 per
cent K2O
(D) Sewage and Sludge
I n the modern system of sanitation adopted in cities and towns, human excreta
is flushed out with water which is called sewage. The solid portion in the sewage
is called sludge and liquid portion is sewage water. Both the components of
sewage are separated and are given a preliminary fermentation and oxidation
treatments to reduce bacterial contamination and offensive smell.
(E) Vermiculture Technology
I n vermiculture technology, the potential of earthworms as natural bio-
degraders of non-toxic organic wastes for soil improvement and nutrient
mobilization is being exploited.
∗ Earthworm population in organic ma er rich soils act as natural bioreactors,
harness beneficial soil micro flora, destroy soil pathogens and convert
organic wastes into valuable product such as bio fertilizers, vitamins,
enzymes, antibiotics, growth hormones and pertinacious worm biomass.
∗ Earthworms after having properly established in the soil modify soil physico-
chemical- biological characters of the soil and enhance nutrient cycling by
ingestion of soil and humus and converting it into nutrient rich cast.
∗ The early availability of various nutrients such as P, Ca, N a, Mg, K etc are much
higher in earthworm cast than in the surrounding soil.
∗ The biologically degradable and decomposable non-toxic organic ma er is used
in vermi-composting. Commonly used composting materials are animal
dung, agricultural waste, forestry waste, leaf li er, waste papers, co on
cloth, city refuse, biogas slurry and non-toxic industrial waste of organic
nature.
∗ A ideal population of about 2-4 lakh worms per ha can make permanent
structurally stable burrows in soil, which allow water infiltration up to a
depth of 120 mm.
∗ Each burrow acts as a micro-dam and prevents runoff losses and enables the soil
to sustain moisture for longer period of time.
∗ The earthworm casting are stable and do not break into smaller pieces,
preventing the soil erosion by wind and runoff water.
∗ Vermiculture technology is being harnessed to set up units for cost effective
treatment of various non-toxic solid and liquid wastes from industries,
agricultural operations and households. The product of such unit known as
vermicompost is very high quality nutrient rich source and is being
increasingly exploited for sustainable organic farming.
(F) Green Manure
Green manuring can be defined as a practice of ploughing or turning into the
soil un-decomposed fresh green plant tissue for the purpose of improving fertility
status and physical structure of the soil.
∗ The ideal green manures should possess the following traits:
1. Capable of establishing and growing quickly
2. Tolerant to adverse climatic conditions such as drought, water logging, high
and low temperatures etc. and tolerant to pest and diseases.
3. S hould possesses adequate Rhizobium nodulation potential and must be
effective nitrogen fixer
4. S hould be capable of growing very fast and capable of accumulating sufficient
fixed N in 4-6 weeks, easy to incorporate and quickly decomposable.
∗ Types of green manures: two types of green manuring practices can be adopted.
(a) G reen manuring in site: I n this system, green manuring crops are grown and
buried in the same field which is to be green manured, either as a pure
crop or as an intercrop with the main crop.
v The most common green manure crops in this system are S unnhemp (Crotolaria
juncea), D haincha (Sesbania aculeata), Sesbania rostrata and cluster bean
(Cymopsis tetragonoloba).
v S ome common grain legumes such as cowpea, lupin and horse gram are also
widely used as green manures.
v To make the green manuring more economical and affordable, it is also being
recommended to grow legumes such as cowpea, French beans and rice
beans and incorporate them after collecting the two harvest of green
pods for vegetable purposes.
(b) I ntroduced green leaf manuring: I t refers to the collection leaves and of tender
twigs from shrubs and trees grown on bunds, wasteland and nearby
forest areas and then incorporate them into cultivable field.
v The common shrubs and trees used for introduced green leaf manuring are
Gliricidia sepium, Sesbania speciosa, karanj (Pongamia glabra) , Ipomea,
jatropha gossipifolia.
∗ Potential of Green Manuring
1. O n an average on ton of well grown green manure is equivalent to 2.8 to 3.0 ton
of FYM or 4.5 to 4.7 kg of nitrogen which is equivalent to 10 kg of urea.
A pplication of 6 t/ha of green tissue ensures the supply of 24 to 30 kg
N/ha to a rice crop.
∗ Merits of Green Manuring
1. Contributes N ranging from 50-175 kg/ha.
2. Huge quantity of organic matter is added to the soil.
3. Increase water and Nutrient holding capacity of the soil.
4. Proliferates microbial population in the soil.
5. I mproves physical conditions of soil and increase the availability of various
macro and micronutrients.
6. N o adverse impact on soil and environment, hence environment friendly and
help in maintaining the fertility of the soil in long term.
∗ Important Points of Green Manuring
1. Green manuring is an effective and cheap way of improving the soil fertility.
2. For green manure crop, legume is preferable.
3. It acts as cover crop in soil erosion areas.
4. It is a good amendment source for reclamation of problem soils
5. Young leaves can be incorporated immediately after planting by older crop is to
be buried 4-8 weeks a head of the planting.
6. Optimum dose of green biomass is 4 to 5 tonnes/ha.
7. Green manure is as efficient as ammonium sulphate or urea.
8. Improves low fertility status of soils.
9. Important component of low-input natural farming.
(G) Sheep and Goat Manure
The dropping of sheep and goats contain higher nutrients than farmyard
manure and compost.
∗ On an average, the manure contains 3 per cent N2, 1 per cent P2O5 and 2 per cent
K2O.
(H) Poultry Manure
The excreta of birds ferment very quickly. I f left exposed, 50 per cent of its
nitrogen is lost within 30 days.
∗ Poultry manure contains higher nitrogen and phosphorous compared to other
bulky organic manures. The average nutrient content is 3.023 per cent N ;
2.63 per cent P2O5 and 1.4 per cent K2O.
(I) Concentrated Organic Manures
Concentrated organic manures have higher nutrient content than bulky
organic manure.
∗ The important concentrated organic manures are oilcakes, blood meal, fish
manure etc.
∗ These are also known as organic nitrogen fertilizer. Before their organic nitrogen
is used by the crops, it is converted through bacterial action into readily
usable ammonia cal nitrogen and nitrate nitrogen.
∗ These organic fertilizers are, therefore, relatively slow acting, but they supply
available nitrogen for a longer period.
(J) Oil Cakes
A fter oil is extracted from oilseeds, the remaining solid portion is dried as cake
which can be used as manure.
The oil cakes are of two types:
1. Edible oil cakes which can be safely fed to livestock; e.g. Groundnut cake,
Coconut cake etc., and
2. N on-edible oil cakes which are not fit for feeding livestock; e.g. Castor cake,
Neem cake, Mahua cake etc.
(K) Other Concentrated Organic Manures
Blood meal when dried and powdered can be used as a manure. The meat of
dead animals is dried and converted into meat meal which is a good source of
nitrogen.
Amendments
S oil amendments are substances that influence plant growth favourably by
increasing nutrient availability either by altering soil reaction or by changing non-
available to available form and by improving the physical condition of the soil.
∗ Liming materials such as limestone, burnt lime, slaked lime etc. are used to
reduce acidity.
∗ A mendments like gypsum, sulphur, iron sulphate etc. are used for reclaiming
alkaline soils.
∗ These materials reduce pH resulting in higher nutrient availability and be er
soil physical conditions.
∗ Materials like sand, tank silt, press mud, crop residues are added to the soil
either for improving soil physical condition or increasing nutrient
availability or both.
AVERAGE NUTRIENT CONTENT OF COMMON MANURES
Manures N ∗2O5 K2O
Organic manures
Farm yard manure 0.5–1.5 0.4–0.8 0.5–1.9
Compost (Rural) 0.4–0.8 0.3–0.6 0.7–1.0
Compost (Urban) 1.0–2.0 1 1.5
Cowdung (fresh) 1.5 0.3 0.2
Biogas slurry – – –
(cowdung based) 1.6–1.8 1.1–2.0 0.8–1.2
Sheep manure 0.8–1.6 0.4–0.6 0.3–0.4
Poultry manure 1.2–1.8 1.4–1.8 0.8–0.9
Oil cakes
Neem cake 5.2 1 1.4
Coconut cake 3 1.9 1.8
Groundnut cake 7 1.5 1.3
Gingelly cake 6.2 2 1.2

Castor cake 2.5–2.6 1.8–1.9 1.8–1.9
Mahua cake 2.5 0.8 1.8
Animal manures
Bone meal 3.5 21 –
Fish meal 4.1 3.9 0.3
Meat meal 11 1.5 0.6
Blood (dried) 11.5 – 0.6
Green manures
Sun hemp 2.6 0.5 2
Daincha 3.3 0.7 1.3
Kolinji 3.2 0.3 1.3
Sesbania 2.7 0.5 2.2
Gliricidia 2.9 0.5 2.8
Paddy straw 0.36 0.08 0.71
Household ash 0.5–1.9 1.6–4.2 2.3–12.00
Coir pith Compost 1.26 0.06 1.2
FERTILIZERS
Fertilizers are the organic or inorganic materials of natural or synthetic origin
which are added to the soil to supply certain elements essential to the growth of
plants.
Classification of Fertilizers
Fertilizer which contains only one primary or major nutrient, e.g.
1. Straight fertilizers :
Urea, Amm. Sulfate.
2. Binery fertilizers : Fertilizers which contain two major nutrients e.g. Potassium nitrate.
Fertilizer which contains three major nutrients e.g. Ammonium
3. Termary fertilizers :
potassium phosphate.
4. Complete fertilizers : Those fertilizers having all the three major nutrients viz. N, P & K.
5. Complex fertilizers : S uch fertilizers contain more than one primary or major nutrient
element e.g. DAP, Ammonium phosphate.
Contain less than 25 per cent of primary nutrients, e.g. S S P (16 per
6. Low analysis fertilizers :
cent), Sodium Nitrate (16 per cent).
Contain more than 25 per cent of primary nutrients, e.g. Urea (46 per
7. High analysis fertilizers :
cent), DAP (18 per cent N & 46 per cent P 2O5).
∗ Fertilizer grade : “The minimum guarantee for the plant nutrient content in
terms of total N2, available P2O5 and K2O”.
∗ Fertilizer ratio : “The relative percentage of N2, P2O5 and K2O” in a fertilizer.
Average Nutrient Content of Common Fertilizers

Fertilizers Nutrient Content (%)
N ∗2O5 K2O Remarks
Nitrogenous Fertilizers:
(A) Nitrate form -
1. Sodium nitrate 16.0 - -
2. Calcium nitrate 15.5 - -
(B) Ammonical form -
1. Ammonium phosphate 16.0 20.0 -
2. Ammonium chloride 24-26 - - Used for coconut, oil palm
Oldest N. fertilizer, B est for top
3. Ammonium sulphate 21.0 - -
dressing in rice
4. Anhydrous ammonia 81.0 - - Most concentrated
(C) Ammonical form -
1. Ammonium nitrate 33-34 - - Explosive fertilizer
Nitro chalk/lime, Kisan khad, Neutral
2. Calcium ammonium nitrate 26.0 - -
fertilizer
3. Ammonium sulphate nitrate 26.0 - -
(D) Amide form -
Only organic N fertilizer, cheapest &
1. Urea 46.0 - -
suitable for foliar spray
2. Calcium cynide 21.0 - -
Phosphatic Fertilizers:
(A) Water soluble -
1. Superphosphate (single) - 16-18 - Oldest commercially
available fertilizer
2. Superphosphate (double) - 32.0 -
3. Superphosphate (triple) - 46-48 -
4. DAP 18 46 - Least hygroscopic
(B) Citric acid soluble -
1. Di calcium phosphate - 34-39 -
2. Basic slag - 14-18 -
S uitable for acidic & long duration
3. Bone meal - 23-30 -
crops
(C) Insoluble -
1. Rock phosphate - 20-40 -
2. Rock bone meal - 20-25 -
3. Steamed bone meal - 22.0 -
Potassic Fertilizers:
1. Murate of potash/KCl - 60.0 -
2. Sulphate of potash - 48.0 -
S uitable for fertigation, also k/s S alt
3. Potassium nitrate - 44.0 -
petre or Nitre
METHODS OF FERTILIZER APPLICATION

Solid Fertilizers
1) Broadcasting
Broadcasting is the method of application of fertilizer uniformly over the entire
field. I t may be at planting or in standing crop as top dressing. This method is
adopted under certain conditions:
∗ Soils are highly deficient of nutrients, especially nitrogen,
∗ W here fertilizers like basic slag, dicalcium phosphate, bone meal and rock
phosphate etc are to be applied to acid soils,
∗ When potassic fertilizers are to be applied to potash deficient soils.
2) Top Dressing
Top dressing is application of fertilizer to the standing crop, especially nitrate
nitrogenous fertilizers.
3) Placement
I nserting or drilling or placing the fertilizer below the soil surface by means of
any tool or implement at desired depth to supply plant nutrients to crop either
before sowing or in the standing crop is called placement.
∗ With placement methods, fertilizers are placed in the soil irrespective of the
position of seed, seedling or growing plants before sowing or after sowing
the crops. The following methods are most common in this category:
(a) Plough-sole Placement
The fertilizer is placed in a continuous band on the bo om of the furrow
during the process of ploughing. Each band is covered as the next furrow is
turned. N o a empt is usually made to sow the crop in any particular location with
regard to the plough sole bands.
∗ This method has been recommended in areas where the soil becomes quite dry
up to a few inches below the soil surface during the growing season, and
especially with soils having a heavy clay pan a li le below the plough-sole.
By this method, fertilizer is placed in moist soil where it can become more
available to growing plants during dry seasons.
(b) Deep Placement
∗ This method of application of nitrogenous and phosphatic fertilizers is adopted
in paddy fields on a large scale in Japan and is also recommended in India.
∗ I n this method, ammonical nitrogenous fertilizer like ammonium sulphate or
ammonium forming nitrogenous fertilizer like urea is placed in the reduced
zone to avoid nitrogen loss in lowland rice and is available to the crop
during the active vegetative period.
∗ D eep or sub-surface placement of the fertilizer also ensures be er distribution
in the root zone and prevents any loss by surface drain-off. D eep placement
is done in different ways, depending upon the local cultivation practices. I n
irrigated tracts, where the water supply is assured, the fertilizer is applied
under the plough furrow in the dry soil before flooding the land and
making it ready for transplanting. I n areas where there is not too much of
water in the field, it is broadcast before puddling. Puddling places the
fertilizer deep into the root zone.
(c) Sub-Soil Placement
∗ This refers to the placement of fertilizers in the sub-soil with the help of heavy
power machinery.
∗ This method is recommended in humid and sub-humid regions where many
sub-soils are strongly acidic. D ue to acidic conditions the level of available
plant nutrients is extremely low. Under these conditions, fertilizers,
especially phosphatic and potassic are placed in the sub-soil for be er root
development.
(d) Localized Placement
∗ This method refers to the application of fertilizers into the soil close to the seed
or plant.
∗ Localised placement is usually employed when relatively small quantities of
fertilizers are to be applied. Localised placement reduces fixation of
phosphorus and potassium.
(e) Bulk Blending
∗ I t is the process of mixing two or more different fertilizers varying in physical
and chemical composition without any adverse effects.
∗ For this formulation certain additional materials called ‘Fillers’ and
‘Conditioners’ are used to improve the physical condition of the mixed
fertilizer. This mixed fertilizer should be applied as top dressing.
(f) Contact or Drill Placement
∗ It refers to drilling seed and fertilizer simultaneously at sowing.
∗ Ferti seed drills are popular in Dryland agriculture for drill placement.
(g) Band Placement
∗ I t consists of applying the fertilizer in continuous or discontinuous bands close
to the one or both sides of seed or plant.
∗ This method is well suited for wider spaced crops i.e. sugarcane, tobacco, co on,
castor, maize and vegetables.
(h) Pellet Placement
∗ A pplication of fertilizer, especially nitrogen in pellet form to the lowland rice to
avoid nitrogen loss.
∗ S oil and fertilizer are mixed in the ratio of 1;10 or 15 in the form of small pellets
and placed in the reduced zone.
4) Liquid Fertilization
The use of liquid fertilizers as a means of fertilization has assumed
considerable importance in foreign countries.
(a) Starter Solution
Solutions of fertilizers, generally prepared in low concentration.
∗ I t consists of N2, P2O5, and K2O in the ratio of 1:2:1 and 1:1:2 are applied for
soaking seed, dipping roots or spraying on seedlings for early
establishment and growth.
∗ The nutrients reach the plant roots immediately.
∗ The solution is sufficiently diluted so that it does not inhibit growth.
∗ This method is specially applied in pulses and vegetable crops.
(b) Foliar Spray
N utrients are applied to the standing crops in the form of spray for quick
recovery from the deficiency. It avoids fixation of nutrients in the soil.
∗ Foliar application does not result in a great saving of fertilizer but it may be
preferred under the following conditions:
1. W hen visual symptoms of nutrient deficiencies observed during early stages of
deficiency.
2. W hen unfavourable soil physical and chemical conditions, which reduce
fertilizer use efficiency (FUE).
3. D uring drought period where in the soil application could not be done for want
of soil moisture.
(c) Soil Application
D irect application of liquid fertilizers to the soil need special injecting
equipment. A nhydrous ammonia (a liquid under high pressure up to 14 kg per
square cm. or more) and nitrogen solutions are directly applied to the soil.
∗ Plant injury or wastage of ammonia is very li le if the material is applied about
10 cm below the seed. I f the application is shallow, nitrogen from ammonia
will be lost. This method allows direct utilisation of the cheapest nitrogen
source.
∗ Liquid manures such as urine, sewage water and shed washing are directly let
into the field.
(d) Fertigation
Fertigation is the application of fertilizer with irrigation water in either open or
closed system. The open system includes lined and unlined open ditches and
gated pipes that are used for furrow and flood irrigation. S prinkler and drip
systems are the main closed systems.
∗ Nitrogen and sulphur are the principle nutrients applied by Fertigation.
∗ This saves the application cost and allows the utilization of relatively in
expensive water-soluble fertilizers.
General Absorption and Mobility Rankings for Foliar Applied Nutrients
Absorption Mobility
Rapid Mobile
Urea Nitrogen, Potassium, Urea Nitrogen, Potassium, Phosphorus,
Zinc Sulfate
Moderate Partially Mobile
Zinc, Copper, Manganese, Boron,

Calcium, Sulfate, Manganese, Boron
Molybdenum
Slow Immobile
Magnesium, Copper, Iron, Molybdenum Iron, Calcium, Magnesium
Nitrification Inhibitors
For lowland : Oxamide (31 per cent N) & Thiourea (36.8 per cent N)
For upland : N-serve
Others : Nitropyrin, Neem cake (Mimbiolin)
Slow Released N Fertilizers

1. Urea farmal dehyde (UF – Urea form) : 38-42 per cent N
2. Oxamide
3. Sulpher coated urea, Neem coated urea
4. Formation of super granule (Modified form): Urea 1-4 gm of big granules
(F) PROBLEM SOILS
There are three major problematic soils:
1. Acidic soil
2. Alkaline soil
3. Saline soil
1) Acid Soils
The soils with pH less than 6.5 and which respond to liming may be considered
as acidic soils.
(a) Reasons for Acidity
∗ Humus decomposition results in release of large amounts of acids. There by
lowering the pH.
∗ Rainfall: I n areas with more than 100 cm rainfall associated with high R.H., Ca,
Mg is dissolved in water and leached out due to this base saturation of soil
decreases.
∗ A pplication of elemental sulphur under goes reactions resulting in formation of
H2SO4.
∗ Continuous application of acid forming fertilizers like ammonium sulphates or
ammonium chlorides results in depletion of Ca by CEC (cation exchange
capacity) phenomenon.
∗ Parent Material: Generally rocks are considered as acidic, which contain large
amount of silica (SiO2) when this combined with water, acidity increases.
(b) Characteristics
∗ pH is less than 6.5
∗ These soils are open textured with high massive Structure.
∗ Low in Ca, Mg with negligible amount of soluble salts.
∗ This soils appear as brown or reddish brown, sandy loams or sands.
(c) Injury to Crops
(i) Direct Affects
∗ Plant root system does not grow normally due to toxic hydrogen ions.
∗ Permeability of plant membranes are adversely affected due to soil acidity.
∗ Enzyme actions may be altered, since they are sensitive to pH changes.
(ii) Indirect Affects
∗ Deficiency of Ca and Mg occur by leaching.
∗ Al, Mn and Fe available in toxic amounts.
∗ All the micro nutrients except molybdenum are available. So ‘Mo’ deficiency has
been identified in leguminous crops.
∗ Phosphorous gets immobilized and its availability is reduced.
(iii) Effect on Activity of Microorganisms
∗ Most of the activities of beneficial organisms like A zotobacter and nodule
forming bacteria of legumes are adversely affected as acidity increases.
(d) Crops Suitable for Cultivation in Acidic Soils
pH Level Acidic Soils
4.5 : Citrus, Blue berries
5.0 : Tobacco, Apple, Grapes, Plum, Watermelon
5.5 : Cowpea, Soybean, Cotton, Wheat, Oat, Peas, Tomato, Sorghum.
6.0 : Peanut, Cabbage, Carrot, Onion, Radish, Spinach, Cauliflower.
6.5 : Alfalfa, Sugarbeet
(e) Amelioration
∗ Lime as reclaiming agent: Lime is added to neutralize acidity and to increase the
pH, so that the availability of nutrients will be increased.
∗ Basic slag obtained from I ron and steel industry can be substituted for lime. I t
contains about 48-54 per cent of CaO and 3-4 per cent MgO.
∗ A mmonium sulphate and A mmonium chloride should not be applied to acid
soils but urea can be applied.
∗ Calcium Ammonium Nitrate (CAN) is suitable to acidic soils.
∗ Any citrate soluble phosphate fertilizer is good source of phosphorous for acidic
soils.
∗ Eg. D icalcium phosphate (D CP), Tricalcium phosphate (TCP) Potassium
sulphate is a suitable source of ‘K’ for acidic soils. But MO P is be er than
K2SO4 because Cl– of MO P replaces -O H ions, their by release of -O H ions
tends to increase the pH.
2) Alkaline Soils
A lkali soils are formed due to concentration of exchangeable sodium and high
pH. Because of high alkalinity resulting from sodium carbonate the surface soil is
discoloured to black; hence the term black alkali is used.
(a) Reasons for Alkalinity
∗ The excessive irrigation of uplands containing N a salts results in the
accumulation of salts in the valleys.
∗ In arid and semi arid areas salt formed during weathering are not fully leached.
∗ I n coastal areas if the soil contains carbonates the ingression of sea water leads
to the formation of alkali soils due to formation of sodium carbonates.
∗ Irrigated soils with poor drainage.
(b) Characteristics
∗ Saline soil have soil pH of more than 8.5
∗ Ec is less than 4.0 m.mhos/cm
∗ ESP (exchangeable sodium per cent) is more than 15
∗ It has black colour that why it is also called as Black alkali
(c) Injury to Crops
∗ High exchangeable sodium decreases the availability of calcium, magnesium to
plants.
∗ D ispersion of soil particles due to high exchangeable ‘N a’ leads to poor physical
condition of soil, low permeability to water and air, tends to be sticky when
wet and becomes hard on drying.
∗ Toxicity due to excess hydroxyl and carbonate ions.
∗ Growth of plant gets affected mainly due to nutritional imbalance.
∗ Restricted root system and delay in flowering in sensitive varieties.
∗ Typical leaf burn in annuals and woody plants due to excess of chloride and
sodium.
∗ Bronzing of leaves in citrus.
∗ It effects the solubility of zinc (Zn).
(d) Crops Suitable for Cultivation in Alkaline Soils
∗ Barley, Sugarbeet, Co on, S ugarcane, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Redgram,
Greengram, S unflower, Linseed, S esame, Bajra, S orghum, Tomato,
Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Bi erguard. Beetroot, Guava,
Asparagus, Banana, Spinach, Coconut, Grape, Datepalm, Pomegranate.
(e) Amelioration
∗ The process of amelioration consists of two steps:
∴ To convert exchangeable sodium into water soluble form.
∴ To leach out the soluble sodium from the field. A mendments used for
reclamation of Alkali soils.
∗ Gypsum
1. Gypsum is used to reclaim sodic/alkaline soil.
2. For every 1 m.e. of exchangeable N a per 100 gm of soil, 1.7 tones of
Gypsum/acre is to be added.
3. If the requirement is 3 tonnes/acre- apply in one dose.
4. If the requirement is 3 to 5 tonnes/acre- apply in 2 split doses.
5. If the requirement is 5 or more tonnes/acre - apply in 3 split doses.
∗ Gypsum contains 29.2 per cent Ca and 18.6 per cent sulfer.
∗ Use of Pyrites (FeS2)
∗ S ulphur present in pyrites causes decrease in pH of soil due to formation of
H2SO4.
∗ Application of molasses.
∗ Drainage channels must be arranged around the field.
∗ Growing the green manure crops and incorporate in the field.
3) Saline Soils
The saline soils contain toxic concentration of soluble salts in the root zone.
S oluble salts consists of chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium, magnesium.
Because of the white encrustation formed due to salts, the saline soils are also
called white alkali soils.
(a) Reasons for Salinity
∗ In arid and semi arid areas salts formed during weathering are not fully leached.
D uring the periods of higher rainfall the soluble salts are leached from the
more permeable high laying areas to low laying areas and where ever the
drainage is restricted, salts accumulate on the soil surface, as water
evaporates
∗ The excessive irrigation of uplands containing salts results in the accumulation
of salts in the valleys.
∗ I n areas having salt layer at lower depths in the profile, seasonal irrigation may
favour the upward movement of salts.
∗ Salinity is also caused if the soils are irrigated with saline water.
∗ In coastal areas the ingress of sea water induces salinity in the soil.
(b) Characteristics
∗ Saline soil have soil pH of less than 8.5
∗ EC is more than 4.0 m.mhos/cm
∗ ESP (exchangeable sodium per cent) is less than 15
∗ Dominated by sulphate and chloride ions and low in exchangeable sodium
∗ Flocculation due to excess soluble salts.
∗ High osmotic pressure of soil solution
∗ Presence of white crust
∗ It has white colour that why it is also called as White alkali
(c) Injury to Crops
∗ High osmotic pressure decreases the water availability to plants hence
retardation of growth rate.
∗ A s a result of retarded growth rate, leaves and stems of affected plants are
stunted.
∗ D evelopment of thicker layer of surface wax imparts bluish green tinge on
leaves
∗ Due to high EC germination per cent of seeds is reduced.
(d) Crops Suitable for Cultivation in Saline Soils
∗ Barley, Sugarbeet, Co on, S ugarcane, Mustard, Rice, Maize, Redgram,
Greengram, S unflower, Linseed, S esame, Bajra, S orghum, Tomato,
Cabbage, Cauliflower, Cucumber, Pumpkin, Bi erguard. Beetroot, Guava,
Asparagus, Banana, Spinach, Coconut, Grape, Datepalm, Pomegranate.
(e) Amelioration
∗ The salts are to be leached below the root zone and not allowed to come up.
However this practice is some what difficult in deep and fine textured soils
containing more salts in the lower layers. Under these conditions, a
provision of some kind of sub-surface drains becomes important.
∗ The required area is to be made into smaller plots and each plot should be
bounded to hold irrigation water.
∗ Separate irrigation and drainage channels are to be provided for each plot.
∗ Plots are to be flooded with good quality water upto 15 - 20 cms and puddled.
Thus, soluble salts will be dissolved in the water.
∗ The excess water with dissolved salts is to be removed into the drainage
channels.
∗ Flooding and drainage are to be repeated 5 or 6 times, till the soluble salts are
leached from the soil to a safer limit.
∗ Green manure crops like D aincha can be grown up to flowering stage and
incorporated into the soil. Paddy straw can also be used.
∗ S uper phosphate, A mmonium sulphate or Urea can be applied in the last
puddle. MOP and Ammonium chlorides should not be used.
∗ Scrape the salt layer on the surface of the soil with spade.
∗ Grow salt tolerant crops like sugar beet, tomato, beet root, barley etc. Before
sowing, the seeds are to be treated by soaking the seeds in 0.1 per cent salt
solution for 2 to 3 hours.
COMPARISON BETWEEN SALINE AND ALKALINE
SOIL
Particular Saline soil Alkaline soil
Known as : Solan chalk Solanetz
Soluble salt concentration : ³ 0.1 per cent < 0.1 per cent
White coloured so also called white B lack coloured so also called black
Colour :
alkali alkali
– 2– + 2– +
Ions presence : Cl and SO4 ions of Na CO3 of Na
COMPARISON BETWEEN SALINE,

SALINE ALKALINE AND ALKALINE SOIL
Particular EC (dS/m) at 25ºC ESP (per cent) pH
Saline soil >4 < 15 < 8.5

Usar/S.A. soil >4 > 15 < 8.5
Alkaline soil <4 > 15 8.5 – 10.0

∗ Soil structure is named in the sequence of Grade, Class and Type.
∗ Bulk density is the mass of a unit volume of dry soil in its natural structure.
∗ Empty space between soil particles is called as Pore space.
∗ Macro pores of soil are filled with air, while micro pores with water.
∗ Black cotton soils are deficient in N2.
∗ Red colour of the soil is due to the presence of Hematite minerals.
∗ D ecomposition of soil organic ma er is slower at pH below 6 and faster
between 6-8 pH.
∗ Leaching is the process of loss of nutrients beyond root cone along with water.
∗ Most preferable soil structure is Granular and Crumby.
∗ Clay soils have higher pore space than sandy soils.
∗ S oil horizon is the individual layer of soil; soil profile is a vertical section of soil
through all its horizons.
∗ Per cent Porosity =
∗ Per cent Solid space =
∗ Per cent Pore space =
DENSITY OF DIFFERENT SOILS
Soil Particle Density (gm/cc) Bulk Density (gm/cc)
Normal soil : 2.65 1.33
Sandy soil : 2.60 1.6
Silty soil : 2.70 1.3
Clay soil : 2.80 1.1
EQUIVALENT ACIDITY AND BASICITY

Equivalent Acidity – Amount of CaCo3 required for neutralized
Fertilizers Unit (kg/100 kg of fertilizer)
Anhydrous ammonia : 148
Ammonium Chloride : 128
Ammonium sulphate : 110

Ammonium sulphate nitrate : 93
Ammonium phosphate : 86
Urea : 80
DAP : 77
Ammonium nitrate : 60
Mono ammonium phosphate : 55
Equivalent Basicity – Residual CaCO3
Ca. Cynamide : 63
NaNO3 & KNO3 : 29
Ca. Nitrate : 21
∗ N itrogen fixing organisms was 1st isolated by M.W . Beijerinck, who called the
organism Bacillus radicicola.
∗ Productive soil may always be fertile, but fertile soil may not always be
productive.
∗ Band placement reduces the surface contact between the soil and fertilizer with
a consequent reduction in phosphorus fixation.
∗ I n submerged soil/rice field, application of A mmonium sulphate is benefited
compared to other nitrogenous fertilizers.
∗ Excessive N2 fertilization reduces the sugar content of sugarbeet.
∗ Bouley unit of NPK – 223, 45 & 76
∗ Mitscherlich factor – 0.112
∗ Mineralization of Nitrogen:
(a) A minization: Polypeptide ® A mino acid (due to activity of Bacillus,
Pseudomonas)
(b) Amonificaion: Amino acid ® Ammonium (Nitrobactor)
(c) Nitrification: Ammonium ® Nitrate (Nitrosomonas)
(d) Nitrification: Nitrate ® Nitrite (Nitrobactor)
(e) Denitrification: Nitrite ® Nitrogen (Pseudomonas)
∗ I mmobilization of nitrogen is the reverse of mineralization and occurs when
large quantities of low nitrogen crop reduces begin decomposition.
∗ N2 fixation by a legume is at the maximum only when the level of available soil
N2 is at the minimum.
∗ C:N ratio - Humus and Normal soil – 10:1
∗ C:N ratio - FYM & legume – 20-30:1
∗ C:N ratio - Saw dust – 400:1
∗ The fertilizer which supplies 3 essential plant nutrients is SSP.
∗ Stem nodulation occurs in Aeschynomene afraspera (green manure crop).
∗ The rate of Rhizobium culture for– 20 gm/kg seed.
∗ Rhizobium stains for biological nitrogen fixation in different crops:
Rhizobium japonicum : Soybean, Cowpea, Groundnut
Rhizobium leguminosorum : Gram, Pea, Lentil, Sweet pea
Rhizobium meliloti : Alfalfa, Medicago, Melilotus
Rhizobium phaseoli : Rajma, Beans
Rhizobium trifoli : Berseem (Egyptian clover)
∗ Biofertilizers
Symbiotic N2 fixing bacteria : Rhizobium spp.
Asymbiotic N2 fixing bacteria : Azotobactor, Azospirillum and Clostridium
P hosphorus solublizing micro- : Acitobactor, Trycoderma, PSB, PSM
organisms
Phosphorus absorbing micro-
: VAM (Vascular Arbuscular Mycorrhyza)
organisms
Algal Inoculant : Blue Green Algae (BGA)
Fern : Azolla (Anabaena, Nostac, Tolypothrix)
Sulfer solubilizing bacteria : Thiobacillus
∗ At nearly normal pH (6.5 pH), phosphate availability is the highest in the soil.
∗ Rice, tea and potato crops prefer acidic soil for their cultivation.
∗ Fertilizer application in lowland paddy – at reduced zone.
∗ Micronutrients responsible for root nodulation – Fe
∗ Micronutrients responsible for nitrogen fixation – Mo
∗ BBF evolved by ICRISAT used in Black soil.
∗ Pollen viability of wheat is related to supply of boron (B).
∗ I mmobilization of sulfer takes place, when the sulfer content of organic manure
exceeds 0.15 per cent.
∗ Nitrogen fixation in the soil by rhizobium is increased by phosphorus.
∗ Root nodulation occurs at 24ºC.
∗ Nitrification occurs at 25-30ºC.
∗ Conversion factors:
(a) N = NO3 × 0.22 NO3 = N × 4.54
(b) P = P2O5 × 0.44 P2O5 = P × 2.27
(c) K = K2O × 0.83 K = K2O × 1.20
(d) C = CaO × 0.71 CaO = Ca × 1.40
(e) Mg = MgO × 0.61 MgO = Mg × 1.63
(f) OM = OC × 1.724 OC = OM × 0.58
where, OM = organic matter, OC = organic carbon
∗ S unhemp (Crotolaria juncea) is most widely used green manure, suitable to
mostly all parts of India.
∗ ‘Tirak’ is the bad opening of cotton flower.
∗ ‘Black heart’ is a physiological disorder occurs due to oxygen starvation.
∗ ‘Blossom end rot’ (Buck eye rot) of tomato is caused due to Ca deficiency and
uneven moisture supply.
∗ Fruit cracking of tomato is due to ‘B’.
Chapter 13
Genetics
“Genetics is the study of the way in which genes operate and the way in which
they are transmitted (heredity) from parents to offsprings”.
(A) CELL ORGANELLES
1. Nucleus : (a) Discovered by Robert Brown in 1983.
Nucleus contains chromosomes and genes so also known as
(b)
Controlling Centre of Cell
(c) It has 3 main parts: Nuclear envelop, Nucleolus and

Chromatin.
It is a self replicating, Cytoplasmic organelles found in plant
2. Plastids : (a)
cell.
(b) It has 3 types: Leucoplast, Chromoplast and Chloroplast.
L eucoplasts are colourless and associated with storage of
(c)
starch & fats.
(d) Chromoplasts have colour but other than green.
(e) Chloroplasts are green and associated with photosynthesis.
3. Mitochondria : (a) A rod shaped Cytoplasmic organelles.
(b) Main site of cellular respiration.
(c) Source of energy so also known as Power house of the cell.
(d) It contains amount of DNA and thus are associated with

Cytoplasmic inheritance.
(e) Consists of 3 main parts: Membrane, Cristae and Matrix.
E ndoplasmic Reticulum (a)

4. : Endoplasmic reticulum term is developed by Porter in 1948.
(ER)
(b) E R associated with the synthesis of protein, lipids and
glycogen.
(c) Rough ER is associated with ribosome, whereas Smooth ER is
not.
(e) E R acts as a intercellular transport system for various

substances.
(f) E R provides passage of m-RNA from nucleus to the
cytoplasm.
(a) T hey are small cellular particles which are the main site of
5. Ribosome :
protein synthesis.
(b) Ribosome rich in RNA contents.
6. Lysosomes : (a) The term Lysosome was 1st used by Dave in 1955.
(b) T hey are the cellular particles which contains several

digestive enzymes so that also known as Death bag of cell.
(c) Mostly found in animal cell.
7. Golgi : (a) 1st described by Comillo Golgi in 1822 in nerve cells.
Complex/Body (b) Golgi body arises from Rough ER
Its main function is packing & transport of food materials
(c) such as protein, lipids
8. Centrioles : (a) They are confined to animal cell only.
T hey play role a role in the orientation of the spindle
(b)
apparatus.
Cell wall is outer most layer and covering of the plasma
9. Cell wall : (a)
membrane. Pectin is present in cell wall.
(b) The cell wall is entirely lacking in animal cells.
10. Plasma : (a) It composed of lipids and proteins.
Membrane (b) It enclosing cytoplasm of cell.
T hey are vesicles of 0.5-1m diameter surrounded by a
11. Spherosome : (a)
membrane.
(b) They are found in plant cell only.
12. Vacuole : (a) About 90 per cent of cytoplasm is occupied by a large vacuole.
(b) The material contained in vacuoles is referred as cell sap.
(a) T hey are membrane-bound vesicles that use molecular

13. Peroxisomes :
oxygen to oxidise molecules, specially fatty acids.
CHROMOSOMES
1. Discovered by Strasburger in 1875.
2. The term ‘Chromosome’ was coined by Waldeyer in 1888.
3. Chromosomes are composed of DNA, RNA on histone protein.
4. DNA is the major genetic constituent of chromosome.
5. Chromosomes are present in the nucleus and which become visible during cell
division.
(B) MITOSIS
Greek word, Mito = thread
“Cell division, in which 1 cell gives rise to 2 daughter cells, each having a
nucleus with a set of chromosome genetically identical to the parent cell is known
as Mitosis”.
1. ‘Mitosis’ term was coined by Walter Flemming in 1882.
2. It occurs in somatic cells that’s why also known as Somatic cell division.
3. Segregation and recombination do not take place during mitotic division.
Phases of Mitotic Division
A preliminary stage where chromosomes are visible as
1. Prophase -
shorter and thicker.
Appearance of definite thread like structure in nuclei.
Nucleolus and Nuclear envelop disappear.
T he middle stage in which chromosomes are arranged in
2. Metaphase -
equatorial plate and nucleolus disappears.
During this stage, chromatids move towards the centromere
3. Anaphase -
(at both the poles) through spindle fibres.
4. Telophase - During this stage, chromosomes reach to the opposite poles.
5. Interphase - It is the stage of DNA synthesis.
Inter phase having 3 substance (i) G1 phase; (ii) S phase; (iii)
G2 phase
MEIOSIS
Greek word, Meioum = to reduce
“Cell division of 1 somatic (2n) cell with 2 sets of chromosomes gives rise to 4
haploid (n) daughter cells with one set of chromosomes each is known as
Meiosis”.
1. Mitosis is also called Reduction division.
2. The name meiosis was 1st given by J.B. Farmer in 1905.
3. Crossing over and recombination occur during meiosis division.
(A) First meiotic division:
(1) Prophase 1
(i) Leptotene Chromosomes start movement and looks like thread due
:
to condensation.
(ii) Zygotene : Pairing homologous chromosome takes place.
T he longest sub-phase, P aired chromosomes become
(iii) Pachytene :
coiled. Tetrad is seen during this stage.
T h e crossing over takes place between non sister
chromatids.
(iv) Diplotene Chromosomes starts to uncoil and separating each
:
other due to loss of synaptic force of attraction.
Chiasmata occur.
(2) Metaphase 1 : Spindle formation takes place.
Chromosome moves towards equator through
centromere.
(3) Anaphase 1 : Tetrad separates into two dyads.
Chromatids assume the shape of ‘V’. T he process of
separation of chromatids called Disjunction.
T his divides the diploid cytokinensis mother cell into 2
(4) Telophase 1 :
haploid daughter cell.
It is similar to mitotic division where each haploid cell
turns to two haploid cells leading four haploid cells
(B) Second meiotic division : from two daughter cells (from first meiotic division).
Division completes in P rophase, Metaphase, Anaphase
and Telophase similar to mitotic division.
(C) MENDELIAN GENETICS

1. Gregor John Mendal is the ‘father of modern genetics’.
2. He worked on garden pea (Pisum sativum L.) on seven contrasting characters.
3. Mendal’s work on garden pea was published in the proceedings of natural
society of Brunn, Austria by the name “An Experiments on Plant
Hybridization”.
4. He also worked on honeybee and many more field crops.
5. He was born in July 22, 1822 and died in January 6, 1884.
6. Rediscovery of Mendel’s work was done by Hugo de Vries, Erich Correns and
Erich Tschermak in 1900.
Gregor J ohn Mendal originated two important laws of heredity through the
systematic and great work with garden pea are:
1. Law of Segregation (Accepted)
2 Law of Independent assortment (Rejected/Invalid)
1) Law of Segregation
This law states that alleles segregate from each other during formation and
passed on two different gametes in equal number.
Red flower X White flower
Ex. Parents –
(RR) ↓ (rr)
F1 → (Rr) Red
Gametes
F2 - R r
R RR Rr Red : White (3 : 1)
r rR rr
2) Law of Independent Assortment

This law states that when two pair of gene enter in F1 combination, both of
them have their independent dominant effect. These genes segregates when
gametes are formed but the assortment occurs randomly and quite freely.
Ex. Parents – Yellow Round × Green Wrinkled
(YYRR) ↓ (yyrr)
F1 → (YyRr) Yellow Round
Gametes
F2 - YR Yr yR yr 9:3:3:1
YR YYRR YYRr YyRR YyRr

Yr YYRr YYrr YyRr Yyrr
yR YyRR YyRr yyRR yyRr
yr yYRr Yyrr yyRr yyrr
Pairs of 7 Contrasting Characters of Pea

Sl.No. Characters Dominant form Recessive form
1. Length of stem : Tall Dwarf
2. Position of flower : Axial Terminal
3. Pod shape : Full Constricted
4. Pod colour : Green Yellow
5. Cotyledon colour : Yellow Green
6. Seed coat colour : Gray White
7. Seed shape : Round Wrinkled
Chapter 14
Plant Physiology
∗ Stephan Hales is known as father of plant physiology.

(A) PHOTOSYNTHESIS
“Photosynthesis is a process by which chlorophyll containing organism (green
plants, algae etc) capture energy in the form of sunlight and convert it to chemical
energy”.
∗ Normally, photosynthesis reaction is 6CO2 + 2H2O ® C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 6O2
∗ Photosynthesis active radiation (PAR) occurs at 400-700 nm.
∗ Major photosynthesis active pigments of higher plants are Chlorophyll a and
Chlorophyll b.
∗ Photosynthesis completes in 2 phases:
1. C4/Light reaction/Hill reaction – take place in Graina of Chlorophyll
2. C3/Dark reaction/Calvin cycle – take place in Stroma of Chlorophyll
∗ Mechanisms of photosynthesis:
1. C3 pathway
v Also known as reductive pentose pathway or Blackman reaction or calvin cycle.
v It takes place in Rice, Wheat, Pea, Soybean etc.
v Rubisco is the most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2 fixation
in C3 plants.
v Its final product is 3 PGA.
2. C4 pathway
v A lso known as H atch and slack pathway or D i-carboxylic acid pathway or B-
carboxylation cycle or Cooperative photosynthesis.
v The 1st product in C4 plants is Oxalo acetic acid.
v PEP carboxylase is the most important enzyme involved in photosynthetic CO2
fixation in C3 plants
v Its products are ATP and NADPH2.
v It takes place in Maize, Sorghum, Sugarcane etc.
v C4 plants have 2 types of photosynthetic cells with Kranz leaf anatomy viz.
mesophyll cell and bundle sheath cells causing higher photosynthetic
rate.
∗ CAM (Crassulacean A cid Metabolism)pathway is found in Pineapple and
Opuntia.
∗ One NADH2 produces 3 ATP molecules.
∗ One FADH2 produces 2 ATP molecules.
(B) RESPIRATION & PHOTORESPIRATION

1) Respiration
∗ Respiration involves 2 process:
1. Physical process – by which living organism take O2 and emit waste CO2.
2. Chemical process – by which fuel molecules i.e. sugars and fats are broken
down within a cell to liberate energy for cellular life process.
∗ Respiration in plants consists of –
1. Glycolysis
2. Kreb cycle (Citric acid or TCA-Tricarboxylic acid)
3. ETC (Electron Transport Chain)
∗ Glycolysis: 1) It occurs in the cytoplasm and in anaerobic condition.
∗ Glycolysis: 2) Final product is Pyrubic acid/pyruyate.
∗ Phases of glycolysis: 1st phase ® Consumption of ATP ® Endothermic
∗ Phases of glycolysis: 2nd phase ® Production of ATP ® Exothermic
∗ ATP synthesis in glycolysis,
1. Net gain ATP ® 2
2. Gross production ® 4
∗ Kreb cycle and ETC occurs in Mitochondria.
∗ TCA cycle starts with Acetyl co-enzymes A and Oxalo acetate.
∗ ETC is present in the Cristae of Mitochondria, where ATP synthesized during
respiration.
∗ From one molecule of Glucose in respiration,
1. Net gain ATP synthesis ® 36 ATP
2. Gross production ® 38 ATP
∗ Products of anaerobic respiration are Ethanol and Lactic acid.
∗ Cytochormes are electron carriers in the respiratory ETC.
∗ One molecules of glucose yields - 686 Kcal energy
One molecules of ATP yields - 7.6 Kcal energy
One molecules of nadph2 yields - 52 Kcal energy
∗ The energy currency of the cell is ATP.
2) Photorespiration (Energy Spending Process)
“Light dependent oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide production is known as
photorespiration”.
∗ This occurs only in light.
∗ Photorespiration is high at 25º-35ºC.
∗ This occurs only in chlorophyllous cells.
∗ This is distinct from mitochondria respiration.
∗ This is primarily more in C3 plants and is very rare in C4 plants.
∗ Respiratory substrate: Glycolate.
∗ Process of respiration occurs in chloroplast + Peroxisomes + mitochondria.
∗ During this process, no ATP is produced.
(C) TRANSPIRATION
“The loss of water in the form of vapour from the living aerial parts of the plant
is known as transpiration”.
∗ The principle organ of transpiration is Leaf.
∗ Transpiration may be Folier (through stomata) or Lenticular (through lenticels).
∗ Transpiration is usually occurs in day time.
∗ The loss of water occurs in the form of vapour.
∗ It is regulated and controlled by Stomatal activities.
∗ The after affect of transpiration is “cooling the leaf surface”.
∗ The transpiring water is pure.
∗ Types of transpiration:
1. Stomatal transpiration - 80-90 per cent water loss
2. Cuticular transpiration - 3-9 per cent
3. Lenticular transpiration - 0.1 per cent
∗ Stomata
1. Stomata are specialised epidermal cells.
2. It is found mainly on lower surface of leaves.
3. Approximately 97 per cent of transpiration takes place through stomata.
4. Each opened stomata has two kidney shaped guard cells.
5. Inner wall of guard cell is thicker, while outer is thin.
6. O pening and closing of stomata are due to its turgidity and faccidity
respectively.
∗ Types of stomata
(a) According to distribution of stomata on leaf:
1. Apple and Mulberry type - Stomata are present on only under surface of leaf.
2. Potato type - Mostly on lower surface.
3. Oat type - Equally distributed on both surface.
4. Water lily type - Only on upper surface
5. Potamogeton type - Stomata are either absent or functionless
(b) According to daily movement of stomata:
1. A lfalfa type - S tomata open through-out day and night i.e. pea, bean, mustard
etc.
2. Potato type - S tomata open through-out day and night except for a few hours in
the evening i.e. onion, cabbage, pumpkin etc.
3. Barley type - Stomata open only for a few hours during day
∗ Stomatal transpiration
Water absorbed by root hairs and reaches in the xylem vessels and tracheids
through the root cartex. From the xylem of the root, it reaches in the xylem
vessels and tracheids of the leaf. This results in increase in turgor pressure
of its cell as compared to mesophyll cells. The intercellular space in
mesophyll cells are filled with air. By transpiration, water vapour enters in
the intercellular space then passes on into atmosphere through stomata.
∗ Lenticels are the pores in the bark of fruits and woody stems.
∗ Guttation
“The loss of water (contains salts and minerals) through hydathodes in liquid
form during night and regulated by root pressure”.
∗ Bleeding
“Loss of sap (water) from the injured parts of the plant due to root pressure”.
∗ ‘Plant Physiology’ book was written by Galisbury and Ross.
∗ Total carbon fixed by land per year = 110 x 1012
∗ Total carbon fixed by ocean per year = 273 x 1011
∗ CO2 concentration in the atmosphere is 350 ppm.
∗ Glutamine synthetase enzyme is responsible for conversion of ammonia to
amino acid.
∗ O2 regulation is an important function of leghaemoglobin in root nodules.
∗ I mportant accessory pigments in plants are carotenoids – (a) caroteins (2)
xanthophylls
∗ Caroteins are orange pigments, while xanthophylls are yellow pigments.
∗ Final product of photosynthesis is 3 PGA.
∗ Transpiration is measured by Lysimeter.
∗ Stomata are regulated by Potash (K).
∗ Guttation is not favoured under low root pressure.
∗ Root hair part of root absorbs water and minerals.
∗ Growing of plant in soilless nutrient solution is referred as ‘Xeroponics’.
∗ Chlorophyll are green because they absorb green light.
∗ Photosynthetic inhibition by O2 is called as “Warburg’s effect”.
∗ The transpiration ratio is highest for C4 plants.
∗ Aerenchyma is related with Ethylene.
∗ Enzyme used to cut double stranded RNA is Restriction endonuclease.
∗ 90 per cent of total photosynthesis in world is carried out by - Algae
∗ What will be left, if chloroplast is burnt – Mg
∗ Water enters into the plant by means of Osmosis.
∗ Harvest index in cereals: 0.4 - 0.5
∗ Harvest index in pulses : 0.2 - 0.3
∗ Contribution to photosynthesis: (1) through flag leaf – 52 per cent
∗ Contribution to photosynthesis: (2) through awns – 12 per cent
Chapter 15
Biochemistry
∗ 'Biochemistry' is a Greek word formed by Bio = life

Logos = study
∗ Justus von Liebig is the father of Agricultural biochemistry.
∗ Major group of compounds found in a cell are carbohydrates and their
derivatives, fats and their derivatives, proteins and their derivatives,
Nucleic acids.
(A) CARBOHYDRATE
n
∗ The general formula of carbohydrate is (CH2OH) .
∗ Types of carbohydrate:
1. Monosaccharide
2. Oligosaccharide
3. Polysachharide
1. Monosaccharide (C6H12O6)
∗ Mostly found in grape, fruits and honey.
∗ It contains 3-9 carbon atoms.
∗ Monosaccharide types:
(a) Glucose: (i) also called as dextrose
(a) Glucose: (ii) it is corn sugar
(b) Fructose: (i) it is fruit sugar
(c) Galactose
(d) Mannose
2. Oligosaccharide
∗ It consists of 2-6 monosaccharides units
∗ Oligosaccharide types:
(a) Disaccharides: (i) it has 2 monosaccharides
(a) Disaccharides: (ii) contains Sucrose, Maltose, Lactose and Cellobiose
(b) Trisaccharides: (i) it has 3 monosaccharides
(b) Trisaccharides: (ii) contains Raffinose
(c) Tetrasacharides: (i) it has 4 monosaccharides
(c) Tetrasacharides: (ii) contains Stachyose
(a) Disaccharides
1. Sucrose: (a) I t outcomes from a 1,2 glycosidec linkage between a glucose and b
fructose.
(b) It is non reducing sugar.
2. Maltose: (a) Consists of two units of glucose linked together with a 1,4-linkage.
(b) It is a reducing sugar.
3. Cellobiose: (a) Consists of two units of glucose linked together with b 1,4-
linkage.
(b) It is a reducing sugar.
4. Lactose: Glucose + Galactose
(a) Consists of one molecules of each of b,D -glucose and b,D -galactose linked
together with b 1,4-glucosidec linkage.
5. Stachyose: (a) Consists of one molecules of each glucose and fructose and 2
molecules of galactose.
(b) Trisaccharides
I t is simple sugar, derived from hydrolysis of oligo-polysaccharides having 3-9
carbon atoms.
1. A ldoses: A ldoses are sugar with terminal CHO aldehyde group aldotriose-
glyceraldehyde.
e.g. Aldotetrose (Erythrpse, Trehlose)
Aldopentose (Arabinose, Ribose, Deoxy-ri bose)
Aldohexose (Glucose, Galactose, Mannose)
2. Ketose: Aldoses are with >C=0 group aldotriose-glyceraldehyde.
e.g. Ketoriose (Dihydrose and Acetone - a simple keto sugar)
Ketohexose (Fructose - the sweetest sugar)
3. Polysaccharides
P Consists of as many as 10,000 monosaccharides.
P Polysaccharide types:
(a) Storage polysaccharides:
e.g. A mylose – unbranched chain of glucose units joined together by a 1,4
glycosidic linkage into non linear helical chain.
Amylopectine – highly branched chain joined together with an a 1,4 linkage and at
ends with a 1,6 linkage
(b) Glycogen: Presence in Animal cells.
(c) Structural polysaccharides:
(i) Cellulose – polymer of glucose
(ii) Hemicellulose – polymer of L-arabionose
(iii) Pectin – polymer of Galaturonic acid, normally present in cell
wall as calcium pectate.
(B) PROTEIN
∗ Protein is made from Greek word “Proteios” means Primary.
∗ Proteins are the polymers of amino acid.
∗ Protein is discovered by Berzelius.
∗ Classification of proteins:
(a) Simple protein – protein that contains only amino acid.
(b) Conjugated protein – protein that contains non amino acid components with
addition to amino acid. These additional factors are called Prosthetic
group.
Examples
∗ Nucleo proteins – Nucleic acid and protein – chromosomes
∗ Glycoprotein – Protein and sugar units
∗ Lipoproteins – Protein and lipids
∗ Metalloproteins – Metals and proteins
Structural Proteins
Sl.No. Structural Protein Known as
1. Muscle protein Collagen
2. Silk protein Fibrolin
3. Hair and wool protein Keratin
4. Protein from Insect wings Elastin
5. Soybean protein Glycinin
6. Wheat protein Gluten

7. Rice protein Oryzein
8. Maize protein Zein
9. Regulatory proteins Enzymes
10. Transport proteins Myoglobin, Haemoglobins
(C) NUCLEIC ACID

Classes
1. DNA - Deoxyribose Nucleic Acid
2. RNA - Ribose Nucleic Acid
Nucleoside = Sugar (Ribose/Deoxyribose) + Nitrogenous base
Nucleotide = Nucleoside + phosphate group
Bacteriophages – single stranded DNA
Functions
1. Transfer of genetic traits from one generation to another generations.
2. Control in formation of enzymes and synthesis of protein.
Types of Nases
1. Purines: Adenine, Guanine (AG)
2. Pyrimidines: Thymine, Cytocine, Uracil (CUT)
Ribo-nucleic Acid (RNA)
1. m-RN A (Messenger RN A) – 5% carries the message from genes (D N A), S erves
as the template for protein synthesis.
2. t-RN A (Transfer RN A) – Transfer amino acids from cytoplasm to Ribosome,
a aches to a specific amino acid and pairs it to the appropriate codon on
the m-RNA.
3. r-RN A (Ribosomal RN A) – This insoluble RN A , that constitutes about 80 per
cent of cellular RNA. It make up the ribosome.
(D) ENZYMES
∗ Enzyme is a Greek word which means ‘in leaven’.
∗ Enzymes are the polymers of amino acid and acts as a catalyst.
∗ The term ‘Enzyme’ was given by W. Kuhne in 1867.
∗ Enzyme is discovered by Buckner.
∗ First enzyme was found initially from Yeast.
Classification of Enzymes
1. Hydrolytic enzymes - reacting with water molecules
2. Oxidizing enzymes - reacting with oxygen
Characteristics of an Enzyme
1. Specific, protinacious, colloidal nature, sensitive to temperature.
2. Enzymes do flat change the equilibrium level, but quickens it.
Terminology
1. Holo enzyme - Apoenzyme + Prosthetic group
2. Apo enzyme - Enzyme without Prosthetic group
3. Allosteric enzyme - Regulatory enzyme have more than one polypeptide
4. I sozyme - D ifferent enzymes which catalyze the same reaction in different
tissue
5. Ribozyme - They catalyzing RN A with enzymatic activity. They are only N on-
proteinious enzyme
6. Active site - Site responsible for catalysis of molecules
7. Regulatory site - The site other than catalytic site
∗ Zymase is the 1st enzyme which was discovered by yeast.
∗ Pepsin and Trypsin are the auto-catalysis enzyme
(E) VITAMINS
∗ Vitamin was introduced/discovered by Funk in 1911.
∗ Vitamin acts as a catalyst.
∗ Total well defined vitamins are 13.
Classification of Vitamins
1. Water soluble vitamins - Vit B complex (B1, B2, B12), B3, B6, Vit. C
2. Fat soluble vitamins - Vit A, D, E and K
Vitamin Known as Disease Due to Deficiency
A Retinal : Xeropthailmia and night blindness
B1 Thiamin : Beriberi, Disturbance in digestive system
B2 Riboflavin : Skin lesions around nose and lips, skin cracking
B3 Pantathenic acid : Whiteness of hairs
B5 Nicotinamid/Niacin : Pellagra or 4-D syndrome
B6 Pyridoxine : Skin disorders, cracking at the mouth corners.
B7 Biotin : Paralysis, body pain, fall of hairs
B 12 Cynocobalamin : Pernicious anaemia.

Folic acid Teroel glutaimic : Digestive problem
S curvy, Vit. C is important in formation &
C Ascorbic acid :
maintenance of Collagen
D (S unshine
Calciferol : Rickets on children & Austiomletia on youngs
vitamin)
E Tocopherol : Sterility
K Phyloquinon : Non-coagulation of blood
∗ Vitamins mainly act as “cofactors” for enzymatic activity.
Chapter 16
Plant Protection
(A) MAJOR PESTS OF CROPS AND THEIR CONTROL

MEASURES
(B) MAJOR DISEASES OF CROPS AND THEIR
CONTROL MEASURES
∗ Nimbidine is the ecofriendly insecticide.
∗ Pheromone trap attracts male moths.
∗ Army worm (Mythimna separate) causes severe damage to rice panicles at night.
∗ White grub beetle lay eggs singly in loose soil up to the depth of 10 cm.
∗ Trichogramma parasitoid release is recommended for the management of Chilo
infuscatellus.
∗ Bollguard is an example of Bt transgenic cotton.
∗ N PV is the effective pathogen onH elicoverpa armigera (Recommended dose 250
L.E.).
∗ Bacillus thuringiensis is most widely used bacterium among insecticides,
available in market as Dipel and Delfin.
∗ The highest pesticide used crop in India is Cotton.
∗ Malathion insecticide is safely recommended on vegetables.
∗ Kelthane is the acaricide widely recommended for mite management.
∗ Aphids and white flies are effectively controlled by systemic insecticide.
∗ IPM relies heavily on Economic threshold level.
∗ The ladder shaped scrapping on the rice leaves is due to Rice hispa (Dicladispa
armigera).
∗ Bihar hairy caterpillar is polyphagus in nature.
∗ N ibbling of rice earhead and defoliation leaving midrib in rice is caused by Rice
grass hopper.
∗ Sliver shoot of rice is a characteristics symptom of rice gall midge.
∗ BPH and W BPH of rice cause yellowing and drying of plant leading to condition
known as “Hopper burn”.
∗ Rice Gundhi bug attacks at milking stage.
∗ I n rice, clipping of tip seedlings before transplanting is done to eliminate egg
masses of Yellow stem borer.
∗ D ead heart in the central shoot of rice and wheat is a characteristics symptom of
stem borer.
∗ Wilting of groundnut plants in patches with damaged roots is caused by W hite
grub.
∗ I n gram, circular bore holes on pods plugged by the head of a larva are related
with Gram pod borer.
∗ Flared squares (Flare-up) is the damaging symptoms of Spotted bollworm.
∗ Pink bollworm covers the opening once it enters into the boll.
∗ Curling of leaf upwards and yellowing of terminal co on shoots is a
characteristics symptom of presence of Cotton Aphid.
∗ Flooding of the fields will help in control of Cut worms.
∗ ‘Fungi and Plant Disease’ was written by BB Mundakur.
∗ Little leaf of Brinjal is caused by Mycoplasma (MLO).
∗ Black heart is a physiological disorder of potato.
∗ Leaf curl of tomato is spread by White fly.
∗ Loose smut is controlled by seed treatment and by Vitavax
∗ Rice blast, co on wilt and potato tuber rot diseases increase with increased
supply of nitrogen.
∗ The Bordeaux mixture was discovered by Millardet at Boardeux in France in the
year 1885.
∗ Potato virus diseases are spread by Aphids.
∗ Damping off and leaf blights are effectively checked by Copper oxychloride.
∗ EJ Butler discovered the downey mildew for the first time in India.
∗ Most widely used fungicides for control of:
1. Smut - Vitavax
2. Rust - Plantvax
3. Powdery mildew - Sulphur dust
4. Downey mildew - Metalaxyl
Chapter 17
Agricultural Extension
(A) Important Agricultural and Rural development/Rural

Welfare activities and programmes in India
Chapter 18
Agricultural Statistics
(A) ELEMENTS OF STATISTICS

(1) AVERAGES/ARITHMETIC MEAN
∗ I t is a figure obtained by dividing the sum of all variable by their total number
of variables.
Properties of Arithmetic Mean
1. Sum of deviation of items from the A.M. is always 0.
2. A.M. is affected by change in origin and scale.
Sl.No. Average Definition Uses
Arithmetic T o calculate average yield, S D, correlation &
1. Sum of all values/ numbers of values.
Mean regression correlation & regression
For open ended class data’s Intelligence,
2. Median Middle most item of all values.
Ability & Efficiency
T ypical soil type, cropping pa ern in a
3. Mode Most frequently occurred item.
locality and shoe
T he ratio of no. of observations to the
Harmonic When deals with rate, price and speed of a
4. sum of the reciprocal of the value of the
Mean vehicle
different observations.
T he G.M of “n” positive non zero
Geometric When deals with relative changes e.g.
5. observations say x 1, x 2,...x n is the n th
Mean Bacterial growth cell division, population
root of the product of the numbers.
(2) DISTRIBUTION
(a) Symmetrical distribution: Mean = Median = Mode
(b) Asymmetrical distribution: [Mode = 3 Median – 2 Mean]
(c) Moderate skewed distribution: Mean - Mode = 3 (Mean - Median)
∗ Measures of distribution: Coefficient of variance (CV) = (SD/Mean) x 100
(A) Bionomial Distribution (BD)
∗ Random variable of BD is a discrete one.
∗ BD has Bernoulli trials containing two outcomes (i.e. success, failture).
∗ The BD is
P (x) = n cx∗xqn–x
where, n = no of trials (limited)
where, p = probability of success
where, q = probability of failure
where, x = no of successes in ‘n’ trial
∗ Mean (np) > variance (npq)
∗ Parameter: n & p
∗ I f n is large and if neither p of q is too close to 0, then BD approaches normal
distribution.
∗ When n>20; p<0.05, BD approaches Poisson distribution.
∗ Degree of freedom is (n-1)
(B) Poisson Distribution (PD)
∗ Discrete probability distribution.
∗ Mean (np) = variance (npq)
∗ Parameter: m & n
∗ Uses of PD:
(a) Printing error in a book
(b) No. of deaths in a district in a given period
(c) Arrivals of trucks, aeroplanes at terminals
(d) Telephone calls
(C) Normal Distribution (ND)
∗ Continuous probability distribution
∗ The normal curve is bell shaped and symmetrical
∗ Mean = median = mode
∗ Value of x in ND ranges from -a to +a
∗ Area under standard normal curve = 1; mean = 0; SD = 1
(3) SKEWNESS
∗ The measures of the direction and degree of asymmetry are called Measure of Skewness.
∗ Lack of symmetry - b1 = m23/m32ÖY1 = b 1
∗ Symmetrical distribution - Y1 = 0
∗ Negative skewed - Y1 = -Ve (when Mode >Median >Mean) s
∗ Positively skewed - Y1 = +Ve (when Mean>Median>Mode)
∗ Karl Pearson’s coef. of skewness = or
∗ It ranges from -3 to +3.
(4) KURTOSIS
∗ Kurtosis give an idea about the flatness/peakedness of the curve.
∗ Measures of Kurtosis is b 2 and Y2
∗ Platycurtic curve: b 2 < 3, Y2 < 0
∗ Leptocurtic curve: b 2 > 3, Y2 > 0
∗ Mesocurtic curtic: b 2 = 0, Y2 = 0
(5) CORRELATION AND REGRESSION
(A) Correlation
To study the association or degree & deviation between two or more variables.
Properties of Correlation Coefficient
1. It lies between -1 to +1 if it is 0, there is no relationship between variables.
2. It is geometric mean of two regression coefficient.
3. Independent of change of scale and origin of the variable.
(B) Regression
To measure the average relationship between two or more variables.
Properties of Regression Coefficient
1. The value of regression coefficient should not exceed 1 or equal.
2. It gives the cause and effect of relationship.
3. Regression coefficients are not symmetric, b xy ¹ b yx.
4. Independent of change of origin but not of scale.
(6) PROBABILITY
∗ Probability refers to chance of happening or not happening of an event.
∗ It is the science of Decision.
∗ Probability =
∗ If a card is drawn from a pack of cards, the probability of getting a king or queen
is 2/13.
∗ Probability of an event uncertain to occur is 0.
E.g. Probability of 7 in throwing a die = 0
∗ Probability ranges from 0 to 1.
Additive Theorem
1. Mutually excusive events,
P (A or B) = P (A) + P (B), where P (AB) = 0
2. Not mutually exclusive events,
P (A or B) = P (A) x P (B) – P (AB)
Multiplication Theorem
P (A and B) = P (A) x P (B)
Ranges of Different Statistical Elements
X2 test : 0 to a
Regression Coefficient : -a to +a
Standard Deviation : 0 to a
Correlation Coefficient (CC) : -1 to +1
Probability/Multiple CC : 0 to 1
(7) TESTS OF SIGNIFICANCE

Sl.No. Type of Test Given by Use
For comparing two means when sample size is small (up to
1. ‘T’ test -
30)
S mall samples size, S D is unknown & for testing the
(a) Students pair t
W.S. Gosset significance of correlation coefficient used with paired
test
observation
(b) Fisher t test Fisher Used when observations are unpaired
2. ‘Z’ test - For large sample size

3. ‘F’ test Fisher To test the proportions and variance
2 Test of independence, test of goodness of fit, to test
4. CHI test Karlpierson
homogeneity
(B) PRINCIPLES OF FIELD EXPERIMENTATION

Data transformation is required when data not follow
(a) Transformation :
normal distribution.
When mean a variance and data varies between 0-30 per
1. Square root -
cent and 70-100 per cent.
2. Under root - When 0 integar or any value is below 10,
3. Sin square - Confined with Bionomial distribution (BD)
4. Log - When m a SD
Also known as Inverse sine transformation/Arcsine
5. Angular -
transformation, most appropriate for percentage
L ogical constructions of the experiments in which the
(b) Design of Experiments : degree of uncertainty with which the inference
(Result/confusion) on may be well defined
(c) Experimental error : The variation due to uncontrolled factors
T he objects of comparison, which an experiment has to
(d) Treatment : try in the field for assessing their value, e.g. varieties,
manures etc.
(e) S tandard error difference x table value for error df at 5 per
Critical difference :
cent or 1 per cent level
TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS
∗ Hypothesis : assumption about a population parameters
∗ Null hypothesis : H0 (No significant difference between two parameters)
∗ Alternate hypothesis : Ha (Significant difference between two parameters)
∗ Error:
∴ Type I error : hypothesis is true but our test rejects it
∴ Type II error : hypothesis is false but our test accepts it
∗ Standard error: measures of the mean difference between sample estimate
mean and population parameters. I t is measure of uncontrolled variation
presence in a sample.
BASIC PRINCIPLES OF EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
(a) Replication : Repeated application of treatments
Allocation of treatments to the different
(b) Randomization : experimental units by a random process, eliminates
human biases.
The principle of making use of greater homogeneity
(c) units by a random process, eliminates human
Local control :
biases. in groups of experimental units for reducing
experimental error
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS
1. Complete Randomized Design (CRD)
2. Randomized Block Design (RBD)
3. Latin Square Design (LSD)
4. Factorial RBD(FRBD)
5. Mixed Factorial Design
6. Confounding Design
7. Split Plot Design
8. Strip Plot Design
1. Complete Randomized Design
(a) Simplest design
(b) Provide maximum no. of degree of freedom for error estimation as compare to
other
(c) This design is applied when:
1. At laboratory condition
2. Experimental units is homogenous
3. If fertility of field is in scattered patches
(d) Additive/Mathematical model: Yij = µ+ai+Eij
(e) ANOVA ® t. df = t -1 (t = treatment)
e. df = N-t (e = error)
total df = N-1 (N = total no. of observations)
2. Randomized Block Design
(a) Most common used design
(b) Maximum no. of treatments adopted up to 20 without an appropriate loss of
efficiency
(c) One way elimination of heterogeneity design
(d) Two way classification of ANOVA
(e) No. of blocks (b) = No. of replications (r)
(f) No. of plots per block = No. of treatments
(g) This design is applied when, fertility gradient is in one direction
(h) Additive/Mathematical model: Yijp = µ+ai+bj+Eijp
(i) ANOVA ® t. df = t -1
b. df = r -1
e. df = (t-1) (r-1)
total df = r x t-1
3. Latin Square Design
(a) Fertility gradient is in two way direction
(b) Two way elimination of heterogeneity design
(c) Three way classification of ANOVA
(d) No. of row or column or treatment = No. of replications (r)
(e) General used Latin square are 5x5 and 12x12 (5 to 8 & 5 to 12 mostly used)
(f) This design is less suitable when, no. of treatments are <5 and >12
(g) Additive/Mathematical model: Yijk = µ+ ai+ bj+ Yk+ Eijk
(h) ANOVA ® row df = r-1 or t -1
column df = r-1 or t -1
treatment df = r-1 or t -1
error. df = (t-2) (t-1)
total df = t2-1
4. Factorial RBD
(a) It gives precision high enough to reduce the standard to < 1 per cent
(b) It provides main effects and interactions
(c) 23 = 3 factors each at 2 levels = 6 treatments
(d) 22 = 2 factors each at 2 levels = 4 treatments
(e) ANOVA ® Block/Replication. df = r -1
treatment df = t -1 (22 = 4-1 and 23 = 6-1)
A=1
B=1
AB = 1
e. df = (t-1) (r-1)
total df = N -1
5. Mixed Factorial Design
(a) This design is used, if levels factors are not equal
(b) m × n factorial experiment (2 factors m & n and interaction mn)
(c) It provides main effects and interactions
(d) ANOVA ® Block/Replication. df = r -1
treatment. df = mn -1
Factor A df = m-1
Factor B df = n-1
AB df = (m-1) (n-1)
e. df = (mn-1) (r-1)
total df = N -1
6. Confounding Design
(a) Confounding means skipping in which precision on the main effects and
certain interaction of lower order decreases.
(b) This is the technique of reducing the size of replication over a number of
blocks at the cost of loosing some informations on same effect which are
not of much practically important.
(c) I n this, we divide complete replication into incomplete blocks. D ivision is done
in such a way that the heterogeneity of blocks is allowed to effect only
interactions which are unimportant.
(d) This design is adopted when the number of treatments is 10.
(e) Applied when:
1) No. of factors and their levels are larger
2) All factors are not of equal important
3) Higher order interactions are unimportant & has been confounded
(f) Types:
A) Complete/total confounding: I f an interaction effect is confounded with all the
replicates of the treatment.
B ) Partially/incomplete confounding: I f an interaction effect is confounded in 1
replicates and not in another
7. Split Plot Design
(a) I t is the most appropriate design, when all factors are not of equally important
in experimentation.
(b) I t is the most suitable design for experiment involving varying no. of tillage
and treatments.
(c) In this technique, 2 factors are applied:
1) First factor (main plot) refers to that factor which requires larger units to be
applied and which may produce larger differences.
2) S econd factor (sub plot) refers to that factor which may be applied in small
units and expected to produce smaller differences.
3) Third factor (ultimate plots/sub-sub plots) are only be studied with still more
precision as compared with the second factor.
(d) Procedure of splitting:
st
1) Each block divides into no. of plots (main plots) =no. of levels of 1 factor
2) Then each main plot divides into no. of subplots = no. of levels of 2nd factor
3) The level of 1st factor are randomized in the main plots of each block and the
levels of the 2nd factors are randomized in the sub plots of each main plot
4) Sub plots further split into smaller ultimate plots
e.g. A n experiment with 3 sowing date (in main plot), 4 doses of N (in sub plot)
and 2 seed rates (in ultimate plot).
(e) ANOVA ® Replication. df = r -1
Main plot (D) df = D -1
Error (a) = (r-1) (D-1)
Sub plot (d) df = d-1
Interaction = dD
Error (b) = D (r-1) (d-1)
8. Strip Plot Design
(a) I f sub treatments are laid out in strips then the design is called strip plot
design
(b) A pplied when both main and sub treatments requires larger experimental materials
or interaction is to be tested with higher precision.
(c) ANOVA ® Replication. df = R -1
Variety (V) df = V -1
Error 1 (Ve1) = (R-1) (V-1)
Spacing (S) df = S-1
Error 2 (Se2) = (R-1) (S-1)
Interaction = (V-1) (S-1)
Error 3 = (R-1) (V-1) (S-1)
Chapter 19
Agroforestry Systems
∗ Agroforestry is a form of “multiple cropping”.

∗ The main objectives of agroforestry are Productivity, S ustainability and
Adoptability.
∗ The area under forest land in I ndia – 67 mha (A cc. to N ational Remote S ensing
Agency – 75 mha).
∗ Indian Forest Act – 1927.
∗ Forest school at Dehradun was established during – 1878.
∗ Contribution of forest product in world GDP – 1 per cent.
∗ Forest area is highest in - Madhya Pradesh.
∗ Percentage of forest cover is highest in – Andaman Nicobar islands.
∗ Percentage of forest cover in the world to the total area – 25 per cent
∗ The systemic research in Agroforestry is taken by “ICRAF”.
∗ ICARF = International Centre for Research in Agroforestry.
∗ National Research Centre for Agroforestry – Jhansi (1988).
∗ Agroforestry criteria of classification:
1. Functional basis – a) Productive b) Protective
2. Structural basis – a) Spatial b) Vertical c) Temporal
3. Socio-economic basis
4. Ecological basis
∗ The most important A groforestry practice is known from the “Kangeyan tract of
Tamilnadu” (Acacia leucophloea + Cenchrus setigerus).
∗ A groforestry is considered as an alternate land use system for wasteland
development.
∗ Shifting cultivation is the oldest known agro forestry practice.
∗ Agri-silviculture = Trees + crops
∗ Alley cropping = Perennial hedges + crops
∗ Agri-horticulture = Fruit trees + crops
∗ Agri-silvi-horticulture = Trees + fruit trees + crops
∗ Agri-silviculture = Trees + crops + pasture/animals
∗ Silvi-pasture = Trees+ pasture/animals
∗ Silvi-olericulture = Trees + vegetables
∗ Horti-apiculture = Fruit trees + honeybees
∗ Aqua-forestry = Trees + fishes
∗ Taungya system of cultivation:
1. Originated from Myanmar; it means “Hill cultivation”
2. Popular in UP, Kerala, West Bengal etc
3. Objective – Initiation of farmers to grow forest trees
4. Concession given to the taungya farmers:
(a) Free grazing for animals
(b) Free timber for use
(c) Schooling facility
5. Types of taungya system:
(a) Departmental
(b) Leased
(c) Village – most successful
6. Ex. Planting of Teak in Myanmar
∗ Alnus nepalensis is “non-leguminous nitrogen fixing trees.
∗ S helterbelt has triangle shape with 1:10 ratio of height and width (H:L:W –
1:25:10m).
∗ Wind breaks having 3-5 rows proved more effective.
∗ “A llelopathy” refers to inhibition of growth of one plant by chemical
compounds from the neighbouring plants.
Agroforestry Tree Species having Allelopathic Effect on Crops
Sl.No. Tree Species Effect on
1. Alnus nepalensis Soybean
2. Casuarina equisetifolia Cowpea, Sorghum, Sunflower
3. Eucalyptus tereticornis Cowpea, Sorghum, Sunflower, Potato
4. Gliricidia sepium Maize, Rice, Tropical grasses
5. Leucaena leucocephala Maize, Rice, Cowpea, Sorghum, Sunflower
∗ Tree species suitable for protein bank – Acacia, Azadirachta, Leucaena.

∗ Most suitable woodlot trees in south India – Casuarina, Eucalyptus, Leucaena.
∗ Field crops suitable under Leucaena tree of agriculture – Pigeon pea and
Blackgram.
∗ Nitrogen fixing tree - Leucaena leucocephala
∗ Fodder producing tree - Prosopis cineraria
∗ Fuel wood tree – Albizia lebbeck
∗ Green manuring tree – Thespesia populnea
∗ I n north eastern hill region, the important horticulture crop for A gri-
horticulture system is – Mandrin orange.
∗ Alley cropping:
1. Means “Perennial hedges + crops”
2. Hedge row intercropping has 4-8 meter spacing
3. Hedge row is planted in East-North direction
4. Tree species suitable for alley cropping are Cassia siamea, Leucaena & Sesbania.
∗ Causes for deforestation – Shifting cultivation & Cutting trees for fuel wood.
∗ Main purpose of shifting cultivation (Jhum cultivation) – Restoring soil fertility.
∗ Fodder availability in India is 450mt.
∗ Multipurpose tree species (MPTs) - Albezzia lebbek
∗ Fast growing tree species - Eucalyptus sp.
∗ Subabul is also called M iracle tree as it provides fodder, fuel, pulp wood and
timber.
∗ Bio-drainage plant - Eucalyptus tereticornis
∗ I ntercropping is the most appropriate and effective type of crop cultivation in
forests.
∗ Oil percentage in biofuel plants:
1. Jatropha sp. (Ratanjot) - 35 per cent (from seed)
2. Pongamia pinnata (Karanj) - 25-28 per cent
Chapter 20
Organizational Set-up of Agricultural
Research, Education and Extension
∗ The highest body controlling agricultural research and education in I ndia is”
Indian Council of Agricultural Research (I CA R).” I t was established on J uly
16, 1929 with the name “I mperial Council of A gricultural Research” under
the S ocieties Registration A ct, 1860 in pursuance of the report of the Royal
Commission on A griculture. I CA R headquarters at Krishi Bhavan, N ew
Delhi.
∗ Union Minister of A griculture is the ex-officio President of the I CA R Society
.
(Present- Sharad Pawar)
∗ S ecretary, D epartment of A gricultural Research & Education Ministry of
A griculture, Govt. of I ndia &Director-General, I CA R is the Principal
Executive O fficer and chief administrative authority of Council I CA R.
(Present- Dr. S. Ayyappan).
∗ A gricultural S cientists’ Recruitment Board, Chairman-D r. C. D . Mayee (Plant
Pathologist).
∗ Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, New Delhi.
∗ Deputy Directors-General (8)
∗ Additional Secretary (DARE) and Secretary (ICAR).
∗ Additional Secretary and Financial Advisor.
∗ Assistant Directors-General (24).
∗ Directorate of Information and Publications of Agriculture, New Delhi.
∗ Directorates/Project Directorates - 25 (with upgradation of 12 NRCs).
∗ National Bureaux – 6 (New-NBAII, Bengaluru and NBAIM, Mau, UP).
∗ D eemed Universities status -6 (N ew- N A A RM, Hyderabad and N I A S M,
Malegaon, Maharastra).
∗ N ational Bureau of A griculturally I mportant I nsects (N BA I I ) [formerly Project
D irectorate of Biological Control (PD BC)] is a nodal I nstitute at national
level for research and development on all aspects of work on harnessing
resources of insects. including biological control of crop pests and weeds,
training, information repository, technology dissemination and
national/international cooperation (2009).
∗ N ational Bureau of A griculturally I mportant Microorganism (N BA I M), Mau, UP
(2005).
∗ There are 44 A gricultural Technology I nformation Centres (ATI C) established
under ICAR institutes.
∗ I CA R I ntroduced revised curricula and syllabi for 95 disciplines in Master’s and
80 disciplines in Doctoral programmes.
∗ Deputy Director General (Natural Resource Management) - Dr. A.K. Singh.
∗ Union Minister for Agriculture - Shri Sharad Pawar.
∗ Minister of State for Agriculture - Prof. K.V. Thomas.
Objectives of the ICAR
1. To encourage and co-ordinate education and research in A griculture, A nimal
Husbandry and Fishery and to help in utilization of result of research.
2. To act as a centre of distribution for researches related to agriculture and
Animal Science and general information.
3. Establishment and maintenance of research and contact library.
4. To do all that is necessary for fulfilment of the above stated objectives.
5. To provide advisory service in education, research and training in A griculture
and related fields of science.
LIST OF ICAR INSTITUTIONS, DEEMED
UNIVERSITIES, NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRES,
NATIONAL BUREAUX & DIRECTORATE/PROJECT
DIRECTORATES
DEEMED UNIVERSITIES - 4
1. Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI) : New Delhi
2. National Dairy Research Institute (NDRI) : Karnal
3. Indian Veterinary Research Institute (IVRI) : Izatnagar
4. Central Institute on Fisheries Education (CIFE) : Mumbai
NATIONAL RESEARCH INSTITUTES - 45

1. Central Rice Research Institute (CRRI) : Cuttack
2. Vivekananda Parvatiya Krishi Anusandhan Sansthan (VPKAS) : Almora
3. Indian Institute of Pulses Research (IIPR) : Kanpur
4. Central Tobacco Research Institute (CTRI) : Rajahmundry
5. Indian Institute of Sugarcane Research (IISR) : Lucknow
6. Sugarcane Breeding Institute (SBI) : Coimbatore
7. Central Institute of Cotton Research (CICR) : Nagpur
8. Central Research Institute for Jute and Allied Fibres (CRIJAF) : Barrackpore
9. Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute (IGFRI) : Jhansi
10. Indian Institute of Horticultural Research (IIHR) : Bangalore
11. Central Institute of Sub Tropical Horticulture (CISTH) : Lucknow
12. Central Institute of Temperate Horticulture (CITH) : Srinagar
13. Central Institute of Arid Horticulture (CIAR) : Bikaner
14. Indian Institute of Vegetable Research (IIVR) : Varanasi
15. Central Potato Research Institute (IPRI) : Shimla
16. Central Tuber Crops Research Institute (CTCRI) : Trivandrum
17. Central Plantation Crops Research Institute (CPCRI) : Kasargod
18. Central Agricultural Research Institute (CARI) : Port Blair
19. Indian Institute of Spices Research (IISR) : Calicut
20. Central Soil and Water Conservation Research & Training Institute (CSWCRTI) : Dehradun
21. Indian Institute of Soil Sciences (IISS) : Bhopal
22. Central Soil Salinity Research Institute (CSSRI) : Karnal
23. ICAR Research Complex for Eastern Region including Centre of Makhana : Patna
24. Central Research Institute of Dryland Agriculture (CRIDA) : Hyderabad
25. Central Arid Zone Research Institute (CAZRI) : Jodhpur
26. ICAR Research Complex : Goa
27. ICAR Research Complex for NEH Region : Barapani
28. National Institute of Abiotic Stress Management (NIASM) : Malegaon
29. Central Institute of Agricultural Engineering (CIAE) : Bhopal
30. Central Institute on Post-harvest Engineering and Technology (CIPET) : Ludhiana

31. Indian Institute of Natural Resins and Gums (IINRG) : Ranchi
32. Central Institute of Research on Cotton Technology (CIRCT) : Mumbai
33. National Institute of Research on Jute & Allied Fibre Technology (NIRJAFT) : Kolkata
34. Indian Agricultural Statistical Research Institute (IASRI) : New Delhi
35. Central Sheep and Wool Research Institute (CSWRI) : Avikanagar
36. Central Institute for Research on Goats (CIRG) : Makhdoom
37. Central Institute for Research on Buffaloes (CIRB) : Hissar
38. National Institute of Animal Nutrition and Physiology (NIANP) : Bangalore
39. Central Avian Research Institute (CARI) : Izatnagar
40. Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI) : Kochi
41. Central Institute Brackishwater Aquaculture (CIBA) : Chennai
42. Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute (CIFRI) : Barrackpore
43. Central Institute of Fisheries Technology (CIFT) : Cochin
44. Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture (CIFA) : Bhubneshwar
45. National Academy of Agricultural Research & Management (NAARM) : Hyderabad
NATIONAL RESEARCH CENTRES - 17

1. National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology(NRCPB) : New Delhi
2. National Centre for Integrated Pest Management (NCIPM) : New Delhi
3. National Research Centre for Litchi (NRCL) : Muzaffarpur
4. National Research Centre for Citrus (NRCC) : Nagpur
5. National Research Centre for Grapes (NRCG) : Pune
6. National Research Centre for Banana (NRCB) : Trichi
7. National Research Centre Seed Spices (NRCSS) : Ajmer
8. National Research Centre for Pomegranate (NRCP) : Solapur
9. National Research Centre on Orchids (NRCO) : Pakyong,
Sikkim
10. National Research Centre Agroforestry (NRCA) : Jhansi
11. National Research Centre on Camel (NRCC) : Bikaner
12. National Research Centre on Equines (NRCE) : Hisar

13. National Research Centre on Meat (NRCM) : Hyderabad
14. National Research Centre on Pig (NRCP) : Guwahati
15. National Research Centre on Yak (NRCY) : West Kemang
16. National Research Centre on Mithun (NRCM) : Medziphema
National Centre for Agril. E conomics & P olicy Research
17. : New Delhi
(NCAEPR)
NATIONAL BUREAUX - 6
1. National Bureau of Plant Genetics Resources (NBPGR) : New Delhi
2. National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Micro-organisms (NBAIM) : Mau
3. National Bureau of Agriculturally Important Insects (NBAII) : Bangalore
4. National Bureau of Soil Survey and Land Use Planning (NBSSLUP) : Nagpur
5. National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR) : Karnal
6. National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources (NBFGR) : Lucknow
DIRECTORATE/PROJECT DIRECTORATES - 25
1. Directorate of Maize Research : New Delhi
2. Directorate of Rice Research : Hyderabad
3. Directorate of Wheat Research : Karnal
4. Directorate of Oilseed Research : Hyderabad
5. Directorate of Seed Research : Mau
6. Directorate of Sorghum Research : Hyderabad
7. Directorate of Groundnut Research : Junagarh
8. Directorate of Soybean Research : Indore
9. Directorate of Rapeseed & Mustard Research : Bharatpur
10. Directorate of Mushroom Research : Solan
11. Directorate on Onion and Garlic Research : Pune
12. Directorate of Cashew Research : Puttur
13. Directorate of Oil Palm Research : Pedavegi,
West Godawari
14. Directorate of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants Research : Anand
15. Directorate of Floriculture Research : Pusa,
New Delhi
16. Project Directorate for Farming Systems Research : Modipuram

17. Directorate of Water Management Research : Bhubaneshwar
18. Directorate of Weed Science Research : Jabalpur
19. Project Directorate on Cattle : Meerut
20. Project Directorate on Foot & Mouth Disease : Mukteshwar
21. Project Directorate on Poultry : Hyderabad
22. Project Directorate on Animal Disease Monitoring and Surveillance : Hebbal,
Bangalore
23. Directorate of Information & Publication in Agriculture (DIPA) : New Delhi
24. Directorate of Cold Water Fisheries Research : Bhimtal,
Nainital
25. Directorate of Research on Women in Agriculture : Bhubaneshwar
ALL INDIA COORDINATAED RESEARCH PROJECT - 61

1. AICRP on Pesticide Residues : New Delhi
2. AICRP on Nematodes : New Delhi
3. AICRP on Maize : New Delhi
4. AICRP - Rice : Hyderabad
5. AICRP on Chickpea : Kanpur
6. AICRP on MULLARP : Kanpur
7. AICRP on Pigeon Pea : Kanpur
8. AICRP on Arid Legumes : Jodhpur
9. AICRP on Wheat and Barley Improvement Project : Karnal
10. AICRP - Sorghum : Hyderabad
11. AICRP on Pearl millets : Jodhpur
12. AICRP on Small Millets : Bangalore
13. AICRP on Sugarcane : Lucknow
14. AICRP on Cotton : Coimbatore
15. AICRP on Groundnut : Junagarh
16. AICRP on Soybean : Indore
17. AICRP on Rapseed and Mustard : Bharatpur
18. AICRP on Sunflower, Safflower, Castor : Hyderabad
19. AICRP on Linseed : Kanpur
20. AICRP on Sesamum and Niger : Jabalpur
21. AICRP on Biological control : Bangalore

22. AICRP on Honey Bee Research & Training : Hisar
23. AICRP – National Seed Project (NSP, Crops) : Mau
24. AICRP on Forage Crops : Jhansi
25. AICRP - Tropical Fruits : Bangalore
26. AICRP - Sub Tropical Fruits : Lucknow
27. AICRP - Arid Zone Fruits : Bikaner
28. AICRP - Mushroom : Solan
29. AICRP - Vegetable including NSP (Vegetales) : Varanasi
30. AICRP - Potato : Shimla
31. AICRP - Tuber Crops : Thiruvana-
nthapuram
32. AICRP - Palms : Kasargod
33. AICRP - Cashew : Puttur
34. AICRP - Spices : Calicut
35. AICRP on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants including Betelvine : Anand
36. AICRP on Floriculture : New Delhi
37. AICRP in Micro Secondary & Pollutant Elements in soils and Plants : Bhopal
38. AICRP on Soil Test with Crop Response : Bhopal
39. AICRP on Long Term Fertilizer Experiments : Bhopal
40. AICRP on Salt Affected Soils & Use of Saline Water in Agriculture : Karnal
41. AICRP on Water Management Research : Bhubaneshwar
42. AICRP on Ground Water Utilization : Patna
43. AICRP - Dryland Agriculture : Hyderabad
44. AICRP on Agrometeorology : Hyderabad
AICRP Integrated Farming S ystem Research including Network Organic
45. : Modipuram
Farming
46. AICRP - Weed Control : Jabalpur
47. AICRP on Agroforestry : Jhansi
48. AICRP on Farm Implements and Machinery : Bhopal
49. AICRP on Ergonomics and safety in Agriculture : Bhopal
50. AICRP on Renewable of Energy for Agri. and Agro based lndus : Bhopal
51. AICRP on Utilization of Animal Energy (UAE) : Bhopal
52. AICRP on Application of Plastic in Agriculture : Ludhiana
53. AICRP on Post Harvest Technology : Ludhiana
54. AICRP on Goat Improvement : Mathura
AICRP Improvement of Feed S ources & Nutrient Utilization for raising
55. : Bangalore
animal production
56. AICRP on Cattle Research : Meerut
57. AICRP on Poultry : Hyderabad
58. AICRP - Pig : Izatnagar
59. AICRP – Foot and Mouth Disease : Mukteshwar
60. AICRP ADMAS : Bangalore
61 AICRP Home Science : Bhubaneshwar
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS OF CROP IMPROVEMENT

CGIAR Consultative Group for International : Washington (USA)
Agricultural Research
CIAT Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical : Palmira, Columbia
(International Centre for Tropical Agriculture)
CIFOR Center for International Forestry Research : Jakarta, Indonesia
Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maizy T rigo
CIMMYT (International Centre for Wheat and Maize : Baton, Mexico
Improvement)
Centro Internacional de la P apa (International P otato
CIP : Lima, Peru
Centre)
IBPGR International Board for Plant Genetic Resources : Rome, Italy
International Center for Agricultural Research in the
ICARDA : Alleppo, Syria
Dry Areas and Biotechnology
ICGES International Centre for Genetic Engineering : Triesta, Italy and
New Delhi, India
ICRAF International Centre for Research in Agroforestry : Nairobi, Kenya
International Crops Research Institute for the S emi-Arid
ICRISAT : Hyderabad, India
Tropics
IFPRI International Food Policy Research Institute : Washington, USA
IITA International Institute of Tropical Agriculture : Ibadan, Nigeria

IIMI International Irrigation Management Institute : Colombo, Srilanka
ILRI International Livestock Research Institute : Nairobi, Kenya
International Network on S oil Fertility and Fertilizer
INSFFER : New Delhi, India
Evaluation on Rice
IPGRI International Plant Genetic Resource Institute : Rome, Italy
ISNAR International Service for National Agricultural Research : Netherlands
IRRI International Rice Research Institute : Manila, Phillipines
IWMI International Water Management Institute : Columbo, Sri Lanka
WARDA West African Rice Development Association : Monrovia, Liberia
WFC World Fish Centre : Bayan Lepas, Malaysia
WMO World Meteorological Organization : Geneva, Switzerland
STATE AGRICULTURE UNIVERSITIES - 50

1. Acharya NG Ranga Agricultural University : Rajendra Nagar,
Hyderabad (AP)
2. Anand Agricultural University : Anand, Gujarat
3. Andhra Pradesh Horticultural University : Tadepalligudem,
4. Assam Agricultural University : Jorhat, Assam
5. Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya : Mohanpur, Nadia, (WB)
6. Bihar Agriculture University : Bhagalpur, Bihar
7. Birsa Agricultural University : Ranchi, Jharkhand
8. Central Agricultural University : Imphal, Manipur
9. Chandra Shekar Azad University of Agriculture & Technology : Kanpur (UP)
10. Chaudhary Charan Singh Haryana Agricultural University : Hisar, Haryana
11. CSK Himachal Pradesh Krishi Vishvavidyalaya Himachal Pradesh : Palampur,
12. Dr Balasaheb Sawant Konkan Krishi Vidyapeeth Maharashtra : Dapoli Distt,
13. Dr Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth : Akola, Maharashtra
14. Dr Yashwant Singh Parmar Univ of Horticulture & Forestry : Solan, Himachal Pradesh
15. Govind Ballabh Pant University of Agriculture & Technology : Pantnagar, Uttaranchal
16. Guru Angad Dev Veterinary and Animal Science University : Ludhiana, Punjab
17. Indira Gandhi Krishi Vishwavidyalaya : Raipur, Chhattisgarh
18. Jawaharlal Nehru Krishi Viswavidyalaya : Jabalpur (MP)
19. Junagadh Agricultural University : Junagad, Gujarat
20. Kerala Agricultural University : Trichur, Kerala
21. Kerala University of Fisheries & Oceanography : Kochi, Kerala
22. Maharana Pratap Univ. of Agriculture & Technology : Udaipur, Rajasthan
23. Maharashtra Animal Science & Fishery University : Nagpur, Maharashtra
24. Mahatma Phule Krishi Vidyapeeth : Rahuri, Maharashtra
25. Manyavar Shri Kanshi Ramji Agriculture Tech. : Banda, U.P.
26. Marathwada Agricultural University : Parbhani, Maharashtra
27. Narendra Deva University of Agriculture : Faizabad (UP)
28. Navsari Agricultural University : Navsari, Gujarat
29. Orissa Univ. of Agriculture & Technology : Bhubaneshwar, Orissa
30. Punjab Agricultural University : Ludhiana, Punjab

31. Rajasthan Agricultural University : Bikaner,Rajasthan
32. Rajendra Agricultural University : Pusa, Bihar
33. Rajasthan University of Veterinary Sciences : Bikaner, Rajasthan
34. Rajmata Vijay Raje Sciendia Krishi Vishwa : Gwalior (MP)
35. Sardarkrushinagar-Dantiwada Agricultural : Sardar Krushinagar,
University Gujarat
36. Sardar Ballabh Bhai Patel Univ. of Agriculture : Modipuram (UP)
37. Sher-E-Kashmir Univ of Agricultural Sciences : Railway Road, Jammu
& Technology
38. Sher-E-Kashmir Univ of Agricultural Sciences : Srinagar, J &K
39. Sri Venkateswara Veterinary University : Tirupati
40. Tamil Nadu Agricultural University : Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu
41. Tamil Nadu Horticultural University : Krishnagiri, Tamil Nadu

42. Tamil Nadu Veterinary & Animal Science : Chennai, Tamil Nadu
University
43. University of Agricultural Sciences : Bangalore, Karnataka
44. University of Agricultural Sciences : Dharwad, Karnataka
45. UP Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhaya Pashu : Mathura (UP)
Go Anusandhan Sansthan
46. Uttar Banga Krishi Viswavidyalaya : Coach Bihar (WB)
47. West Bengal University of Animal & : Kolkata, (WB)
48. Karnataka Veterinary, Animal and Fisheries : BIDAR, Karnataka

49. University of Agricultural Sciences : Raichur, Karnataka
50. University of Horticultural Sciences : Bagalkot, Karnataka
Chapter 21
Numerical Problems
Q . 1. The N content of a soil is 0.5 per cent. Find out the quantity of N in 1 ha.
Field considering 15 cm soil depth and 1.5 g/cc BD of soil?
Solve: We know that the quantity of soil in 1 ha in 15 cm of soil depth with 1.5 g/cc
BD = 2.24 × 106 kg
So, N content in 1 ha =
= 1125.00 kg/ha
Q . 2. The nitrogen uptake of rice increased from 50 kg N /ha under control (no
nitrogen) to 70 kg N /ha application (treatment) of 40 kg N /ha. Find out the
apparent N recovery?
Solve: Apparent N recovery =
= 50.00 per cent
Q . 3. Three varieties of wheat with 4 N levels are replicated thrice in an
experiment under RBD, the error degree of freedom will be …..?
Solve: We know that, this design confirmed factorial RBD so,
Error degree of freedom (Edf) = (r-1) (t-1) [Here r = 3 and t = 4 × 3]
= (3-1) (4 × 3-1)
= 2 x 11
= 22
Q . 4. D ry ma er production of Maize is increased from 500 gm/m2 at 30 days of
growth to 750 gm/m2 at 45 days of growth. Find out the crop rate?
Solve: Crop rate =
= 16.06 gm/m2/day
Q. 5. A what soil test report revealed pH = 8, EC=12 ds/m and SAR=3.0?
Ans: Saline soil
Q. 6. What will be CPE value, if 6 cm irrigation is applied at 1.2 IW/CPE ratio?
Solve: IW/CPE ratio =
1.2 = 6/CPE
CPE = 6/1.2
= 5 cm or 50 mm
Q . 7. Chickpea and mustard yielded 10 and 6 qt/ha in intercropping system and
12.5 & 10 qt in pure cropping, respectively. The LER value is …. ?
Solve: LER =
=
= 1.40
Q. 8. I f core diameter is 4.4 cm, height 5 cm and weight of dry soil is 365 gm. W hat
is bulk density?
Solve: Bulk density =
=
= 4.79 gm/cc
Q. 9. Replication = 4; Treatment = 9; Grand total = 360, then Cumulative Frequency
(CF) is …. ?
Solve: CF =
= = = 3600
Q . 10. I f bulk density = 1.5 gm/cc, particle density = 2.65 gm/cc, then porosity per
cent is …. ?
Solve: Porosity per cent =
= = 43.3 per cent
Q. 11. If tillers/m2 = 230, test weight = 20 gm and grain/tiller = 100, then yield is ….
?
Solve: Yield (q/ha) = 230 × 10000 × × 100
= 4600 kg
= 46 q/ha
Q . 12. A farmer is having 10 acres area under irrigation. He grown 4
crops/acre/year in 5 acres and 5 crops/acre/year in remaining 5 acres. The
overall cropping intensity (CI) is …. ?
Solve: CI (per cent) =
=
= 450 per cent
Q . 13. A location receives an average rainfall of 800 mm. I f the PET is 1500 mm,
the moisture availability index (MA I ), according to Thornthwaite and
Mather (1955) is …. ?
Solve: MAI =
=
= –46.66
Q . 14. I f the grain yield of wheat is 45 qt/ha and ET is 40 cm, then water use
efficiency (WUE) is ….?
Solve: WUE =
= = 112.50 kg
Q . 15. Find out the gross amount of water to be irrigated, if net amount of
irrigation is 25 cm and irrigation efficiency is 80 per cent.
Ans: Gross amount of water =
= 31.25 cm
Q . 16. W hat is the quantum of available water for a soil with field capacity 40 per
cent, wilting point 20 per cent and moisture percent 35 per cent ?
Ans: 75 per cent
Q. 17. I f the 1000 grain weight of a maize hybrid is 250 gm. Calculate the seed rate
required for obtaineing plant population of 60,000 plants/ha?
Solve: Seed rate (kg/ha) =
= 15000 gm
= 15 kg/ha
Q. 18. A soil contain 30 per cent moisture at field capacity (FC) and 10 per cent at
permanent wilting point (PW P). I f the irrigation is to be applied at 40 per
cent depletion of available water, what should be moisture content is soil at
the time of irrigation?
Solve: Moisture% =
= [Since BD = 1.5 gm/cc]
= 22 per cent
Q . 19. A field was irrigated, when available water was 12 per cent and after
irrigation, FC reaches upto 32 per cent, BD of soil was 1.5 gm/cc and depth
(D ) of soil layer studied was 0-20 cm. Calculate water retained (N et
Irrigation Requirement) in root zone?
Solve: NIR =
=
= 6 cm
Q. 20. I f a crop of 100 days is irrigated at 10 days interval with 8 cm depth of water
at each irrigation, the delta of the crop is …..?
Solve: Delta (D) = No. of irrigations x Depth of water at each irrigation
= = 80 cm
Q . 21 I f the average panicle density/m2 is 260, the average no. of field
grain/panicle and test weight of rice are 136 and 20 gm, respectively. The
rice crop will yield (t/ha) …?
Solve: Yield (t/ha) = 260 × 136 × × 10000
= 7072000 gm = 7.072 t/ha
Q. 22. I f the germination (G) per cent, purity (P) per cent and test weight of wheat
are 95, 90 and 46 gm, respectively and the wheat crop was planted at 20 x 3
cm spacing (S). The seed rate of wheat/ha will be …?
Solve: Seed rate (kg/ha) =
=
= 89.67 kg
Q. 23. I f the land utilization index (LUI ) of a crop is 0.5, then the duration of crop
(days) will be …?
Solve: LUI =
0.5 =
Duration of crop = 0.5 × 365
= 183 or 184
Q . 24. Potato tuber yield will be ….. qt/ha., if crop was spaced at 60 × 25 cm and
average no. of tubers/plant and average weight of tuber are 14 & 35 gm,
respectively.
Solve: No. of plants/ha =
= 66,666
Yield (qt/ha) =
= 32666 gm
= 32.65 qt/ha
Q . 25. A tile drainage system draining 12 ha flows at a discharge capacity for 4
days. I f the system is designed with a drainage coefficient (D C) of 1.25 cm,
how many cubic meters of water will be removed during the period?
Solve: Volume of water entering the drain/day =
= 1,500 m3
Vol. of water passing the drain withine 4 days of flow = 1500 × 4 = 6000 m3
= 6 × 106 lt. (1 m3 = 1000 lt.)
Q . 26. Calculate the quantity required of urea, single super phosphate and
muriate of potash (potassium chloride) for 7.0 ha farm of wheat. I f the
recommended doses of N , P2O5 and K2O for wheat crop are 120, 60 and 40
kg/ha, respectively.
Solve: We know that, Urea contains 46 per cent N
Solve: We know that, SSP contains 16 per cent P2O5 and
Solve: We know that, MOP contains 60 per cent K2O
(a) Amount of urea required (kg)
=
= ×100 × 7
= 1,826.08 kg/ha urea
(b) Amount of SSP required (kg)
=
= × 100 × 7
= 2,625 kg/ha single super phosphate
(c) Amount of MOP required (kg)
=
= × 100 × 7
= 466.66 kg/ha muriate of potash
The requirement of urea, single super phosphate and muriate of potash for 7.0 ha
farm of wheat will be 1826.08 kg, 2625 kg and 466.66 kg, respectively.
Q . 27. A farmers has to apply 140 kg N , 80 kg P2O5 and 60 K2O per hectare to a
high yielding wheat variety. The available fertilizers are D A P, Urea and
MO P. W hat quantity of each fertilizer will be require to meet out his
requirement.
Solve: We know that, DAP contains 18 per cent N + 46 per cent P2O5
Solve: We know that, Urea contains 46 per cent N and
Solve: We know that, MOP contains 60 per cent K2O
First we calculate amount of DAP required for P2O5
(a) Amount of DAP required (kg)
=
= × 100
= 173.90 kg/ha DAP
When we apply 173.90 kg DAP, some amount of N is also supplied.
(b) N supplied through DAP (kg)
=
=
= 31.30 kg
Requirement of N through urea (kg/ha)
= Total N required (kg/ha) – N supplied through DAP (kg/ha)
= 140 – 31.30 (kg/ha) = 118.70
(c) Amount of urea required (kg)
==
= 258.04 kg/ha urea
(d) Amount of MOP required (kg)
==
= 100 kg/ha muriate of potash
The requirement of DAP, urea and muriate of potash for 1ha farm of wheat will be
173.90 kg, 258.04 kg and 100 kg, respectively.
Chapter 22
Syllabus for ICAR-JRF 2012-2013
(Subject: E-1: Agronomy/Farming
Systems Management)
Code 05: MAJOR SUBJECT GROUP “E” - AGRONOMY

Subject: E-1 Agronomy/Forage Production/Farming Systems Management
UNIT-I: General: I mportance of agriculture in I ndian economy, basic principles
of crop production, cultivation of rice, wheat, chickpea, pigeon-pea,
sugarcane, rapeseed and mustard, potato. Major soils of I ndia, role of
N PK and their deficiency symptoms. S tructure and function of cell
organelles; mitosis and meiosis; Mendelian genetic, elementary
knowledge of photosynthesis, respiration, photorespiration and
transpiration, structure and functions of carbohydrates, proteins, nucleic
acids, enzymes and vitamins, Major pests and diseases of rice, wheat,
co on, chickpea, sugarcane and their management. I mportant rural
development programmes in I ndia; O rganizational set up of agricultural
research, education and extension in India; Elements of statistics.
UNIT-II: Principles of A gronomy, Crop economy and geography and
A gricultural M eteorology: A gronomy- meaning and scope, N ational and
I nternational agricultural research institutes in I ndia, A gro climatic zones
of I ndia, Tillage, crop stand establishment and planting geometry and
their effect on crop, Physiological limit of crop yield and variability in
relation to ecological optima, organic farming. Precision farming,
I ntegrated farming systems, Principles of field experimentation.
Principles of crop ecology and crop adaptation, climate shift and its
ecological implications, A gro-ecological regions in I ndia, Geographical
distribution of crop plants, Green house effect, Climatic factors and their
effect on plant processes and crop productivity, Role of GI S and GPS in
agricultural. Weather and climate, Earth’s atmosphere, S olar radiation.
Atmospheric temperature and global warming. Crops and atmospheric
humidity, Weather forecasting.
UNIT-III: Field crops: O rigin, distribution, economic importance, soil and climate
requirement, varieties, cultural practices and yield of cereals (rice, wheat,
maize, sorghum, pearl millet, minor millets, barley), pulses (chickpea,
lentil, peas, pigeon pea, mungbean, urdbean), oilseeds (groundnut,
sesame, soybean, rapeseed and mustard, sunflower, safflower, linseed),
fibre crops (co on, jute, sunhemp), sugar crops (sugarcane), fodder &
forage crops (sorghum, maize, napier, berseem, Lucerne, oats), medicinal
& aromatic plants (menthe, lemon grass and isabgol) and commercial
crops (potato, tobacco).
U N I T -I V : Weed management : Principles of weed management, Classification,
biology and ecology of weeds, crop weed competition and A llelopathy,
concepts and methods of weed control, I ntegrated weed management,
Classification, formulations, selectivity and resistance of herbicides,
Herbicide persistence in soil and plants, A pplication methods and
equipments, Weed flora shifts in cropping systems, S pecial and
problematic weeds and their management in cropped and non-cropped
situations, Weed management in field crops
U N I T -V : Water management : Principles of irrigation, Water resources and
irrigation development in I ndia, Water and irrigation requirements,
Concepts and approaches of irrigation scheduling, Methods of irrigation,
Measurement of irrigation water, application, distribution and use
efficiencies, Conjunctive use of water, I rrigation water quality and its
management, water management in major field crops (rice, wheat, maize,
groundnut, sugarcane), Agricultural drainage.
U N I T -V I : Soil fertility and fertilizer use
: Essential plant nutrients and their
deficiency symptoms, concept of essentiality of plant nutrients, I ndicators
of soil fertility and productivity, Fertilizer materials and their availability
to plants, slow release fertilizers, N itrification inhibitors, Principles and
methods of fertilizer application, I ntegrated nutrient management, site
specific nutrient management.
U N I T -V I I : D ryland A gronomy : Characteristics of D ryland farming and
delineation of D ryland tracts, constraints of D ryland farming in I ndia.
Types of drought and their management, contingency crop planning and
mid-season corrections for aberrant weather and its recycling. Watershed
management.
UNIT-VIII: Problem soils: Problem soils and their distribution in I ndia,
Characteristics and reclamation of these soils, Crop production
techniques in problem soils.
UNIT-XI: Sustainable land use systems: S ustainable agriculture: parameters and
indicators. Conservation agriculture, safe disposal of agri-industrial waste
for crop production, A gro-forestry systems, shifting cultivation, A lternate
land use systems, Wastelands and their remediation for crop production.
Chapter 23
Previous Years Question Papers of JRF-
Agronomy from ICAR (2000 to 2011–
Memory Based)
INDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH

JUNIOR FELLOWSHIP COMPETITIVE
EXAMINATION: 2000 AGRONOMY (CODE NO. 10)
EXAMINATION: 2003 AGRONOMY
JUNIOR FELLOWSHIP COMPETITION
I NDI A N COU NCI L OF A GR I CU LT U R A L R E S E A
J U NI OR F E L L OW S HI P COM P E T I T I
EXAMINATION: 2006 AGRONOMY (CODE No. 10)
EXAMINATION: 2007 AGRONOMY (CODE No. 10)
EXAMINATION: 2008 AGRONOMY (Code No. 10)
NDIAN COUNCIL OF AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH
References
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Ltd., New Delhi, India.
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Ludhiana, India.
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Guide for Agricultural Competitive

D uring recent past, agriculture as whole have faced

D r. N arendra Pandey is Principle S cientist in the D epartment of A gronomy,

SOME IMPORTANT PROGRAMMES

∗ Red revolution : Meat/Tomato production

∗ Developed dwarf variety of rice : TN 1

∗ Person to record plant disease : Theophrastus

∗ First Bt cotton variety : Bollgaurd (Cry1 Ac gene used)

FATHERS OF DIFFERENT DISCIPLINES

∗ Green revolution : Dr. N. E. Borlaug

∗ Statistics : R.A. Fisher

FAMOUS NAME OF CROPS

∗ Queen of nut crops : Peanut

TERMS AND ASSOCIATED CROPS

CONCEPTS AND RELATED PERSONS

∗ Law of flow of moisture in saturated soil : Darcy and Poiseuille

TOXINS PRODUCED IN PLANTS

NUTRIENTS AND THEIR SOURCES

SCIENTISTS AND THEIR MAJOR CONTRIBUTIONS

INDIAN AGRICULTURE (2011-12)

GENERAL AGRICULTURE (New)

IRRIGATION IN INDIA - 2010

INDIA’S POSITION IN WORLD AGRICULTURE RANK

WORLD GREEN REVOLUTION

Table 1.2: Highest/Lowest Production Year

Table 1.3: Fertilizer Consumption in Term of Nutrients during

Table 1.4: Production and per Capita Availability of Milk

LEADING STATE IN PRODUCTION OF CROPS

Crops State (Production)

RECENT FAMOUS YEARS IN AGRICULTURE

∗ Climactric Fruits: Mango, Guava, Papaya, Jackfruit, Fig, Sapota

∗ Non-Climactric Fruits: Litchi, Lemon, Citrus spp, Grape, Pineapple

MINIMUM SUPPORT PRICE

Maize and Bajra 175 Gram 2800

CLIMATE AND WEATHER

STRUCTURE OF ATMOSPHERE (4)

Temperature increase with altitude includes

INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES

ISOPLETHS FOR DIFFERENT WEATHER

∗ Issallobars : Lines of equal pressure distribution

CHEMICAL/MATERIAL USED FOR CLOUD SEEDING

CLASSIFICATION OF DROUGHT SEVERITY

∗ Humid period : ³ 75 per cent

∗ Hail occurs in Cumulonimbus clouds.

FORMS OF CLOUD (10)

PRINCIPLE GASES IN THE AIR

∗ In evaporation, about 60 to 75 per cent rainfall is lost.

T hornthwaite Classiﬁcation : based on annual precipitation (RF) & annual

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF CHHATTISGARH: 3

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES

AGRO-CLIMATIC ZONES OF INDIA: 15

SOME IMPORTANT POINTS

∗ Relationship between: Celsius, Fahrenheit, Kelvin and Reumer:

Global Warming (GW)

(A) BASIC PRINCIPLES OF CROP PRODUCTION

(B) CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS AND THEIR ORIGIN

P ea, Gram, Arhar, Groundnut, B erseem,

B) Classification According to Special Purpose

∗ Wheat : Triticum aestivum L.

∗ Maize : Zea mays L.

∗ Bajra/Pearlmillet : Pennisetum typhoides/P. glaucum L.

∗ Sorghum/Jowar : Sorghum bicolor/S. vulgare L. Moench

Barley : Hordeum vulgare L.