Paper Presentations

Subject: Introduction to Christian theologies in India

Topic: Formative Stages of Indian Christian Theologies
3. Indian thought-world and Indian Christian Theologies
4. Bhakti traditions and Indian Christian Theologies
Lecturer: Mrs. Tonchingsangla
Presenters: Aloli, Nitokali, Obekali, Kaka Zhimo & Duanchuingam (Group-2)
Respondents: Alona, Esther, Kihoi & Kughaka (Group-9)

Introduction
With the coming of Christianity to India, there were people who followed the religion without questioning
and uncritically. On the other hand, there were also people who had their own original thoughts, thoughts
influenced by the religion of the land, Hinduism. These original thinkers started to question the theology of
the west and began developing their own theology (ies). In this paper we will be dealing some of the Indian
thought and Indian Christian Faith with the understanding of their own culture and different formation
where Bhakti tradition comes as a stage which theology takes its turn in formation of Indian Christian
Theology.

1. Indian thought-world and Indian Christian Theologies

1.1. Indian Thought- world: The attempt to reformulate biblical theology in Indian categories of thought
in a manner relevant to the Indian context, until recently Western theology has dominated the Indian
theological scene and Christianity has come under criticism from Hindu thinker. 1 There are two important
contexts to which Indian Theology strongly came into being i.e. the understanding of socio-political and
religious-cultural contexts.

1.2. The Socio-Political Context: Clearly, the dominant feature of this period is Western colonialism — of
the French, British, and Portuguese— predominantly of the British. It is of utmost significance that
Christian missions and foreign imperialism came together and appeared to support and benefit mutually,
though they were often in sharp disagreement with each other. The main result for India of such an alliance
was that, to a normal educated Hindu, Christian faith became a foreign faith, the faith of the oppressors. So,
more often than not, the majority of Hindus looked down upon it as the religion of Mlechhas (the pagan).
Even today this antipathy is no less towards non-Hindu religions — only, it is now more thoroughly based
and more militantly organized.2 So the changing of socio-political and economic situation in India had its
effect on Indian Christian thinking. As we saw, colonialism and freedom are the dominant features of the
early years. Patriotism is thus characteristic of this pro-independence period. To the Christians of the 21th
century, the indigenization of the Church in terms of its theology, worship and the like was inevitable. The
theme of liberation also obviously played a major role in their thinking.3

1.3. The Religio-Cultural context: It took several centuries in the Western world to prepare for
revolutions of global significance. The industrial revolution, social revolution, political revolutions,
1
Alisterb C, Building Christinity on Indian Foundation (Delhi: Cambridge Press, 2000), 1.
2
Sunand Sumithra, Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective (Bangalore: Theological Book trust, 1995), 8.
3
Alisterb C, Building Christinity on Indian Foundation…, 16.
1
educational revolution and other revolutions took place over a few hundreds of years. But in Asia and
particularly in India, corresponding revolutions broke out, though on a lesser scale, within just a few
decades. In India, the land of religions, another revolution steals the main stage: the religious revolution. In
this section we shall study this as the second context of Indian theologization. 4 Unlike the Hinduism of last
several millennia, Hinduism in the two centuries underwent revolutionary changes with far-reaching
consequences. The Christian Gospel has been the main catalyst. Syncretism was another aspect of this
period. Hinduism of this period is hence slowly but definitely experiencing secularization. In the light of
these revolutions in Hinduism, there is a constant effort made by Indian Christian either to reinterpret
Hinduism to become a fitting container for the message of the gospel or to reinterpret Christianity to make
it more palatable to Hindus.

1.4. Indian Contribution to Christian Theologies

1.4.1. Brahmabandhav Upadhyaya (1861-1907): Upadhyaya was born on 2nd Feb, 1861 in a Brahmin
family in Khanyan. Early in his life, he was attracted to Brahmo Samaj and became a missionary of the
Samaj in Sind, where he became into contact with Christianity missionaries and became one in 1891 when
he took baptism. Later in life he became a Christian monk. Subsequently, he maintained that he was fully a
Hindu and at the same times a fully Christian. 5 He proposed an integration of the social structure of India
into the Christian way of Life, the establishment of an Indian Christian monastic order, and the recognition
of the Vedas as part of the Old Testament for the Indian Church. He wrote “Indian thought can be made
just as useful to Christianity as Greek thought has been to Europe….The truths of the Hindu philosopher
must be baptized and used as stepping stones to the Catholic faith… The European clothes of the Catholic
religion should be laid aside as soon as possible. It must assume the Hindu garment which will make it
acceptable to the people of India. The change can only be effected by Indian missionary Orders who
preach the sacred Faith in the language of the Vedanta.”6

The conception of Satchitananda cannot exhaustively define the nature of the Trinity. In his interpretation
that Hindu Satchitananda (Brahman) corresponds to Christian Trinity.7 Using advaita Vedanta as the tool
to interpret Trinity he proposed God the Father as Sat (Truth); the Son, the Logos, the Holy Spirit as
Ananda (Bliss). He observes that advaita Vedanta is a conducive philosophy for Indian theology because it
maintains that among everything that exists, God’s existence is the only essential; all the rest have
conditional existence. For an Indian Christology that takes seriously the realities of the world, this
proposition is problematic. It is observed that he did not explore the liberating dimensions of the Hindu
culture in relation to the realities of Indian life. For him, revelation is beyond the natural. Therefore,
salvation and revelation remain, for him, at the metaphysical level. He thus failed to see revelation as the
encounter of Christ with the totality of Human life. His argument for a metaphysical Christ made him
unable to see the evils of the caste system. His rejection of the historical Jesus, of Jesus the Avatara and his

4
Sunand Sumithra, Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective (Bangalore: Theological Book trust, 1995), 14.
5
M.M. Thomas and P.T. Thomas, Toward an Indian Christian Theology: Life and Though of some Pioneers
(Tiruvalla: Christava Sahitya Smiti, 2015), 91.
6
R.S. Sugirtharajah & Cecil Hargreaves, eds., Reading Indian Christian Theology vol. 1 (Delhi: ISPCK, 2002), 8.
7
Robin Boyd, An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology (Madras: The Christian Literature Society, 1975), 73.
2
upper-caste Brahmin background caused his failure to address the social realities of India. 8 He also found
the doctrine of Creation and Maya consistent with Christianity doctrine of creation.9

1.4.2. Nehemiah Goreh (1825-1895): Nehemiah Goreh is a well learned Hindu convert to Christianity. 10
He grew up reading sankrit and Hindu philosophy and thus despises Christianity because for Chitpavans
Christianity was the religion of the pagans. He often engaged in heated arguments with Christians. He got
hold of the Bible and began to read it. As he came to the Sermon of the month, he exclaimed, as cited by
Sunand Sumithra “Who is this teacher who speaks in this manner?... No mere man, however holy can
preach this sort of sermon. Surely the author must be divine.” This was his turning point. He took baptism
in 1848. Goreh’s thought can be summarized as a Church-in-witness-and-defense theology. In this
apologetic Goreh finds the doctrine of ex-nihilo as the most important for theology. In all the Hindus
philosophies, the world has both existed from eternity as well as it has an ultimate material cause. As such
none of them really understands Brahman as omnipotent; only the biblical account of creation out of
nothing makes God totally sovereign.11
For Goreh, sin is a positive evil force and such punishments are not just for good, but primarily to satisfy
the justice of God. His idea of salvation is purely by God’s grace through Christ’s atoning death, and
appropriated by faith. Christ as the Lamb of God was sacrificed once for all for our sake. It is through
Christ’s death that we are partakers of God’s nature as a church-and not like Vedantic identification of
Atman (Souls) with Brahman (God). Though Goreh attacked Hindu philosophy mercilessly, he was wholly
indigenous in his approach and in content. He rejected western lifestyle in all its varieties. He felt himself
wholly Indian, and believed that a hidden God is preparing through Hinduism to respond positively to
Christ.12

2. Bhakti traditions and Indian Christian Theologies

2.1. A Brief Historical Development of Bhakti Tradition
The word ‘Bhakti’ is derived from the Sankrit root ‘bhaj,” which has the sense of divide, participate and
share, Sanskrit English Dictionary defines it as attachment, devotion, fondness for trust, homage, worship,
piety, faith or love. The parallel English word for Bhakti is (loving) devotion.13

According to Robin Boyd, “This tradition has probably never been absent from Indian religion.”14Thus,
we are not sure about the origin of Bhakti tradition. However, it has to be noticed that Bhakti tradition as a
way of salvation made its entry in the 4th century C.E. This tradition contains the idea of the worship of
personal gods. In later this tradition developed towards monism. There found a tendency to postulate a
single personal God, Isvara. God who can be loved and worshipped and who remains distinct from the
worshipper, a God who can be approached with feelings of deep love and personal devotion. Bhakti
tradition is centered in personal devotion to Krishna as the incarnation of Vishnu. The Bhakti tradition
8
Samuel George and P. Mohan Larbeer, ed., Christian Theology: Indian Conversations (Bangalore: National
Printing Press, 2016), 77-78.
9
R.S. Sugirtharajah & Cecil Hargreaves, eds., Reading Indian Christian Theology vol. 1 (Delhi: ISPCK, 2002), 8.
10
Samuel George and P. Mohan Larbeer, ed., Christian Theology: Indian Conversations…, 165.
11
Sunand Sumithra, Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective (Bangalore: Theological Book trust, 1995), 76-
78.
12
Sunand Sumithra, Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective…, 79-80.
13
Gideon Ganesh, “The Contribution of A.J. Appasamy to the Bhakti Tradition in India Christian Theology,”
Hindustan Evangelical Review Vol. 3 (2008-2009): 91.
14
A. J. Appasamy, The Theology of Hindu Bhakti (Madras: CLS, 1970), 1.
3
rejects the Jnana marga (way of knowledge) and Karma marga (way of good works) as the way of
Moksha (salvation). Thus it depends on the way of Bhakti (devotion). The goal of Bhakti tradition is the
clear realization of the presence of God. It was Ramanuja, who gave a theological and philosophical basis
to the Bhakti tradition.15

Ramanuja was the one who gave solid theological content and indeed carried out a reformation in
Hinduism. He builds up his own system, center on a God-Isvara. God is related to the world as the soul is
in the body, and since this is not a relation of identity, a personal relationship is possible between God and
Man. The leaders of the bhakti tradition arose in many parts of India. So it was that when the Christian
Church began to take root in many parts of India there was already a strong theistic tradition of bhakti and
there were those who felt that led them towards the Light of Christ.16

There have been many approaches to an Indian Understanding of Christ. Among the Christian thinkers of
the nineteenth century, special mention must be given to the Christian poets like Krishna Pillai (1827-1900)
of Tamil Nadu who found in the Bhakti Tradition of India, new and significant avenues of understanding
for giving expression to Christian experience and faith.17 A.J. Appasamy is undoubtedly the foremost. He
wrote his doctoral dissertation and made an extensive research into the bhakti tradition from the Christian
point of view.18

2.2. A.J. Appasamy (1891-1975). Appasamy was an Indian theologian who identified himself with the
bhakti tradition in India. He preferred Bhakti tradition over several other thought patterns of Hinduism.
Firstly, he sees that bhakti tradition in Hinduism has close resemblance to Christian experiences. Secondly,
the metaphysical background of the bhakti tradition is also found to be nearer in affinity with the
theological foundations of Christianity. Thirdly, he discovered that bhakti tradition in India has a popular
appeal not only among the masses but also among scholars in Hinduism.19

Appasamy’s search for a philosophical basis for the Bhakti tradition led him to study of Ramanuja’s
philosophy. The fruit of his search resulted in the publication of two books, which are perhaps his best
books. They are: Christianity as Bhakti Marga (1928) and What is Moksha? (1931). These books are an
exposition of the Fourth Gospel by the wealth of illustration from the Tamil Bhakti poets. The Christian life
is seen as one loving devotion to God in Christ, and the goal of life which is Moksha (salvation) for which
a Hindu or Christian long is to found in faith-union with Christ. The chief end of humankind is not
absorption into the divine but a loving personal with God who said, ‘abide in me’. Appasamy believed that
Christianity at its very source is mystical. His approach towards mysticism is Christological. He interprets
Christ’s devotional life as the mystic experience. He states that, the life of Jesus shows a perfect balance
between its inner and outer aspects. Appasamy sees Apostle Paul as mystic. He states that, Paul’s central
experience was that of living in Christ. This indicates that Paul lived from day to day in intimate fellowship
15
Christianity as Bhakti Marga: A Contemporary Theological Response.
file:///C:/Users/hp/Downloads/Christianity_as_Bhakti_Marga_in_the_Theo.pdf. (16-11-2019).
16
Robin Boyd, An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology (Madras: The Christian Literature Society, 1975),
110-112.
17
Robin Boyd, An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 2006), 110.
18
Sunand Sumithra, Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective (Bangalore: Theological Book trust, 1995), 104.
19
Samuel George and P. Mohan Larbeer, ed., Christian Theology: Indian Conversations (Bangalore: National
Printing Press, 2016), 9-13.
4
with Christ. His whole being was rested in Christ. His prolific intellectual activity, his many sided practical
service, his strivings, his yearnings, and his groaning-all these emerged from a life of fellowship with
Christ. Appasamy sees even St. John as a mystic. He pondered upon the words of Jesus until they give him
fresh meaning. He treasured all those parts of Jesus’ teachings which dealt on the life of communion with
God.20

2.2.1. Moksha: Hinduism uses the words Mokhsa and Mukti for the final release of the soul from recurring
transmigration, the root meaning of the Sanskrit words being liberation or setting free. 21 Sumithra quotes
from Appasamy’s book What is Moksha?: A Study in the Johannine Doctrine of Life, “(Moksha) is a real
harmony with the holy and righteous Father (sic). It is a personal experience which, however, in its higher
reaches transcends the personal. It is a corporate experience, man (sic) mingling with his (sic) fellow-men
(sic) in order to attain the heights of God’s love. It begins even in this life and does not wait for an
indefinite future.”22 Thus, it is been understood that Appasamy understood eternal life which is moksha in
terms of a real harmony and a personal communion with God. He also believed that moksha could be
experienced within this life. And to attain this moksha Appasamy chooses the Bhakti Marga which
maintains a real harmony and a personal communion with God. Therefore, for him Christian life is the life
of moksha (salvation) realized here and now and could be described as a life of Bhakti (devotion).23

2.2.2. Christ’s Avatara: Appasamy regards Jesus as the Avatara of God. Earlier to Him Keshab Chandra
Sen and Upadhyaya called Jesus as Avatara, as aone of the many Avatara of popular Hinduism, and
perpheps would consider him the highest of the Avataras. But to Appasamy, Jesus Christ is the only puma
Avatara, in whom the fullness of the Godhead Dwells bodily (Col. 2:9). The incarnation of Christ is once
and for all and is unique. He regards Hindu conception is docetic and does not regard historicity as
important. He emphasizes the reality of the humanity of Jesus, and of the historicity of the Incarnation
word.24

2.2.3. The Immanence of God: T. Dayanandan Francis remarks that, the immanence of God is the basis for
Bhakti tradition. Alphonse states that, in Bhakti tradition, God is believed to be antaryamin (indwelling) in
the devotee and energizing him/her from within, constantly affirming His (God) presence therein. The
Hindu bhaktas often speak of God as dwelling in the depths of their souls. God is always connected with
the deepest parts of a person’s being. Appasamy points out that there are ample of teaching about the
immanence of God in the New Testament. John 1:10, “he was in the world”, is usually understood to refer
only to his incarnation. However, Appasamy interprets it to mean the presence of the immanent Christ,
both before and after the incarnation. According to Appasamy God can be known only in the heart of the
world. God is present in the world and in human beings. Therefore, he associated Logos of the Bible with
the Hindu idea of the immanent God, who indwells. For him Christ did not come only for the Jews rather

20
Christianity as Bhakti Marga: A Contemporary Theological Response.
file:///C:/Users/hp/Downloads/Christianity_as_Bhakti_Marga_in_the_Theo.pdf. (16-11-2019).
21
Robin Boyd, An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology (Delhi: ISPCK, 2006), 122.
22
Sunand Sumithra, Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective (Bangalore: Theological Book trust, 1995), 107-
108.
23
Christianity as Bhakti Marga: A Contemporary Theological Response.
file:///C:/Users/hp/Downloads/Christianity_as_Bhakti_Marga_in_the_Theo.pdf. (16-11-2019).
24
A.J. Appasamy, The Gospel and India’s Heritage (London: SPCK, 1942), 200.
5
he came for all men and women, for all are his own. He considered everyone as by nature children of God.
Therefore, in the person of Jesus, the immanent Logos has incarnated so that through the indwelling of the
incarnate Logos Christ, every human person may realize communion with God in its fullness.25

3. Evaluation and Conclusion of the topic: Nehemiah Goreh, is unquestionably in the main line
orthodoxy, it is difficult to find fault with his theology. But his emphasis — unlike the modern de-emphasis
— was undoubtedly on the Church and its sacraments. Like any of his contemporaries, he also accepts
without questions the genuineness and the ultimate authority of the Scripture for the Church. We are also
seeing a couple of loop-holes in many Indian thinkers. On the other hand, Appasamy’s choice of marga is
perhaps the closest one can think of in making the gospel meaningful to the Indian mind, since other
schools of thought such as advaita or dvaita are much further in thought content from the gospel message.
As we understand that Indian Theology is not a translation of western theology into Indian language.
Rather Indian Christian Theology is an ongoing process reflecting on Christian faith in varied historical
settings and contexts. Therefore it is necessary that we need both the scriptures and the contexts well, in
order to do right theology. Christian theology has attempted to explain, interpret and formulate the
essentials of Christianity in Indian thought-patterns have enabled Indian thinkers to contribute something to
Christian Theology. We also discuss that Indian Christian theologian played an important role in bringing
out the tradition of Christianity; bhakti tradition which refers to the spiritual devotions and belief of God
that emerged in the Hinduism in India. We examine many Indian theologians that they tried to make Christ
relevant to Indian context.

Bibliography:
Appasamy, A. J. The Theology of Hindu Bhakti. Madras: CLS, 1970.

Boyd, Robin. An Introduction to Indian Christian Theology. Madras: The Christian Literature Society, 1975.

C, Alisterb. Building Christinity on Indian Foundation. Delhi: Cambridge Press, 2000.

Ganesh, Gideon. “The Contribution of A.J. Appasamy to the Bhakti Tradition in India Christian Theology,”
Hindustan Evangelical Review Vol. 3 (2008-2009): 91.

George, Samuel and P. Mohan Larbeer. ed. Christian Theology: Indian Conversations. Bangalore: National Printing
Press, 2016.

Sugirtharajah, R.S. & Cecil Hargreaves. eds. Reading Indian Christian Theology vol. 1. Delhi: ISPCK, 2002.

Sumithra, Sunand. Christian Theologies from Indian Perspective. Bangalore: Theological Book trust, 1995.

Thomas, M.M. and P.T. Thomas. Toward an Indian Christian Theology: Life and Though of some Pioneers.
Tiruvalla: Christava Sahitya Smiti, 2015.

25
Christianity as Bhakti Marga: A Contemporary Theological Response.
file:///C:/Users/hp/Downloads/Christianity_as_Bhakti_Marga_in_the_Theo.pdf. (16-11-2019).
6