http://qoqi.nju.edu.

cn/

3 .

- 3 3
 qoqi_nju
njuqoqi2019
qoqi_nju@126.com
 6

8 0 2
Team 1

Team 2

2 1 74
Team 3

6
Team 4

3 9
Team 5
DZ1822015 MF1822009 DZ1734005

5
Team 6
MG1822116 DZ1822006 DZ1722003 MG1822024 MG1822086 MG1822048
 c8 9

% c

3 05 5 10 2 2 3 e c a 8
d9
0 60 0 / .06 6 0
P % %8 @9
• QM is a linear theory

• A physical state is a vector in a Hilbert space- ℋ

• Physical properties (position, momentum) is

operators acting in the states

 1. State vector of a quantum system fully specify its property.
2. For each physical property, there is linear Hermitian operator.
The eigenvalues of them are the possible values of the
physical properties.
3a. Born’s rule: Given |#⟩ and |$⟩ , the prob of finding |#⟩ in |$⟩ is

3b. Wave function collapse: if a quantum system is in |$⟩ and the

operator , the prob of obtaining is:

and the system is the subspace with eigenvalue of

4. The evolution of a closed quantum system is unitary.
 Einstein coefficients
A gas of N atoms in a box with temperature T.

ℏ"% 1
Planck's law ! " = ' %
& ( (exp ℏ"//0 1) − 1
6 6
Thermal equilibrium 45' 75 ! " = 8'5 7' + 4'5 7' ! " Steady state

7' :' ;' − ;5 :' ℏ"

Boltzmann’s law = exp(− ) = exp(− )
75 :5 /0 1 :5 /0 1

the relations between E-coefficients

 The spectral lineshape function
The spectral .
lineshape function - !" # /# = 1
!" # : '

is centered at ℏ#' = )* − ),
Full Width at Half Maximum (FWHM): Δ#

Main line-broadening mechanisms Homogeneous: all the individual atoms

• Lifetime (natural) broadening
• Collisional (pressure) broadening
• Doppler broadening
behave in the same way, and produce
the same spectrum.
Inhomogeneous: the individual atoms
behave differently and contribute to
different parts of the spectrum.
 Laser oscillation
Laser: Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation.

!"
=% & " # % & : gain coefficient
!#
Integration of the above equation yields:
" # = "' ( )*

If the amplification in the gain medium is sufficient to balance the losses

during a round trip, then oscillation can occur and the laser will operate.
 Laser oscillation
Light beam will trigger both absorption and stimulated-emission transmission.

For amplification to occur, we require that the stimulated-emission rate

should exceed the absorption rate.
$ $ $ $
!"# %" & ' > !#" %# & ' )# !#" = )" !"#
Which implies
)"
%" > %#
)#
 Laser oscillation
However, in thermal equilibrium
!" %" +" − +#
= exp(− ) Boltzmann’s law
!# %# ,- .
for +" > +# , , > 0, . > 0
%" ; <4 -;
46 -65 8 8
!" < !# 5 56
7"# !" 9 : < 7#" !# 9 :
%#
This means that the light intensity decays as it propagates because the
absorption rate exceeds the stimulated-emission rate.
45
!" > ! can only be satisfied in non-equilibrium conditions called
46 #
population inversion (PI).
%"
Population-inversion density: Δ! = !" − !#
%#
Q: How large is the gain coefficient to support PI: > : =?
 Q 4 .11 in Fox

Q: How large is the gain coefficient to support PI: ! " =?

Hints: calculate W12 and W21, see Q 4.1

 Exercises
4.1
In the Einstein analysis we assume that the light radiation has a broad
spectrum compared to the transition line. Let us now consider the contrary
situation in which the spectral width of the light beam is much smaller than
the linewidth of the transition. This is the kind of situation that occurs when a
narrow-band laser beam interacts with an atom, either inside a laser cavity or
externally.

a) Explain why it is appropriate to write the spectral energy intensity of the

beam as:
! " # = !% & " # − " ,
where " is the angular frequency of the beam, !% is its energy density in
J m+, , and & - is the Dirac delta function.
 Exercises
4.1 solution

a) In the Einstein analysis it is assumed that the transition line has a much
narrower spectrum than the radiation source, as depicted in Fig. (a). This
would typically be the case when an atom interacts with back-body
radiation. In the case we are considering here, the spectrum of the
radiation is assumed to be much narrower than that of the transition, as
depicted in Fig. (b).

(a) Case considered by Einstein: broadband source ! "# and narrow absorption
line at angular frequency ".
(b) Case considered here: narrow-band radiation source centered at " interacting
with a broad absorption line with a spectra line shape function $% " .
 Exercises
4.1 solution

a) In this limit, all the energy of the beam is concentrated at !, and we can
take the spectral energy density " !# to have a Dirac delta-function
frequency dependence compared to the spectral line:
" !# ∝ % !# − ! .
We require that the integral of " !# over frequency should equal the
total energy density of the beam, that is:
*
( " !# d!# = "- .
)
These two requirements are satisfied by writing:
" ! # = "- % ! # − ! .
 Exercises
b) Let us assume that the frequency dependence of the absorption
probability follows the spectral lineshape function !" # . This implies
that the Einstein $ coefficients will also vary with frequency. Explain why
it is appropriate to write the frequency dependence of the Einstein $%&
coefficient as:
'
!& ) & * + 1 ' ,
$%& # = !" #
!% ℏ-+ # '+ /
where !% and !& are the lower and upper level degeneracies, - is the
refractive index of the medium, and / is the radiative lifetime of the upper
level.
 Exercises
4.1 solution

b) The frequency dependence of the absorption rate can be accommodated

by writing:
'
!"# $% = !"# (' $% ,
'
where !"# is the normal !-coefficient of the Einstein analysis, and (' $%
is the spectral lineshape function. Note that:
, , ,
' '
* !"# $% d$% = !"# * (' $% d$% = !"# * (' $ 5$ = 1
+ + +
we can write:
(# ' (" !"# = (# !#"
'
!"# = !#" ℏ$0
(" 2#" = # 0 !#"
. /
(# . # / 0
= 0 2#"
(" ℏ$ 1
4≡
(# . # / 0 1 2#"
=
(" ℏ$ 0 4
 Exercises
4.1 solution

b) In a medium with refractive index !, we replace " by "/!. Hence we have:

(
*& + & " , 1 (
$%& ' = *0 '
*% ℏ!, ' (, /
 Exercises

c) Hence show that the total absorption rate defined as

(
!"# = %" & )"# *+ , *+ d*+
'
Is given by:
.# / # 0 1
!"# = %" 1 1 ,5 .5 * .
." ℏ3 * 4
 Exercises
4.1 solution

c) We substitute the results of parts (a) and (b) into the formula for !"# to
write:
(
!"# = %" & )"# *+ , *+ d*+
'
(
.# / # 0 1 .5 *+ + − * d*+ .
= %" , 5 & 6 *
." ℏ31 4 ' *+1
We then use the identity
:(
& ; < 6 < − = d< = ; =
9(
to evaluate the integral as required:
.# / # 0 1
!"# = %" , . * .
." ℏ31 * 1 4 5 5
 Exercises
d) Repeat the argument to show that the total stimulated-emission rate is
given by:
& "' (
!"# = %" ( ( -. /. + .
ℏ* + ,
 Exercises
4.1 solution

d) We proceed exactly as in the part (c), and write the stimulated emission
rate as:
(
!"# = %" & )"# *+ , *+ d*+
'
(
.# /
= %" & )#" , *+ d*+
' ."
(
0 "1 2 ./ *+ + − * d*+
= %" 2 ,/ & 2 6 *
ℏ4 5 ' *+
0 "1 2
= %" 2 2 ,/ ./ * ,
ℏ4 * 5
as required.
 Laser oscillation

&$
Population-inversion density: Δ" = "$ − "'
&'
*$ ( ) ∝ Δ"
Gain coefficient: ( ) = $ Δ"&. ) 1
4, - ( ) ∝ ≡ 2$'
-

HW
 Laser oscillation—the system
Practical scenario: Population inversion mechanism in a four-level laser.

The oscillation condition (a round trip)

!" !# $% #&' = 1 $: other optical losses

1 1
*=− ln !" !# − ln $
2- 2-

The threshold gain *01 will be achieved for a certain pumping rate !01 .
For pumping rates larger than !01 , the gain cannot increase further.
The extra energy of the pumping source thus goes into generating the light
output, which increases linearly with (! − !01 ) for (! > !01 ).
 Laser mode—Transverse mode

Transverse mode
$1 + &1
ℰ"# $, & = ℰ( )" 2$/, )# 2&/, exp −
,1
$1 + &1 41
ℰ(( $, & = ℰ( exp − ≡ ℰ( exp − 1 Gaussian distribution
,1 ,

)" , )# : Hermite polynomials

,: the beam spot size
 Laser mode—Longitudinal mode
Longitudinal mode
The intra-cavity field is a standing wave:
- /0
!"#$ = &'()*)+× = &'()*)+×
2 '"#$ 1
The allowed angular frequency:
/0
12345 = &'()*)+×
'"#$ !"#$
/0
Δ12345 =
'"#$ !"#$
Multi-mode operation
 Laser mode—Mode locking
Mode locking
the laser operates on as many longitudinal modes as the gain medium
can support, but the phases of all the modes are locked together.
Δ"Δ#~1
&# = 2)*+, -*+, //
Shorter pulses are therefore generated by gain media with a very broad
spectral range. As in the cases of dye lasers and Ti:sapphire laser.
 Laser properties
Properties

Common lasers and their main emission wavelengths.

host materials dependent

End of Semi-classical approach:
Radiative transitions in atoms
Ch 4 of Fox-QO
Photon statistics
Ch 5 of Fox-QO
 Contents

l Photon-counting statistics, Poissonian photon statistics

l Classification of light by photon statistics, Super-Poissonian
light, Sub-Poissonian light
l Theory of photodetection
l Shot noise in Photodiodes
l Observation of sub-Poissonian photon statistics
 Contents

l Photon-counting statistics, Poissonian photon statistics

l Classification of light by photon statistics, Super-Poissonian
light, Sub-Poissonian light
l Theory of photodetection
l Shot noise in Photodiodes
l Observation of sub-Poissonian photon statistics
 Introduction
Consider the detection of a light beam by a photon counter (photomultiplier
tube (PMT) or avalanche photodiode (APD)).

short voltage pulses

registers the number

of pulses

The average count rate is determined by the intensity of the light beam, but
the actual count rate fluctuates from measurement to measurement.

We have to distinguish carefully between:

(1) the intrinsic photon statistics of the light beam;
(2) the statistics nature of the photodetection process.
(1) the intrinsic photon statistics of the light beam;

(2) the statistics nature of the photodetection process.

 Photon-counting statistics
Consider the detection of a perfectly coherent monochromatic beam of
angular frequency ! and constant intensity ", and consider the beam
to consist of a stream of photons.
"% (
the photon flux 7 Φ= ≡ photons/0
ℏ! ℏ!
3(2
the average number of counts 1 2 = 3Φ2 = counts
ℏ!
1 3(
the average count rate ℛ = = 3Φ = counts/0
2 ℏ!
%: the area of the beam; (: the power; 3: the quantum efficiency

counter : s dead time ~ 1 A0 ⟹ ℛ ~ 10D counts/0

3 ~ 10 % ( ~ 10FGJ K
ℏ! ~ 10FGH I
Photon counters are only useful for analyzing the properties of very faint
light beams!
 Photon-counting statistics
Photon number fluctuations! ‘Graininess’
Consider a beam of light of photon energy 2.0 eV with an average power of
1 nW.
10+, , photons/7
the average photon flux? Φ= = 3.1×10
2× 1.6×10+/,
a 30 89 segment of beam (1 :7) contains an average
of ;. < =>?@?AB. But the actual number of photons has
to be an integer! Look at 30 such beam segments:
1, 6, 3, 1, 2, 2, 4, 4, 2, 3, 4, 3, 1, 3, 6, 5, 0, 4, 1, 1, 6, 2, 2, 6, 4, 1, 4, 3, 4, 6.
(a sum of 95, a mean of 3.16, and a standard deviation of 1.81)

a 3 89 segment of beam (100 F7),10 such beam segments:

1, 0, 0, 1, 0, 0, 0, 0, 0, 1. (a sum of 3, a mean of 0.3, and a standard deviation of 0.46)

The photon number on short time-scales fluctuates due to the discrete

nature of the photons.
Coherent light: Poissonian photon statistics
In classical physics, a perfectly coherent light beam is described by
ℰ 5, 7 = ℰ8 sin :5 − +7 + = electromagnetic wave

Consider a light beam of constant power !. The average number of photons

within a beam segment of length " is given by
Φ" () !
$# = Φ = = photons/3
' ℏ+ ℏ+

Divide the beam segment into > subsegments of length "/>. > is
sufficiently large that the probability ? = $/>
# of finding a photon within any
subsegments is very small.
The probability of finding $ subsegments containing one photon and (> −
$) containing no photons is given by
>!
B $ = ?D 1 − ? FGD Binomial distribution
$! > − $ !
Coherent light: Poissonian photon statistics
%! $#
& $ = !) 1 − ! +,)
!=
$! % − $ ! %
) +,)
%! $# $#
= 1− %!
$! % − $ ! % % lim =1
+,) +→1 % − $ ! %)
1 %! )
$#
= $# 1 − +,)
$! % − $ ! %) % $# +→1
1− exp −$#
%
1
lim & $ = ⋅ 1 ⋅ $# ) ⋅ exp −$#
+→1 n!

Finally, we find
$# ) ,)#
& $ = e , $ = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ . Poisson distribution
$!

Perfectly coherent light with a constant intensity has Poissonian photon

statistics!
Coherent light: Poissonian photon statistics
"$ % (%$
! " = e , " = 0, 1, 2, ⋯ . Poisson distribution
"!
variance
:

Var " ≡ Δ" 6 = 7 " − "$ 6 ! "

%89

! "

Δ" 6 = "$

⇒ Δ" = "$ standard deviation

/.
Poisson distributions are uniquely characterized by their mean value 0
 Exercises
5.1
A light beam of wavelength 633 nm (~1.96 eV) and power 0.01 pW is
detected with a photon-counting system of quantum efficiency 30% with a
time interval of 10 ms. Calculate:

a) the count rate;

b) the average count value;

c) the standard deviation in the count value.

 Exercises
5.1 solution

a) The average count rate from a detector with quantum efficiency ! is !Φ,
where Φ is the photon flux:
$ 10)*+ W
Φ= = = 3.2×10+ photons/s
ℏ& 1.96 eV
the average count rate
ℛ = !Φ = 0.3×3.2×10+ = 9600 counts/s

b) The average count value for an integration time ? is:

@ ? = !Φ? = 96 counts

c) We assume that the light has Poissonian statistics. Random sampling of a

Poisson distribution by inefficient detection gives another Poisson
distribution. The standard deviation in the count value @ will therefore be
equal to @.
Δ@ = 96 = 9.8
 Exercises
5.6
A pulsed diode laser operating at 800 nm (~1.55 eV) emits 10+ pulses per
second. The average power measured on a slow response power meter is
1 mW. On the assumption that the laser light has Poissonian photon statistics,
calculate the mean photon number and its standard deviation per pulse.
 Exercises
5.6 solution

The average power of a pulsed laser beam measured on a slow-response

detector (i.e. one with a response time much longer than the time interval
between the pulses) is given by:
! = #$%&'( ×number of pulses per second.
In this exercise we have
#$%&'( = 1 mW/10< = 10=>> J.
The average number of photons per pulse is therefore given by:
#$%&'(
A@ = = 4.0×10E .
ℏC
With Poissonian photon statistics we expect
ΔA = A@ = 6.3×10I .
 Contents

l Photon-counting statistics, Poissonian photon statistics

l Classification of light by photon statistics, Super-Poissonian
light, Sub-Poissonian light
l Theory of photodetection
l Shot noise in Photodiodes
l Observation of sub-Poissonian photon statistics
 Classification of light by photon statistics
In general, there are three possibilities: same $
"

• $ (quieter)
sub-Poissonian statistics: !" < "
• $
Poissonian statistics: %" = "
• $ (noisier)
super-Poissonian: %" > "

All classical light beams with time-varying light intensities will have
super-Poissonian photon number distributions.

Sub-Poissonian light has no classical counterpart: non-classical light!

(the observation of sub-Poissonian light is quite difficult!)
 Super-Poissonian light
super-Poissonian light: $
!" > "

Two examples: thermal light and chaotic light.

1. Thermal light
The electromagnetic radiation emitted by a hot body is generally called
thermal light or black-body radiation.

ℏ&, 1
energy density, Planck law % &, ( )& = . , )&
- / exp ℏ&/56 ( − 1

It requires that the energy of the radiation should be quantized.

We can consider each individual mode as a harmonic oscillator of angular

frequency &.
1
89 = : + ℏ& :≥0
2
 Super-Poissonian light: Thermal light
The probability of having ( photons in a single mode at angular frequency
) is
exp −12 /45 6
*+ ( = : Boltzmann’s law
∑289 exp −12 /45 6
exp −(ℏ)/45 6 :
1
= : ? @2 =
∑289 exp −(ℏ)/45 6 1−@
289

:
1
the mean photon number (< = (< = ? (*+ (
exp ℏ)/45 6 − 1
289
See Eq 5.22 to 5.27 in Fox
2
1 (<
Rewrite the probability *+ ( =
(< + 1 (< + 1

Bose–Einstein distribution
 Super-Poissonian light: Thermal light
Bose–Einstein distribution
(
1 #&
!" # =
#& + 1 #& + 1

variance
2

Var # ≡ Δ# * = / # − #& * ! #
(01

Δ# * = #& + #& *

How to prove?
 Exercises
5.3
Prove that the variance of the Bose–Einstein distribution is given by:
Δ" # = "% + "% #

d #'( d' (
Hint: "# ' ( = ' # +'
d' # d'
 Exercises
5.3 solution

The variance is calculated from

*
Var $ = & $ − $, - ./ $
'()
*
= & $- − 2$$
, + $, - ./ $
'()
*
= & $- ./ $ − $, - ,
'()
where $, = ∑ $./ $ .
The first term can be evaluated by
* * *
& $- ./ $ = & $- 4 ' (1 − 4) = 1 − 4 & $- 4 '
'() '() '()
where 4 is defined by
4 = exp −ℏ</>? @
 Exercises
5.3 solution

Now
d" # $ d# $
!" # $ = #" " +#
d# d#
so that
+ + +
d" d
( !" ,- ! = 1 − # #" $
"(# +# ( #$
d# d#
$)* $)* $)*
2# "
# +
1
= 1−# 1+ 1−# " ( #$ =
1−# 1−#
$)*
# " #
=2 + +
1−# 1−# #
"
= 2!2 + !,
2 !
2 = ( !,- ! =
1−#
It therefore follows that: $)*
+
Var ! = ( !" ,- ! − !2 " = 2!2 " + !2 − !2 " = !2 " + !2
$)*
 Super-Poissonian light: Thermal light
Bose–Einstein distribution
(
1 #&
!" # =
#& + 1 #& + 1

variance
7

Var # ≡ Δ# * = 4 # − #& * ! #
(56 If #& = 10, then
Thermal: Δ# = 10.5
Δ# * = #& + #& * Poisson: Δ# = 3.2

the variance of the Bose–Einstein distribution is always larger than that of

a Poisson distribution.

Note that the Bose–Einstein distribution only applies to a single mode of

the radiation field.
 Super-Poissonian light: Thermal light
In reality, black-body radiation consists of a continuum of modes, and in
most experiments we have to consider the properties of multi-mode
thermal light.

The photon number variance of !" thermal modes of similar frequency

is

%
$' %
Δ$ = $' +
!"
which reduces to the result for a Poisson distribution when )* is large.

In practice, it is very difficult to measure a single mode of the thermal field,

and the statistics measured in most experiments with thermal light will
therefore be Poissonian.
 Chaotic (partially coherent) light
2. Chaotic light
The light from a single spectral line of a discharge lamp is generally called
chaotic light. Chaotic light has partial coherence, with classical intensity
fluctuations on a time-scale determined by the coherence time !" .

the fluctuations in the photocount rate: Δ$ % = ' ( + Δ' (

+,-
the count rate in the detection time interval ( : ' ( = * .Φ 0 1 20 1
+
3
.: the detection efficiency; Φ 0 : the instantaneous photon flux Φ= photons/=
ℏ5
' ( = $>
For chaotic light
if ? ≤ AB , Φ 0 ≠ constant ⟹ Δ' ( ≠ 0 ⟹ super-Poissonian
if ? ≫ AB , the intensity fluctuations will not be noticed, Φ 0 ≈ constant ⟹
Δ' ( = 0 ⟹ Δ$ % = $> ⟹ Poissonian
 Sub-Poissonian light
&
sub-Poissonian light: #$ < $

Consider the properties of a beam of light in which the time intervals Δ"
between the photons are identical.
The photocount in a time - would be the integer
value
-
' = Int ,
Δ"
/. = ', Δ/ = 0

Photon streams with Δ/ = 0 are called photon

number states. Photon number states are the
purest form of sub-Poissonian light.
/. = ', Δ/ = 0

Why it is so hard to obtain sub-Poissonian light?

Degradation of photon statistics by losses
Optical losses: be modelled as beam splitter!

The effect of a lossy medium with

transmission ! on a beam of light can be
modelled as a beam splitter with splitting
ratio !: (1 − !)

The incoming photon stream splits

randomly towards the two outputs with a
probability set by the transmission :
reflection ratio.

The random sampling nature of optical losses degrades the regularity of

the photon flux!
Degradation of photon statistics by losses
Factors that reduce the efficiency of photon-counting experiments:
1. inefficient collection optics, whereby only a fraction of the light emitted
from the source is collected;
2. losses in the optical components due to absorption, scattering, or
reflections from the surfaces;
3. inefficiency in the detection process due to using detectors with
imperfect quantum efficiency.

All of these processes are equivalent to random sampling of the photons.

Sub-Poissonian light is very fragile: all forms of loss and inefficiency will
tend to degrade the statistics to the Poissonian (random) case.
We must be very careful to avoid optical losses and use very high-
efficiency detectors to observe large quantum effects in the photon
statistics.