Encyclopedia of Tourism PDF

Jafar Jafari
Honggen Xiao
Editors
Encyclopedia of
Tourism
1 3Reference
Encyclopedia of Tourism
Jafar Jafari • Honggen Xiao
Editors
With 211 Figures and 6 Tables

Editors
Jafar Jafari Honggen Xiao
University of Wisconsin-Stout The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Menomonie, USA Hong Kong, China
ISBN 978-3-319-01383-1 ISBN 978-3-319-01384-8 (eBook)

ISBN 978-3-319-01385-5 (print and electronic bundle)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
Library of Congress Control Number: 2016936094
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

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Introduction
While the genesis of today’s worldwide tourism is to be found in historical

records, its establishment as a formal academic field among anglophone
scholars can only be traced to the twentieth century. In the 1970s, tourism
was framed as “a study of man away from his usual habitat, of the industry
which responds to his needs, and of the impacts that both he and the industry
have on the host sociocultural, economic, and physical environments” (Annals
of Tourism Research editorial). Since the 1990s, this field has significantly
unfolded in many directions, with the resulting scientification treatments
conveying the epistemological reflections of its studies.
The evolution of tourism research foci may be condensed into advocacy,
cautionary, adaptancy, knowledge-based, and public platforms, each of which
has added historical depth and texture to the understanding of tourism both as a
field of study and as an industry. The latest platform calls for the formation of a
public stance that can help tourism assume its legitimate position – side by side
with other institutions and industries, in both local and global circles – and
enjoy the support it deserves. In turn, this journey serves as path for tourism
education, research, and the advancement of knowledge.
The edited 2009 symposium volume of the International Academy for the
Study of Tourism identifies a number of patterns in the evolution of tourism
research. First, the growth of tourism studies has been accompanied by an
increase in a wide range of investigated topics. Second, while the nature and
extent of changes vary, the overall picture that emerges is one of continuity and
incremental change, with little evidence of any major paradigm shift. Third,
the growth of tourism research appears not to have been driven by the pursuit
of core questions under the umbrella of a unifying set of theories, leading to an
unstructured and fragmented body of knowledge. Essentially, as the field
moves on, its community grows to encompass new networks such as the
mobilities paradigm, critical tourism studies, “new” tourism research, and
the tourism education futures initiative.
More specifically, the expansion of this multidisciplinary landscape of
tourism knowledge has been accompanied over the years by a phenomenal
growth of its research community worldwide in terms of the large number of
higher education and research institutions at universities, proliferations of
academic journals and publications, rapid increase in the number of associa-
tions and conferences, as well as the diverse sources of funding for its
investigations. It is quite evident that tourism research is now being conducted
v
vi Introduction
throughout the world, not only by (or within) its own circles but also in the
whole array of disciplines encompassing the social sciences, business and
economics, humanities, natural sciences, and even engineering. This global
disciplinary rooting is reflected in four volumes published in the Tourism
Social Science Series containing biographical chapters of some 60 known
scholars in this field, as well as the large number of authors from around the
world who have contributed to this Springer edition.
As a genre that features a representative coverage of research topics or

platforms, a multidisciplinary encyclopedia is viewed as a landmark in the
knowledge development of a field of study. Notably, in an era facilitated by
internet technology in disseminating research and by web-based search
engines in retrieving information, the value of, and the need for, developing
an authoritative encyclopedia that is also retrievable online is all the more
apparent. Compared to the fully web-based Wikipedia, editable online by
“pseudonyms” through user accounts, a reviewed and edited encyclopedia
often stands out due to the authority of its text resulting from the expertise of
invited authorship and the quality control exerted by reviewers and editors.
The first edition of the Encyclopedia of Tourism, after 5 years in the making,
was published by Routledge in 2000. Immediately after its appearance, the
edition was appraised by peers as a chronicle of tourism scholarship as well as
a demonstration of the leadership shown to orchestrate the efforts of hundreds
of contributors and a multidisciplinary editorial team to bring the project to
fruition. Nonetheless, the evolution of the field since its publication quickly
made the need to develop a new edition self-evident.
To better serve the academic community with the current state of knowl-
edge, the Springer Encyclopedia of Tourism, this time published both in
electronic and print formats, is designed as a new tome in its own right. Due
to copyright concerns, all entries included in this edition are new contributions,
reviewed to make sure that their contents incorporate the latest in knowledge
development since the turn of the century.
The entry list of the Springer edition was derived from a number of sources,
including the Routledge version itself featuring 1,024 headwords; the cumu-
lative subject index (1973–2012) of Annals of Tourism Research with
888 primary-level subject headwords, along with 1,100 secondary-level
sub-headwords; and recommendations and community inputs through
TRINET postings, as well as solicitation opportunities as noted in the
Acknowledgments. Together, these and other inputs have resulted in the
updated headword list, while leaving out some featured in the prior edition.
During this process, many earlier headwords were further combined or inte-
grated in order to arrive at the current inventory.
While essential topics have been retained from the first edition, a number of
changes have been introduced in the current edition. Here, the latest UN
member states are featured as “country” entries, while geographic areas
under dispute or territories without UN recognition are not included. A few
Introduction vii
“world region” entries in line with UNWTO program designation are also
introduced. The previously individual or separate entries on major tourism
journals (such as Annals of Tourism Research and Journal of Travel Research)
and organizations or associations (AIEST or TTRA) are now abstracted into
synthesized entries, with the exception of the International Academy for the
Study of Tourism and the UNWTO, which stand as leading entities in tourism
research and practice.
In light of the multidisciplinary nature of tourism research and scholarship,
critical social science concepts and business/management aspects have
received ample attention in this edition. Emphasis is also placed on adding
new entries in relation to tourism development and corresponding theories
explaining them. Disciplinary domains (such as anthropology, ecology, eco-
nomics, geography, management, marketing, psychology, and sociology) and
tourism-related fields (including hospitality, leisure, park, and recreation) are
kept as core headwords in order to acknowledge the multidisciplinarity of
scholarship and multisector operation of tourism; nonetheless, affixations out
of these core headwords are kept to the minimum.
In principle, the accumulation of knowledge, new research themes, chang-
ing niche products and markets, the application of innovative methods, as well
as issues facing tourism research and practice after the turn of the millennium
are reflected in the Springer edition. This encyclopedia is a registry of explicit
tourism knowledge based on published research. New concepts or innovative
terms yet to be adequately “grounded” in the research literature are to be first
directed to tourism journals prior to their maturation for possible inclusion in
any future edition(s) of the encyclopedia. In total, an entry list featuring
700 headwords was identified and commissioned.
To involve as many worldwide authors as possible, the new encyclopedia
allowed one entry per author (or two entries on coauthorship basis, with a few
unavoidable exceptions). Authorship invitations were by expertise of an entry
subject. In general, due to the nature of this reference source and its intended
readership, authors from academic institutions outnumber nonacademic con-
tributors, 95 % versus 5 %, respectively. However, according to a recent
equality report, the encyclopedia did better in gender representation, with
36 % of authors female and 64 % male – a noticeably higher proportion of
the former in contrast to other existing academic memberships. For “country”
entries, joint authorship was favored, preferably one from the country itself. In
the case of “world region” entries, coauthorships with a UNWTO colleague
from the corresponding regional program were sought. In addition, authors
from inadequately represented world regions, such as Africa, Latin America,
and Pacific Island States, were invited to contribute to entry development
either individually or on coauthorship basis. In total, 766 authors from
113 countries are featured in this edition of the encyclopedia.
Despite these intended efforts, the purpose of Encyclopedia of Tourism
remains unchanged: to act as a guide and updated source of reference to a wide
range of basic definitions, theories and concepts, disciplines and fields of
studies, themes and issues, methods and approaches, products and sectors,
organizations and associations, media and publications, as well as countries
and world regions contributing to, or embraced by, tourism in its disparate
viii Introduction
manifestations. Two principles have guided the development of this new

edition. One is to produce a comprehensive and updated reference source in
tourism through adding new subjects as entries, updating and refining entry
contents, and improving the overall presentation and usefulness of the volume
as a whole. Two, the new edition is more comprehensive in subject coverage,
and more international and culturally diverse in its authorship team than the
first version. Its editorial body, representing all continents, consists of nine
associate editors and two resource editors, who shaped the present landscape
of tourism knowledge as represented in this edition.
Structure and Contents
The encyclopedia entries have three lengths: 500 25, 1,000 50, and
2,000 100 words. A few entries are slightly higher or lower because of
miscommunication among coeditors, associate editors, and/or the authors and
were eventually accepted for the sake of expediency.
Structurally, each entry consists of its headword title, a brief definitional
introduction, discussion, and prospective closure, plus a list of three to five
“see-also” cross-references to other related or relevant entries in the encyclo-
pedia. Style guidelines and model entries were published on the encyclopedia
website. Differentiating by length, 500-word entries bear no headings in the
text and include only three to five textually cited references, whereas 1,000-
and 2,000-word entries are subdivided with section headings and have five to
seven and seven to ten references, respectively.
Entries can be grouped into nine categories according to content: Concept/
theory; discipline/field of study; country/region; issue-based; method/method-
ology; product; sector; organization/association; and journal/publication/
media. More specifically, concept/theory and discipline entries chart the origin
and evolution of their subjects or knowledge domains, including related
subdisciplinary areas, key tenets, definition(s), possible shifts, and new
advances, as well as the entrance and application of the subject into tourism
studies. Country/region entries, each accompanied with a map, first describe
the location, size, population, and economy. Main tourism appeals, products,
source markets, arrivals and receipts, policy and organization, as well as
education and training infrastructure, along with a prospective view of tourism
development are common among these entries.
Issue-based entries address popular or known emerging problems of gen-
eral and public concern, such as climate change, quality of life, and safety and
security in tourism research and practice. Such entries introduce and define the
issue, reflect on the evolution of the subject and factors contributing to its
importance to or popularity in tourism, and review main research-based
studies which reveal deeper layers and their contributions to the understanding
of tourism as a whole.
Instead of demonstrating how to use an analytic tool, method/methodology
entries focus on the origin and definition in the native field(s), including
entrance to and application in tourism studies. Readers are also introduced to
the advances of a method employed in tourism studies through a review of
Introduction ix
research-based works or case studies which unfold hidden layers in scholarly

tourism literature.
Likewise, product and sector entries begin with a definitional introduction
and reflect on factors contributing to the popularity and possible evolution of a
product or sector, through reviewing published research or case studies. These
entries also name countries or regions in which a product or sector has driven
deep roots, types of tourists interested in them, as well as related governmental/
nongovernmental organizations fostering their development.
Unlike the first version, in the current edition, organization/association and
journal/publication/media categories represent a number of synthesized or
consolidated entries such as academic tourism journals, travel trade journals,
organizations and associations, destination marketing organizations, national
tourism offices and administration, scholarship, and universities. The roles and
functions of such organizations or media entities in the tourism industry and/or
in fostering research and practice are reflected through review discussions
based on published studies.
Weaving a Web of Tourism Knowledge
This encyclopedia is intended for use by students, instructional staff, and

scholars in tourism education programs and research institutions worldwide.
Policymakers, consultants, and practitioners including destination marketers,
managers, tourism developers and planners, attraction architects, and product
designers can also benefit from the comprehensive coverage of alphabetic
topics and subjects covered in this source. Indeed, like any other reference
work, the reading of this encyclopedia defies convention or sequence. Readers
are encouraged to follow their own interests and inclinations in exploring
subjects covered in this volume, and to fully make use of its cross-references
in order to weave “a web of tourism knowledge” of their own.
The encyclopedia is meant to inform, inspire, and prompt its readers to ask
challenging questions in order to become more critical of, committed to, and/or
involved in tourism research and scholarship. The usefulness of this edition of
the Encyclopedia of Tourism will have to be left to maturation in time and to
feedback from its readers. Fortunately, in this electronic age, shortcomings and
updates reported to the chief editors will be periodically uploaded into the
electronic publication. In such a manner, the completeness and currency of the
encyclopedia reside in the hands of its readers, authors, scholars, and tourism
knowledge trackers.
Jafar Jafari
University of Wisconsin-Stout, Menomonie, USA
Honggen Xiao
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Co-Editor
Acknowledgments
Acknowledging the cumulative efforts of an army of individuals who have

made the publication of this important reference source possible is truly
challenging. Its journey – guided by a multitude of editors and supported by
the publishing house Springer – took 4 years of roadmapping to bring together
700 entry contributions by 766 authors from 113 countries. Like any other
odyssey, this one had its peculiar ups and downs along the way, but what
mattered most to everyone concerned was the successful landing of the
Encyclopedia of Tourism. A debt of gratitude is extended to all the creators,
shapers, and promoters of tourism knowledge jointly participating in the
ensuing publication. Among this dedicated army, the authors are named
individually after their entries, with the associate and resource editors listed
after the title page. Associate editors in particular guided and influenced the
development of each and every encyclopedia entry, from its initial submission
to its eventual acceptance – often after several revisions and rewrites. Springer
editors Tresa Benjamin, Samhita Das, Michael Hermann, Ashwani Veejai Raj,
Christian Rauscher, Tina Shelton, Meghna Singh, and Jayanthi Vetriselvam
are recognized for their work and commitment to this community knowledge
project.
Special acknowledgments are extended to the affiliated institutions of the
chief editors: the School of Hospitality Leadership, University of Wisconsin-
Stout (USA), and the School of Hotel and Tourism Management, the Hong
Kong Polytechnic University (China). The latter provided support, dedicated
office space and resources, and assistantships (G-UB11, PolyU 5444-13H, and
PolyU 5494-12H), in addition to accommodating the many requirements of
the coeditor.
Colleagues, academic staff, and research students from the coeditors’ home
institutions, as well as Universitat de les Illes Balears (Spain) and Universidade
do Algarve (Portugal), are recognized for their participation in the workshops
and/or involvement in feeding into this project. Singular thanks are also due to
Dimitrios Buhalis, Kaye Chon, Eduardo Fayos-Solà, Keith Hollinshead,
Cathy Hsu, Brian King, Rob Law, Bob McKercher, Daniel Scott, Stephen
Smith, Haiyan Song, and many other colleagues across the world for offering
advice in the design, development, and contents of this encyclopedia; to Ralf
Buckley, João Sarmento, Askar Mukashev Serikboluly, and Geoffrey Wall
for developing model entries at the early stage of the journey; to Nevenka
Čavlek for mobilizing author networks during the editorial processes; and to
xi
xii Acknowledgments
Kuan-Huei Lee, Eddy Kurobuza Tukamushaba, and Xiaotao Yang for

volunteering their time as editorial assistants in the early stages of this project.
Heartfelt gratitude is expressed to the coeditors’ families who
accommodated – during the times which were theirs – the seemingly unending
work of the encyclopedia.
This reference work is dedicated to the community of scholars engaged in
investigating, conquering, populating, mapping, and landmarking this rapidly
expanding multidisciplinary landscape of knowledge in tourism. They are the
ultimate contributors and beneficiaries of this Encyclopedia of Tourism.
Editors
Jafar Jafari
University of Wisconsin – Stout, Menomonie, USA
Honggen Xiao
xiii
Associate Editors
Graham M. S. Dann
UiT Arctic University of Norway, Alta, Norway
Juergen Gnoth
University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
Tazim Jamal
Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
Scott Meis
Tourism HR Canada, Ottawa, Canada
Ana María Munar
Copenhagen Business School, Copenhagen, Denmark
Melville Saayman
North-West University, Potchefstroom, South Africa
Regina Schl€uter
Universidad Nacional de Quilmes, Bernal, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Noel Scott
Griffith University – Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
Tej Vir Singh
Tourism Recreation Research, Lucknow, India
Resource Editors
René Baretje-Keller
Centre International de Recherches et d'Etudes Touristiques, Aix en Provence,
France
Christopher Cheng
xv
Contributors
Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin Abdulaziz Saudi Commission for Tourism
and Antiquities, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
Wesal Abou-Alam Hotel Management, Helwan University, Cairo Governor-
ate, Egypt
Nuno Abranja Tourism Department, Instituto Superior de Ciências
Educativas – Odivelas, Portugal
Kathleen M. Adams Department of Anthropology, Loyola University
Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
James Brian Aday Hospitality and Tourism Management, San Francisco
State University, College of Business, San Francisco, CA, USA
Edward Addo School of Business, Tourism and Hospitality Management,
Zenith University College, Accra, Ghana
Galal M. H. Afifi College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan Qaboos
University, Al-Khoudh, Muscat, Oman
Dora Agapito Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Eugeni Aguiló-Pérez Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de les
Illes Balears, Islas Baleares, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Santana-Talavera Agustin Institute of Political and Social Sciences,
University of La Laguna, San Cristobal de La Laguna, Spain
Rein Ahas Department of Geography, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
Suzanne Ainley Research Analyst Program, Georgian College, Barrie, ON,
Canada
David Airey School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of
Surrey, Guildford, UK
urkan Akdağ Faculty of Tourism, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
G€
Azwin Aksan Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia
Gurhan Aktas Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
Mohammad M. Alazaizeh Department of Travel and Tourism Management,
The University of Jordan, Aqaba, Jordan
xvii
xviii Contributors
Hamed Al-Azri Marketing Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat,

Oman
Antonio Alcover Casasnovas Departament d’Economia Aplicada,
Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Islas Baleares, Spain
Khaled Alduais Arab Tourism Experts Association, Sana’a, Yemen
Nazia Ali Institute for Tourism Research, University of Bedfordshire, Luton,
Bedfordshire, UK
Thiago Allis Department of Geography, Tourism and Humanities,
Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
Fernando Almeida-García School of Tourism, University of Malaga,
Málaga, Spain
Areej Shabib Aloudat Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
Nidal M. Alzboun Department of Travel and Tourism Management, The
University of Jordan, Aqaba, Jordan
Carla A. F. Amado Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
Kathleen Andereck School of Community Resources and Development,
Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Tommy D. Andersson Centre for Tourism, School of Business Economics
and Law at Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
Marta Gemma Nel-lo Andreu Geography Department, Universitat Rovira i
Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
Hazel Andrews Faculty of Education, Health and Community, Liverpool
John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
Jo Ankor Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
John Ap Stenden University, Doha, Qatar
Masashi Arakawa Graduate School of Tourism Sciences, University of the
Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan
Julio Aramberri School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Dongbei
University of Finance and Economics, Dalian, Liaoning, China
John Armbrecht Centre for Tourism, School of Business Economics and
Law at Gothenburg University, Gothenburg, Sweden
Fernanda César Arnaiz Universidad Anáhuac-Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
Stella Maris Arnaiz Burne Universidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
Guy Assaker School of Business, Lebanese American University, Beirut,
Lebanon
Contributors xix
Norman Au School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong

Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Onome Awaritefe Department of Geography and Regional Planning, Delta
State University, Abraka, Nigeria
Matylda Awedyk Department of Geography of Tourism and Landscape, E.
Piasecki University School of Physical Education in Poznań, Poznań, Poland
Julian K. Ayeh Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Uni-
versity of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana
Kenneth F. Backman The Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism
Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
Rodolfo Baggio Economics and Tourism, Bocconi University, Milan, Italy
Josep A. Ivars Baidal Tourism Research Institute, Alicante University, Ali-
cante, Spain
Vida Bajc Department of Sociology, Methodist University, Fayetteville, NC,
USA
Martine Bakker Tisch Center for Hospitality, Tourism, and Sports Manage-
ment, New York University, New York, NY, USA
Abdoulaye Garba Bako Institute of Social Sciences, Tourism Management
Graduate Program, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
Magdalena Banaszkiewicz Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
Yacouba Banhoro Department of History, Archaeology and History of Art,
Université de Ouagadougou, Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso
Jigang Bao Center for Tourism Planning and Research, Sun Yat-sen Univer-
sity, Guangzhou, China
Esteban Bardolet Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de les Illes
Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Lynn A. Barnett Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
Thierno Aliou Barry IGEAT, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels,
Belgium
Thomas G. Bauer Dundee Park Academy, Mission Beach, QLD, Australia
Jannes Bayer Management Center Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
Lionel Bécherel International Tourism Consultancy Associates, London, UK
Susanne Becken Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith Business School,
Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
Fritz Becker Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, Univer-
sity of Namibia, Windhoek, Namibia
xx Contributors
Lisa Beesley Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Griffith

University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
Yaniv Belhassen Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Eilat
Campus, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
Felix Gasten Bello Department of Tourism, Mzuzu, Malawi
Pierre Benckendorff UQ Business School, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Elizabeth Ifeyinwa Benson Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
Liza Berdychevsky Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, College
of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
Champaign, IL, USA
Tracy Berno Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln Univer-
sity, Christchurch, New Zealand
Mechelle Best Recreation and Tourism Management, California State Uni-
versity, Northridge, CA, USA
Salvatore Bimonte Department of Economics and Statistics, University of
Siena, Siena, Italy
Geoffrey R. Bird School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Royal
Roads University, Victoria, BC, Canada
Rosemary Black School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt Univer-
sity, Albury, NSW, Australia
Adam Blake Faculty of Management, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
Sue Bleasdale Department of Marketing, Branding and Tourism, Middlesex
University, London, UK
Bodil Stilling Blichfeldt Department of Culture and Global Studies, Aalborg
University, Aalborg, Denmark
A. Lynn Bolles Department of Anthropology, University of Maryland, Col-
lege Park, MD, USA
Karla Boluk Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Andreea Botos‚ The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucuresti,
Romania
Nourddine Bouanani KATLYSE, Blida, Algeria
Christine Boven International Management for Service Industries, BiTS –
Business and Information Technology School GmbH, Iserlohn, Germany
Bill Bramwell Centre for Tourism, Hospitality and Events Research, Shef-
field Business School, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Contributors xxi
Caroline Bremner Travel and Tourism, Euromonitor International, London,

UK
Patrick Brouder School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of Johan-
nesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Desmond O. Brown Department of Retailing and Tourism Management,
University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY, USA
Ralf Buckley International Chair in Ecotourism Research, Griffith Univer-
sity, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
Karolina Buczkowska Poznan University School of Physical Education,
Poznan, Poland
Dimitrios Buhalis School of Tourism, Bournemouth University, Poole,
Dorset, UK
Robyn Bushell School of Social Science and Psychology, Western Sydney
University, Penrith, Australia
Richard Butler Department of Management, University of Strathclyde,
Glasgow, UK
Christine Buzinde School of Community Resources and Development, Ari-
zona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Paulette Bynoe School of Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of
Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana
Bernardi Cabrer Borras Department of Applied Economics, University of
Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Liping A. Cai Purdue Tourism and Hospitality Research Center, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
A. Celil Çakici Faculty of Tourism, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
Blanca A. Camargo International Tourism Program, Universidad de Mon-
terrey, San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
Acolla Cameron Department of Management Studies, University of the
West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Phil Cameron King AbdulAziz University, Tourism Institute, Jeddah, King-
dom of Saudi Arabia
Kom Campiranon DPU International College, Dhurakij Pundit University,
Bangkok, Thailand
Rossana Campodónico Área de Estudios Turísticos – FHCE, Universidad
de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
Luís Manuel Tomás Galiza Cardoso University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Jack Carlsen Curtin Business School, Curtin University, Bentley, WA,
Australia
xxii Contributors
Barbara Carmichael Faculty of Arts, Department of Geography and Envi-

ronmental Studies, Wilfrid Laurier University, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Daniel Carmona-Zubiri Ciencias Sociales y Humanas, University Miguel
Hernández de Elche, Elche, Spain
Elizabeth Carnegie University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
Neil Carr Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
Sandra Carvao UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
Eugénia Castela Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
Guilherme Castela Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
James Guy Castley The Griffith School of Environment, Griffith University,
Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
Kellee Caton Tourism Management Department, Thompson Rivers Univer-
sity, Kamloops, Canada
Senija Causevic Faculty of Law and Social Sciences, School of Oriental and
African Studies, University of London, London, UK
Jenny Cave Department of Tourism Management, University of Waikato,
Hamilton, New Zealand
Nevenka Čavlek Department of Tourism, Faculty of Economics and Busi-
ness, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia
Mary Cawley School of Geography and Archaeology, National University
of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
Emilio Celotto International Centre of Studies on Tourism Economics,
CISET – Ca’ Foscari University, Oriago di Mira (Venice), Italy
Samia Chahine Government of Morocco, Rabat, Morocco
Donna Chambers Tourism, Hospitality and Events, University of Sunder-
land, Sunderland, UK
Eric S. W. Chan School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Wilco Chan School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Samantha Chaperon Business School, University of Greenwich, Green-
wich, London, UK
Joseph M. Cheer Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Clayton, VIC,
Australia
Contributors xxiii
Ganghua Chen School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University,

Guangzhou, China
Po-Ju Chen Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Xu Chen Baidu Marketing Institute, Beijing, China
Catherine Cheung School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Deepak Chhabra School of Community Resources and Development,
Rahim Heydari Chianeh Department of Geography and Urban Planning,
Faculty of Geographer and Planning, University of Tabriz, Tabriz, East
Azarbayjan, Iran
Li-Ming Chiang Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Toursim Manage-
ment, College of Business and Management, East Stroudsburg University,
East Stroudsburg, PA, USA
Garry Chick Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
Jaeyeon Choe Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
Hwansuk Chris Choi School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism Manage-
ment, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
Kaye Chon School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Hyungsuk Choo Tourism, Leisure, and Event Planning, School of Human
Movement, Sports, and Leisure Studies, Bowling Green, OH, USA
Athinodoros Chronis California State University, Stanislaus, Turlock, CA,
USA
Alan Clarke Faculty of Economics, University of Pannonia, Veszprém,
Hungary
Paul Cleave Business School, University of Exeter, Exeter, UK
Isabelle Cloquet IGEAT – Faculty of Science, Université Libre de Bruxelles,
Brussels, Belgium
Roberto Codas Desarrollo Empresarial, Asunción, Paraguay
Alexandra Coghlan Centre for Tourism, Sport and Services Research,
Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
Erik Cohen Department of Sociology and Anthropology, The Hebrew
University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
Scott A. Cohen School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University
of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Tim Coles University of Exeter Business School, Exeter, UK
xxiv Contributors
Noga Collins-Kreiner Department of Geography and Environmental Stud-

ies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
Fredrick M. Collison School of Travel Industry Management, University of
Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, USA
Chris Cooper Business Faculty, Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK
Malcolm Cooper Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies, Ritsumeikan Asia
Pacific University, Beppu, Oita Prefecture, Japan
Antonia Correia Faculty of Economics, CEFAGE, University of Algarve,
Faro, Portugal
Rafael Cortés-Macías Faculty of Tourism, University of Malaga, Malaga,
Spain
Glen Olivier Cousquer Institute of Geography, University of Edinburgh,
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
Geoffrey I. Crouch La Trobe Law School, Faculty of Business, Economics
and Law, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
Glen Croy Department of Management, Monash University, Caulfield East,
VIC, Australia
Judith Cukier Geography and Environmental Management, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Milan Culic Centre for Tourism Research and Studies, Novi Sad, Serbia
Catherine Culver Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Manage-
ment, College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL, USA
Julio da Costa Mendes Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
Helena Cláudia da Cruz Albuquerque Department of Environment and
Planning, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
João Albino Matos da Silva Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve,
Faro, Portugal
Heidi Dahles Department of International Business and Asian Studies, Grif-
fith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia
Graham M. S. Dann UiT Arctic University of Norway, Alta, Norway
Pheroza Daruwalla School of Business, University of Western Sydney,
Richmond, NSW, Australia
Stefano De Cantis Department of Economics, Business and Statistics,
University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Suzanne de la Barre Department of Recreation and Tourism Management,
Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, Canada
Contributors xxv
Javier de León Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Develop-

ment, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran
Canaria, Spain
Liza Debevec International Water Management Institute, Addis Ababa,
Ethiopia
Patrick L’Espoir Decosta Faculty of Business, Government and Law, Uni-
versity of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
Alain Decrop Department of Business Administration, University of Namur,
Namur, Belgium
Giacomo Del Chiappa Department of Economics and Business, University
of Sassari and CRENoS, Sassari, Italy
Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre School of Social Sciences, University of Wai-
kato, Hamilton, New Zealand
Michael A. Di Giovine Department of Anthropology and Sociology, West
Chester University of Pennsylvania, West Chester, USA
Gonzalo Díaz-Meneses Faculty of Economy, Business and Tourism, Uni-
versity of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, The Canary Islands, Spain
Amy Diedrich College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook
University, Townsville, Australia
Peter U. C. Dieke University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
Anya Diekmann IGEAT, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium
M. R. Dileep Pazhassiraja College, Calicut University, Kerala, India
Peiyi Ding Tourism Confucius Institute, Gold Coast Campus, Griffith Uni-
versity, Southport, Australia
Mihail-Cristian Dit‚oiu The Bucharest University of Economic Studies,
Bucharest, Romania
Bongani Dlamini Swaziland Tourism Authority, Mbabane, Swaziland
Patrícia Oom do Valle Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
Sara Dolnicar UQ Business School, The University of Queensland, Bris-
bane, Australia
Josefina Domínguez-Mujica Human Geography, University of Las Palmas
de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, de Gran Canaria, Spain
Erwei Dong University of South Alabama, Alabama, USA
Holly Donohoe Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Management,
College of Health and Human Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville,
FL, USA
xxvi Contributors
Amartuvshin Dorjsuren Department of Tourism, National University of

Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Megumi Doshita School of Global Studies, Tama University, Fujisawa,
Japan
Ross Dowling School of Business and Law, Edith Cowan University,
Joondalup, Australia
Ivo Druzic Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Zagreb,
Zagreb, Croatia
Lauren Duffy Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Management,
Clemson University, Clemson, USA
Tara Duncan Otago Business School, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
Angela Durko Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences, Texas
A&M University, College Station, USA
Larry Dwyer Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Paul F. J. Eagles Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Jonathan Edwards International Centre for Tourism and Hospitality
Research, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
Eke Eijgelaar Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport, NHTV Breda
University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands
Islam Elgammal Department of Tourism Studies, Faculty of Tourism, Suez
Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
Statia Elliot School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism Management, Uni-
versity of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
Jas’ Elsner Corpus Christi College, Oxford University, Oxford, UK
Cathy A. Enz School of Hotel Administration, Cornell University, Ithaca,
USA
Ron Erdmann Office of Travel and Tourism Industries, US Department of
Commerce, Washington DC, USA
Patricia Erfurt-Cooper James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
Mingotto Erica CISET, Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy
Daniel L. Erkkila College of Food, Agricultural and Natural Resource
Sciences, University of Minnesota, Grand Rapids, USA
Juan L. Eugenio-Martin Departamento de Análisis Económico Aplicado,
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
Contributors xxvii
Lochin Faizulloev Committee of Youth Affairs, Sports and Tourism, Gov-

ernment of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, Tajikistan
Sebastian Falck Tajik Association of Tourism Organisations, Dushanbe,
Tajikistan
Lars Falk Hospitality and Experience Management, University College of
Northern Denmark, Aalborg, Denmark
Hadil Munther Faris School of Hospitality Management and Tourism,
Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Eduardo Fayos-Solà UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain
William G. Feighery The Research Methods Laboratory, Neuchatel,
Switzerland
David Fennell Department of Tourism and Environment, Brock University,
St. Catharines, Canada
Alba Fernández Alonso Group TIDE – Tourism as an Instrument for Devel-
opment, Luanda, Angola
Heredina Fernadez-Betancort Escuela Universitaria de Turismo of
Lanzarote, University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Tahíche, Lanzarote,
Spain
Antonio Fernández-Morales Departamento de Economía Aplicada,
Facultad de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, Universidad de Málaga,
Malaga, Spain
Mauro Ferrante Facoltà di Economia, Department of Culture and Society,
University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Paolo Figini Department of Economics, University of Bologna, Bologna,
Italy
David Fisher Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln Univer-
sity, Canterbury, New Zealand
John Fletcher Office of the Vice Chancellor, Bournemouth University, Fern
Barrow, Poole, UK
Adao Flores University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Carmen Florido Department of Applied Economic Analysis, Universidad de
Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
Ali Hassan Follad Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Tourism, Manama,
Bahrain
Raúl Peralba Fortuny Positioning Systems, Boadilla del Monte, Madrid,
Spain
Anestis K. Fotiadis Department of Entertainment Management, I-Shou
University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
xxviii Contributors
Bohumil Frantál Department of Environmental Geography, Institute of

Geonics, Czech Academy of Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
Douglas C. Frechtling International Institute of Tourism Studies, The
George Washington University, Washington DC, USA
Cristi Frent Icelandic Tourism Research Centre, Reykjavik, Iceland
Walter Freyer Technical University Dresden, Dresden, Germany
Alan Fyall University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
Amareswar Galla International Institute for the Inclusive Museum, New
Delhi, India
Martina G. Gallarza Department of Marketing, Universitat de Valéncia,
Valencia, Spain
William C. Gartner Department of Applied Economics, University of
Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA
Tometi Koku Gbedema Geography Graduate Group, University of
California, Davis, USA
Babu P. George Department of Management, College of Business and
Entrepreneurship, Fort Hays State University, Hays, KS, USA
Don Getz Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Chris Gibson Australian Centre for Cultural Environmental Research,
University of Wollongong, Wollongong, Australia
Heather J. Gibson Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Manage-
ment, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
Rachel F. Giraudo Department of Anthropology, California State Univer-
sity, Northridge, USA
George Gmelch Anthropology Department, Union College, Schenectady,
USA
José Manoel Gonçalves Gândara Universidad Federal de Parana, Curitiba,
Brazil
Juergen Gnoth Department of Marketing, University of Otago, Dunedin,
New Zealand
Nalaka Godahewa Securities and Exchange Commission of Sri Lanka and
Sri Lanka Tourism, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Shaney Peña Gomez Centro de Innovación Atabey, Santo Domingo,
Dominican Republic
Anton Gosar University of Primorska, Koper – Capodistria, Slovenia/Euro-
pean Union
Sashko Gramatnikovski University of Tourism and Management Skopje,
Skopje, Macedonia
Contributors xxix
David Green Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand,

London, UK
Ulrike Gretzel UQ Business School, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Australia
Kevin Griffin School of Hospitality Management and Tourism, Dublin
Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Michael J. Gross School of Management, University of South Australia,
Adelaide, Australia
Grace Guaigu University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, Papua New
Guinea
Manuela Guerreiro Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
Carla Guerrón Montero Department of Anthropology, University of
Delaware, Newark, USA
Antonio Guevara Dpto. Lenguajes y Ciencias de la Computación, Univer-
sity of Malaga, Málaga, Spain
Basak Denizci Guillet School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
uler Faculty of Tourism, Mersin University, Mersin, Turkey
Ozan G€
Dogan Gursoy School of Hospitality Business Management, Washington
State University, Pullman, USA
Daniel A. Guttentag Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Univer-
sity of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Augustus W. Hallmon University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Cham-
paign, ON, USA
Sunny Ham Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
Kevin Hannam International Centre for Research into Events, Tourism and
Hospitality, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
Xiaofei Hao Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China
Tadayuki Hara Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of
Central Florida, Orlando, USA
David Harrison Middlesex University, London, UK
Toshiya Hashimoto College of Tourism, Rikkyo University, Niiza-shi,
Saitama, Japan
Bente Haug Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
Jan Vidar Haukeland Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway
xxx Contributors
Don Hawkins School of Business, George Washington University, Washing-

ton, DC, USA
Iain Hay School of Environment, Flinders University, South Australia, Bed-
ford Park, Australia
Carolyn E. Hayle Mona School of Business and Management, The Univer-
sity of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica
Noel Healy Department of Geography, Salem State University, Salem, USA
Joan C. Henderson Nanyang Business School, Nanyang Technological
University, Singapore
Inge Hermann Hospitality Business School, Saxion University of Applied
Sciences, Deventer, The Netherlands
Alejandro Herrera Hispaniola Observatory for Sustainable Tourism, Santo
Domingo, Dominican Republic
Freya Higgins-Desbiolles University of South Australia, Adelaide, Australia
Ralph Hissen-Lee Victoria, Seychelles
Martina Hoch Liechtenstein Marketing, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
Demian Hodari Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO University of
Applied Sciences Western Switzerland, Lausanne, Switzerland
Patrick J. Holladay School of Hospitality, Sport and Tourism Management,
Troy University, Brunswick, USA
Keith Hollinshead Department of Tourism Studies, University of Bedford-
shire, Luton, Bedfordshire, UK
Glen Hornby University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
Graziela Scalise Horodyski Department of Tourism, Universidade Estadual
de Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
Petri Hottola FUNTS, University of Eastern Finland, Savonlinna, Finland
Cathy H. C. Hsu School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Tzung-Cheng (T. C.) Huan College of Management, National Chiayi
University, Chiayi, Taiwan
Songshan (Sam) Huang School of Management, University of South
Australia, Adelaide, Australia
Wei-Jue Huang School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Zhuowei Huang Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University
of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, USA
Assumpció Huertas Rovira i Virgili University, Tarragona, Spain
Contributors xxxi
John Hull Faculty of Adventure, Culinary Arts and Tourism, Thompson

Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, Canada
Kam Hung School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Carter A. Hunt Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Management,
The Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, USA
Sonja Hunter Samoa Tourism Authority, Apia, Samoa
William Cannon Hunter Department of Convention Management, Kyung
Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
Alejandro Reyes Hurtado Education, Procibaris, Lima, Peru
Kenneth F. Hyde Faculty of Business and Law, Auckland University of
Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Svitlana Iarmolenko Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, USA
Federico Inchausti-Sintes Departamento de Análisis Económico Aplicado,
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, Spain
Rami K. Isaac Academy for Tourism, NHTV Breda University of Applied
Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands
Milka Ivanova Institute for Tourism Research, University of Bedfordshire,
Luton, UK
Stanislav Ivanov Varna University of Management, Varna, Bulgaria
Marta Jacob Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de les Illes
Jens Kr. Steen Jacobsen Norwegian School of Hotel Management, Univer-
sity of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
Jafar Jafarov Azerbaijan Tourism and Management University, Baku,
Azerbaijan
Beka Jakeli UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
Tazim Jamal Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Sciences, Texas
A&M University, College Station, Texas, USA
SooCheong Shawn Jang Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, USA
Hania Janta School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of
Philippe Jean-Pierre Centre d’Economie et Management de l’Ocean Indien,
St-Denis, Réunion, France
Camilla Jensen Institute for Marketing and Management, University of
Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark
xxxii Contributors
Martin Trandberg Jensen Department of Culture and Global Studies, Aal-

borg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
Hongyan Jia Department of Tourism, School of Humanity, Southeast Uni-
versity, Nanjing, China
Shan Jiang Capital Normal University, Beijing, China
Celeste Nava Jiménez Faculty of Tourism and Gastronomy, University
Autonomous of State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
Xu Jing UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
WooMi Jo School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism Management, Univer-
sity of Guelph, Guelph, Canada
Nicholas E. Johnston Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA
Lee Jolliffe Faculty of Business, University of New Brunswick, Saint John,
NB, Canada
Adam Jones School of Sport and Service Management, University of Brigh-
ton, Brighton, UK
Andrew Jones Institute for Tourism, Travel and Culture, University of Malta,
Msida, Malta
Calvin Jones Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
Darryl Jones Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith University,
Nathan, QLD, Australia
Sam Jones Department of Economics, University of Copenhagen, Copenha-
gen, Denmark
Evan J. Jordan School of Travel Industry Management, University of
Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, USA
Cristina Jönsson Department of Management Studies, The University of the
West Indies, Cave Hill, Barbados
Catalina Juaneda Department of Applied Economics, University of the
Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Michel Julian UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
Anders Justenlund Hospitality and Experience Management, University
College of Northern Denmark, Aalborg, Denmark
Nkongolo Kalala Bluegrass Community and Technical College, Lexington,
KY, USA
Mark Kanning Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon
Kemal Kantarci Department of Tourism Management, Alanya Faculty of
Business, Akdeniz University, Kestel Campus, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey
Unnur B. Karlsdóttir East Iceland Heritage Museum, Egilsstaðir, Iceland
Contributors xxxiii
Azadeh Kazeminia Azad University of Najafabad, Najafabad, Iran

Peter F. Keller Faculty of Business and Economics, University of Lausanne,
Lausanne, Switzerland
Ian Kelly International Institute for Peace through Tourism (Australia) Inc.,
Golden Grove, Adelaide, South Australia
James Kennell University of Greenwich, Greenwich, UK
Christine L. Kern Tourism Faculty, University of Applied Sciences HTW
Chur, Chur, Switzerland
John Kester UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
Jameel Khadaroo Department of Economics and Statistics, University of
Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius
Razan El Khatib Stenden University Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Catheryn Khoo-Lattimore Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel
Management, Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
Seongseop Kim School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Taehee Kim Hospitality and Tourism Management, Kyunghee University,
Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea
Yong Hee Kim School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Albert N. Kimbu School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Univer-
sity of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Brian E. M. King School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Ksenia A. Kirillova School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Georg Klute Bayreuth International Graduate School of African Studies,
University of Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
Daniel C. Knudsen Department of Geography, Indiana University, Bloom-
ington, USA
Maximiliano E. Korstanje Department of Economics, University of
Palermo, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Auvo Kostiainen Department of European and World History, University of
Turku, Turku, Finland
Dimitris Koutoulas Business Administration Department, University of
Patras, Rio Patron, Greece
Metin Kozak School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Dokuz Eylul
University, Foça-İZMİR, Turkey
xxxiv Contributors
John Kracht Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of

Damir Krešić Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia
Deniz Kucukusta School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Francis Kwansa University of Delaware, Newark, USA
Rick Lagiewski Department of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Roch-
ester Institute of Technology, Rochester, USA
Christa Laing Department of Management Studies, University of the West
Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Svein Larsen Department of Psychosocial Science, University of Bergen,
Bergen, Norway
Raymond W. K. Lau School of Arts and Social Sciences, The Open Uni-
versity of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Jakob Lauring Department of Management, University of Aarhus, Aarhus,
Denmark
Rob Law School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Rebecca A. Leadbeater Hilton Worldwide, Orlando, FL, USA
Sonja Sibila Lebe Faculty of Economics and Business, University of Mari-
bor, Maribor, Slovenia
Bob Lee College of Education and Human Development, Bowling Green
State University, Bowling Green, USA
Christine Lee Federation Business School, Federation University, Churchill,
VIC, Australia
Gyehee Lee Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea
Jinsoo Lee School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Kuan-Huei Lee Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore
Louisa Yee-Sum Lee School of Business, James Cook University, Towns-
ville, Australia
Woojin Lee School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona
State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Xinran Y. Lehto School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, USA
Naomi Leite SOAS, University of London, London, UK
Contributors xxxv
José Leiva Department of Computer Science, University of Málaga, Malaga,

Spain
Raynald Harvey Lemelin School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and Tour-
ism, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, Canada
Monkgogi Lenao University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
Jaap Lengkeek Recreation and Tourism, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, The Netherlands
Carmelo J. León Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Develop-
Canaria, Spain
Daniel Leung Department of Tourism and Service Management, MODUL
University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Gang Li School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of
Mimi Li School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Poly-
technic University, Hong Kong, China
Xiang (Robert) Li School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple
University, Philadelphia, USA
Xiangping Li Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China
Daniela Liggett University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
Vera Shanshan Lin Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
Zhaoping (George) Liu School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, China
Claire Liu School of Hospitality and Tourism, Faculty of Culture and Soci-
ety, Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Darius Liutikas Lithuanian Social Research Centre, Vilnius, Lithuania
Ada Lo School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Poly-
Brent Lovelock Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
Tiffany Low School of Management and Business, Aberystwyth University,
Aberystwyth, Ceredigion, UK
Zhen Lu Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, Canada
Joana Lucas Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universidade Nova
de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Michael Lueck School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland University of
xxxvi Contributors
Peter Lugosi Oxford School of Hospitality Management, Oxford Brookes

University, Oxford, UK
Jian Ming Luo Faculty of International Tourism and Management, City
University of Macao, Macao, China
Emily Ma Griffith Business School, Griffith University, Brisbane, Australia
Elizabeth Mackay Centre for Hotel and Tourism Management, The Univer-
sity of The West Indies, Nassau, Bahamas
Kelly J. MacKay Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism Manage-
ment, Ryerson University, Toronto, Canada
Francisco Madrid School of Tourism, Anáhuac University, Huixquilucan,
Mexico
Patrick T. Maher Department of Community Studies, Cape Breton Univer-
sity, Sydney, Canada
Garret Maher Humanities and Social Sciences Department, Gulf University
for Science and Technology, Mubarak Al-Abdullah, Kuwait
Heather Mair Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Justyna Majewska Department of International Economics, Poznań Univer-
sity of Economics and Business, Poznań, Poland
Athena H. N. Mak Department of Tourism, Recreation and Leisure Studies,
National Dong Hwa University, Shoufeng, Hualien, Taiwan
Carles Manera Department of Applied Economics, University of the
Ajay Manrai Orchard Road and Amstel Avenue, Newark, USA
Lalita Manrai Orchard Road and Amstel Avenue, Newark, USA
Yoel Mansfeld Geography and Environmental Studies, Center for Tourism
Research, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel
David Manuel-Navarrete School of Sustainability, Arizona State Univer-
sity, Tempe, USA
Artak Manukyan Armenian State University of Economics, Yerevan,
Armenia
Haretsebe Manwa North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa
Manente Mara CISET, Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy
Lawal Marafa Department of Geography and Resource Management, Chi-
nese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
Kevin Markwell School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross Univer-
sity, East Lismore, Australia
Contributors xxxvii
Cipriano Marín Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, StarLight Initiative,

Tenerife, Spain
João Filipe Marques Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
Keir Martin Department of Social Anthropology, University of Oslo, Oslo,
Norway
Filomena Maria Cardoso Pedrosa Martins Department of Environment
and Planning, University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal
Giuseppe Marzano Universidad de Las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
Azizan Marzuki School of Housing Building and Planning, Universiti Sains
Malaysia, Georgetown, Pulau Pinang, Malaysia
Lorenzo Masiero School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Antonio Massieu UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
Lidia Svendsen Maza Dept. de Economia y Administracion de Empresas,
Universidad de Málaga, Malaga, Spain
Josef A. Mazanec Department of Tourism and Service Management,
MODUL University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Mohammad Nurul Huda Mazumder Faculty of Administrative Sciences,
Laval University, Quebec, Canada
Marica Mazurek Matej Bel University, Banska Bystrica, Slovakia
Scott McCabe Nottingham University Business School, University of
Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Nancy McGehee Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Polytech-
nic and State University, Blacksburg, VA, USA
Robyn McGuiggan Division of Global Strategy and Engagement, James
Cook University, Cairns, Australia
Erin McKenna Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
Bob McKercher School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Karen McNamara School of Geography, Planning and Environmental Man-
agement, University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Barbara J. McNicol Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
Mount Royal University, Calgary, Canada
Sean Meadows Faculty of Liberal Arts, Siam University, Phasi Charoen,
Thailand
xxxviii Contributors
Beata Medynska-Gulij Department of Cartography and Geomatics, Institute

of Physical Geography and Environmental Planning, Adam Mickiewicz Uni-
versity, Poznań, Poland
Scott Meis Tourism HR Canada, Ottawa, Canada
Moustafa A. Mekawy Tourism Studies Department, Faculty of Tourism and
Hotels, Sadat City University, Sadat City, Egypt
Miguela M. Mena University of the Philippines, Asian Institute of Tourism,
Quezon City, Philippines
Alfredo Mena-Navarro Faculty of Tourism, University of Malaga, Malaga,
Spain
Fang Meng School of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism Management, Univer-
sity of South Carolina, Columbia, SC, USA
Salvatore Messina Fondacioni Europa, Tirana, Albania
Josefa García Mestanza Departamento de Economía y Administración de
Empresas, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
Michelle Metro-Roland Department of Geography, Western Michigan Uni-
versity, Kalamazoo, USA
Christine Metusela Centre for Health Research, Western Sydney University,
Campbelltown, Australia
John T. Mgonja Clemson University, Clemson, USA
Tanja Mihalič Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana,
Slovenia
Marie Vestergaard Mikkelsen Department of Culture and Global Studies,
Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
Ace Milenkovski University of Tourism and Management Skopje, Skopje,
Macedonia
Valeria Minghetti International Centre of Studies on Tourism Economics,
CISET – Ca’ Foscari University, Oriago di Mira (Venice), Italy
Lynn Minnaert Preston Robert Tisch Center for Hospitality and Tourism,
New York University, New York, USA
Božena Krce Miočić Department of Tourism and Communication Studies,
University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia
Sada Mire Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands
Clare J. A. Mitchell Geography and Environmental Management, Univer-
sity of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Amir H. Moghaddam Hacettepe University, Ankara, Iran
Janet Momsen Department of Human Ecology, University of California,
Davis, USA
Contributors xxxix
Chollada Mongkhonvanit Faculty of Liberal Arts, Siam University, Phasi

Charoen, Thailand
Rosario Monter Department of Business Economics, Universitat des Illes
Baleares, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Kevin Moore Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln Univer-
sity, Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand
Yeganeh Morakabati Faculty of Management, Bournemouth University,
Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
Damian Morgan Federation Business School, Federation University, Chur-
chill, Australia
Nigel Morgan School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University
Stephanie Morris The Emirates Academy of Hospitality Management,
Dubai, UAE
Alastair M. Morrison College of Health and Human Sciences, Purdue
University, West Lafayette, IN, USA
Lena Mortensen Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto,
Toronto, Canada
Gianna Moscardo College of Business, Law and Governance, James Cook
Omar Moufakkir Gulf University for Science and Technology, Kuwait City,
Kuwait
Olga Martinez Moure UDIMA Universidad a Distancia de Madrid, Collado
Villalba, Madrid, Spain
Ahmad Muhammad Ragab Minia University, Minya, Egypt
uller Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
Martina M€
Ian E. Munanura Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon
State Univesity, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
Ana María Munar Department of International Economics and Manage-
ment, Copenhagen Business School, Frederiksberg Palace, Denmark
Takaruza Munyanyiwa Pro Vice Chancellor’s Office, University of Zimba-
bwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
Dan Musinguzi Stenden University Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Patrick Naef Department of Anthropology, University of California at
Berkeley, Berkeley, USA
Dedinha Domingos Nancassa Department of Geography, Tourism and
Humanities, Universidade Federal de São Carlos, São Carlos, Brazil
xl Contributors
Masood A. Naqvi Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Lucknow,

India
Syed Masood Ansar Naqvi Centre for Tourism Research and Development,
Lucknow, India
Nikola Naumov Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand,
London, UK
Enrique Navarro-Jurado Department of Geography, Faculty of Tourism,
University of Málaga, Malaga, Spain
Omar Nawaz UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
Samba Ndiaye Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal
Marcelino Castillo Nechar Faculty of Tourism and Gastronomy, University
Autonomous of State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico
Velvet Nelson Department of Geography and Geology, Sam Houston State
University, Huntsville, USA
Sanjay Nepal Department of Geography and Environmental Management,
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Alexandre Panosso Netto Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
Bart Neuts Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Trent Newmeyer Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock
University, St. Catharines, Canada
Carmen Nibigira Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism Manage-
ment, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA
Juan L. Nicolau Faculty of Economics, University of Alicante, Alicante,
Spain
Viachaslau Nikitsin University of Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany
Steve Noakes Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport Manage-
ment, Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
Antonio Miguel Nogués-Pedregal Department of Social and Human
Sciences, Universitas Miguel Hernández of Elche, Elche, Spain
Marina Novelli School of Sport and Service Management, University of
Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
Chaim Noy Department of Communication, University of South Florida,
Tampa, USA
Luyaku Loko Nsimpasi Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, Italy
Robin Nunkoo Faculty of Law and Management, University of Mauritius,
Reduit, Mauritius
Contributors xli
Gyan Nyaupane School of Community Resources and Development, Julie

Ann Wrigley Global Institute of Sustainability, Arizona State University,
Phoenix, AZ, USA
Lars Nyberg Department of Tourism Studies, Mid Sweden University,

Östersund, Sweden
Robert M. O’Halloran College of Business, East Carolina University,

Greenville, USA
Yasuo Ohe Department of Food and Resource Economics, Chiba University,

Matsudo, Japan
Roselyne N. Okech Division of Social Science / Tourism Studies, Memorial

University of Newfoundland, Corner Brook, NL, Canada
Fevzi Okumus Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of

Joseph T. O’Leary Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, Colorado

State University, Fort Collins, USA
Antonino Mario Oliveri Department of Cultures and Society, Università

degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
Daniel H. Olsen Department of Geography, Brigham Young University,

Provo, UT, USA
Oghenekaro Omodior Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Man-

agement, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
Tom G. Ondicho Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies,

University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya
Chin-Ee Ong Cultural Geography Chair Group, Wageningen University,

Wageningen, The Netherlands
Can-Seng Ooi Department of International Economics and Management,

Copenhagen Business School, Frederiksberg, Denmark
Mark Orams School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Tech-

nology, Auckland, New Zealand
Michael O’Regan Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
Nor’Ain Othman Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Universiti

Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Anja Pabel School of Business and Law, Central Queensland University,

Cairns, Australia
Nicola J. Palmer Department of Service Sector Management, Sheffield

Business School, Sheffield Hallam University, Sheffield, UK
Bing Pan School of Business, College of Charleston, Charleston, USA

xlii Contributors
Steve Pan School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Andreas Papatheodorou London College of Hospitality and Tourism, Uni-

versity of West London, London, UK
Cody Morris Paris Department of Economics and International Develop-

ment, Middlesex University, Dubai, UAE
Hyung Yu Park Business School, Middlesex University, London, UK
Sanghee Park School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, State

University of New Jersey, Piscataway, USA
Giuli Liebman Parrinello Università Roma Tre, Rome, Italy
Dália Paulo Municipal Museum of Loulé, Loulé, Portugal
Ivana Pavlić Department of Economics and Business Economics, University

of Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, Croatia
Margarita Payeras Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de les

Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Douglas G. Pearce School of Management, Victoria University of Welling-

ton, Wellington, New Zealand
Philip L. Pearce College of Business Law and Governance, James Cook

Harald Pechlaner Catholic University of Eichstaett–Ingolstadt, Eichstaett,

Germany
Aurora Pedro Institute for International Economics, University of Valencia,

Valencia, Spain
Victoria Peel Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Clayton, Australia
Paul Peeters Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport, NHTV Breda
Kennedy Calvin Craig Pemberton Research and Development, Mas Trans-

formation Secretariat, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Lori Pennington-Gray Department of Tourism, Recreation, and Sport Man-

agement, University of Florida, Gainesville, USA
Tomas Pernecky School of Hospitality and Tourism, University of Technol-

ogy, Auckland, New Zealand
David Perrain Centre d’Economie et Management de l’Ocean Indien,

St-Denis, Réunion, France
William P. Perry Cii Hotels and Resorts, (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg, South
Africa
Contributors xliii
Mike Peters Department of Strategic Management, Marketing and Tourism,

University of Innsbruck, MCI Management Center Innsbruck, Innsbruck,
Austria
Lidija Petrić Faculty of Economics, University of Split, Split, Croatia
James F. Petrick Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism Sciences,
Texas A&M University, College Station, USA
Christof Pforr School of Marketing, Curtin Business School, Curtin Uni-
versity, Perth, Australia
Pradech Phayakvichien Tourism Authority of Thailand, Bangkok, Thailand
Chris Phelan Lincoln Business School, University of Lincoln, Lincoln, UK
Kelly Virginia Phelan School of Business, The University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Winston Phulgence Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, Castries, Saint
Lucia
Pedro Pintassilgo Faculty of Economics and Research Center for Organiza-
tional and Spatial Dynamics, University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Hugo Pinto Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra, Coimbra,
Portugal
Abraham Pizam Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of
Vincent Platenkamp Centre for Cross Cultural Understanding, NHTV
Ma Ángeles Plaza-Mejía Management and Marketing Department, Faculty
of Business Studies, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
Clemente Polo Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
Wilhelm Pompl International Business and Tourism Management, Heil-
bronn University, Heilbronn, Germany
Lauren M. Ponder South Carolina National Heritage Corridor, Spartanburg,
USA
Nuria Porras-Bueno Management and Marketing Department, Faculty of
Business Studies, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
Ana Portolan Department of Economics and Business Economics, Univer-
sity of Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, Croatia
Surya Poudel School of Community Resources and Development, Arizona
State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Stephanie Pougnet Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO University of
Applied Sciences Western Switzerland, Lausanne, Switzerland
xliv Contributors
Stephen Pratt School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Bruce Richard Prideaux School of Business and Law, Central Queensland
University, Cairns, QA, Australia
Annette Pritchard Welsh Centre for Tourism Research, Cardiff Metropoli-
tan University, Cardiff, UK
Vadim Pshtyka Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, Kaliningrad
Oblast, Russia
Agustí García Puig Credit Andorra Bank, Andorra La Vella, Andorra
Ágnes Raffay Department of Tourism, Faculty of Economics, University of
Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
Adla Ragab Cairo University, Oula, Egypt
Razaq Raj Carnegie Faculty, School of Events, Tourism and Hospitality,
Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
Patricia Rajeriarison Alter Ego Development, Antananarivo, Madagascar
Madhawi Ramdin Equal Chances at Green Development, Paramaribo,
Suriname
Vicente Ramos Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Develop-
Canaria, Spain
Zaharah Mohamed Rani Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management,
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam, Selangor, Malaysia
Mohammad Reza Rashidi Allameh Tabatabae’i University, Tehran, Iran
Fy Rasoamananjara University of Antananarivo, Betongolo Tana,
Madagascar
Tamara Rátz Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences, Budapest,
Hungary
Syed Ali Raza Iqra University, Karachi, Pakistan
Francesco Redi Fondacioni Europa, Tirana, Albania
Dirk Reiser Cologne Business School, European University of Applied
Sciences, Koeln, Germany
Yvette Reisinger College of Business Administration, Gulf University for
Science and Technology, Mubarak Al-Abdullah, Kuwait
Paula Cristina Remoaldo Department of Geography, University of Minho,
Institute of Social Sciences, Braga, Guimarães, Portugal
Carina Ren Department of Culture and Global Studies, Aalborg University,
Copenhagen, Denmark
Contributors xlv
Raquel García Revilla UDIMA Universidad a Distancia de Madrid, Collado

Villalba, Madrid, Spain
Javier Rey-Maquieira Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic

Development, Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de
Gran Canaria, Spain
Manuel Alector Ribeiro Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,

Portugal
José Cadima Ribeiro Department of Economics, University of Minho,

School of Economics and Management, Braga, Portugal
Brendan M. Richard Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University

of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
Jillian M. Rickly Business School, The University of Nottingham,

Nottingham, UK
Jorge Ridderstaat Central Bank of Aruba, Oranjestad, Aruba
Bradley Rink Department of Geography, Environmental Studies and

Tourism, University of the Western Cape, Bellville, South Africa
Brent W. Ritchie UQ Business School, University of Queensland, St Lucia,

Australia
Christian Ritter School of Sociology and Applied Social Studies, Ulster

University, Londonderry/Derry, UK
Syed Ahmad Rizwan Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Tour-
ism Recreation Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Mike Robinson Ironbridge International Institute for Cultural Heritage,

University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham, UK
Richard N. S. Robinson Business School, University of Queensland, Bris-

bane, Australia
Marco Antonio Robledo Departamento de Economia de I’Empresa,

Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
Brígida Rocha Brito Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Rafael Rodríguez Acevedo Department of Technology Services,

Universidad Simón Bolívar, Camurí Grande, Vargas, Venezuela
Wesley S. Roehl School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Temple

University, Philadelphia, USA
Marija Rok Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, University of Primorska,

Portoroz, Slovenia
Tania Paola Romero-Brito Griffith School of Environment, Griffith

University, Gold Coast, Australia
xlvi Contributors
Jaume Rosselló Departament d’Economia Aplicada, Universitat de les Illes

Sherif Roubi Assetreal Limited, Glasgow, UK
Diane Royal Department of Anthropology, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada
Lisa Ruhanen UQ Business School, The University of Queensland, St
Lucia, Australia
Jarkko Saarinen Department of Geography, University of Oulu, Oulu,
Finland
Noel B. Salazar Cultural Mobilities Research, University of Leuven,
Leuven, Belgium
Clare A. Sammells Department of Sociology and Anthropology, Bucknell
University, Lewisburg, PA, USA
Sandra M. Sánchez-Cañizares Faculty of Law and Business, University of
Cordoba, Andalusia, Spain
Amparo Sancho Perez Instituto de Economía Internacional, University of
Valencia, Valencia, Spain
Maria Santana Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de les Illes
Agustín Santana-Talavera I.U. Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, University of
La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
Carla A. Santos Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, University of
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA
Sérgio P. Santos Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Faro,
Portugal
João Sarmento University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
Martin Šauer Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
Alexis Saveriades Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Cyprus
University of Technology, Limassol, Cyprus
Elaine Cristina Borges Scalabrini University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
Michael Scantlebury Hospitality and Tourism Management, Grand Valley
State University, Allendale, MI, USA
anzel School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland University of
Heike Sch€
Erica Schenkel National Council for Scientific and Technological Research,
Sarmiento, Argentina
Knut Scherhag Worms University of Applied Sciences, Worms, Germany
Contributors xlvii
Nicolai Scherle International Management for Service Industries, BiTS -

Business and Information Technology School GmbH, Iserlohn, Germany
uter Universidad Nacional de Quilmes Bernal, Buenos Aires,
Regina Schl€
Argentina
Marcus Schmidt Department of Marketing, Copenhagen Business School,
Frederiksberg, Denmark
Marko Scholze Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany
Markus Schuckert School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Fred R. Schumann School of Business and Public Administration, Univer-
sity of Guam, Mangilao, USA
David Scott School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross University,
East Lismore, Australia
Mary Katherine Scott Art History, University of Wyoming, Laramie, USA
Noel Scott Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, Gold Coast,
QLD, Australia
Boopen Seetanah Department of Finance and Accounting, Faculty of Law
and Management, University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius
Tom Sel€anniemi Corporate Relations, Finnish Committee for UNICEF,
Helsinki, Finland
Tom Selwyn Department of Anthropology and Sociology, SOAS University
of London, London, UK
Askar Mukashev Serikboluly AEO, Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools,
Astana, Kazakhstan
Francisco Serra School of Management, Hospitality and Tourism, Univer-
sity of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
Delphine Le Serre ISTEC Business School, Paris, France
Aishath Shakeela Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management,
Griffith University, Queensland, Australia
Tekle Shanka School of Marketing, Curtin Business School, Curtin Univer-
sity, Perth, Australia
Valeriya Shapoval Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of
Richard Sharpley School of Management, University of Central Lancashire,
Preston, Lancashire, UK
Ahmad Reza Sheikhi University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
Pauline J. Sheldon School of Travel Industry Management, University of
Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, USA
xlviii Contributors
Eric J. Shelton Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New

Zealand
Han Shen Tourism Department, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
Alec Sherman School of Hotel Administration, Cornell University, Ithaca,
USA
Changsup Shim Department of Tourism Management, Gachon University,
Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, South Korea
Qobiljon Shokirov University of Central Asia, Khorog, Tajikistan
Wilson Silungwe Hotel and Tourism Training Institute, Maluba, Zambia
David Simmons Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln Uni-
versity, Lincoln, Canterbury, New Zealand
Gaunette Sinclair-Maragh School of Hospitality and Tourism Manage-
ment, College of Business and Management, University of Technology,
Kingston, Jamaica
Sagar Singh Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Tourism Rec-
reation Research, Lucknow, Uttar Pradesh, India
Shalini Singh Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Brock Univer-
sity, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
Agnes Sirima Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, Tanzania
Geoffrey Skoll Criminal Justice Department, Buffalo State College, Buffalo,
USA
Stephen L. J. Smith School of Hospitality, Food, and Tourism Management,
University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, Canada
Wayne W. Smith College of Charleston, Charleston, USA
Bernardin Solonandrasana University of Perpignan, Perpignan, France
Haiyan Song School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Anders Sørensen TourismLab.dk, Roskilde, Denmark
Beverley Sparks Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management,
Griffith University, Nathan, Australia
Daniel L. Spears College of Merchandising, Hospitality and Tourism, Uni-
versity of North Texas, Denton, USA
Michael Spisto College of Law and Justice, Victoria University, Melbourne,
Australia
Hasso Spode Historical Archive on Tourism, Technische Universit€at Berlin,
Berlin, Germany
Contributors xlix
Aurelia-Felicia Stăncioiu The Bucharest University of Economic Studies,

Bucharest, Romania
Albrecht Steinecke University of Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany
Rochelle Steven Environmental Futures Research Institute, Griffith Univer-

sity, Nathan, QLD, Australia
Emma J. Stewart Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Lincoln

University, Lincoln, New Zealand
Lesego S. Stone Okavango Research Institute, University of Botswana,

Maun, Botswana
Moren T. Stone Department of Environmental Science, University of

Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
Philip Stone Institute for Dark Tourism Research, University of Central

Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire, UK
Lars Strannegård Department of Management and Organization, Stock-

holm School of Economics, Stockholm, Sweden
Michael C. Sturman School of Hotel Administration, Cornell University,

Ithaca, USA
Ming Ming Su School of Environment and Natural Resources, Renmin

University of China, Beijing, China
Wantanne Suntikul School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong

Margaret Byrne Swain Department of Women and Gender Studies, Univer-

sity of California, Davis, USA
Jason R. Swanson Department of Retailing and Tourism Management,

University of Kentucky, Lexington, USA
Kazuyoshi Takeuchi English Communication, Jissen Women’s Junior Col-

lege, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
Victor Teye The School of Community Resources and Development, Ari-

zona State University, Phoenix, USA
Reginah Marankopane Thetsane Department of Business Administration,

National University of Lesotho, Roma, Lesotho
Daniela Fernanda Thiel-Ellul School of Economics and Business, National

University of San Martín, San Martín, Buenos Aires, Argentina
Guillaume Tiberghien School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland Uni-

versity of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
Dallen J. Timothy School of Community Resources and Development,

l Contributors
Dolores Tirado Bennasar Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de

Mallorca, Spain
Oksana Tokarchuk School of Economics and Management, Free University
of Bolzano-Bozen, Bolzano, Italy
Denis Tolkach School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Pooneh Torabian Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, University
of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Bartolomé Deya Tortella Business Economics Department, University of
Mika Toyota College of Tourism, Rikkyo University, Niiza-shi, Saitama,
Japan
J. Bruce Tracey School of Hotel Administration, Cornell University, Ithaca,
USA
Raúl Travé-Molero Ciencias Sociales y Humanas, University Miguel
Hernández de Elche, Elche, Spain
Magnus Treiber Department of Anthropology, University of Bayreuth, Bay-
reuth, Germany
John Tribe School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University of
V. Dao Truong National Economics University, Hanoi, Vietnam
Michael K. Tschapka Institut f€ur Angewandte Forschung, Ostbayerische
Technische Hochschule Amberg, Weiden, Germany
Tony Tse School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Eliza Ching-Yick Tse Department of Hospitality Management, University of
Missouri, Columbia, USA
Eddy K. Tukamushaba Stenden University Qatar, Doha, Qatar
Elena Turcov The Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova, Chis‚ inău,
Moldova
Rodanthi Tzanelli School of Sociology and Social Policy, Faculty of Edu-
cation, Social Sciences and Law, University of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK
Alexia Mary Tzortzaki Department of Accounting and Finance, Technolog-
ical Educational Institute of Crete, Heraklion, Greece
Jorge Umbelino Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do Estoril, Estoril,
Portugal
Akarapong Untong School of Tourism Development, Maejo University,
Chiang Mai, Thailand
Contributors li
Amitabh Upadhya Skyline University College, University City of Sharjah,

Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
Randall Upchurch Chaplin School of Hospitality and Tourism Manage-
ment, Florida International University, Miami, USA
Natan Uriely Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, Ben Gurion
University of the Negev, Beersheba, Israel
Muzaffer Uysal Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University, Blacksburg, USA
Elisabeth Valle Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de les Illes
René Van der Duim Department of Environmental Sciences, Wageningen
University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
Robert van der Veen Faculty of Business, Oxford Brookes University,
Oxford, UK
Pierre L. van den Berghe Department of Sociology, University of Washing-
ton, Seattle, USA
Mathilda van Niekerk Rosen College of Hospitality Management, Univer-
sity of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
Johan van Rekom RSM Erasmus University, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
Manuel Vanegas Sr Department of Applied Economics, St. Paul, University
of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
Norbert Vanhove Brugge, Belgium
Alfonso Vargas-Sánchez Management and Marketing Department, Faculty
of Business Studies, University of Huelva, Huelva, Spain
Magiel Venema NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The
Netherlands
Dominique Verdugo Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group, Sus-
tainable Tourism Development, Bordeaux, France
Philippe Viallon University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France
Dumsile Vilakati University of Swaziland, Manzini, Swaziland
Christine A. Vogt School of Community Resources and Development, Ari-
zona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
Michael Volgger Institute for Regional Development and Location Manage-
ment, European Academy Bozen, Bolzano, Italy
Serena Volo Faculty of Economics and Management, TOMTE, Free Univer-
sity of Bozen-Bolzano, Bolzano, Italy
Manuel Vong Tourism and Hospitality, Dili Institute of Technology, Dili,
Timor-Leste
lii Contributors
Fanny Vong Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China

Aleksa Vučetić The Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality, The University of
Montenegro, Kotor, Montenegro
Geoffrey Wall Department of Geography, University of Waterloo, Waterloo,
ON, Canada
Tim Wallace Department of Sociology and Anthropology, North Carolina
State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
Daisy Wang Department of Business Management, College of Business and
Management, East Stroudsburg University, East Stroudsburg, USA
Dan Wang School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Ning Wang Department of Sociology, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou,
China
Yi Wang University of Nottingham Ningbo, China
Youcheng Wang Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of
Stephen Wanhill University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland
James F. Wani DanChurchAid, Juba, South Sudan
Colleen Ward School of Psychology, Victoria University of Wellington,
Kelburn Pde, New Zealand
Philipp Wassler School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Stephen L. Wearing University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Australia
Adam Weaver School of Management, Victoria University of Wellington,
Wellington, New Zealand
David Weaver Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Grif-
fith University, Gold Coast, Australia
Karin Weber School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong
Clare Weeden School of Sport and Service Management, University of
Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
Klaus Weiermair Center for Tourism and Service Economics, University of
Innsbruck, Stock Ost, Innsbruck, Austria
William B. Werner Harrah College of Hotel Administration, University of
Nevada, Las Vegas, USA
Allan M. Williams School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Uni-
versity of Surrey, Guildford, UK
Contributors liii
Deanne Williams-Bryant Department of Hospitality Management, Virginia

State University, Petersburg, USA
Cedric Wilson Department of CARICOM, Caribbean Renewable Energy
Project, University of the West Indies, Bridgeview, Jamaica
Erica Wilson School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross University,
East Lismore, Australia
Caroline Winter The Business School, Federation University Australia, Mt
Helen, Australia
Tim Winter Alfred Deakin Research Institute for Citizenship and Globali-
sation, Deakin University, Melbourne, Australia
Agung Suryawan Wiranatha Tourism Study and Research Center,
Udayana University, Denpasar City, Bali, Indonesia
Nicholas Wise Glasgow School for Business and Society, Glasgow Caledo-
nian University, Glasgow, Lanarkshire, UK
Cordula Wohlmuther Centre for Peace Research and Peace Education,
Adriatic University Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, Austria
Cora Un In Wong Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China
Marta Wood Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Development,
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
Spain
Robert H. Woods William F. Harrah College of Hotel Administration, Uni-
versity of Nevada-Las Vegas, Las Vegas, USA
Arch G. Woodside Marketing Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill,
USA
Bihu Wu College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, Peking University,
Beijing, China
Qu Xiao School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong Poly-
Philip F. Xie Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Macao Uni-
versity of Science and Technology, Macao, China
Honggang Xu School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University,
Guangzhou, China
Lan Xue Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism Management, The
Pennsylvania State University, University Park, USA
Kamil Yagci Faculty of Tourism, Department of Travel Management and
Tourism Guidance, Pamukkale University, Denizli, Turkey
Shinji Yamashita Department of Cultural Anthropology, The University of
Tokyo, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
liv Contributors
Libo Yan Macao University of Science and Technology, Macao, China

Hongliang Yan Carnegie Faculty, School of Events, Tourism and Hospital-
ity, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK
Li Yang Department of Geography, Western Michigan University, Kalama-
zoo, USA
Jingjing Yang School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, University
Tianyu Ying Department of Tourism, University of Otago, Dunedin, New
Zealand
Mohammad Youssef Expert Tourism Affairs, National Council of Tourism
and Antiquities, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Alvin HungChih Yu Department of Geography, St Cloud State University,
St Cloud, USA
Dongkoo Yun Centre for Tourism Research, Charlottetown, Prince Edward
Island, Canada
Fidel Ernesto Zablah Department of Business Administration, Universidad
Centroamericana José Simeón Cañas, San Salvador, El Salvador
Vincent Zammit Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies, Institute of Tour-
ism Studies, St Julian’s, Malta
Hamid Zargham Department of Tourism Management, Faculty of Manage-
ment and Accounting, University of Allameh Tabataba’i University (ATU),
Tehrān, Iran
Bojan Zecevic Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, Belgrade,
Serbia
Aihua Zhang Department of History, The State University of New York at
Stony Brook, NY, USA
Guangrui Zhang Tourism Research Centre, Chinese Academy of Social
Sciences, Beijing, China
Hanqin Qiu Zhang School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong
Jie Zhang Centre for Regional and Tourism Research, Nexø, Denmark
Jie Zhang Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
Jinhe Zhang Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
Jundan Jasmine Zhang Department of Tourism, University of Otago,
Dunedin, New Zealand
Lingyun Zhang Tourism Institute, Beijing Union University, Beijing, China
Shengnan Zhao Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, California
State University, Long Beach, CA, USA
Contributors lv
Weibing Zhao Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China

Xiangmin Zheng College of Tourism, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou,
Fujian, China
Zongqing Zhou College of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Niagara
University, NY, USA
Yujie Zhu Australian Centre on China in the World, Australian National
Univeristy, Canberra, ACT, Australia
Andreas H. Zins Department of Tourism and Service Management, Modul
University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
Yongguang Zou College of Tourism, Huaqiao University, Quanzhou, Fujian,
China
Hugo Marcelo Zunino Department of Social Sciences, Universidad de la
Frontera, Temuco, Chile
A
Aboriginal tourism some scholars arguing that the terms aboriginal,

indigenous, Indian, or native are colonial terms
Raynald Harvey Lemelin1 and possessing little if any meaning for the people so
Freya Higgins-Desbiolles2 labeled. Other scholars suggest that the term is a
1
School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and reclamation of identity, traditional knowledge
Tourism, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, systems, and rights. It can also serve to remind
Canada federal governments of their responsibilities to
2
University of South Australia, Adelaide, colonized populations. This is a contested con-
Australia text and it is not the intent of the entry to delve
into this subject. This terminology has been in
use because of the legal standing “aboriginal”
Aboriginal tourism is defined as special events has in Australia and ▶ Canada and the fact that
(corroboree, dances, festivals, pow-wows), expe- it is commonly used in tourism studies.
riential tourism (guided hikes, interpretation, Aboriginal tourism has received increasing
wildlife tourism, applied activities), arts and attention in the literature ever since the publica-
crafts, museums, historical re-creations, restau- tion of Tourism and Indigenous Peoples (Butler
rants, accommodations, and casinos that involve and Hinch 1996). Industry bodies also
aboriginal cultures and are offered by or are researching this subject include Aboriginal Tour-
located in aboriginal communities and/or lands ism Canada, New Zealand Māori Tourism, and
(Getz and Jamieson 1997). It can also include Indigenous Tourism Australia. Additionally,
memorials and commemorations at battlefields not-for-profit organizations such as Indigenous
and contested terrains and opportunities derived Tourism Rights International, Survival Interna-
from the comanagement of protected areas. Own- tional, and smaller grassroots bodies have advo-
ership (in part or whole) by aboriginal communicated for indigenous rights in tourism. The
ties or businesses or by not-for-profit entities is an United Nations Declaration on the Rights of
essential component of these tourism products Indigenous Peoples sets the context for such
(Kapashesit et al. 2011). efforts. This document highlights their rights to
remain distinct peoples while also promoting
their full and effective participation in all matters
Framing aboriginal tourism that concern them (United Nations 2007). This
declaration stands to transform research into
As Lemelin and Blangy (2009) explained, the aboriginal tourism demanding such rights as
term aboriginal tourism can be problematic with prior, free, and informed consent and the right
J. Jafari, H. Xiao (eds.), Encyclopedia of Tourism,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
2 Aboriginal tourism
to benefit from tourism. Despite the emergence aboriginal “tourism literature remain elusive”
of international policies, collaborative research, (Nielsen and Wilson 2012: 67). However,
and aboriginal scholars in tourism and its related because of the changes resulting from the UN
fields throughout the late twentieth and early Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples,
twenty-first centuries, documenting aboriginal indigenous communities and peoples will
voices through authentic and empowering dia- demand better inclusion in all aspects of indige-
logue within tourism remains somewhat elusive nous tourism policy, planning, decisionmaking,
(Nielsen and Wilson 2012). and operations; this dominance of non-aboriginal
peoples and interests is no longer tenable. This
will be the most significant factor influencing the
Management of aboriginal tourism future of aboriginal tourism and its research.
Most recently, the focus is on aboriginal-driven See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ colonialism, ▶ cul-
projects which deliver outcomes for the tural tourism, ▶ pro-poor tourism, ▶ rural
concerned communities (Nielsen and Wilson tourism.
2012). A representative example is the work of
the late Randy Kapashesit and colleagues (2011).
It argues that tourism utilizes the traditional skills
of the people, bolstering self-worth, and is consis- References
tent with the values and other economic activities
of the host community. This approach fosters a Butler, R., and C. Menzies 2007 Traditional Ecological
Knowledge and Aboriginal Tourism. In Tourism and
positive vision of aboriginal tourism, which gen- Indigenous Peoples: Issues and Implications (2nd ed.),
erates capacity building, respect, equity, and R. Butler and T. Hinch, eds., pp.15-27. Oxford:
empowerment. Respect and sensitivity for local Butterworth-Heinemann.
cultures is fostered by educational and interpretive Butler, R., and T. Hinch, eds. 1996 Tourism and Indigenous
Peoples. London: International Thomson Business
programs and codes of conduct. Equity and Press.
empowerment can come through multiple Getz, D., and W. Jamieson 1997 Rural Tourism in Canada:
approaches, including proper tourism contracts Issues, Opportunities, and Entrepreneurship in Aborig-
originating from legal land title, and a commit- inal Tourism in Alberta. In The Business of Rural
Tourism: International Perspectives, S. Page and
ment to develop businesses that are owned and/or D. Getz, eds., pp. 93–107. Toronto: Thompson Busi-
co-owned by tribal communities. These new ness Press.
developments invite a new research orientation Kapashesit, R., R. Lemelin, N. Bennett, and G. Williams
or approach which is collaborative and 2011 The Cree Ecolodge: A Regional Tourism Cata-
lyst. In Polar Tourism: A Tool for Regional Develop-
empowering for both aboriginal communities ment, A. Grenier and D. M€ uller, eds., pp.155-178.
and researchers. Québec: Presses de l’Université du Québec.
Despite the development of aboriginal peo- Lemelin, R., and S. Blangy 2009 Introduction to the Spe-
ples in the management of protected areas, cial Issue on Aboriginal Ecotourism. Journal of Eco-
tourism 8:77-81.
lodge and hotels and tourism offerings, and the Nielsen, N., and E. Wilson 2012 From Invisible to
emergence of aboriginal scholars in tourism and Indigenous-Driven: A Critical Typology of Research
its related research (Butler and Menzies 2007), in Indigenous Tourism. Journal of Hospitality and
collaborative efforts between researchers Tourism Management 19:67-75.
Peters, A., and F. Higgins-Desbiolles 2012
and aboriginal communities (Kapashesit De-marginalising Tourism Research: Indigenous Aus-
et al. 2011), and the documentation of aboriginal tralians as Tourists. Journal of Tourism and Hospitality
peoples as tourists (Peters and Higgins- Management 19:1-9.
Desbiolles 2012), the needs and priorities of United Nations 2007 United Nations Declaration
on Rights of Indigenous Peoples www.un.org/esa/
non-aboriginal people largely drive tourism socdev/unpfii/documents/DRIPS_en.pdf (3 Septem-
developments. Thus, aboriginal voices in ber 2013).
Accommodation 3
prosthetic objects (Puhretmair and Nussbaum

Accessibility 2011). On a positive note, however, the innovative
use of quick response code technology can A
Christine Lee1 and Daniel H. Olsen2 improve access by providing more or alternative
1
Federation Business School, Federation information than is available at the location
University, Churchill, VIC, Australia (Langtree 2015). For example, menus or notices
2
Department of Geography, Brigham Young can be enlarged on a personal device for the vision
University, Provo, UT, USA impaired, and direct translations into foreign lan-
guages can be accessed instantaneously through
an internet connection.
Accessibility refers to ease of access. Given that Despite technological developments and
tourists are heterogeneous in terms of ▶ culture, increasing investment and participation of coun-
age, ▶ gender, health, physical strength, ▶ mobility, tries and regions in developing accessible tourism,
vision, hearing, and mental or physical disability, there is still room for much more improvement. It
not all products and destinations can easily be is important to consider all aspects of the accessi-
accessed by all tourists, especially for tourists with ble tourism value chain, as each component is
disabilities. Through user-orientated design, vital to determine the success and seamless expe-
▶ management, and building adaptations (or a com- riences that tourism can potentially provide.
bination of these), access for all can be improved.
The principle of non-exclusion or universal See also ▶ Equity, ▶ mobility, ▶ planning,
design has been adopted in the built ▶ environment ▶ technology.
to enable equitable access. More specifically,
through the application of ▶ technology by “design-
ing for all,” much can be done to enhance tourism References
▶ accessibility (Buhalis and Darcy 2011; Buhalis
et al. 2012). Through planning and application of Buhalis, D., and S. Darcy (eds.) 2011 Accessible Tourism:
Concepts and Issues. Bristol: Channel View.
the principle of purposefully nonrestrictive design,
Buhalis, D., S. Darcy, and I. Ambrose (eds.) 2012 Best
the client base can be expanded and in turn greatly Practice in Accessible Tourism: Inclusion, Disability,
enhances the users’ experience and satisfaction. Ageing Population and Tourism. Bristol: Channel View.
Information and communication technologies Langtree, I. 2015 QR Codes: Uses and Accessibility for
Persons with Disabilities. Disabled World www.
and assistive technologies have increased the pos-
disabled-world.com/assistivedevices/apps/qr-code.php
sibilities for people with disabilities to participate (15 February).
independently in almost any area of daily life Puhretmair, F., and G. Nussbaum 2011 Web Design, Assis-
(Puhretmair and Nussbaum 2011). However, as tive Technologies and Accessible Tourism. In Accessi-
ble Tourism: Concepts and Issues, D. Buhalis and
the degree of disability increases, the amount of
S. Darcy, eds., pp.274-285. Bristol: Channel View.
available options and essential information relat-
ing to ▶ travel for ▶ planning and choices
decreases, often resulting in limited opportunities
for tourism. While access to information for the Accommodation
disabled remains crucial, this becomes even more
of a challenge with international travel. Robert M. O’Halloran
Sight-impaired people can utilize screen radars College of Business, East Carolina University,
on their mobile phones to navigate or read the Greenville, USA
menu and text messages. However, newer gener-
ation of phones may not always support assistive
technologies as the captive or direct touch tech- In tourism, accommodation is regarded “home
nology cannot be activated by mouth sticks or away from home,” typically for overnight stays.
4 Accommodation
A dictionary definition might refer to accommo- additionally include auto courts and bed and
dations as a room in a hotel, where tourists can breakfast units; camping grounds, recreational
sleep. Gunn (1979) referred to it as service facil- vehicle parks, and trailer parks; chalets, house-
ities. Most people think of it in terms of hotels, keeping cottages, and cabins; clubs and residential
inns, or lodges. houses; off-campus dormitories; fraternity and
The ▶ history of accommodations is connected sorority houses; guest houses; holiday homes;
to that of civilizations (Levy-Bonvin 2003). His- membership hotels, motels, and motor courts;
torically, it can be traced to the Greeks and migrant workers’ camps; motels; motor hotels;
Romans building at thermal baths and places for pensions; protective shelters; rooming and
caravan travelers on the Silk Road or for crusaders boarding houses; suites and apartment hotels;
going from ▶ Europe to Jerusalem. As the Indus- time share units; tourist homes; tourist flats and
trial Revolution began, so did the building of bungalows; workers’ camps; and youth hostels
hotels in city centers, often as focal points. and mountain refuges.
Famous hotels, Le Grand Hotel Paris, Palmer
House in Chicago, Waldorf Astoria in New York
City, Savoy in London, and Negresco in Nice, Accommodations and tourism
have all become part of a global ▶ culture.
Accommodations are a key part of the ▶ infra- Accommodations represent a significant part of
structure of the tourism ▶ industry and critical to the economy worldwide. For example, in the
the tourists. United States, there are almost 53,000 accommo-
dation properties. According to the American
Hotel and Lodging Association, in 2012, there
Accommodations by type were 52,529 properties or 4,900,642 guest
rooms, with US$155.5 billion in sales, $65.16
STR Global (2014), one of the leading data revenue per available room, and 61.4 % average
sources for the hotel sector, provides classifica- occupancy rate (AHLA 2014a).
tions of hotels by type. Hotel classifications have Accommodations are measured by occupancy
been developed based on structures and service and average daily rates. The sector monitors and
levels. It also distinguishes properties by their reports its own statistics through companies like
location, including urban, suburban, airport, inter- STR Global. In 2012, the reported average room
state (major highway), resort, and small metro/ rate was $106.15 and an occupancy of 61.4 %
town hotels. Accommodation types include all which is inclusive of all property types serving
suite, one or more bedrooms, boutique, and both business and leisure tourists. There are also
unique, contemporary, and distinctive design/ many subsegments that can be classified and
decor; conference, mainly focusing on group matched with the appropriate accommodation
operations; convention, minimum of 300 rooms types. For example, most business tourists are
and large meeting facilities; destination resorts, currently male and represent about 40 % of the
▶ leisure and family ▶ vacation; ▶ gaming/ total. Leisure tourists are typically couples, spend-
casino, focusing on gambling operations; golf or ing multiple nights away from home (AHLA
hotel with a golf course; hotel/motel, standard 2014b).
operations, and ski lodges with ski slope access; Tourism goods and services are produced by
spa, designated treatment options; and waterpark, public and private sectors facilitating relation-
offering aquatic facilities. ships between tourists and their host community
Governments also track business development in terms of cultural, sociological, economic, psy-
for the hospitality sector as accommodations. The chological, and physical impacts. Typically, for
combined North American Industry Classification many countries, tourism is a large industry.
System codes (UNWTO 2014) and the Statistics Accommodations are typically part of the private
Division of the United Nations classifications sector and critical to the infrastructure of the
Acculturation 5
tourism industry. In the United States, domestic how the traditional accommodation sector will
and international tourists spend an average of $2.3 adapt or transition in order to continue to compete.
billion a day; much of this revenue is generated A
through accommodations. The sector also pays See also ▶ Business tourism, ▶ commercializa-
federal, state, and local taxes. Further, it creates a tion, ▶ feasibility study, ▶ industry, ▶ service.
significant number of wage-earning jobs (more
than 7.7 million in 2012) through accommoda-
tions and related fields (AHLA 2014a).
References
Trends AHLA 2014a Lodging Industry Profile www.ahla.com/

content.aspx?id=35603 (14 April).
AHLA 2014b Shifflet & Associates www.ahla.com/Green.
Accommodations are often illustrated through aspx?id=25018&terms=glossary (15 April).
brands. Although the majority of accommoda- Gunn, C. 1979 Tourism Planning. New York: Crane
tions are independent, the public often thinks of Russack.
Levy-Bonvin, J. 2003 Hotels: A Brief History www.
Accor, InterContinental, Marriott, Jin Jiang, and hospitalitynet.org/news/4017990 (16 April 2014).
Hilton as dominating the sector. Successful global STR Global 2014 A Guide to Our Terminology www.
brands have the ability to become synonymous in strglobal.com/resources/glossary/en-gb (9 August).
the consumer’s mind with the potential of answer- Tillotson, J. 2002 Food Brands: Friend or Foe? (Business
and Nutrition) Nutrition Today 37(2):78-80.
ing tourists’ particular needs or wants, forming UNWTO 2014 About Hotel Classification Systems www2.
strong consumer bonds (Tillotson 2002). unwto.org/agora/about-hotel-classification-systems
Another common feature in the accommoda- (16 April).
tion sector is its classification systems. The Amer-
ican Automobile Association rates hotels from
one to five diamonds, based on service, facilities,
and amenities. UNWTO (2014) provides informa- Acculturation
tion about classification systems on a global basis.
Also, all accommodations are continually evolv- Colleen Ward1 and Tracy Berno2
1
ing and innovating, with booking online, vacation School of Psychology, Victoria University of
rentals, and time share spread throughout the sec- Wellington, Kelburn Pde, New Zealand
2
tor. Meetings and conventions have evolved into a Faculty of Environment, Society and Design,
distinct segment and accommodation owners are Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand
integrating sustainable strategies for economic,
cost-saving, and competitive advantages.
A country’s inns have become an index of its Acculturation as a concept had its origins in
roads and methods of transportation and a true anthropology and sociology in the late 1800s
reflection of national character (Gunn 1979). and early 1900s but has more recently been
This is also reflective of accommodations and its applied in psychology. In his discussion of the
evolution from a sector for privileged few to history of acculturation, Sam (2006) identified
accommodations for all. This premise illustrates the geologist/anthropologist John Wesley Powell
the global importance of the sector in the global as the first person to have used the term “accultur-
tourism market. As discussed, accommodations ation” when he applied it to psychological
have changed and transitioned over time to their changes resulting from cross-cultural imitation.
current offering and operations. As the tourism For the most part, anthropologists’ use of
industry progresses, more research will be needed acculturation in the late 1800s was primarily
on newer and vacation rental concepts and other concerned with how cross-cultural contact with
new accommodation innovations. Additionally, an “enlightened” group of people helped “primi-
the question will need to be asked concerning tive” societies become more “civilized,” with
6 Acculturation
anthropologist W. J. McGee (1898) defining unidirectional with (Western) tourists being active
acculturation as the process of exchange and agents of change in relation to passive
mutual “improvement” by which societies (developing country) host populations (Leite and
advanced from savagery to barbarism, to civiliza- Graburn 2009).
tion, through to enlightenment (Sam 2006: Although many anthropologists and sociolo-
12-13). At the same time, sociologists have gists began to look elsewhere to understand the
acknowledged the process of “reciprocal dynamics and outcomes of intercultural contact,
▶ accommodation” between cultural groups, cross-cultural psychologists continued to develop
despite sociological accounts of acculturation pri- and apply the concept of acculturation,
marily emphasizing “one-sided” change distinguishing between group-level and
conforming to host culture norms and expecta- individual-level changes and taking into consid-
tions in the context of immigration (Sam 2006: eration three key issues: the quantitative and qual-
12-13). itative dimensions of contact, the reciprocal
Although acculturation as a concept has now nature of cross-cultural influence, and change as
fallen out of vogue with many anthropologists and both a dynamic process and an outcome. These
sociologists, it is the classic definition of accultur- may be cultural, physical, social, psychological,
ation by anthropologists Redfield et al. (1936: or a combination (Sam 2006). However, most of
149) that is still commonly used: “those phenom- the research focused on acculturation in immi-
ena which result when groups of individuals hav- grant, expatriate, and refugee populations, though
ing different cultures come into continuous first- there is a growing literature on acculturation in
hand contact, with subsequent changes in the receiving societies.
original culture patterns of either or both groups.”
This culture-level definition was reframed at the
individual level and termed psychological accul- Acculturation and future directions
turation by Theodore D. Graves (1967 cited in
Sam 2006). Since then, it has been primarily Tourism is the most common form of face-to-face
cross-cultural psychologists who have built upon intercultural contact, with new transport and com-
these definitions and extended the study of accul- munication technologies making it increasingly
turation to include both the group (culture) and easier for people to ▶ travel. However, it is only
individual levels. recently that cross-cultural psychologists have
turned their ▶ attention to tourism as a context
(Berno and Ward 2005; Ward 2008). One of the
Tourism and acculturation first published psychological studies that consid-
ered tourism and acculturation in a resident popu-
Theron Nunez (1963 cited in Leite and Graburn lation was that of Berno (1999), in which John
2009), in his anthropological study of the impacts W. Berry’s (1990) framework for the study of
of tourism in a rural Mexican village, is credited as acculturation processes was applied (Ward 2008).
having first applied the concept of acculturation Further to this research, Berno and Ward (2005)
within a tourism context. As interest (or perhaps demonstrated that an acculturation framework
concern) about the impacts of tourists on host could be effectively applied in the tourism domain
nationals grew, so did the application of accultur- and argued that psychologists should consider tour-
ation theory (both explicitly and implicitly) as a ism as a context for research. Subsequent to this,
means of understanding them. This early research Ward and Berno (2011) concluded that related
provided a foundation of knowledge about the conceptual frameworks such as relative depriva-
sociocultural changes affected by tourism. Accul- tion, the contact hypothesis, and integrated threat
turation, however, fell out of favor with anthro- theory which are found in the psychological litera-
pologists and sociologists because of its apparent ture on intercultural relations can also be applied to
simplistic approach suggesting that impacts were the study of host-guest encounters.
Activity 7
Beyond this, acculturation theories can be Acculturation Psychology, D. Sam and J. Berry, eds.,
applied to tourists’ experiences as suggested by pp.11-26. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Ward, C. 2008 Thinking Outside the Berry Boxes: New
Ward in her assertion that “[Cross-cultural psy- Perspectives on Identity, Acculturation and A
chologists] believe that tourists constitute a dis- Intercultural Relations. International Journal of
tinct acculturating group, merit explicit Intercultural Relations 32:105-114.
acknowledgement as such, and warrant greater Ward, C., and T. Berno 2011 Beyond Social Exchange
Theory: Attitudes toward Tourists. Annals of Tourism
attention in the acculturation literature” (2008: Research 38:1556-1569.
111). Subsequent tourism studies heeded this call
and suggested that acculturation models could be
extended to tourism contexts and used for market
segmentation purposes. Ward (2008) concluded
that, through adopting an intercultural perspective Activity
and synthesizing a range of theories previously
applied to Other acculturating groups (such as Juan L. Nicolau
migrants), tourism offers almost limitless possi- Faculty of Economics, University of Alicante,
bilities for extending acculturation theory for its Alicante, Spain
future research.
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ culture shock, Activity is a term that encompasses all the deeds,
▶ demonstration effect, ▶ host and guest, occupations, and actions carried out by tourists.
▶ psychology. Be it at the ▶ destination or the company level, the
organization of proper activities is crucial for mar-
keting strategies. Certainly, they form a relevant
attribute of the choice alternatives as it might lead
References an individual to choose a specific destination or
company. Therefore, the activities available play a
Berry, J.W., 1990 The psychology of acculturation. In J. relevant role in tourism decisionmaking.
Berman, ed., Cross-cultural Perspectives: Nebraska The acclaimed restorative properties of tourism
Symposium on Motivation, Vol. 37, pp. 201-234. Lin- are directly derived from tourists’ participation in
coln: University of Nebraska Press.
activities at the destination. The literature has
Berno, T. 1999 When a Guest is a Guest: Cook Islanders
View Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research emphasized the relationship (and comparison)
26:656-675. between at-home ▶ recreation activities and those
Berno, T., and C. Ward 2005 Innocence Abroad: A Pocket realized on vacations (Brey and Lehto 2007). The
Guide to Psychological Research on Tourism. Ameri-
can Psychologist 60:593-600.
prospects of doing different activities from those
Graves, T.D., 1967 Psychological Acculturation in a Tri- done at home attract people to a destination.
ethnic Community. Southwestern Journal of Anthro- Accordingly, the existence of specific activities
pology 23:337-350. helps destinations design adequate segmentation
Leite, N., and N. Graburn 2009 Anthropological Interven-
tions in Tourism Studies. In The Sage Handbook of
strategies as well as manage social interactions. In
Tourism Studies, T. Jamal and M. Robinson, eds., line with Gibson (2006), activities bring social and
pp.35-64. London: Sage. ▶ tourist dimensions together at a destination, lead-
McGee, W.J., 1898 Piratical Acculturation. American ing to interactions among tourists themselves, as
Anthropologist A11:243-249.
well as between tourists and local residents. In fact,
Nunez, T.A., 1963 Tourism, Tradition and Acculturation:
Weekendisimo in a Mexican Village. Ethnology these activities represent the point at which tourism
2:347-352. facilitates human contact to its highest degree.
Redfield, R., R. Linton, and M. Herskovits 1936 Memo- Two fundamental points have been stressed in
randum for the Study of Acculturation. American
Anthropologist 38(1):149-152.
the literature. From the supply side, activities have
Sam, D. 2006 Acculturation: Conceptual Background and environmental implications; hence decisions and
Core Components. In The Cambridge Handbook of actions should attempt to balance tourists’
8 Actor-network theory
satisfaction, residents’ wellbeing, and destination

sustainability. From the demand side, participa- Actor-network theory
tions in an activity can be the result of a behavioral
trait. In terms of Carr’s (2002) tourism-leisure René Van der Duim
behavioral continuum, “residual culture” Department of Environmental Sciences,
(▶ leisure behavior people show at home which is Wageningen University, Wageningen,
more habit driven) and “tourist culture” (behavior The Netherlands
they exhibit at ▶ holiday destinations which is
more liberated and hedonism driven) are two cen-
tral factors that can influence tourist behavior and, Actor-network theory (ANT) is a particular family
specifically, the activities they choose. of tools and methods that treat “everything in the
Strongly linked to this concept, and relevant to social and natural worlds as a continuously gen-
destinations, is the notion of price from a marketing erated effect of webs of relations within which
viewpoint, where both monetary and nonmonetary they are located” (Law 2009: 142). It is not a
efforts must be considered to analyze tourists’ will- fixed ▶ theory but grounded in empirical case
ingness to participate in certain activities. Accord- studies. It enables radical new ways of examining
ingly, Nicolau (2011) introduces the concept of and describing tourism by critically investigating
“predisposition to effort,” where the monetary its ontological conditions.
effort (price of transport and ▶ accommodation) The three main elements of ANT –“actor,”
and the nonmonetary effort (time invested in get- “network,” and “theory” – have been subject to
ting to the destination) are influenced by the activ- fierce debate ever since the late 1970s (Latour
ities available at the destination. 2005; Law 2009; Law and Hassard 1999). It
As emotions play an important role in tourist became popular within the realm of science and
satisfaction (Kim and Fesenmaier 2014), measur- ▶ technology studies and soon expanded to other
ing and knowing what and how people feel when domains in the social sciences.
taking part in an activity would help find internal Since the 2000s, ANT has gradually come to
intricacies of behavior relevant to the design of be adopted in the field of tourism studies (Van der
activities. Also, synergies among activities – old Duim et al. 2012, 2013). These studies inspired by
and new – can open up further avenues for research. it highlight the messy reality of tourism practices
made up by materiality, social practices, and tech-
See also ▶ Decisionmaking, ▶ environment, nologies. They examine how destinations, tour-
▶ marketing, ▶ segmentation, ▶ willingness to ism objects and spaces, ▶ entrepreneurship, and
pay. innovations work. These studies make use of three
notions central to ANT: ordering, materiality, and
multiplicity (Van der Duim et al. 2012). One, it
References draws special attention to the ordering processes
underlying what seem to be more or less stable
Brey, E., and X. Lehto 2007 The Relationship between
Daily and Vacation Activities. Annals of Tourism
features of tourism. Two, the notion of materiality
Research 34:160-180. points to the inescapable hybridity of human and
Carr, N. 2002 The Tourism-Leisure Behavioral Contin- nonhuman worlds. Emblematic ▶ tourist perfor-
uum. Annals of Tourism Research 29:972-986. mances are made possible and pleasurable by
Gibson, L. 2006 Learning Destinations: The Complexity of
Tourism Development. Karlstad: Karlstad University
objects, machines, and technologies. Three,
Studies. studying tourism using ANT reveals the multiple
Kim, J., and D. Fesenmaier 2014 Measuring Emotions in versions of tourism, destinations, or objects that
Real Time: Implications for Tourism Experience are enacted into existence.
Design. Journal of Travel Research, doi:10.1177/
0047287514550100.
The first future prospect of the relationship
Nicolau, J.L. 2011 Monetary and Non-monetary Efforts for between ANT and tourism is a continued process
Leisure Activities. Annals of Tourism Research 38:801-819. of explanation by detailed empirical studies.
Adaptation 9
The literature has so far mostly relied on ethno- contextual, and organic stimuli and the way
graphic research methods. Recently, however, humans adapt to their environment. In tourist-
ANT-inspired scholars have started to make use host encounters, adaptation theory describes the A
of quantitative approaches, such as digital map- process in which individuals establish and main-
ping. Second, ANT is not a “one-size-fits-all” the- tain relatively stable, reciprocal, and functional
ory and from the outset it has been open to change relationships with unfamiliar cultural environ-
and been inspired by other schools. Third, studies ments, possibly leading to personal transforma-
are increasingly fostering new ways to examine tion (Kim 2001). Long-stay tourists may even
tourism encounters and controversies. These not become acculturated. Berry’s (1997)
only result from the enactments of multiple ver- bidimensional acculturation theory describes the
sions of tourism but also from the interface process of psychological acculturation in which
between it and other ordering attempts, such as people engage in interacting with and adopting
▶ development, ▶ conservation, ▶ heritage, or parts of the host culture on one hand and preserv-
▶ planning. Finally, scholars stress that ing their home culture on the other. These theories
researchers’ choices and efforts to conduct research explain how humans make adjustments in new
projects are interventions. Therefore, this process settings. Responses to external stimuli are affected
should raise increased awareness of how research by prior experiences and frames of reference,
and knowledge creation is always a matter of leading to possible attitude and behavioral
engaging in ontological politics, including bringing modification.
certain realities into being while Othering others. When applied in tourism, the stimuli are
presented by tourist-host encounters which chal-
See also ▶ Case study, ▶ ethnography, ▶ social lenge both parties to modify their current set of
network analysis. attitudes and behaviors in order to sustain, and
mutually benefit from, the encounter. From a
host community’s perspective, adaptation can
References take physical forms by adjusting the types of
entertainment, price, experience, and gastronomy,
Latour, B. 2005 Reassembling the Social: An Introduction to among others, to suit the taste and expectation of
Actor-Network-Theory. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
tourists. At the psychological level, residents
Law, J. 2009 Actor Network Theory and Material Semiot-
ics. In The New Blackwell Companion to Social The- adapt to their community and lifestyle changes
ory, B. Turner, ed., pp.141-158. Oxford: Blackwell. in different stages of ▶ destination lifecycle
Law, J., and J. Hassard 1999 Actor Network Theory and (Butler 1980). The beginning stages are charac-
After. Oxford: Blackwell.
terized by a destination receiving an increasing
Van der Duim, R., C. Ren, and G. Jóhannesson 2012 Actor-
Network Theory and Tourism: Ordering, Materiality number of explorers and pioneers who are highly
and Multiplicity. London: Routledge. adaptive. As more institutionalized or organized
Van der Duim, R., C. Ren, and G. Jóhannesson 2013 Order- mass tourists come, they become more dependent
ing, Materiality and Multiplicity: Enacting Actor-
on the local community (Cohen 1972), hence
Network-Theory in Tourism. Tourism Studies 13:3-20.
there is a higher demand for local residents to
adapt to tourists’ needs.
Typically, the spectrum of population in a des-
Adaptation tination ranges from tourists, holidaymakers,
sojourners, and drifters to migrants and residents.
Fanny Vong Notably, tourists make the least adaptation due to
Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China their short encounter. At most, they may only need
to cope with new and nonrecurring situations,
rather than to adapt. However, other groups have
Helson’s (1947) adaptation-level theory in psy- been exposed to culture shocks long enough,
chology discusses human responses to focal, making adjustment necessary if they wish to stay.
10 Adventure tourism
Current research focuses on the continuum fitness to engage both real and perceived risks,
of adaptation-assimilation-integration-migration, including risk of injury, during adventures.
where one moves from “▶ tourist” on one end to Although ▶ tourist adventures are typically
“migrant” on the other. This is especially relevant nature based, they may also happen in built envi-
for long-stay tourists, who get attuned to local ronments. Its duration may vary, for example,
practices, find their place in local social networks, from an hour-long white-water rafting trip to
and gradually develop a strong attachment to a months of bicycling through remote and exotic
destination. Future research could examine how locations. Successful negotiation of the challenge
adaptation, or the lack of it, affects the occurrence by the participant is accompanied by positive
and resolution of tourist-host conflicts. Other affective responses such as thrill or excitement.
topics include antecedents of adaptation, effect Meeting and overcoming them result in feelings
of tourism policy on host community adaptation, of enjoyment and achievement (Morgan
and the role of education in shaping tourist-host et al. 2005).
attitudes and behaviors and promoting Commercial adventure tourism operations and
intercultural awareness and tolerance. tours have evolved typically following the discov-
ery and promotion of suitable locations by
See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ change, sociocultural, intrepid individuals or specialized activity groups
▶ globalization, ▶ impact, ▶ typology, tourist. (Buckley 2006). The rapid development and
growth of commercial adventure tourism products
over the last five decades reflect a sizable partici-
References pant market characterized by social affluence,
▶ time availability, and the desire for rousing
Berry, J. 1997 Immigration, Acculturation and Adaptation. experiences. Commercial operators facilitate
Applied Psychology: An International Review 46:5-68.
adventures by providing guides, transport, and
Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of
Evolution. Canadian Geographer 24:5-12. equipment. The level of a participant’s skills and
Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour- fitness required to engage successfully in adven-
ism. Social Research 39:164-182. tures will vary according to the ▶ activity types
Helson, H. 1947 Adaptation-Level as a Frame of Reference
and characteristics of the physical location.
for Predication of Psychophysical Data. American
Journal of Psychology 60:1-29. Commercial adventure activities are available
Kim, Y. 2001 Becoming Intercultural: Integrative Theory on every continent, including Antarctica. Dunford
of Communication and Crosscultural Adaptation. (2008) describes key adventure opportunities
Thousand Oaks: Sage.
available in various countries including surfing
in ▶ South Africa, white-water rafting in ▶ Zam-
bia, snorkeling in ▶ Australia, mountain biking in
▶ France, sailing in ▶ Spain, trekking in ▶ Peru,
Adventure tourism and rock climbing in ▶ Canada. Estimates
reported in the Adventure Tourism Development
Damian Morgan Index (ATDI 2012) suggest that 25 % of trips
Federation Business School, Federation contain an adventure component, with this pro-
University, Churchill, Australia portion forecasted to rise to 50 % by 2050. This
source also reports country rankings for adventure
tourism competitiveness based on scores from
Adventure tourism encapsulates a broad range of ▶ industry experts summarized for three catego-
structured and unstructured tourist products. An ries: safe and welcoming, adventure, and readi-
adventure takes place when participants use their ness. ▶ Switzerland followed by ▶ New Zealand
skills and abilities to face uncertain and often was the highest-ranked developed country, with
novel challenges. Participants, whether novices ▶ Chile and the ▶ Czech Republic the highest-
or experienced, may require sufficient personal ranked developing countries.
Advertisement 11
Buckley (2010) has identified key adventure various forms of outdoor advertising such as bill-
tourism trends. These include using adventure boards. Such communication was not interactive;
labels for ▶ marketing destinations or events, it most often represented one-way communication A
packaging complementary adventure products, between an advertiser and an audience. This
and offering high-cost luxury adventures. Exter- top-down monologue meant that, until quite
nal factors potentially impacting adventure tour- recently, there was little scope for answering
ism, among others, are ▶ climate change, global back (scant possibility of dialogue).
wealth distribution, and threats to national secu- The most obvious example of advertising in
rity. Many pertinent research questions tourism is the promotion of a ▶ destination.
concerning adventure tourism are yet to be Indeed, the literature on tourism advertising is
explored, including the nature of ▶ product dominated by studies on the effectiveness of
demand and ensuing adventure experiences, sup- advertising destinations (Kim et al. 2005; Siegel
ply characteristics, and relationships between and Ziff-Levine 1990; Woodside 1990). However,
demand and ▶ supply in the context of the wider any tourism ▶ product can be the subject of adver-
operating environment. tising, with billions of dollars spent annually
advertising flights, airlines, hotels, events, and
See also ▶ Development, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ envi- attractions.
ronment, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ sport tourism.
Marketing communications
References
In the current digital age, it is not sufficient to
ATDI 2012 Adventure Tourism Development Index 2011 consider tourism advertising in isolation, but
Report www.adventuretravel.biz/research/ (9 August
rather to view it as merely one form of marketing
2013).
Buckley, R. 2006 Adventure Tourism. Oxford: CABI. communication, a broader term that refers to any
Buckley, R. 2010 Adventure Tourism Management. form of persuasive communication between a
Oxford: Elsevier. tourism entity and its audiences. As such, the
Dunford, J. 2008 Adventure Tourism: Europe. Travel and
media used in modern marketing communications
Tourism Analyst 8:1-47.
Morgan, D., K. Moore, and R. Mansell 2005 Adventure include direct communications via mail, e-mail,
Tourists on Water: Linking Expectations, Affect, telephone, and SMS; internet web pages; partici-
Achievement and Enjoyment to the Sports Tourism pation in electronic social media such as
Adventure. Journal of Sport Tourism 10:73-88.
Facebook and Twitter; participation in trade
shows; distribution of travel brochures; or the
efforts of sales people at retail travel outlets.
When preparing a tourism campaign to per-
Advertisement suade an audience to inquire about or purchase a
product, an organization and its advertising
Kenneth F. Hyde agency are unlikely to use mass media communi-
Faculty of Business and Law, Auckland University cation in isolation. Most campaigns to promote
of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand tourism products today comprise an integrated
communication package utilizing multiple media
simultaneously, such as print, radio, direct com-
Advertising refers to any form of paid mass communication, and ▶ social media. As such, the
munication on behalf of an entity, intended to contemporary promotion of tourism products
inform or persuade an audience regarding its employing multiple media is likely to encourage
product or message. The media traditionally asso- two-way dialogical communication between an
ciated with advertising were television, radio, cin- advertiser and audience, including the exchange
ema, newspapers, and magazines, as well as of inquiries, comments, and answers.
12 Advertisement
In general, the objectives of a promotion cam- often restricted to an examination of interstate

paign are to inform or persuade an audience of tourism in the ▶ United States. An alternative to
potential customers, but tourism promotion is conversion studies are advertising tracking stud-
likely to have multiple objectives. It is not always ies. Such studies typically survey a representative
the case that the objective is to generate sales. Other sample of the target population before and after an
objectives include raising awareness of the prod- advertising campaign has run, in order to record
uct, inducing an ▶ image of a destination or its changes in destination awareness, advertising
product, increasing favorable attitudes toward the awareness, message recall, destination imagery,
product, or stimulating related inquiries. Thus, the motivation, and actual visitation behavior. There
success of a promotion campaign can be variously is some evidence that top-of-mind awareness of a
measured in terms of the number of individuals destination, awareness of specific destination
reached by the promotional message, awareness advertising, and requests for information on a
of the product, the number of persons with an destination are indeed related to one another and
image of the tourism product as intended by the predict destination visits (Kim et al. 2005).
advertiser, the number of those with a favorable Gartner (1994) provides a taxonomy of alter-
attitude toward the product, or the number of indi- native information sources that play a role in the
viduals enquiring about the tourism product. formation of a destination image. He refers to
conventional advertising in the mass media as
“overt induced” sources of information. Advertis-
Advertising effectiveness ing might not be the sole nor most important
information source in the formation of a destina-
Aside from generating inquiries about or sales of a tion image (Govers et al. 2007), but it still plays an
product, a major role of tourism promotion is the important role. Bojanic (1991) provides evidence
constructing of brand image (e.g., of a destination). that those consumers exposed to the greatest vol-
One can therefore distinguish two broad categories ume of advertising for a destination have more
of research on the effectiveness of tourism promo- favorable attitudes toward the destination, are
tion: studies on the impact of promotion on inquiry more interested in visiting it, and have a greater
rates and sales and studies on the impact of promo- likelihood of visitation.
tion on brand or destination image. Currently, the
research literature on tourism advertising is domi- See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ image,
nated by studies of the former, most particularly, ▶ internet, ▶ marketing, ▶ social media.
increasing the sales of travel destinations.
Conversion studies measure the effectiveness
of advertising campaigns, most often by recording References
the number of persons who request destination
information, such as brochures from a ▶ destina- Bojanic, D. 1991 The Use of Advertising in Managing
tion marketing organization in response to spe- Destination Image. Tourism Management 12:352-355.
Gartner, W. 1994 Image Formation Process. Journal of
cific advertisements. Some months later, those Travel and Tourism Marketing 2(2-3):191-216.
who have received the destination promotion Govers, R., F. Go, and K. Kumar 2007 Promoting Tourism
material are surveyed, and the proportion of such Destination Image. Journal of Travel Research
persons who actually journeyed to the destination 46(1):15-23.
Kim, D., Y. Hwang, and D. Fesenmaier 2005 Modeling
is recorded (Woodside 1990). A limitation of con- Tourism Advertising Effectiveness. Journal of Travel
version studies is that they miss the majority of Research 44(1):42-49.
tourists who do not contact the destination mar- Siegel, W., and W. Ziff-Levine 1990 Evaluating Tourism
keting organization to request information prior to Advertising Campaigns: Conversion vs. Advertising
Tracking Studies. Journal of Travel Research 28(3):51-55.
traveling to the destination (Siegel and Ziff- Woodside, A. 1990 Measuring Advertising Effectiveness
Levine 1990). A further limitation of conversion in Destination Marketing Strategies. Journal of Travel
studies published in the literature is that they are Research 29(2):3-8.
Afghanistan 13
stimulated the economy, and the agriculture and

Afghanistan service industries recovered. The country remains
one of the poorest in the world (United Nations A
Amir H. Moghaddam 2013), with 35 % of its population unemployed
Hacettepe University, Ankara, Iran and 36 % living below the poverty line.
Tourism began in 1958 under the Ministry of
Information and Culture. The statistics from 1977
The Islamic Republic of Afghanistan is the 41st reported 118,360 arrivals (Azimi 2012: 210).
largest country in the world (647,500 km2, Because of the lack of recent statistics, the share
251,825 mi2). It is located in central Asia and of tourism in economy as well as tourism employ-
borders ▶ Turkmenistan, ▶ Uzbekistan, ▶ Tajiki- ments in the total workforce are unknown. Today,
stan, ▶ China, ▶ Pakistan, and ▶ Iran (Figure 1). ▶ business tourism occurs due to the ongoing
The formal languages of its 29.8 million people reconstruction efforts (Euromonitor 2012). But
(World Bank 2012) are Farsi or Dari and Pashtu. because of security issues, there are few interna-
Zoroastrianist, Buddhist, and Islamic civiliza- tional tourists, despite government efforts
tions have existed in Afghanistan over the centu- supported by the Aga Khan Foundation to pro-
ries. In 1978, the Soviet invaded the country and mote development.
caused a number of civil wars. After the fall of the Afghanistan has numerous cultural, historical,
Taliban in 2001, international assistance natural, and ethnic attractions, but some have been
Afghanistan, Figure 1 Map of Afghanistan (Source: www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/afghanistan_map.htm)

14 Africa
recently damaged. For example, the Buddha

statues in Bamyan, which historically attracted Africa
religious tourists and later in the twentieth century
cultural tourists, were mostly destroyed by the João Sarmento1 and Bradley Rink2
1
Taliban in 2001. A winter festival held in Bamyan University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal
2
draws domestic and international tourists to the Department of Geography, Environmental
ancient sites of the Hindu Kush Mountains, which Studies and Tourism, University of the Western
are attractive places to skiers (Ashley and Dear Cape, Bellville, South Africa
2011).
Another famous event is the Nowruz celebra-
tion in Mazar-e-Sharif. Thousands of tourists
from all over the country come to visit a shrine, ▶ Africa is the second largest continent
which is believed to be Imam Ali’s tomb. This (30 million km2) with 26,000 km of coastline
celebration starts on the 20th of March and con- (Figure 1). It is also the second most populated
tinues for 40 days. On the other hand, ▶ outbound continent with approximately one billion inhabi-
tourism is flourishing, with thousands of religious tants unevenly distributed over 54 sovereign
tourists visiting Iran, while health tourists go to states.
▶ India and Pakistan. Africa has been viewed as an exotic, distant, and
Bamyan University is the only institution challenging destination based on early colonial and
offering tourism courses. A few books about missionary forays into the “dark continent.”
tourism in the country have been published. But Besides exoticism, the continent’s main appeals
because Farsi is spoken in both Afghanistan and are its great diversity of natural landscapes and
Iran, books published in the latter are also used. cultural richness. One of the principal tourism
For the few who graduate in this field, the future products is the safari—“to travel” in Kiswahili,
is not promising, due to ongoing political unrest. and that in its nineteenth century roots meant a
When safety finally returns to Afghanistan, one hunt for animals in the wild.
of the first challenges will be the reimaging of the
▶ destination to one in which tourists can enjoy
its diverse natural and cultural resources.
History of tourism in Africa
See also ▶ Development, ▶ image, ▶ safety and
security. Tourism development in the continent emerged in
tandem with the nineteenth-century colonialism.
▶ Egypt, ▶ Morocco, ▶ Tunisia, ▶ Kenya,
References ▶ South Africa, ▶ Swaziland, and ▶ Zambia all
experienced early development, mostly based on
Ashley, L., and C. Dear 2011 Ski Afghanistan: the desires of European and North American tour-
A Backcountry Guide to Bamyan and Band-e-Amir.
ists. Africa’s imagery was connected to imperial
Afghanistan: Aga Khan Foundation.
Azimi, M. 2012 Ecotourism in Afghanistan (in Farsi). explorations and expansion, the construction of
Kabul: Seraj and Sobhe Omid. “the native,” and in the Maghreb with notions of
Euromonitor 2012 Travel and Tourism in Afghanistan orientalism. Up to the 1950s, tourism growth was
www.euromonitor.com/travel-and-tourism-in-afghani
stan/report (28 November 2014).
dependent on the limited ownership of automo-
United Nations 2013 World Economic Situation and biles by the white “European” elite, with
Prospects. New York: United Nations. unreliable road networks being nonetheless pro-
World Bank 2012 Afghanistan: Interactive Data Visualiza- moted by automobile clubs established in the
tion Tool Annex http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
early twentieth century (Pirie 2013).
AFGHANISTANEXTN/Resources/305984-132690901
4678/8376871-1334700522455/DataToolOverview.pdf From the 1930s, with the development of
(28 November 2014). ▶ aviation networks from colonial centers of
Africa 15
AFRICA
40 20 0 20 LAT. Minsk 40 60
IRE. U.K.
Amsterdam Berlin Warsaw BELARUS RUSSIA
A
London NETH. KAZAKHSTAN
GERMANY POLAND Kyiv
Brussels
North BEL. LUX. Prague Aral
CZ. REP. UKRAINE Volg Sea
a
Paris SLOV.
Atlantic Vienna
AUS.
MOL.
SWITZ. Budapest Sea of Tashkent
FRANCE SLO.
HUNG. ROM. Azov
40
Ocean CRO. Belgrade Bucharest UZBEKISTAN
BOS.& Danube
ITALY HER. SER. Black Sea Caspian
AND. Sofia GEO. Sea
Corsica
KOS. BULG. TURKMENISTAN
PORTUGAL MONT. AZER.
AZORES Madrid Rome MACE. ARM. Ashgabat
ALB. Ankara
(PORTUGAL) Lisbon SPAIN Sardinia GREECE TURKEY
Algiers Tunis Sicily Athens
Tehran
Tigri
Strait of Gibraltar Oran AFG.
MADEIRA ISLANDS Constantine
s
Rabat LEB. SYRIA EuIRAQ
(PORTUGAL) MALTA
Fès CYPRUS
Casablanca TUNISIA Mediterranean Sea Beirut Damascus phrates IRAN
MOROCCO Baghdad
Jerusalem
CANARY ISLANDS Marrakech Tripoli Alexandria ISRAEL Amman
Benghazi
(SPAIN) Cairo JORDAN
-
Al Jizah KUWAIT Persian
Laayoune
ALGERIA Gulf
Abu
BAHR.
Western LIBYA EGYPT Riyadh QATAR
Dhabi
Muscat
Sahara U.A.E
-
Aswan
Al Jawf
Tropic of Cancer SAUDI OMAN
Admin.
Nouadhibou boundary
ARABIA
20 20
Port Red
MAURITANIA Sudan Sea
le
CABO VERDE Nouakchott
Ni
Timbuktu
NIGER
Praia ERITREA YEMEN
Agadez Omdurman
Dakar
SENEGAL MALI Sanaa
Arabian
r CHAD Khartoum Asmara
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Banjul Nige BURKINA Niamey Zinder
THE GAMBIA Bamako FASO SUDAN Gulf of
Socotra
Blu
Bissau N’Djamena Djibouti Aden (YEMEN)
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Kano
GUINEA-BISSAU GUINEA Ouagadougou DJIBOUTI
Maiduguri
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Nil
Conakry BENIN Addis
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NIGERIA
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Freetown GHANA er Abuja
W
CÔTE Moundou
SIERRA LEONE TOGO nu
e SOUTH
D'IVOIRE Ogbomoso Prov.
Monrovia Ibadan
Be
CENTRAL AFRICAN
ETHIOPIA admin.
Yamoussoukro Accra
Lomé
Lagos
SUDAN line SOMALIA
Porto- REPUBLIC
LIBERIA
Novo
CAMEROON Juba
Abidjan
Douala Bangui
Malabo
EQUATORIAL GUINEA Yaoundé
Congo UGANDA Mogadishu
Gulf of Guinea
SAO TOME REP. OF Kisangani Kampala KENYA Equator 0
0 Equator Libreville
AND PRINCIPE THE
São Tomé GABON
CONGO Nairobi
Annobón
(EQUA. GUI.) DEM. REP. RWANDA
Bukavu
Kigali
Lake
Indian
Victoria
OF THE CONGO
Brazzaville
Pointe-Noire
Bujumbura
BURUNDI Mombasa O c e a n Victoria
Kinshasa Lake Dodoma
ANGOLA Tanganyika Zanzibar
(Cabinda) Mbuji-Mayi
Ascension TANZANIA Dar es SEYCHELLES
Luanda Salaam
Lake
South Lubumbashi
Nyasa COMOROS
Moroni
Glorioso Islands
(FRANCE)
MALAWI
Atlantic ANGOLA Kitwe Lilongwe Cidade
Mayotte
(admin. by France,
de Nacala claimed by Comoros)
Namibe Lubango ZAMBIA
Blantyre Juan de Nova Tromelin Island
St. Helena Lusaka
Ocean Zambe
Island
(FRANCE)
Mahajanga
(FRANCE)
zi
Harare Toamasina
MOZAMBIQUE Port
ZIMBABWE Antananarivo
Mozambique Louis
20 Bulawayo Beira 20
Channel St. Denis
Windhoek Bassas
MAURITIUS
Walvis Bay BOTSWANA da India
(FRANCE) Europa
MADAGASCAR Reunion
Tropic of Capricorn Island (FRANCE)
NAMIBIA Gaborone (FRANCE)
Pretoria
Maputo
Saint Helena, Ascension, Johannesburg
Mbabane
and Tristan da Cunha SWAZILAND
(U.K.) SOUTH
O ra Maseru
e
ng
AFRICA LESOTHO
Durban
Indian Ocean
Cape Town Port Elizabeth
Scale 1:51,400,000
TRISTAN
DA CUNHA Azimuthal Equal-Area Projection
0 800 Kilometers
Gough Island 0 800 Miles

40 Boundary representation is 40
not necessarily authoritative.
20 0 20 40 60
803715AI (G00392) 4-14
Africa, Figure 1 Map of Africa
▶ power in ▶ Europe, ▶ air transport became an development. High airfares and inconvenient,
important channel for tourism growth (Pirie 2009). unsafe, and insufficient service of scheduled and
However even today, air transport is perceived charter services are common problems in many
as a major constraint to Africa’s tourism countries.
16 Africa
Growth and development the continent (33 % of all international arrivals),

has suffered a sizeable decline since the Arab
After Morocco’s and Tunisia’s independence in the Spring of 2011. Tunisia has been the most affected
1950s and later of Kenya and ▶ Tanzania, tourism country in the region, with a loss of 31 % of
was viewed as a “passport to development,” and international tourists from 2010 to 2011.
▶ nature tourism assumed an important role. Dur- Several international and regional bodies such
ing the 1990s, South African tourism grew consid- as UNWTO Commission for Africa, African
erably (94 % between 1990 and 2002) and Tourism Organization (sub-Saharan African non-
continued into the twenty-first century with mega- profit organization formed in 2004), RETOSA
events and growth in convention-oriented ▶ busi- (Regional Tourism Organization of Southern
ness tourism. Today, safari remains a centerpiece of Africa), and NEPAD (New Partnership for
tourism products in ▶ Botswana, Kenya, South Africa’s Development) are concerned with tour-
Africa, Tanzania, and Zambia, and trans-frontier ism in the continent. Policies and strategies are
▶ wildlife tourism is expected to be a successful mostly developed at a national level and tend to
formula (Hottola 2009). On the other hand, mirror neoliberal development agendas that
▶ island tourism has also registered sustained underline the role of the private sector and global
above average growth in countries like ▶ Cape competitiveness. These policies need to be further
Verde (27 %), Reunion (12 %), and ▶ Seychelles articulated with the sectorial policies, namely,
(11 %). In 2009, 31 % of international tourists were education, nature conservation, health, and infor-
Europeans, 43 % were Africans, and only 4 % were mation and communication technologies.
from the ▶ Americas (UNWTO 2011).
The main entry points are located in ▶ South
Africa, the resorts of Egypt and Tunisia, Casa- Future prospects
blanca, Addis Ababa, Nairobi, and Lagos. Road
and ▶ rail networks at continental scale are inad- Future tourism facilitation measures should focus
equate, as they are at a national and regional scale on improving ▶ tourist mobility through expe-
in many countries. Port facilities are insufficient. dited visa procedures, cross-border development
While major international events such as the FIFA projects, and community involvement in tourism
World Cup soccer tournament have spurred devel- development (Dieke 2000). Africa’s tourism
opment in South Africa, other African countries potential is dependent largely on both regional
have experienced far lesser tourism infrastructure economic development and advances in aviation
investment. technology, allowing for more cost-efficient and
Tourism is highly concentrated on a few desti- thus growing air access to (and within) the conti-
nations: South Africa (29 %) and Morocco (22 %) nent. Harnessing the potential of tourism in Africa
contribute about half of the total number of inter- as a developmental tool also requires education
national arrivals. In 2012, the region enjoyed 52.4 and skills training for the provision of quality
million tourists (almost doubled since 2000), and tourism services. Prospects of a growing middle
the latest ▶ UNWTO forecasts that arrivals will class due to broad-based economic growth under-
increase from 85 million in 2020 to 134 million in pin prospects for regional tourism growth based
2030. One out of every 11 jobs comes from the on inter-African tourism.
tourism industry. Despite the positive develop- Perhaps due to Africa’s diversity and size, most
ment of the past years, Africa accounts for only studies have been conducted at national or
5 % of global tourism and for 3 % of receipts, regional scale (East, Southern, and North Africa),
which amounted to US$ 1 billion (this figure was with a strong predominance of studies related to
more than trebled since 2000). In 2012 the total South Africa and to a lesser degree to Southern
contribution to GDP increased to 9 % and to 7.1 % Africa. Concerns over sustainability in tourism
of total employment (WTTC 2013). Tourism in call for more research with respect to managing
North Africa, one of the most important regions in tourism growth in Africa while at the same time
Agritourism 17
mitigating its potentially negative impacts. Many resorts, leaving behind underutilized farmland in
topics, such as inter-African tourism and gender the countryside.
inequality, are under-researched. With shifting global consumption patterns and A
▶ attitudes toward food, the tourism ▶ industry
See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ change, sociocultural, has opened up new opportunities for producers in
▶ cultural tourism, ▶ development, ▶ safari. terms of food tourism, ▶ wine tourism, and spe-
cialized niche market food production for tourist
consumption. Tourism makes it possible for
farmers to reduce food miles by bringing the mar-
References ket to the farm and so cuts the cost of agricultural
trade. This “farm-to-fork” approach is reinforcing
Dieke, P., ed. 2000 The Political Economy of Tourism these linkages, and governments are increasingly
Development in Africa. New York: Cognizant.
Hottola, P., ed. 2009 Tourism Strategies and Local
▶ training farmers in food regulations, ▶ certifi-
Responses in Southern Africa. Wallingford: CABI. cation, and packaging. At the same time, tourists
Pirie, G. 2009 Incidental Tourism: British Imperial are being encouraged to try local dishes. Wine
Air Travel in the 1930s. Journal of Tourism History tourism allows consumers to develop their knowl-
1:49-66.
Pirie, G. 2013 Automobile Organizations Driving Tourism
edge of different wines and teaches an under-
in Pre-independence Africa. Journal of Tourism His- standing of ▶ place attachment such as “terroir,”
tory 5:73-91. which is so important in the wine industry. Other
UNWTO, 2011, The Tourism Market in Africa. Madrid: foodstuffs, including cheese or tea (Jolliffe 2007),
World Tourism Organization.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism. Economic Impact 2013.
may also attract gourmet tourists to specific sites
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. of production. In some countries, such as ▶ Italy
and ▶ France, cooking lessons using local pro-
duce are also offered, often on the farm.
Tourist accommodation on agricultural hold-
ings can provide extra income for small farms.
Agritourism Much of the work in offering hospitality falls on
farm women, but tourists offer contact with the
Janet Momsen outside world and help to overcome the isolation
Department of Human Ecology, of these women. These agritourism entrepreneurs
University of California, Davis, USA often become better stewards of the rural environ-
ment and may start organic production.
Farm-stay tourists stimulate demand for local
Agritourism brings together two sectors of the foods and provide a market for region-specific
world economy: agriculture, one of the oldest food festivals and farmers’ markets, a develop-
industries now declining in terms of ▶ employment which helps to maintain the local culture.
ment, and tourism, one of the most rapidly Farms taking guests may also offer other attrac-
expanding industries. The potential for creating tions, such as horse riding in the western United
synergistic relationships between the two has States and ▶ Hungary, cycles for rent, and facili-
been widely recognized by planners and ties for fishing and canoeing in local rivers. In
policymakers, but realizing the benefits has ▶ Spain, some locations offer transport in horse-
proved difficult (Torres and Momsen 2011). Fur- drawn carriages between farms offering such
thermore, there is growing evidence that the two stays. Consumption of local products creates a
industries often vie for ▶ resources such as land, unique sense of place, later evoked in the con-
labor, water, and ▶ investment. This competition sumption of these products when the tourist
is detrimental to local agriculture and rural com- returns home (Hall et al. 2003). For future
munities. Demand for labor may lead to research, the convergence of agritourism and
out-migration from the countryside to ▶ tourist food studies offers considerable scope.
18 Air transport
See also ▶ Coffee and tea tourism, ▶ culinary Airbus A320 and the Boeing 737 fly within a
tourism, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ wine tourism. continent up to a range of 3,700 km. Some cross
continents, such as the Boeing 747, Boeing
777, or Airbus 350 series, which range up to
References 17,400 km. The Boeing 747 dominated long-
range aviation until competition developed in
Hall, C., L. Sharples, R. Mitchell, N. Macionis, and which the Airbus series took to the skies (Larsen
B. Cambourne 2003 Food Tourism around the World:
et al. 2012). The long-haul nonstop services fly up
Development, Management and Markets. Oxford:
Butterworth-Heinemann. to 18 h in duration.
Jolliffe, L., ed. 2007 Tea and Tourism: Tourists, Civil aviation is comprised of all nonmilitary
Traditions and Transformations. Clevedon: Channel flying, including general aviation and
View.
scheduled air transport. The former embraces all
Torres, R., and J. Momsen, eds. 2011 Tourism and Agri-
culture: New Geographies of Consumption, Production nonscheduled private and commercial civil flying,
and Rural Restructuring. London: Routledge. air charter, private aviation, flight training,
ballooning, air ambulance, firefighting services,
agriculture, and mining (Bartsch 2010).
Except for airplanes, helicopters, and rockets,
Air transport other commercial and private air transport types
exist, such as hot air balloons, blimps, and gliders.
Michael Spisto Air transportation in seaplanes is common in
College of Law and Justice, Victoria University, coastal areas even in longer-range trips
Melbourne, Australia (Larsen et al. 2012).
Except in the United States, airlines award
miles in business or full economy classes. They
Among the different modes of transportation, air offer free travel and other gifts once a passenger
has experienced the fastest growth. Aviation pro- has flown with the airline (Doganis 2012). Air-
vides 57 million jobs worldwide and transports lines can link their programs with those of other
over one-third of world trade cargoes. In 2013, carriers in the creation of global alliances. This
over three billion passengers traveled by air covers code sharing, by allowing one airline to
(Bartsch 2013). More than 29 million scheduled offer that flight under its own code (Cento 2009).
flights are made annually and the growth has The International Air Transport Association con-
averaged about 5 % over the past 30 years trols all activities of international flights (Bartsch
(Belobaba et al. 2009). 2013).
Air transport ensures economic and social pro- Since the Wright Brothers’ first successfully
gress by connecting people, cultures, and coun- powered and controlled aircraft took to the skies
tries, providing access to global markets, in 1903, air transportation has gained enormous
generating trade and tourism, and linking devel- momentum and is now regarded as one of the
oped and developing countries. This mode con- biggest industries operating in many countries. It
sists of over 2,000 airlines with more than 23,000 is projected that this industry will still grow enor-
commercial aircraft flying to over 3,700 airports mously over the next few decades, as more and
worldwide (Belobaba et al. 2009). more people rely on air transportation to reach
Other than space flights, air transport is the their chosen destinations.
fastest. Commercial jets can fly 955 km/h, while
single-engine piston aircraft reach 555 km. The
Bombardier’s CRJs and Embraer’s ERJs transport See also ▶ Airline, ▶ aviation, ▶ frequent flyer
30–100 passengers over shorter distances. The program, ▶ transportation, ▶ travel.
Airline 19
References flies specific routes. “Part 135” carriers are

on-demand airlines and include charter flights
Bartsch, R. 2013 Aviation Law in Australia. Sydney: where a trip to any destination can be requested.
Thomson Reuters. A
Thus, a scheduled carrier is an airline operating
Bartsch, R. 2010 Aviation law in Australia, 3rd ed. Thom-
son Reuters (Professional), Australia. ISBN: according to a timetable (Crocker 2007).
9780455226361. In 1916, the earliest airline organization, Air-
Belobaba, P., A. Odoni, and C. Barnhart 2009 The Global craft Transport and Travel Company, was formed
Airline Industry. Chichester: Wiley.
and in 1919 offered 2½-h flights daily from
Cento, A. 2009 The Airline Industry. Heidelberg: Physica-
Verlag. Hounslow Heath Aerodrome in London to Le
Doganis, R. 2012 Flying Off Course: The Economics of Bourget in Paris. It was the first regular interna-
International Airlines. Hoboken: Taylor and Francis. tional service in the world (Larsen et al. 2012),
Larsen, P., J. Sweeney, and J. Gillick 2012 Aviation Law:
using de Havilland DH-4 biplanes. The first coun-
Cases, Laws and Related Sources. Leiden: Brill.
tries to offer air transportation to its colonies were
Belgium in 1920 (Sabena), the Netherlands in
1926 (KLM), the United Kingdom in 1924
(Imperial Airways), and ▶ Australia in 1922
Airline (Qantas). The first American service operated
from Miami to ▶ Cuba in 1927. United Airlines
Michael Spisto introduced the first flight attendants in 1931 and
College of Law and Justice, Victoria University, they were all trained nurses (Larsen et al. 2012).
Melbourne, Australia
Deregulation and alliance

Airlines or airways form a ▶ system or organiza-
tion which provides typically scheduled flights for Many countries have national airlines owned by
passengers or cargo among specified points the government. However, from 1978, the United
(Doganis 2012). As an air transport system, it States and many other countries deregulated their
includes its equipment, routes, operating person- airlines so that they can negotiate their own oper-
nel, and management systems. Globally, it con- ating arrangements without governmental inter-
sists of over 2,000 airlines which transport over ference (Belobaba et al. 2009). In the 1990s,
three billion passengers (Belobaba et al. 2009). In open skies agreements became more common
2007, 29 million scheduled flights were made and opened up international routes to further com-
(Belobaba et al. 2009). Airlines may operate as petition. Planes can now fly from any place in the
scheduled services or charters, which operate European Union to the United States. Deregula-
flights outside normal schedules through a hiring tion in ▶ Europe started in 1988 and the European
arrangement (Cento 2009). Charters “bundle” airline operation over the past 20 years has
flights and accommodation packages together, changed from being highly regulated to a free-
whereas scheduled airlines do not (Truxal 2013). market industry (Cento 2009). In November
A scheduled airline in the ▶ United States 1990, domestic aviation in Australia was
refers to any civilian aircraft run by a civilian deregulated.
scheduled carrier. The airline, guaranteed a depar- Airlines lease or own their aircraft. They may
ture and arrival slot, publishes tariffs for passenger have only a single aircraft for carrying mail or
services between named cities at usual and spec- cargo or have hundreds for intercontinental,
ified times on regular flights. Under the US Spe- intracontinental, domestic, regional, or interna-
cial Federal Aviation Regulations, a scheduled tional travel. Thus, since deregulation, partner-
airline is a “Part 121” carrier in legal terms and ships or alliances have formed with other airlines
20 Airline
in which each utilizes each other’s resources to (Doganis 2012). On average, airlines earn only a
save costs (Cento 2009). In 2008, British Airways US$4.00 profit per passenger regardless of the
and Iberia formed the International Airlines airfare.
Group, the biggest in Europe (Truxal 2013). Skytrax introduced the World Airline Star
Deregulation of the markets also led to the forma- Rating program in 1999. It ranks airline prod-
tion of frequent flyer programs in 1981, which uct and service standards. Its rating levels are
offer free travel for loyal customers. American based on professional evaluations conducted
Airlines was the first to introduce this program by internal airline audit specialists, rather than
(Escobari et al. 2011). on customer reviews. This ensures that every
airline receives a fair and independent evalu-
ation. Ratings consider all areas of an airline’s
Profits and costs airport and onboard product and service
standards.
In December 1991, Pan Am Airlines ended its Since the first scheduled daily international
reign as a result of bankruptcy. This event commercial air service began in 1919, the airline
highlighted the financial costs faced by airline industry has grown like no other to transport
companies. Carriers cost their pricing for ser- passengers to their chosen destinations. Most
vices to maximize revenue. Yield management countries have airlines departing from them,
measures the average fare paid by all passengers and it is projected that the number of airlines
per kilometer or mile on a particular route. Most worldwide will continue to grow as world popu-
airlines use price discrimination, which takes lation figures continue to rise and as airline com-
into account the days remaining until departure, petitors continuously try to bring lower airfare
the booked load factor, the forecast of total prices to tourists.
demand, competitive pricing, and variations by
day of week of departure and by time of day. See also ▶ Air transport, ▶ aviation, ▶ frequent
Each cabin of the aircraft (first, business, and flyer program, ▶ travel.
economy) is divided into classes for pricing pur-
poses with the goal of fetching the highest price
for each seat without driving the consumer else-
where. Thus, leisure passengers are price elastic, References
while business people are less so because they
Belobaba, P., A. Odoni, and C. Barnhart 2009 The Global
are more time sensitive (Belobaba et al. 2009;
Airline Industry. Chichester: Wiley.
Cento 2009). Cento, A. 2009 The Airline Industry: Challenges in the 21st
In low-fare carriers, however, a simplified Century. Heidelberg: Physica-Verlag.
price structure exists with fares substantially Crocker, D. 2007 Dictionary of Aviation. London: A &
C Black.
lower than legacy airlines (Belobaba Doganis, R. 2012 Flying Off Course: The Economics
et al. 2009). Full-service or legacy carriers have of International Airlines. Hoboken: Taylor and
fixed operating costs. Most of the income from Francis.
ticket sales is paid to a wide variety of cost Escobari, D., M. Bar, and K. Chernomaz 2011 Pricing and
Traveler’s Decision to use Frequent Flyer Miles: Evi-
centers. The 1992–1996 period showed that
dence from the U.S. Airline Industry. In Airline Indus-
each air transport party is more profitable than try: Strategies, Operations and Safety, C. Walsh, ed.,
the airlines itself. While they earn 6 % return on pp.213-231. New York: Nova Science.
capital, airports earned 10 %, catering companies Larsen, P., J. Sweeney, and J. Gillick 2012 Aviation Law:
Cases, Laws and Related Sources. Leiden: Brill.
10–13 %, handling companies 11–14 %, aircraft
Truxal, S. 2013 Competition and Regulation in the
lessors 15 %, aircraft manufacturers 16 %, and Airline Industry: Puppets in Chaos. Hoboken: Taylor
global distribution companies more than 30 % and Francis.
Albania 21
growing, the country remains one of the poorest

Albania in Europe, with a considerable informal economy
and a lack of infrastructure. A
Salvatore Messina and Francesco Redi Albania has a diverse population and cultural
Fondacioni Europa, Tirana, Albania heritage. The area was controlled by the Byzan-
tine Roman until the seventh century Slavic
migrations, followed by the Bulgarian Empire in
Republic of Albania is located on the Balkan the ninth century and subsequently by the Serbian
Peninsula in Southeast ▶ Europe (Figure 1). It is Empire until the fourteenth century. The
the 139th largest country in the world (28,748 km2 Ottomans controlled most of Albania from 1431
or 11,100 mi2) and has a population of 2.9 million. to 1912, when the country was declared an inde-
It held its first democratic multiparty elections in pendent state. It was occupied by Fascist ▶ Italy
1991 and is a potential candidate for European and then by Nazi ▶ Germany during World War II
Union accession following the Thessaloniki Euro- and, after its liberation, the country became a
pean Council of 2003. While its economy is Communist state until the collapse of the Eastern
Albania, Figure 1 Map of Albania

22 Algeria
Bloc. As a legacy of this history, the country has a MoTCYS 2007b Tourism Strategy 2007–2013. Tirana:
significant cultural and archaeological heritage, Ministry of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport of
Albania
including UNESCO World Heritage sites. WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact
Tourism data are poor. While there is a signif- 2014, Albania. London: World Travel and Tourism
icant potential, currently tourist numbers are low Council.
and mainly from neighboring countries (INSTAT
2014). The offering is disorganized and services
must be improved. Lonely Planet ranked the
country as the number one destination to visit in
2011. Climate, unspoiled amenities, strategic Algeria
location in the Mediterranean, and a variety of
territories are considered as the main strengths Dominique Verdugo1 and Nourddine Bouanani2
1
(Messina 2013), while attracting more tourist Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group,
flows and increasing tourism employment are Sustainable Tourism Development, Bordeaux,
the main opportunities. France
2
In 2007, the government instituted tourism KATLYSE, Blida, Algeria
laws and formulated a development strategy
(MoTCYS 2007a, b). The European University
for Tourism was established in 2008, and the
Ministry of Urban Development and Tourism Algeria (2,381,741 km2or 919,595 mi2) borders the
recently issued its 2014–2020 strategy for tourism Mediterranean Sea between ▶ Morocco and ▶ Tuni-
development. Stakeholder and government inter- sia as well as Western Sahara, ▶ Mauritania, ▶ Mali,
est and investment in tourism are growing and, ▶ Niger, and ▶ Libya. It is the largest country in
thanks to the availability of more European Union ▶ Africa (Figure 1). The population of 38,813,722
funds, the industry appears to have a bright future. (2014) is primarily one Arab-Berber ethnic group
In 2013, direct contribution of Albanian tourism (99 %). The country has three main languages, Ara-
to GDP was 4.8 %, while the total was 16.7 % bic (official), French (lingua franca), and Tamazight
(WTTC 2014). The industry directly supported (Kabylie Berber), as well as other Berber languages
41,000 jobs (4.3 % of total employment) and in such as Tachawit, Mozabit, and Tamahaq.
total supported 146,500 jobs (or 15.2 % of total Algeria’s economy is heavily dependent on oil
employment). Issues for future research should accounting for roughly 60 % of budget revenues,
concentrate on policies and on human resources 30 % of GDP, and over 95 % of export earnings.
as key factors for tourism development. Algeria’s economy remains dominated by the
state, a legacy of the country’s socialist post-
independence development model with heavy
See also ▶ Archaeology, ▶ beach tourism, regulation and an emphasis on state-driven
▶ cultural tourism, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ world growth.
heritage. Algeria’s tourism ▶ resources include its
remarkable Grand Sud (Sahara Desert), cultural
heritage, oases, architecture, and Mediterranean
References coastline. Tourism has been recently identified
by the government as a means to stimulating
INSTAT 2014 Arrivals of Foreign Citizens by Mode of economic development and, particularly, benefi-
Travel 2013. Tirana: Instituti i Statistikes. cial in reducing youth unemployment. There were
Messina, S. 2013 Esperienze e Casi di Turismo Sostenibile: 2,732,731 arrivals in 2013 (two-thirds ▶ leisure,
Le Politiche per il Turismo in Albania. Milan: Franco
one-third business), of which some 65 % were
Angeli.
MoTCYS 2007a Law No. 9734. Tirana: Tourism Ministry Algerian nationals living abroad (Ministère du
of Tourism, Culture, Youth and Sport of Albania. Tourisme et de l’Artisanat 2014). The main
Algeria 23
Algeria, Figure 1 Map of Algeria
foreign market is neighboring Tunisia with half a 2013 was ▶ Turkey (40 %) with 14,500 and
million arrivals, followed by the ex-colonizer Morocco (26 %) with 27,000 tourists despite the
▶ France (115,000 tourists) and ▶ Spain (34,000 closure of the border between these two countries
tourists). The fastest market increase in 2012/ (Lanquar 2012; WTTC 2013).
24 Alienation
The government’s recent efforts to promote WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2013:
tourism include the elaboration of the Schéma Algeria. London : World Travel and Tourism Council.
Directeur d’Aménagement Touristique or tourism
masterplan published in 2008, improvement of
the tourism information ▶ system in 2013, prepa-
ration of the Plan Qualité Tourisme Algérie or Alienation
tourism quality plan in 2013, introduction of an
apprentice training program for cooks in 2014, Lan Xue1, David Manuel-Navarrete2 and
and the structuring and reorganization of the Christine Buzinde3
1
Office National Algérien du Tourisme or Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism
▶ national tourism organization and of the Agence Management, The Pennsylvania State University,
Nationale de Développement du Tourisme or University Park, USA
2
national tourism development agency. School of Sustainability, Arizona State
Three national hotel and tourism schools are University, Tempe, USA
3
located in Tizi Ouzou, Bou Saada, and Algiers. School of Community Resources and
The challenge to improving the quality of tour- Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix,
ism ▶ education is the establishment of a recog- AZ, USA
nized postgraduate university curriculum. This
would support initiating product development
based upon solid market intelligence and Alienation became a salient sociological concept
research. when Karl Marx (1978) used it to identify the ills
The Algerian tourism ▶ industry is currently of the relations of capitalist production. According
facing major and diverse challenges. The main to him, it operates in several forms: the separation
ones include improvement of ▶ destination of laborers from their products, their act of pro-
image and of customer service delivery, privatiza- duction, themselves, and fellow workers. The
tion of hotels, sector competitiveness, and, above debate on alienation reached its climax between
all with regard to international tourists, improved the 1960s and the 1970s when the Frankfurt
visa facilitation and land border crossing. The School, existentialists, and American social psy-
country’s capital city, Algiers, is at only 2-h flight chologists contributed to reinterpretations and
away from many major European cities. This is a empirical measurements of alienation. It was
promising issue for future research on city break around the same period that MacCannell (1976),
tourism. in his seminal book, borrowed this concept and
made it relevant to tourism studies.
See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ desert tourism, From a Marxist production perspective, the
▶ urban tourism, ▶ visa, ▶ visiting friend and ▶ development of modern tourism, especially
relative. movements from the core into the periphery
through ▶ mass tourism, assists the spread of
capitalism, which results in the loss of means of
production for local residents. For instance, land
References alienation associated with tourism development is
prevalent in many parts of the world. From a
Lanquar, R. 2012 L’Etat du Tourisme des pays MED 11 à la
mi-2012. Diplomatie et Développement Durable
consumption perspective, tourism may be seen
(unpublished document). as a way of temporarily overcoming the alienation
Ministère du Tourisme et de l’Artisanat 2014 Synthèse des that tourists experience in their own home envi-
Flux Touristiques en Algérie Année 2013 (unpublished ronments. Paradoxically this may not cure
document).
Allocentric and psychocentric 25
alienation because tourism itself is penetrated by Wang, N. 1999 Rethinking Authenticity in Tourism Expe-
commodification and reification; thus, engaging rience. Annals of Tourism Research 26:349-370.
Watson, G., and J. Kopachevsky 1994 Interpretations of
in tourism marks the beginning of a new form of Tourism as Commodity. Annals of Tourism Research A
alienation (MacCannell 1976; Watson and 21:643-660.
Kopachevsky 1994). Xue, L., D. Manuel-Navarrete, and C. Buzinde 2014 The-
The significance of alienation for tourism stud- orizing the Concept of Alienation in Tourism Studies.
Annals of Tourism Research 44:186-199.
ies is further illustrated by its connection with
▶ authenticity (Wang 1999). From the standpoint
of existentialism, alienation is considered antithet-
ical to authenticity, evidence of which can be
found in the writings of Martin Heidegger, Søren Allocentric and psychocentric
Aabye Kierkegaard, and Jean-Paul Sartre,
wherein it is a normal mode of the human condi- Toshiya Hashimoto
tion that can be eliminated via the search for College of Tourism, Rikkyo University, Niiza-shi,
authenticity. The notion of alienation offers an Saitama, Japan
important theoretical layer from which to compre-
hend recent debates on existential authenticity.
Since existential alienation is about the ways peo- Coined by tourism researcher Plog (1974), these
ple engage in certain activities, whether it can be terms describe two types of personality.
activated through tourism or not depends on the Psychocentric tourists are self-inhibiting, nervous,
forms of tourism, the characteristics of individ- and non-adventurous; they often refuse to ▶ travel
uals, and the ways in which each participant inter- by air for psychological reasons rather than financial
acts with tourism settings. or other practical concerns. In comparison,
To date, alienation is still a relatively allocentric tourists are outgoing, self-confident, and
unexplored concept in tourism studies (Xue adventurous. Sometimes psychocentrics are also
et al. 2014). Nonetheless, in the wake of the cul- referred to as dependables and allocentrics as ven-
tural turn, alienation will play a key role by offer- turers (Plog 2001).
ing a unique vantage point for scholarly Psychocentric tourists prefer destinations
discussions on the intersection among tourism, which they can reach by car and select familiar
social justice, and self-liberation. Its conceptual destinations equipped with well-developed tour-
richness and prevalence in the social sciences can ism amenities, such as hotels, family-type restau-
also shed light on the understanding of tourism in rants, and shops. They like comprehensive tour
relation to ▶ modernity and postmodernity. package with well-organized schedules; they
expect foreigners to speak their home languages,
See also ▶ Conspicuous consumption, ▶ critical and they have the habit of purchasing souvenirs.
tourism studies, ▶ impact, ▶ modernity, In contrast, allocentrics frequently and often fly to
▶ sociology. destinations. They prefer less-developed spots to
crowded and typical places. They do not pay
special attention to the conditions of ▶ accommo-
References dation and food, but they prefer ▶ tour arrange-
ments that allow for considerable freedom and
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the flexibility. They learn foreign languages or at
Leisure Class. New York: Schocken.
Marx, K. 1978 Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of
least basic expressions before and during the
1844. In The Marx-Engels Reader, R. Tucker, ed., trips, buy local crafts, and enjoy meeting people
pp.70-91. New York: Norton. from different cultures (Plog 1991).
26 Alpine tourism
Plog (1974, 1991, 2001) considers these two Plog, S. 2001 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in
personalities as archetypes, and it is rare that a Popularity: An Update of a Cornell Quarterly
Classic. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
particular individual is either allocentric or Quarterly 42(3):13-24.
psychocentric. He classifies the US population
along a psychographic continuum, ranging from
the psychocentric at one extreme to the allocentric
at the other. Between these two extremes, the
“near-psychocentric,” the “mid-centric,” and the Alpine tourism
“near-allocentric” types are situated. The
mid-centrics have characteristics of both types. Klaus Weiermair1 and Jannes Bayer2
1
They typically look for relaxation and pleasure Center for Tourism and Service Economics,
in relatively familiar environments with friends University of Innsbruck, Stock Ost, Innsbruck,
and relatives. For them, holidays mean escapes Austria
2
from daily routines, and their favorite places for Management Center Innsbruck, Innsbruck,
holidaying are healthy environment with natural Austria
scenery, such as forests or lakeside resorts. On the
basis of these concepts, Plog profiles the psycho-
graphic position of destinations and explains why Alpine, as opposed to mountain tourism, concerns
people do or do not travel and why particular itself with the phenomenon which takes place
destination areas rise and fall in popularity. within the perimeters of the European Alps. The
This model has been widely cited, often with development follows the classical pattern of des-
“allocentric/psychocentric diagram” in tourism tination lifecycles which add up to a general
textbooks, because it is easy to understand. The alpine tourism pattern.
concepts have also been adopted by many During the first phase, the Alps were visited
researchers. At the same time, there are critical by pilgrims and adventurers pursuing explor-
comments on its continuing usefulness, its simple atory activities. Its next phase took place in the
unidimensional nature, its lack of measurement, core alpine regions of ▶ Austria, Italy, France,
and its narrow North American focus. Further- and Switzerland, drawing tourists from adjoining
more, increasing numbers of tourists may change regions in tandem with skiing and hiking as
the characteristics of a destination, which may in popular sporting activities. At the same time,
turn attract new types of tourists. The ▶ model numerous alpine clubs and refuges have been
that is able to capture such dynamic interplays initiated, followed by the construction of cable
between the personality of the tourists and the cars and ski lifts. Alpine healthcare carried out
▶ destination would serve as a useful tool in mainly in alpine sanatoria was added as a third
understanding the ever-changing destinations in product. Throughout the war and interwar
Asia and ▶ Africa. periods, alpine tourism grew moderately.
Starting in the 1960s, many destinations became
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ continuum model, exposed to internationalization, and mass tour-
▶ motivation, ▶ psychology. ism began in the third phase of the lifecycle with
a high growth of arrivals, coming from new and
emerging markets such as Russia, China, India,
References and Japan.
By the 1980s, mass tourism had taken a hold
Plog, S. 1974 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in in many alpine destinations, signaling the first
Popularity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administra-
signs of ecological, social, and cultural decay.
tion Quarterly 14(4):55-58.
Plog, S. 1991 Leisure Travel: Making it a Growth Economic degradations which followed were in
Market. . .Again! New York: Wiley. part the result of traditional basic alpine products
Alternative tourism 27
such as hiking, healthcare, and alpine skiing

which become outdated in the face of shifting Alternative tourism
leisure preferences and demographic changes. A
Such transformation resulted from natural Santana-Talavera Agustin1 and
(ecological) and built (social and cultural) capac- Heredina Fernadez-Betancort2
1
ity constraints in the destination. Climate change Institute of Political and Social Sciences,
and the retreat of glaciers are about to further University of La Laguna, San Cristobal de La
aggravate the sustainable competitive advantage Laguna, Spain
2
of many alpine destinations. While some desti- Escuela Universitaria de Turismo of Lanzarote,
nations in the outlying alpine regions are still University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
expanding, most of the inner alpine core finds Tahíche, Lanzarote, Spain
itself in the rejuvenation phase of the lifecycle,
aimed at correcting decay and extending the
growth with new alpine tourism experiences The concept and practice of alternative tourism
(Peters and Weiermair 2000). The final years of arose from a response to the ▶ impact of ▶ mass
the 1990s have involved changing origin markets tourism and as an expression of rebellion and
as well as the whole distribution and information search for adventure (Dernoi 1981). It involves
systems (Weiermair 2008). tourism that respects the values of local people
To remain sustainable and competitive, it will and nature, favoring encounters and exchanges
be imperative that future research look into tour- and building experiences (Smith and Eadington
ist satisfaction as well as stewardship of the des- 1994).
tinations’ natural, social, and cultural resources.
This will require negotiated compromises among
tourism stakeholders through new forms of
Origin and development
destination governance systems (Beritelli
et al. 2007).
Alternative tourism is a consumer choice that is
outside regular tourism channels. Since the con-
See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ competitive
solidation of mass tourism in the late 1970s, there
advantage, ▶ destination lifecycle, ▶ mountain
have always been some significant tourism prac-
tourism, ▶ skiing tourism.
tices which have not followed the usual lines of
purchase and consumption of institutionalized
tourism (▶ tour operators, ▶ travel agencies,
References etc.). This kind of tourism has often been epito-
mized by drifters, hippies, or adventurers; how-
Beritelli, P., T. Bieger, and C. Laesser 2007 Destination ever, the demand for differentiated and
Governance: Using Corporate Governance Theories as
individualized experiences has slowly spread,
a Foundation for Effective Destination Management.
Journal of Travel Research 46:96-107. apparently discerning these consumers from
Peters, M., and K. Weiermair 2000 Tourist Attractions and “tourists.” Generally, alternative tourism involves
Attracted Tourists: How to Satisfy Today’s “Fickle” traveling with the minimum possible cost,
Tourist Clientele? The Journal of Tourism Studies
coexisting with local people, using traditional
11:22-29.
Weiermair, K. 2008 On the Changing Structure, Conduct local stores, and, occasionally, doing small
and Performance of the Tourism Industry: From “Old” amounts of craftwork. Despite their economic
to the “New” Tourism. In Change Management in contribution to ▶ destination areas being limited,
Tourism. From “Old” to “New” Tourism,
C. Kronenberg, S. M€ uller, M. Peters, B. Pikkemaat
these “alternative tourists” or travelers bring with
and K. Weiermair, eds., pp.13-30. Berlin: Erich them new ideas and foreign fashions (clothing,
Schmidt. lifestyle, drug use, etc.), which reflect many of
28 Alternative tourism
the major sociocultural impacts of tourism on host When comparing the numerous case studies, it
populations. Paradoxically, many of the areas is noticeable that the characteristics of alternative
identified by such tourists (Mediterranean coast, tourism products and their consequences on vis-
the ▶ Caribbean, Southeast Asia, Macaronesia) ited populations and areas are similar both in their
have now been developed by the tourism ▶ indus- intentions and in their objectives. All of them refer
try, and some of these tourists have settled and to themselves, at least in their design, as “soft
become business owners. tourism” (null or low impact). They aim to respect
Economic growth in the 1980s, together with the environment and people and be non-intensive
improved means of transport, increased com- in terms of number of tourists and infrastructures.
petitiveness and demand for segmentation and Basically, they have in common their interest in
favored the rapid appearance of numerous “new the environment and culture, including in the most
forms of tourism” partly inspired by alternative extreme cases the former as a reflection of the
tourism. These products have led to greater latter. Therefore, the degree of alternativeness of
market flexibility partly by opening up new each type of tourism should be differentiated.
areas for tourism ▶ development (in product Obviously, from the point of view of the products
consumption and/or urban development) and and their market analysis, this type of simple
partly by offering a broader picture of what differentiation would not be worthwhile, in prin-
customers could expect. ciple, as it would probably need to be greatly
The core idea of alternative tourism is that expanded. However, from the need to analyze
tourists have a satisfying experience and a genu- and compare the implementation and evolution
ine experience of nature, culture, people, or a of these alternative products (Stronza 2001),
combination of them. Alternative tourism is usu- their use and generated impacts, some generaliza-
ally carried out in sparsely populated areas tions, at least as far as the characterization of the
(uninhabited places or with very low levels of destinations need to be made.
human occupation, nonurban rural environments,
or in small concentrated populations), although
monumental-architectural or museum city tours Definition and alternatives
can also be included. Among the various trade
names used, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ ethnic tourism, With references to Dernoi (1981) and Holden
▶ rural tourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ adventure (1984), Smith and Eadington (1994) proposed an
tourism, ▶ volunteer tourism, ▶ responsible tour- inclusive definition of alternative tourism, under-
ism, and ▶ cultural tourism, in general, stand out stood as forms of tourism that are consistent with
as some of the most common. the natural, social, and community values,
There is a substantial body of literature that has allowing positive enjoyment for both hosts and
analyzed these forms of tourism and their conse- guests and making it worthwhile to share experi-
quences (Cater and Lowman 1994; Chambers ences. Overall, in the promotion (and analysis) of
1997; Smith and Brent 2001; Smith and these forms of tourism, the use of concepts such as
Eadington 1994). However, the pace of market “culture,” “experience,” “responsibility,” “exoti-
change and the innovations, variations, and com- cism,” “primitivism,” “authenticity,” and “sus-
binations offered by destinations demonstrate a tainability” is often highlighted. However, all of
socioeconomic and sociocultural reality that is them are of a highly relative nature, and their own
more dynamic than the theories and their goals. definitions (and applications) become real issues
Therefore, to keep abreast of this progress in for anthropological analysis in general and tour-
tourism, as well as to predict the unwanted effects ism analysis in particular. But such concepts, or
of tourism ▶ activity, it is necessary to define, as rather the broad rhetoric produced on them, will
clearly as possible, what is meant, both from a be what defines the complementary products and
market and an academic point of view, regarding by-products offered. Besides, it should not be
each of the products offered. forgotten that destinations, travel agencies, and
Alternative tourism 29
tour operators try to gain market share and capture why of the elements shown and to marvel at the
specific tourists by creating different expectations whole and wonder at the details. Concerned
or even nuances, so it would be methodologically about nature and manifestations of cultures intu- A
inappropriate to limit definitions of alternative itively considered to be on the verge of change,
tourism to certain activities existing today. If any- imminent loss, or notable shortage and scarcity,
thing differentiates these sophisticated forms of these tourists search for signs of identity and the
tourism, it is the possibility of increasing their autochthonous side. This can produce a nostalgic
appeal by adding and/or modifying by-products/ feeling in them that leads to affection for memo-
components of the general product, adapting them ries, places, and times more imagined than expe-
to the conditions and requirements of potential rienced. Therefore, they become promoters of
tourists and to the investment possibilities and any elements that could be included in their
specific features of the businesses (usually small alternative tourism experience.
or medium sized) and agencies (governmental or However, many tourists who consume differ-
not) involved. ent products offered as alternative do not con-
The segregation of alternative tourism into its sider them as a first option. They have been
forms of more or less individualized products called “indirect tourists” of culture and nature
paradoxically leads to the typology that Smith (identified with package and mass tourism).
(1977) proposed of the different forms of tourism They are tourists who use tourism to relax,
defined in terms of the kind of ▶ leisure mobility enjoy the weather, rest, or just change the rhythm
preferred by tourists. Comparing this typology of their everyday life. These tourists take part in
with today’s tourism suggests that novelty is not alternative tourism simply because it is in their
as new as it seems. It is rather the high degree of way or, even for what it means, in social prestige
complexity of the demand and the system itself to talk about and/or show they have carried out a
which, especially by combining the defining ele- recognized sociocultural valued activity (i.e.,
ments of each of the five categories from Smith prestige associated with a particular activity).
(ethnic, environmental, recreational, cultural, and This type of tourist is the largest consumer of
historical), give the illusion of new tourism forms. the products offered as alternative. Often identi-
This trend is reflected by potential tourists placed fied as hikers, rather than tourists, the use of the
on the modernity/postmodernity dichotomy with product/service is a complementary activity to
concerns, expectations, and consumption patterns travel.
shaped by the economic, political, and social cir-
cumstances of the developed world in this early
part of the twenty-first century. Trends
It is necessary to differentiate alternative tour-
ists according to their attitudes, motivations, and Whether direct or indirect alternative tourists, it
practices when consuming or defining the can be observed that under the motivational and
▶ tourist experience. “Direct tourists” (cultural, market coverage of “alternative,” innovation and
ethnic, rural, ▶ ecotourism, and others included entrepreneurship have been emphasized in
in what is called alternative tourism) refer to mature destinations promoting the creation of
those who are curious by nature and, despite the multiple micro-products, encouraging new
exoticism shown by the destination, need as forms of tourism businesses and opening up
much as their mass tourism counterparts some new territories. This ▶ adaptation of alternative
familiar features that inspire confidence and tourism to the global economy is currently seen
security. These tourists may be eager for knowl- in the wide range of effects on host communities
edge, albeit as nonscientists, but knowledge and territories, even though its practice may be
based on objective facts. They are willing, in developed with different intensities in small
the limited depth allowed by the visit and the remote villages, in exclusive resorts, or in
information offered, to understand the how and the themed surroundings of mass destinations.
30 Americas
Its implications, as in other forms of tourism, will References

vary according to external factors (transport,
socioeconomic stability of tourism markets, Cater, E., and G. Lowman (eds.) 1994 Ecotourism:
A Sustainable Option? Chichester: Wiley.
scope of the projected image, etc.) and internal
Chambers, E. (ed.) 1997 Tourism and Culture: An Applied
ones (endogenous or exogenous development of Perspective. Albany: State University of New York
tourism in the territory, access and ability to Press.
control the businesses by local people, levels of Dernoi, L. 1981 Alternative Tourism: Towards a New Style
in North-South Relations. International Journal of
governance, level of equality in income distribu-
Tourism Management 2:253-264.
tion). This can occasionally lead to the formation Holden, P. 1984 Alternative Tourism with a Focus on Asia.
of elites or the socioeconomic differentiation Report of the Workshop on Alternative Tourism with a
among hosts. Focus on Asia, Chiang Mai, Thailand,
26 April – 8 May.
The concept of alternative tourism has been the
Muñoz Mazón, A., L. Fuentes Moraleda, and E. Fayos-
basis for discussions on and development of Solà 2012 Turismo Como Instrumento de Desarrollo:
▶ sustainable tourism (mainly in the 1990s) and Una Visión Alternativa Desde Factores Humanos,
▶ responsible tourism (back in 2000). Under- Sociales e Institucionales. PASOS Revista de Turismo
y Patrimonio Cultural 10:437-449.
standing that tourism ▶ activity can be an effec-
Smith, V. (ed.) 1977 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology
tive and efficient tool for economic and social of Tourism. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsyl-
development (Muñoz Mazón et al. 2012), nowa- vania Press.
days, there is a general awareness, although Smith, V., and W. Eadington (eds.) 1994 Tourism Alterna-
tives: Potentials and Problems in the Development of
unequal practice, of extending the principles that
Tourism. Chichester: Wiley.
influenced alternative tourism products (respect, Smith, V., and M. Brent (eds.) 2001 Hosts and Guests
tolerance, conservation, balanced encounters) to Revisited: Tourism Issues of the 21st Century. New
the entire tourism ▶ system, that is, the applica- York: Cognizant.
Stronza, A. 2001 Anthropology of Tourism: Forging New
tion of accountability criteria with the involve-
Ground for Ecotourism and Other Alternatives. Annual
ment of the stakeholders in a dialog (interactive Review of Anthropology 30:261-283.
process in networks) that enables the adaptation
and scale of tourism to environmental and socio-
cultural conditions of the destination environ-
ments, with time-based objectives set for
different degrees of informed and agreed
sustainability. Americas
Alternative tourism has contributed to a respon-
sible improvement of tourism by incorporating Aurora Pedro1 and Michel Julian2
1
parameters of social and environmental carrying Institute for International Economics, University
capacity, as well as by addressing new market seg- of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
2
ments. Strictly speaking, alternatives to standard- UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
ized and packaged tourism products will continue
to appear almost at the same rate as the industry
absorbs others which were born with the same
rebellious and adventurous intention. In a way, the The Americas is the second largest continent with
multiple forms of alternative tourism based on the a surface area of over 42 million km2 (16.2 million
experience, emotions, and feelings of customer will mi2) or 30 % of the Earth’s total land mass
in the medium term continue to complement and (Figure 1). Its estimated population is 972 million
renew products in the tourism industry. (approximately 14 % of the world’s) and it
includes 35 sovereign states and a number of
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ eco- dependent territories (UN-DESA 2013). The
tourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ sus- ▶ region possesses an extraordinary variety of
tainable tourism. tourism ▶ resources (natural, cultural, and built)
Americas 31
Americas, Figure 1 (continued)

32 Americas
Americas, Figure 1 (continued)
shaped by diverse climatic, historical, and eco- Characteristics and evolution of demand
nomic conditions.
Tourism ▶ development in the region has Tourism in recent decades has consolidated as a
followed different paths across its four subregions key sector for regional economic and social devel-
and many destinations. In North America, tourism opment. The industry in the United States gener-
has been an important economic activity since the ates US$1.46 trillion and supports 7.8 million
latter half of the twentieth century, driven by eco- jobs, while in several Caribbean countries, it pro-
nomic growth in the United States. The proximity vides over 50 % of total exports (ECLAC 2013).
of the United States to the ▶ Caribbean was The region comprises of a heterogeneous
important to foster leisure tourism growth in this group of countries and destinations. With 168 mil-
subregion during the last decades of the twentieth lion arrivals in 2013 (15 % of the world’s), the
century. South America tourism has been devel- Americas is the third most visited region, after
oping over the last decades, with the increase of ▶ Europe and ▶ Asia and the Pacific. By subre-
intraregional flows. In Central America, espe- gion, the highest number of international arrivals
cially in the post-conflict period, tourism has is recorded in North America (106 million in 2013
been a key component in integrating the or two-thirds of total) followed by South America
subregion. (27 million, 16 %), the Caribbean (21 million,
Americas 33
Americas, Figure 1 Maps of the Americas

34 Americas
13 %), and Central America (9 million, 6 %). 2030 (below the world average of 3.3 %). The
Most (around 76 %) originate from the same slower forecasted growth is attributed to the com-
region. Arrivals from other regions originate paratively mature destinations in North America
mainly in Europe and to a lesser extent Asia and (UNWTO 2011a). Emerging Latin America des-
the Pacific. Around 58 % of international visitors tinations are expected to lead the growth.
to the Americas travel by air, 39 % by land, and The main challenges and opportunities the
3 % by water. ▶ Air transport is crucial in the region faces include the development and
Caribbean, where more than 90 % of international improvement of ▶ infrastructure, ▶ travel
tourists arrive by air, while arrivals by land reach ▶ facilitation and the improvement of air con-
46 % in North America. Water represents a share nectivity to increase tourism flows at the
of more than 7 % in the Caribbean and South intraregional level and with other regions, con-
America, showing the importance of cruise and tinuous improvement in the quality and compet-
river tourism. itiveness and enhancement of ▶ safety and
The United States and ▶ Canada play an impor- security, ▶ planning and development of new
tant role as both inbound and outbound markets. products and multi-destination tourism to meet
The former is the largest destination in the Americas the demands entailed by today’s tourists and
(70 million arrivals) and the second largest in the emerging markets, need for research and training
world. With 24 million international tourists, to foster innovation through new technologies
▶ Mexico is the second largest destination in the and to create market intelligence and build
region. The top five destinations in the Americas human capacity, public-private partnerships to
(the United States, Mexico, Canada, ▶ Argentina, ensure a better coordination among stakeholders
and ▶ Brazil) account for 70 % of total arrivals. and to stimulate the development of destinations,
Central America has been the fastest-growing and the development of tourism following sus-
subregion in the period 2000–2010, although tainable principles and practices such as the
from a lower base, with an average annual growth inclusion of local and indigenous communities,
of 6 %, followed in the same decade, by South as well as the empowerment of women and the
America at 4 %. The Caribbean and the compar- protection of natural resources and heritage
atively mature destinations of North America (UNWTO 2011b, 2013b).
(each subregion grew by 1 % in the same period) Despite progress made by many destinations
have performed below the Americas’ average as measured by the World Economic Forum’s
(+2 %). Tourism in the region has suffered a travel and tourism competitiveness index (WEF
temporary setback between 2001 and 2003, 2013), there are still obstacles to overcome in
when arrivals fell from 128 to 113 million mainly order to capitalize on growth opportunities. Fac-
due to the impact of the September 11 terrorist tors such as the growing middle classes,
attack and in 2009 due to the effects of the world improved connectivity, upgrading of infrastruc-
economic and financial crisis (UNWTO 2013a). ture, further development of products, and the
The region generated $229 billion, or 20 % world increasing political recognition should encour-
share, in international receipts in 2013. The age further growth. In this regard, the Americas
United States accounts for almost 60 % of total is looking toward regional integration schemes
receipts in the region, followed by Canada (8 %) such as the Pacific Alliance (Chile, Colombia,
and Mexico (6 %). Mexico and Peru) and the Central American
Integration System (Belize, Costa Rica, El Sal-
vador, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Pan-
Challenges and opportunities ama, and the Dominican Republic), which will
enhance tourism ▶ investment and boost visitor
Arrivals are expected to reach 248 million by flows. The 2016 Rio Summer Olympics will put
2030 (from 150 million in 2010), growing at an again Brazil and South America on the world
average rate of 2.4 % per year between 2010 and map of tourism and sports.
Andorra 35
See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ destina- 1°30⬘ 1°40⬘
tion, ▶ development.
F R A N C E
A
42°40⬘
References P Y
R
del alira
Pic de Coma
d
ECLAC 2013 Economic Commission for Latin America E
Nor
Pedrosa
V
Soldeu
Riu
and the Caribbean www.eclac.cl/deype/cuaderno39/ Canillo Valira
Riu rient
esp/index.htm (25 May 2014). d’O Pas de
N
La Massana
Encamp la Casa
UN-DESA 2013 United Nations, Department of Economic
and Social Affairs, Population Division. World Popu-
E
Escaldes-
Engordany
lation Prospects: The 2012 Revision, CD-ROM Edition E 42°30⬘
42°30⬘ a ANDORRA
http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/ (25 May 2014).
alir
LA VELLA
Riu V
UNWTO 2011a Tourism towards 2030. Madrid: World Sant Julià
Tourism Organization. de Lòria
UNWTO 2011b Informe sobre la Situación, Perspectivas y

Oportunidades del Turismo en América del Sur. AM
Report. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
S P A I N 0 4 8 km
UNWTO 2013a UNWTO Tourism in the Americas (2013 1°30⬘ 0 4 8 mi
Edition). Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
UNWTO 2013b UNWTO Tourism Highlights (2014
Edition). Madrid: World Tourism Organization. Andorra, Figure 1 Map of Andorra
WEF 2013 World Economic Forum: Travel and Tourism
Competitiveness Report 2013 www.weforum.org/
reports/travel-tourism-competitiveness-report-2013
(25 May 2014). language, while French, Spanish, and Portuguese
are widely spoken.
Andorra receives about eight million arrivals
per year, enjoying ski resorts, wellness retreats,
Andorra mountain landscapes, and shopping opportunities.
In 2013, a US$1.88 billion (Euro1.5 billion) reve-
Agustí García Puig1, Raúl Peralba Fortuny2 and nue was generated in tourism (UNWTO 2014). It is
Eduardo Fayos-Solà3 home to three of the top 10 highest rated ski resorts
1
Credit Andorra Bank, Andorra La Vella, Andorra in Europe, with over 1.9 million ski day passes sold
2
Positioning Systems, Boadilla del Monte, in 2012. Shopping is the most important motiva-
Madrid, Spain tion. France and Spain are the main source markets.
3
UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain In 2012, 1,570,000 Spanish and 345,000 French
tourists stayed in Andorra overnight, while over
five million visited the country for less than 24 h.
The Principality of Andorra, the sixth smallest The third most prominent nationality among tour-
country in ▶ Europe (468 km2 or 181 mi2), has a ists is Portuguese, with 53,000 visitors and 32,000
population of 70,000 and a GDP of US$3.13 tourists in 2012 (ADS 2013).
billion (or 2.5 billion Euros), providing a per During 2012–2013, the Andorran government
capita GDP 26 % higher than the European aver- has doubled its tourism budget with specific atten-
age. Landlocked between ▶ France and ▶ Spain, tion to emerging markets. Arrivals of Russian
its positioning concept is “The Country of the tourists increased by 178 % between 2008 and
Pyrenees.” The present Andorra (Figure 1) was 2012, and 50,000 Russian visitors with average
formed in 1278 as an independent monarchy. In stays of 5.8 days are estimated for the 2013 winter
1993, following the approval of the constitution, a season (ADS 2013). In 2012, the employed pop-
parliamentary democracy was established. The ulation was 36,060. However, 94.9 % (in 2010) of
country joined the United Nations in 1993 and that labor force is in the service sector, which is
the ▶ UNWTO in 1997. Catalan is the official predominantly reliant on tourism in a country
36 Angola
where annual arrivals outnumber permanent resi- REP. OF THE CONGO

18 0 100 200 km 24
dents 114:1 (ABC 2013). Cabinda on
go 0 100 200 mi
C
Andorran authorities, aware of the importance of 6 DEM. REP. 6
Soyo OF THE CONGO
this activity for its national economy, constantly
seek to improve tourism ▶ education and responsi- Ambriz
ble ▶ governance of tourism enterprises and insti- LUANDA

Malanje
tutions. Future research on ▶ sustainability, Porto
competitiveness, and ▶ destination ▶ management SOUTH
ATLANTIC
Amboin
for ▶ development is an important issue. Even OCEAN
Morro
Luena
though tourism in Andorra has been consistently 12 Lobito de Môco 12
Benguela
increasing for the past decade, there is still an oppor- Huambo
tunity for growth by promotion to high-spending Menongue

Lubango
Chinese and Brazilian tourists, and Andorra is mak- ZAMBIA
ing a considerable effort to establish itself as a Namibe
Za m
destination of choice in these source markets.
be
i
z
A solid financial system, a low taxation policy
18
sanctioned according to international standards, and 12 NAMIBIA 18
BOTSWANA
24
a policy of openness toward international economic

activity have integrated into an advanced offer of Angola, Figure 1 Map of Angola
services, including tourism and commerce, in the
creation of a special hub of attraction for entrepre-
neurs, especially for heath, wellness, and ▶ busi- into 18 provinces, Angola (Figure 1) is bordered
ness tourism sectors. All of this translates into a by the South Atlantic Ocean, the Republic of the
promising ▶ future for Andorra to be investigated. Congo, the Democratic Republic of the Congo,
▶ Zambia, and ▶ Namibia. Angola is home to a
See also ▶ Europe, ▶ shopping tourism, ▶ ski- Population of 24.3 million. The official language
ing tourism. is Portuguese, with several other African lan-
guages spoken.
Angola is reported to be one of the fastest
References growing economies in ▶ Africa, due to the expan-
sion of its oil sector as Africa’s second largest
ABC 2013 Invertir en Andorra ;www.cea.ad (1 January producer. Oil represents 47 % of the country’s
2014).
GDP and 90 % of total exports. The direct contri-
ADS 2013 Ministerio de Finanzas y Función Pública.
Andorra la Vella: Andorran Department of Statistics. bution of tourism to national GDP in 2012
UNWTO 2014 Tourism Highlights for 2013. Madrid: corresponded to 1.6 % (WTTC 2013).
World Tourism Organization. During colonial times, tourism ▶ development
was not a government priority, with a total of
57 hotel units in the entire country in 1972. With
the creation of an Angolan government in 1975
Angola following its independence from ▶ Portugal, the
first ▶ national tourism entity was formed:
Alba Fernández Alonso the Angolan Tourism Administration. Over the
Group TIDE – Tourism as an Instrument for years, this organization morphed into the current
Development, Luanda, Angola Ministry of Hotels and Tourism, officially
established in 1996. Angola is a member state of
the ▶ UNWTO since 1989. However, there was
Located in the west coast of Southern Africa, with little tourism ▶ activity during the 27 years of civil
an area of 1,246,700 km2 (774,663 mi2) divided war that lasted until 2002.
Antarctic tourism 37
Today, the tourism ▶ industry is developing WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic
and Angola is the eighth country in the World Impact – Angola. London: World Travel and Tourism
Council.
Travel and Tourism Council growth ranking. In A
2012, Angola had 528,000 international arrivals
and achieved US$706 million in ▶ international
tourism receipts (UNWTO 2013), a growth of
both indicators of around 90 % since 2000. In
Antarctic tourism
addition, tourism directly supported 66,500 jobs
Thomas G. Bauer
(1.4 % of total employment) in 2012.
Dundee Park Academy, Mission Beach, QLD,
The country’s major attractions are its natural
Australia
landscapes, along with the country’s capital,
Luanda. ▶ Infrastructure directly related to tour-
ism ▶ resources and attractions is still poor. The
Antarctica is a 13.9 million km2 (5.4 million
Ministry of Hotels and Tourism has launched its
miles2) continent surrounded by the Southern
first national strategic plan, the Angola Tourism
Ocean (Figure 1). It is the remotest and least
Master Plan 2011–2020. This strategy focuses on
visited continent, has no sovereign, and has
reaching mainly domestic and regional markets
never had a permanent human population.
through three main strategic approaches: culture,
A substantial diversity of wildlife can be found
nature, and sun and sea (MINHOTUR 2013).
in the Antarctic Peninsula region during the
Some provinces have active hotel and ▶ hos-
warmer summer months (October–March). Most
pitality schools, but one of the main steps that
tourists depart from Ushuaia, ▶ Argentina, aboard
need to be taken toward improving quality is the
ice-strengthened ships on 10–14-day cruises
establishment of approved and homogeneous uni-
mainly to the Western shores of the Antarctic
versity ▶ education in tourism. Other challenges
Peninsula.
include visa facilitation, reduction of prices, and
Argentina, ▶ Australia, ▶ Chile, ▶ France,
improvements in tourism infrastructure (Verdugo
▶ New Zealand, ▶ Norway, and the ▶ United
and Mavela 2011). Overall, the present situation
Kingdom claim territory in Antarctica, but these
predicts a positive ▶ future tourism scenario,
where diverse initiatives are emerging toward
the promotion of agents’ representativeness and
governance, private investment, infrastructure
development, increase in competition, contribu- Southern Ocean
South
tion to market diversification, product develop- Orkney
Islands
ment, and the relevant opportunity to develop an Queen Maud
incipient tourism industry based on ▶ sustainabil- Weddell Land
Sea
ity and ▶ governance principles. Graham ice
Land shelf
South
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ colonialism, ▶ visa. Pole
Marie
Land
Byrd
Amundsen Land
Sea ice
References shelf
s
lke
Wi
MINHOTUR 2013 Plano Director de Turismo de Angola. Ross Victoria

Southern Sea Land
Luanda: Ministry of Hotels and Tourism. Ocean
UNWTO, 2013, World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World 0 400 800 km
Tourism Organization. 0 400 800 mi
Verdugo, D., and A. Mavela 2011 Mapeamento da
Situação do Turismo na República de Angola. Geneva:
UNCTAD. Antarctic tourism, Figure 1 Map of Antarctica
38 Anthropology
claims are not universally recognized and some tourism on the gateway towns and comparative
claims overlap. Twelve countries that had studies between tourist expectations and experi-
established scientific bases in Antarctica during ences in Antarctica and the ▶ Arctic.
the International Geophysical Year 1957–1958
negotiated the Antarctic Treaty which came into See also ▶ Arctic tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
force on 23 June 1961 (ATS 2013). The Antarctic ▶ polar tourism, ▶ sustainability.
Treaty makes no direct reference to tourism which
is considered as a non-governmental ▶ activity,
but under the Madrid Protocol, it does require References
environmental impact assessment of all proposed
human activities (science, its support services, and ATS 2013 Antarctic Treaty Secretariat www.ats.aq
(1 August).
tourism) before they commence. ▶ Tour compa-
Bauer, T. 2001 Tourism in the Antarctic: Opportunities, Con-
nies must therefore seek approval from their straints and Future Prospects. Binghamton: Haworth.
respective governments to carry out their activi- Day, D. 2012 Antarctica: A Biography. Sydney: Random
ties and must provide evidence that their activities House.
IAATO 2013 International Association of Antarctica Tour
will not have more than a transitory impact on the
Operators www.iaato.org (1 August).
▶ environment. Tin, T., D. Liggett, M. Lamers, and P. Maher, eds. 2013
Antarctic tourism is mainly ship-based Antarctic Futures: Human Engagement with the Ant-
(consisting of relatively small vessels that make arctic Environment. New York: Springer.
landings and large vessels that only cruise), with
fly-cruise options also available in the Antarctic
Peninsula. The first regular cruises to the Antarc-
tic Peninsula began in 1966 with a strong educa- Anthropology
tional focus and the presence of guides during
shore visits (Day 2012). Of particular importance Naomi Leite1 and Margaret Byrne Swain2
1
for tourism ▶ management were the establish- SOAS, University of London, London, UK
2
ment of the International Association of Antarc- Department of Women and Gender Studies,
tica Tour Operators in 1991 and the University of California, Davis, USA
▶ development of ▶ tourist and tour operator
guidelines. To date member companies of this
association have demonstrated that the ▶ industry Anthropology is the study of human commonality
is capable of self-regulation of its activities, and and diversity, past and present, anywhere in the
no significant environmental impacts of tourist world. It addresses human origins, cultural prac-
visitations at sites have been observed. tices, societal structures, communication, and
Arrival numbers to this southernmost ▶ region meaning and applies anthropological knowledge
are still relatively small. For the 2012–2013 sea- to solving human problems. Rooted in the era of
son, it was reported 25,284 passengers from the European exploration and colonial expansion, ini-
▶ United States, ▶ Germany, Australia, ▶ China, tial studies devised unilinear evolutionary rank-
and the United Kingdom landed, accounting for ings of the world’s peoples and cultures.
70 % of all tourists (IAATO 2013). In addition, the Emphasis soon shifted to documenting the sites
association reported 9,070 passengers that partic- and lifeways of indigenous groups threatened by
ipated in overflights or in cruise-only voyages. Western expansion before they disappeared.
Notably, Antarctic is the best managed ▶ destina- Anthropology emerged as an academic disci-
tion in the world, and thus, other popular places pline at the turn of the twentieth century. Field
can learn from the collaborative management research and excavations often occurred in colo-
approach which can make tourism sustainable nies or annexed territories, including the Native
(Bauer 2001; Tin et al. 2013). ▶ Future research Americas. Like explorers who preceded and tour-
includes studies of the impacts of Antarctic ists who followed them, early anthropologists
Anthropology 39
were concerned with the untouched and studied while continuously recording observa-
exotic. Any presence of tourism was ignored in tions. The goal is to understand experiences and
their publications, reflecting ambivalence that meanings from the people’s point of view, while A
stemmed from embarrassing similarities between taking the researcher’s own subjectivity into
anthropologists and tourists and from negative account. Additional methods include interviews,
impacts of tourism on indigenous communities textual and visual analysis, life histories, and
and material remains of past societies. open-ended questionnaires, all interpreted in
In the 1970s–1980s, anthropologists began to light of knowledge gained from participant obser-
engage with political and social realities of the vation. This experiential immersion provides the
postcolonial world, including tourism, focusing basis for holistic analysis and is generally consid-
on modernity, development, urbanization, and ered the defining element of anthropological
global south–north connections. An earlier focus research.
on cultures as geographically bounded systems of For anthropologists tourism is not a single
shared ideas shifted to fluid understandings of thing, but a complex realm of behavior, represen-
culture, giving meaning and shape to human expe- tation, and interaction. As a loosely integrated
rience, process, and practice. Today tourism fig- social field, it includes (a) multiple actors with
ures into anthropological research on myriad differing degrees of power and autonomy
topics, including local and global politics, eco- (tourists, workers, residents, expatriates, foreign
nomic development, social inequality, gender, and local guides, and other intermediaries includ-
ethnicity, nationalism, construction and perfor- ing researchers); (b) characteristic practices
mance of identity, cross-cultural communication, (traveling, sightseeing, photographing, shopping,
discourse, representation, diaspora, and relaxing; or, conversely, marketing, selling, serv-
globalization. ing, guiding, ignoring); and (c) constituent insti-
tutions (travel agencies, airports, hotels/hostels,
museums, heritage sites, souvenir shops). A web
Anthropological approaches of relationships and interconnections integrate
this social field, running the gamut from emo-
Anthropology draws from social and life sciences tional to material, imaginative to environmental,
as well as humanities, reflected in its four and interpersonal to financial. In order to capture
subdisciplinary areas: archaeology, biological/ disparate aspects of tourism, anthropologists draw
physical anthropology, sociocultural anthropol- on interdisciplinary theoretical paradigms, such as
ogy, and linguistic anthropology. Sociocultural political economy, cosmopolitanism, discourse
anthropologists conduct most research on tour- analysis, semiotics, feminist theory, phenomenol-
ism, although the other subdisciplines contribute ogy, embodiment, development studies, and
to shaping destinations, heritage sites, and applied/praxis approaches. The anthropology of
museums, as well as to interdisciplinary research tourism is consequently defined not by a unified
on tourism attractions and behaviors. theoretical approach, nor by particular topics, but
Anthropological analysis is fundamentally by common interest in sociocultural phenomena
holistic, based on the premise that all domains of that transpire in tourism-related settings.
human life – such as politics, religion, economics, Initial anthropological scholarship on tourism
leisure, arts – influence and inform one another. rested on three foundations: leisure, hospitality,
To grasp interconnections across domains, anthro- and culture (Scott and Selwyn 2010). Social the-
pologists use ethnographic methodologies devel- orist Thorstein Veblen parsed leisure more than
oped by their predecessors over the past century 100 years ago, distinguishing practices of con-
and adopted more recently by other disciplines as spicuous consumption of the bourgeoisie from
“qualitative methods”. Chief among these is par- the working classes. Today, tourism-as-leisure is
ticipant observation, an extended period (often studied through numerous social divisions besides
years) of participating in daily life of the people class, including ▶ gender, nationality, and
40 Anthropology
ideology. Hospitality, a primary aspect of human seeking authenticity and alterity. Anthropologists
social relations, provided the framework for Hosts also examine the gray area between tourism and
and Guests, title of a foundational volume and the pilgrimage, secular and sacred, revealing that the
dominant binary in anthropology of tourism for two blur together in practice.
decades (Smith 1977). Applying concepts of hos- An important contribution of anthropological
pitality to tourism as a form of development led to work has been attention to the constructed
an early focus on the economic and social impacts markers of commonality and difference that tour-
on host populations, subsequently giving way to ists consume, as well as the role of touristic rep-
studies of complexities of tourist-toured interac- resentation in constituting local populations and
tions. Culture is anthropology’s touchstone and engaging them in self-commodification. Ethnic
burden, omnipresent and difficult to define, par- customs, heritage sites, “traditional” dance,
ticularly as a marketable resource for local music, dress, rituals, environmental adaptations,
populations. Much of anthropological tourism and unfamiliar social norms are attractions pack-
scholarship now grapples with culture as heritage, aged to draw tourists to specific destinations.
commodity, identity, authenticity, performance, Local arts and handicrafts produced for souvenirs
artifacts, monuments, and memory. may be simplified, mass-produced simulacra
catering to tourist expectations or new expres-
sions of a changing cultural aesthetic. Recent
Current themes research emphasizes the role of local (tourist)
arts as a mediating factor in tourist-toured inter-
Who is a tourist and what is she/he seeking? There actions and central player in local and global
is general agreement that a tourist can be defined identity politics (Adams 2006).
as a person voluntarily using leisure time to travel The concept of the touristic border zone, devel-
away from home for the purpose of experiencing a oped by Bruner (2005), captures the interstitial,
change. In an early essay, Graburn (1977) argued fleeting quality of the narrow slice of community
that tourism is a form of secular ritual, a sacred life in which performers and other tourism workers
journey that provides a restorative break from interact with tourists. Studies of people working in
everyday life. While there is arguably no such the tourist trade, from sex workers to hotel clerks
thing as a generic tourist, Graburn’s interest in to native guides, shed light on the manifold ways
the individual and the nature of the journey that their presentation of self and society is bound
spawned a broad literature. Types of tourist can up in tourists’ expectations and desires, as well as
be understood and classified by a range of moti- widely circulating imaginaries of paradise, authen-
vations linked to social and cultural factors. Eth- tic culture, adventure, discovery, and transgression
nographic research counteracts the stereotype of (Salazar and Graburn 2014).
the boorish tourist with more nuanced, sympa- Worldwide, tourism is promoted as a
thetic portraits of motivation and experience job-creating, income-generating industry for
(Harrison 2003), as do phenomenological development. Anthropologists examine the circu-
accounts of tourist encounters with diverse sites lation of such discourses, the forms of transna-
and populations. Investigations of relationships tional collaboration they entail, and the outcomes
between tourist anticipation and experience in of implementation. In some cases tourism devel-
specific destinations shed light on the power of opment displaces resident populations; in others it
representation, imagination, and expectation in creates new channels of labor migration, or oppor-
shaping the encounter. Embodiment theory may tunities to recreate tradition in the face of moder-
also inform experiential analysis. These perspec- nity. Host populations perform their identities
tives have proven useful for analyzing simultaneously for tourist consumption and polit-
sex/romance tourism, primitivist tourism, and ical recognition, documented by anthropologists
others where culture, people, and place are attending to the legitimization of cultural forms
marketed as myths and commodities to tourists and ideas in a world shaped by global
Anthropology 41
interconnection, balkanization, and waves of col- place and people are some research arenas shaped
lective sentiment. by anthropological insights; and the discipline’s
theories of transnationalism, diaspora, global inter- A
connection, exchange, value, and commodification
Tourism studies also appear throughout tourism studies.
There has been a sharp bifurcation between anthro-

pologists whose work primarily addresses tourism Toward the future
scholars in other disciplines and those whose writ-
ings engage solely with anthropologists in other Once considered a detriment in ethnographic
subfields (ethnicity, transnationalism, gender). fieldwork, the ubiquity of tourism activity world-
However, since the turn of the twenty-first century wide now shapes anthropological theory about
that distinction has begun to fade; tourism-related globalization, in terms of cultural flows of infor-
institutions and behaviors are increasingly com- mation, people, and imagination, as well as
mon subjects of anthropological research, leading power relations grounded in cosmopolitan dis-
to debate over whether “anthropology of tourism” course about global citizenship, cultural diver-
should be considered a coherent subdiscipline or sity, and world heritage. At a moment when
whether it remains simply anthropology, in that the anthropologists are broadly concerned with cul-
majority of studies address theoretical and ethno- tural representation, cosmopolitanism, and
graphic concerns common to the discipline as a border-spanning assemblages of practices,
whole (Leite and Graburn 2009). objects, actors, and discourses, tourism has
In recent years several international anthropo- emerged as a particularly fruitful and influential
logical organizations have established tourism research focus. Embodying both localizing and
subgroups, including the International Union of globalizing tendencies, tourism generates a
Anthropological and Ethnological Sciences, the unique “brand” – local tradition, landscapes,
American Anthropological Association, and the and heritage – framed in terms of generic, wide-
Society for Applied Anthropology. Anthropolo- spread imaginaries of tropical paradise, lost
gists also join networks organized by sociological homeland, or exotic Other. It also brings diverse
and geographical societies (such as International populations together in unprecedented numbers,
Sociological Association RC50), as well as inter- generating ever-thickening networks of imagery,
disciplinary organizations like, the International cross-cultural contact, and exchange.
Academy for the Study of Tourism, China’s Inter- While tourism settings provide a microcosm of
national Tourism Studies Association, and the many issues of anthropological interest, anthro-
UK’s Critical Tourism Studies group. They pub- pologists undertaking holistic fieldwork face
lish in an array of topical interdisciplinary methodological and epistemological challenges.
journals, including the longstanding Annals of International tourism constitutes a reticulated
Tourism Research, founded by anthropologist field of infrastructural and interpersonal nodes,
Jafar Jafari. Others publish in discipline-specific images, and acting subjects. Tourists are by defi-
journals, addressing audiences more interested in nition mobile, making long-term, single-site par-
theoretical insights than tourism per se. ticipant observation difficult, and they often view
Interdisciplinary tourism studies draw exten- anthropologists as local fixtures to be toured or as
sively on anthropology’s qualitative methods, eth- authenticators of cultural performance. Tourism
nographic case studies, and theories, with workers, though often stationary, may mistake
substantial overlap in topical interests (Roberts anthropologists for tourists and interact with
and Andrews 2013). Tourist motivation, them accordingly. Anthropologists of tourism
intercultural communication, social hierarchies, have consequently been pioneers in multi-sited
cultural change, heritage discourses, identities, the ethnography and reflexive analysis of
politics of representation, and constructions of positionality.
42 Anticipation
As “natives” in international travel and cross-

cultural interaction, anthropologists are enmeshed Anticipation
in a web of diverse stakeholders and power
dynamics that influence the production of anthro- Philip L. Pearce
pological knowledge (Swain 2004). The ethical, College of Business Law and Governance,
methodological, and epistemological stance of the James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
anthropologist as professional stranger can no
longer be taken for granted. Like all inhabitants
of this unprecedentedly interconnected world, Most consumption involves some level of anticipa-
anthropologists are influenced by and implicated tion, but tourism may involve extended periods of
in imaginaries of global commonality and differ- contemplation before engaging with the purchased
ence, social roles and responsibilities, and emer- product. There has been a long-standing recognition
gent forms of cultural representation. With their that, as the first phase of the tourism experience,
close attention to complexities of global–local anticipation can involve collecting information and
relations, method, and positionality, tourism both thinking about and visualizing new opportuni-
researchers are increasingly charting provocative ties, potential events, and the development of
paths for anthropology as a whole. relationships. Studying attitudes and visual repre-
sentations in this phase of tourism behavior is often
See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ cross- of interest to both marketers and scholars.
cultural study, ▶ culture broker, ▶ ethnography, Anticipation in itself can be seen as an important
▶ host and guest. tourism goal. Thinking, even dreaming about a
▶ holiday, may be a particular source of solace
and comfort for those challenged by the stresses
of their work world. Pondering and discussion of
References
what is to come can often be shared with friends
Adams, K. 2006 Art as Politics: Re-Crafting Identities, and relatives and serve as a safe, socially accept-
Tourism, and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia. Hono- able conversational topic. The pleasure of anticipa-
lulu: University of Hawaii Press. tion may be further enhanced if the trip involves
Bruner, E. 2005 Culture on Tour. Chicago: Chicago Uni- refreshing relationships with old friends and close
versity Press.
Graburn, N. 1977 Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In Hosts contacts at the ▶ destination (Pearce 2011).
and Guests, V. Smith, ed., pp.17-32. Philadelphia: Uni- The rise of digital communication and social
versity of Pennsylvania Press. media has added particularly rich and widely
Harrison, J. 2003 Being a Tourist: Finding Meaning in available information sources for those who like
Pleasure Travel. Vancouver: University of British
Columbia Press. to prepare themselves thoroughly for a forthcom-
Leite, N., and N. Graburn 2009 Anthropological Interven- ing tourism experience. Internet sites promoting
tions in Tourism Studies. In The Sage Handbook of businesses and a number of services commenting
Tourism Studies, T. Jamal and M. Robinson, eds., on the adequacy of such tourism services help
pp.35-64. London: Sage.
Roberts, L., and H. Andrews 2013 (Un)doing Tourism reduce the ambiguities of destinations. Social
Anthropology. Journal of Tourism Challenges and network-based communication may also demys-
Trends 6(2):13-38. tify destinations and shape anticipation.
Salazar, N., and N. Graburn, eds. 2014 Tourism Imaginaries: Researchers who use expectations as an
Anthropological Approaches. London: Berghahn.
Scott, J., and T. Selwyn, eds. 2010 Thinking Through approach to thinking about satisfaction have
Tourism. London: Berg. developed some conceptual approaches (Ryan
Smith, V., ed. 1977 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of 1995). The expectancy disconfirmation paradigm
Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. suggests that if expectations are exceeded, satis-
Swain, M. 2004 (Dis)embodied Experience and Power
Dynamics in Tourism Research. In Qualitative faction results; if met, moderate satisfaction pre-
Research in Tourism, J. Phillimore and L. Goodson, vails; and if not fulfilled, then dissatisfaction
eds., pp.102-118. London: Routledge. is widespread. The approach has some problems.
Antigua and Barbuda 43
In any set of tourism circumstances where the 0 10 20 km 62°00⬘ 61°45⬘

feature, activity, or experience is novel, then 0 10 20 mi Codrington
there is evidence that the expectations and antici- A
pation which individuals hold are not very specific Barbuda
(Kozak 2001). Thus it is a poor basis to assess 17°30⬘ 17°30⬘

satisfaction and difficult to measure expectations.
In a logistical sense, collecting tourists’
pre-departure views is often difficult. As a result,
expectations are often asked when the tourists or Caribbean Sea
hotel guests are on site or have completed their 17°15⬘ 17°15⬘
exposure to the product. This timing requires Antigua
SAINT international
tourists to think about their expectations retro- Airport
JOHN’S
spectively, making it difficult to know how much
the experience has altered those earlier views. Antigua Boggy Peak
For frequently used products, expectations may 17°00⬘ English Harbour 17°00⬘
be the basis for satisfaction research. But for many Redonda Town
less familiar experiences, more direct post hoc 62°15⬘ 62°00⬘ 61°45⬘
questions can be a better pathway to assess satis-

Antigua and Barbuda, Figure 1 Map of Antigua and
faction. Such direct questions avoid asking respon- Barbuda
dents to recall previous thoughts from the
anticipation phase of their overall experience.
Islands (442.6 km2 or 170.9 mi2) located in the East-
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ psychology, ern Caribbean Sea, roughly 17 north of the equator.
▶ satisfaction. The economy is heavily dependent on tourism (with
over 60 % GDP and nearly 40 % of ▶ investment).
Antigua and Barbuda has been an independent coun-
References try since 1981, but it remains within the British
Commonwealth of Nations (Figure 1).
Kozak, M. 2001 A Critical Review of Approaches to The first inhabitants arrived in Antigua from
Measure Satisfaction with Tourist Destinations. In
what is now ▶ Venezuela and were known as the
Consumer Psychology of Tourism, Hospitality and
Leisure, volume 2, J. Mazanec, G. Crouch, J. Brent Arawak. They introduced agriculture and culti-
Ritchie and A. Woodside, eds., pp.303-320. Walling- vated crops that are still present. Antigua means
ford: CABI. “ancient” in Spanish and was named by Christo-
Pearce, P. 2011 Tourist Behaviour and the Contemporary
pher Columbus after Santa Maria de la Antigua, a
World. Bristol: Channel View.
Ryan, C. 1995 Researching Tourist Satisfaction: Issues, saint from Seville. The main attractions are the
Concepts, Problems. London: Routledge. warm climate, beaches and lagoons, water-based
activities, local hospitality, historic and prehis-
toric sites, military and naval fortifications and
▶ architecture, and an active yachting sector.
Antigua and Barbuda Antigua and Barbuda was one of the first coun-
tries within the Eastern ▶ Caribbean to develop its
Nuno Abranja tourist industry. Its tourism ▶ product is geared
Tourism Department, Instituto Superior de toward the high-end market, with its average
Ciências Educativas – Odivelas, Portugal expenditure per stay among the highest in the
Caribbean. The geographical position of the
island makes it a strategic first stop or last landfall
Antigua and Barbuda (population 90,156 in 2014) for both planes and cruises (Antigua and Barbuda
are the largest of the English-speaking Leeward Investment Authority 2013).
44 Anti-tourism
In 2012, Antigua and Barbuda had 246,926

international arrivals, an increase of 2.3 % from Anti-tourism
2011. Its main tourism markets are the ▶ United
States, 93,214 arrivals; ▶ Europe, 89,909 arrivals; Julio Aramberri
and ▶ Canada, 24,185 arrivals (Caribbean Tour- School of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
ism Organization 2013). In 2012, tourism directly Dongbei University of Finance and Economics,
supported 5,000 jobs, 18.8 % of total ▶ employ- Dalian, Liaoning, China
ment (World Travel and Tourism Council 2013).
Tourism is administered by the Ministry of Tour-
ism, Civil Aviation, and Culture. Today, tourism is More than a well-defined movement, anti-tourism
positioned to make a significant contribution is above all an intellectual attitude. Though the
toward the ▶ conservation of Antigua and number of tourists has increased by leaps and
Barbuda’s ▶ environment, ▶ heritage, and cul- bounds over the years, the practice is not univer-
tural ▶ resources. sally welcome. Opposing views expose the risks it
A variety of ▶ education options are readily may unleash while urging the public at large or the
available: 2-year programs in ▶ hospitality and authorities to take effective action to control and
tourism ▶ management, 1-year courses in food regulate it. Therefore, it is a multilayered notion or
and beverage service along with basic cookery, practice with dissimilar intellectual interests and
and many other short and professional courses. divergent proposals.
Higher education in tourism in the country is still One of its strands takes issue with the banality
incipient, with a strong need for diversity training of tourism as opposed to responsible ▶ travel.
in the areas of tourism, hospitality, and restaurant Already in 1865, there were complaints of Italian
management. cities being deluged by groups of tourists cor-
The main research needs are related to an ralled by a sheepdog-like guide. According to
increase in evidence of coastal degradation Boorstin, “vacation travel [has become] a mass-
which could have adverse impacts on the quality produced, packaged commodity” (1974:485).
of the environment and tourism. In the ▶ future, it Untold numbers of tourism scholars have leveled
is important to increase productivity and compet- similar critiques since the early days, proposing
itiveness in tourism, to deepen its linkages with new products or alternatives to dodge the alleged
other sectors, and to create new sources of growth trivialization of travel. Often as well, disabuse
for ▶ sustainable tourism. followed elation as, once experienced by con-
sumers, the new products were said to be as hol-
See also ▶ Americas, ▶ Caribbean, ▶ island low and contrived as their forerunners.
tourism. Other scholars argue from a more positive
angle. They advocate travel to barren destinations
ignored by mass tourists and the industry, such as
References wastelands, black holes, and grim urban areas
(Kalder 2006). However, if successful, this kind
Antigua and Barbuda Investment Authority 2013 Priority of anti-tourism would barely shirk the drifter’s
Sectors: Tourism. Antigua and Barbuda Investment curse (Cohen 1972). Once such new destinations
Authority www.investantiguabarbuda.org (16 January
became fashionable, the industry would embrace
2014).
Caribbean Tourism Organization 2013 Latest Tourism them and institutionalized tourism would
Statistics Tables. Caribbean Tourism Organization follow suit.
www.onecaribbean.org/statistics/latest-tourism-statistics- Recently, anti-tourism has concurred with
tables (16 January 2014).
World Travel and Tourism Council 2013 Travel and Tour-
many scholarly attempts to find in sustainability
ism: Economic Impact 2013. London: World Travel the main prop for its claims, although aims and
and Tourism Council. proposals differ considerably, depending on how
Archaeology 45
sustainability is defined. After the initial appeal to

include local communities in the development and Archaeology
marketing of their destinations (Murphy 1985), A
policy proposals have run the gamut from support Rachel F. Giraudo1 and Lena Mortensen2
1
for stringent, though piecemeal, regulations of Department of Anthropology, California State
some types of tourism to entreaties to local or University, Northridge, USA
2
national powers to veto any new developments. Department of Anthropology, University of
The number of reasons invoked to legitimize this Toronto, Toronto, Canada
view and the tactics proposed to counteract per-
ceived threats to natural and/or cultural environ-
ments vary significantly from one study to Archaeological tourism, or “archaeotourism,” is
another. centered on places, objects, and activities of
Anti-tourism may also find an activist dimen- archaeological value. Archaeology is the scien-
sion at odds with peaceful academic discussion, tific and humanistic study of the material traces
when individuals and political movements of the past, from technological remains (tools and
express their animus against tourism through architecture) and symbolic objects (religious and
violence. Radical Islamist groups have taken aesthetic) to biological remains (botanical and
responsibility for the 1997 killing of 35 tourists skeletal). Archaeologists are primarily engaged
at the Hatshepsut Temple near Luxor, ▶ Egypt, in studying these traces along with other lines of
and the 2002 bomb attacks that left 202 visitors evidence to produce interpretations of the past
dead at Kuta, a resort in Bali, ▶ Indonesia. Per- that, along with material culture itself, provide
petrators of such acts usually denounce tourism the foundation for tourism narratives and experi-
as a poisonous threat to the core values of their ences. Excavated archaeological sites might be
cultures. reconstructed and/or interpretive centers built
Future research should endeavor to streamline nearby, and recovered objects are frequently
and develop a more comprehensive framework exhibited in local, national, or international
for the academic discussion of anti-tourism museums, all of which have the potential to
while rejecting attempts to sanitize violence become tourism destinations.
when they are rooted on spurious claims. Special
attention should be paid to anti-tourism in prac-
tice. Either as a reminder of forsaken destinations Scope and key concepts
or as an alternative to mass travel, it seems poised
to develop significantly. Archaeotourism encompasses visiting archaeo-
logical sites, reconstructions, and museums and
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ commercialization, can also include participating in archaeological
▶ drifter, ▶ sustainability, ▶ terrorism. activities (excavation, survey, and laboratory
work). In this sense, it shares similarities with
heritage, cultural, and scientific tourism, but com-
bines elements of each, making it distinct in nature
References
and scope. Archaeotourists would include those
Boorstin, D. 1974 The Americans: The Democratic Expe- who travel to places or objects of archaeological
rience. New York: Vintage. value for leisure or, in some instances, for study
Cohen, E. 1972 Towards a Sociology of International and work (archaeological field schools and con-
Tourism. Social Research 39:64-82. tract archaeology). Currently, archaeotourism is
Kalder, D. 2006 Lost Cosmonaut: Observations of an Anti-
Tourist. New York: Scribner. widespread across the globe and ranges in scale
Murphy, P. 1985 Tourism: A Community Approach. Lon- from smaller sites and museums that form the crux
don: Methuen. of community-based tourism initiatives to iconic
46 Archaeology
World Heritage sites with well-established, large- lay claims to archaeological sites and materials
scale tourism infrastructure. are often concerned that their perspectives and
Archaeotourism involves several conceptual sense of significance, when distinct, are accepted
issues that overlap with central tourism topics. above those based on archaeological authority.
For example, archaeotourists are often drawn to Conflicts over interpretation form a subset of
the aura of places and objects from the past. Exca- related issues involving the ownership, steward-
vation and survey, as acts of scientific recovery, ship, and control over the past as a resource on
generate another form of perceived authenticity multiple fronts, as well as the relationship
that appeals to tourists who seek to come into between archaeological narratives and national,
personal contact with archaeological sites and ethnic, and indigenous identity (Silverman 2010).
artifacts. Some even desire firsthand experiences The commodification of the past through its
in “the act of discovery” itself and thus look to economic valuation as a tradable and even
participate in archaeological exploration and branded entity presents complex challenges
interpretation in more active ways. A sense of (Rowan and Baram 2004). Materials of archaeo-
nostalgia, or yearning for familiarity with the logical value, such as artifacts and replicas, are
past, also motivates many archaeotourists, sold to tourists, and imagery and other symbols
whether it is nostalgia for their cultural past, a related to sites, objects, and interpretations are
national or colonial past, or even a past sense of also made into marketable brands that further
discovery (an imperialist nostalgia). Finally, their potential in the tourism industry. Thus,
archaeotourists are frequently interested in there are inherent intellectual property issues at
encountering, or gazing at, the cultural or tempo- stake in marketing the past for tourists, including
ral Other, and it is curiosity about alterity that the appropriation of a past that descendant com-
partially explains an attraction to sites and objects munities and other stakeholder groups feel belong
not necessarily related to the personal back- to them. The heightened symbolic value of some
grounds of visitors. sites and objects also leads to their manipulation
in areas of political, cultural, or religious conflict
(e.g., the destruction of the Bamiyan Buddhas by
Current and future issues the Taliban and the ongoing dispute between
England and Greece over the ownership of the
Research into the dynamics of archaeotourism Elgin Marbles).
interests tourism scholars, heritage managers, Lastly, and perhaps most pressingly,
and archaeologists, the latter of whom are profes- archaeotourism is regularly adopted as a driver
sionally obligated to act as stewards of the archae- for economic development in landscapes with few
ological record. Archaeologists typically bear other acknowledged resources, as well as a source
some responsibility for the interpretation and of funding for site preservation and ongoing scien-
management of the sites and objects they investi- tific research. In some cases, archaeology precedes
gate and often play a role in their ongoing preser- tourism, but other places of archaeological value
vation. Consequently, the ethics of archaeological have been co-constituted as destinations rather than
engagement with tourism development is an being commodified as an aftereffect of archaeolog-
increasing area of concern in the discipline and ical interest and attention (Castañeda 1996).
beyond (Díaz-Andreu 2013). Numerous such sites are now important mainstays
Interpreting the past and which perspective on in local, regional, or even national economies, such
the past is promoted and circulated are important, as Greek and Roman antiquity sites throughout
ongoing issues among archaeologists, between Europe and many Maya sites in Mexico and Cen-
archaeologists and descendant communities, and, tral America. However, when they become more
more broadly, among various stakeholders, accessible to the public through education and
including national governments. For instance, expanded infrastructure, sites also become more
descendant communities and other groups who vulnerable to threats resulting from increased
Architecture 47
tourism, such as overcrowding, vandalism, looting, built constructions and environments (McLaren
and physical degradation. Concerns about their and Lasansky 2004). Traveling to specific desti-
conservation and safeguarding have contributed nations in order to experience particular buildings, A
to the growth of new fields, such as cultural monuments, cities, or physical constructions is a
resource management, and to the establishment of well-established practice in tourism. Lists of
new expert bodies, such as the International Com- themata (things to be seen, such as the “Seven
mittee on Archaeological Heritage Management. Wonders of the World”) have existed since ancient
The socioeconomic effects of archaeotourism are times. These “wonders” were no objective or offi-
unclear, and a growing area of research focuses on cial list but much like a modern-day pamphlet
the tensions between economic interests and pres- listing great structures tourists should not miss.
ervation that arise through the promotion of sus- The idea of visiting architectural sites as a touristic
tainable archaeological development by civil ▶ activity is thus a social practice with a long
society, governments, and the private sector history.
(Walker and Carr 2013). Novel, preserved, remodeled, or deteriorated
physical constructions have throughout history
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ economic develop- been used for aesthetic, religious, cultural, politi-
ment, ▶ heritage, ▶ interpretation. cal, and economic purposes. By storytelling,
mediation, and ▶ marketing, such constructions
have come to serve as attractive destination sites
in their own right (Nuryanti 1996). Tourists do not
References
settle for mediated experiences, however. They
Castañeda, Q.E. 1996 In the Museum of Maya Culture: come to experience the sites and structures phys-
Touring Chichén Itzá. Minneapolis: University of Min- ically, in situ. As a result, sites across the globe are
nesota Press. redesigned for touristic consumption. Thereby,
Díaz-Andreu, M. 2013 Ethics and Archaeological Tourism historical sites and monuments become reconcep-
in Latin America. International Journal of Historical
Archaeology 17(2):225-244. tualized, and new meanings are attributed to them.
Rowan, Y., and U. Baram, eds. 2004 Marketing Heritage: Behaviors and experiences connected to the
Archaeology and the Consumption of the Past. Walnut sites become remodeled, and this catches the
Creek: AltaMira. interest of cultural theorists from many academic
Silverman, H. 2010 Contested Cultural Heritage:
A Selective Historiography. In Contested Cultural Her- disciplines. Buildings and environments can also
itage: Religion, Nationalism, Erasure, and Exclusion in be designed with the explicit objective of becom-
a Global World, H. Silverman, ed., pp.1-49. New York: ing destinations (Gunn and Var 2002). Around the
Springer. world, buildings and architectural sites are
Walker, C., and N. Carr, eds. 2013 Tourism and Archaeol-
ogy: Sustainable Meeting Grounds. Walnut Creek: Left designed as place marketing tools or corporate
Coast. identity markers. Photos, videos, and ▶ souvenir
objects linked to the sites serve as marketing tools
and mediators of mythologies or atmospheres
surrounding them.
Architecture The interest in architecture, tourism, and place
attractiveness escalated in the aftermath of the
Lars Strannegård 1997 opening of the spectacular, wavy, titanium-
Department of Management and Organization, sheathed Guggenheim museum in Bilbao,
Stockholm School of Economics, Stockholm, ▶ Spain. It was designed by the American archi-
Sweden tect Frank Gehry and instantly became one of
Spain’s most visited attractions. As a result, Bil-
bao regenerated as a city and the term “The Bilbao
Architecture is the art and science of designing Effect” was coined to denote the role of architec-
buildings, open areas, communities, and other tural and cultural projects on tourism and place
48 Arctic tourism
attractiveness. The aspiration to reproduce some

of the effects that were argued to have appeared in
Bilbao has led regions, cities, and corporations to
commission singularly stunning structures to
attract tourists and ▶ attention. Destinations are
branded through the help of architecture, and the
debates go high regarding how architecture affects
place attractiveness.
The idea of architectural structures’ potential to
attract attention to geographical locations is
closely related to the idea of “starchitects”
(architects who have gained celebrity status).
These architects are often expected to design
“iconic” structures. Such structures are highly
visible, easy to mediate through imagery, and
thereby effective in attracting tourists and capital
to particular places. The future calls for systematic
Arctic tourism, Figure 1 Map of the Arctic (Source:
studies of mechanisms behind how architectonic AHDR 2004)
structures become iconic symbols of particular
places.
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ image, ▶ landscape, of whether it is defined by latitude, geopolitics,

▶ planning, ▶ world heritage. climate, or other factors. Sociologically, it could
also encompass visits to attractions associated
with the Arctic, such as the archives and museum
References of Scott Polar Research Institute in Cambridge,
▶ United Kingdom (Maher 2007).
Gunn, C., and T. Var 2002 Tourism Planning: Basics, Arctic ecosystems are fragile due to short
Concepts, Cases. London: Routledge. growing seasons and relatively harsh condi-
McLaren, B., and D. Lasansky, eds. 2004 Architecture and tions, but this varies from region to region.
Tourism: Perception, Performance and Place. Oxford:
Berg. Culturally, the Arctic has peoples still in transi-
Nuryanti, W. 1996 Heritage and Postmodern Tourism. tion from subsistence/nomadic lifestyles to
Annals of Tourism Research 23:249-260. those connected to the global commons, but in
most cases the communities that tourists visit
are remote and on their national peripheries.
Each of the Arctic’s Indigenous peoples has
Arctic tourism unique traditions sought out by tourists, but
there are also more recent historical attractions
Patrick T. Maher from the expeditions led by Franklin and
Department of Community Studies, Cape Breton Amundsen. The scenery throughout the Arctic
University, Sydney, Canada features a varied combination of sheer granite
cliffs, wide-open tundra, and iceberg-choked
fjords. This scenery is particularly impressive
Geographically, Arctic tourism takes place within when combined with iconic species such as
the boundary of the Arctic (Figure 1), regardless polar bears or reindeer.
Argentina 49
The supply of attractions to Arctic tourism is in Maher, P. 2013 Looking Back, Venturing Forward: Chal-
constant tension with growing demand. There is lenges for Academia, Community and Industry in Polar
Tourism Research. In New Issues in Polar Tourism:
increasing media interest in the Arctic following Communities, Environments, Politics, D. M€ uller, A
the most recent International Polar Year L. Lundmark and R. Lemelin, eds., pp.19-36. Dor-
(2007–2008). Arrival numbers to some Arctic drecht: Springer.
areas are difficult to discern because such statistics UATNNT 2008 University of the Arctic Thematic Net-
work on Northern Tourism. <www.uarctic.org>
are embedded within national numbers, but actual (30 August 2013).
tourist numbers vary widely from Eastern Russia
to ▶ Iceland to the Yukon. In each instance there
is continued growth reported; an example of the
growing demand can be seen in Alaska. Alaska
enjoyed over 1.8 million arrivals in 2011–2012,
Argentina
the highest growth at a regional level anywhere in
Regina Schl€uter1 and Rossana Campodónico2
the Arctic, which despite the global economic 1
Universidad Nacional de Quilmes Bernal,
downturn in 2008 is only 5 % below the 2006
Buenos Aires, Argentina
level. 2
Área de Estudios Turísticos – FHCE,
The Arctic is now a known destination for
Universidad de la República, Montevideo,
tourists; it is unique and tourists want to explore
Uruguay
the adventure, culture, history, and wildlife on
offer. Academic critique of the Arctic tourism
phenomenon is growing and supported by a
The Republic of Argentina is situated south of
number of research networks (Maher 2013;
latitude 34 400 000 S and east of longitude 58
UATNNT 2008). Emerging research questions
240 000 W (Figure 1). It has an area of
examine location-specific notions of respectful
2,791,810 km2 (1,077,923 mi2) and a population
and sustainable engagement, tensions between
of 40 million in 2010 (INDEC 2011). The country
tourism and other natural resource develop-
has significant mineral reserves and a strong
ment, and the impacts felt across the region
industrial sector, but agriculture, developed by
from wider global phenomena such as climate
the great influx of primarily Italian immigrants
change and economic uncertainty (Lemelin
and particularly cattle breeding, forms the basis
et al. 2013).
of its wealth. At the end of the eighteenth century,
landowners selling cattle to meet growing demand
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ antarctic tour-
for meat in ▶ Europe became wealthy and began
ism, ▶ polar tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
to spend a large part of the year overseas. This
elite also sought summer holiday destinations
within the country itself. Mar del Plata was the
References
beach resort par excellence for this elite, until they
Arctic Human Development Report. 2004. Akureyri: Ste- were displaced by other social strata and found
fansson Arctic Institute. http://www.svs.is/en/10-all- refuge in Punta del Este, ▶ Uruguay (Sebreli
languages-content/28-ahdr-chapters-english. 1984).
Lemelin, R., P. Maher, and D. Liggett, eds. 2013 From Talk
to Action: How Tourism is Changing the Polar
Regions. Thunder Bay: Lakehead University Centre
for Northern Studies. Attractions and economics
Maher, P. 2007 Arctic Tourism: A Complex System of
Visitors, Communities, and Environments. Introduc-
tion to the Special Issue on Arctic Tourism. Polar The capital city, Buenos Aires, has a wide range of
Geography 30:1-5. cultural attractions and a service infrastructure
50 Argentina
straddling the border with ▶ Brazil, Ushuaia, the

southernmost city in the world, which is located
on the island of Tierra del Fuego, the National
Parks in the south of the country in the Andes
mountain range that forms the border with
▶ Chile, and the nature reserves on the Patagonian
coastline. A wide range of new products is being
developed, particularly in ▶ rural tourism, greatly
assisted by the National Rural Tourism Plan
launched in 2000 (Schl€uter 2003). Other develop-
ing products include wine, food, spa, and ▶ edu-
cation tourism (the most popular subject is
Spanish for foreigners).
Argentina has a long history of nature conser-
vation, with its first national park created in 1903
and the national protection system introduced in
1934. This resulted in policies that sought to attract
tourists to these natural spaces and has influenced
▶ tourist numbers seen today: in 2011, 3.2 million
people visited national parks, of whom 67.6 %
were nationals and the rest international.
▶ International tourism between 2000 and 2011
increased from 2.9 to 5.7 million arrivals (Ministry
of Tourism 2011), the majority of whom (68.3 %)
came from neighboring countries (▶ Brazil
22.5 %, ▶ Chile 19.3 %, ▶ Uruguay 11.3 %,
▶ Paraguay 11 %, and ▶ Bolivia 4 %). Some
49.3 % arrive by plane (2.8 million tourists),
6.6 % by boat, and the rest by other means. In
2011, Argentina received US$5.21 billion in tour-
ism receipts but had a ▶ balance of payments
▶ deficit of US$140.5 million due to the increasing
numbers of Argentineans traveling internationally.
The tourism balance of payments in relation to
GDP was negative by 0.02 points, while the
Argentina, Figure 1 Map of Argentina ▶ inbound tourism consumption to exports of
goods ratio for the same year was 6.18 and the
ratio of inbound tourist consumption to exports of
and is the principal ▶ attraction for both national services was minus 39.69 (Ministry of Tourism
and international tourists. In the second place in 2011). Despite this, the average number of persons
terms of ▶ domestic tourism are the beach resorts employed in the ▶ industry in 2011 was 1.08 mil-
of the Atlantic coast (with Mar del Plata being the lion, which represents 10 % of all employees.
most prominent), which extend southwards as far
as latitude 38 350 . Next in importance are the
mountain ranges of Córdoba and San Luis in the Education, policy and research
center of the country. The main attractions for
international tourists lie in the country’s extremi- Tourism education started toward the end of the
ties, the highlights being the Iguazú Falls, 1950s when schools for ▶ training aspiring
Armenia 51
professionals were created. The first ▶ univer- INDEC 2011 Censo Nacional Población y Vivienda,
sities and advanced training institutes appeared National Institute of Statistics and Census www.indec.
com.ar (10 August 2013).
in the 1960s. Student numbers have increased Ministry of Tourism 2011 Tourism Statistical Yearbook A
rapidly since 2009 (Wallingre 2011), along with www.aht.com.ar/observatorio/848_Doc1.pdf (3 August
the introduction of two online degree courses. 2013).
Tourism courses are offered in public and pri- Schl€
uter, R. 2003 El Turismo en Argentina. Buenos Aires:
Del Balneario al Campo.
vate universities, including a university degree Sebreli, J. 1984 Mar del Plata: El Ocio Represivo. Buenos
in hotel administration and several master’s Aires: Editorial Leonardo Buschi.
degrees in tourism. Further education institu- Wallingre, N. 2011 Avances en la Construcción del
tions are also available in virtually every part Conocimiento del Turismo. Pensando la Disciplina
del Turismo desde una Perspectiva Integral. Estudios
of the country. y Perspectivas en Turismo 20:149-170.
The importance of international tourism
changed dramatically at the start of the twenty-
first century. Due to a crisis that started in Decem-
ber 2001 and the devaluation of the country’s Armenia
currency, Argentina has become an important
▶ destination for international tourists Artak Manukyan
(Bertoncello 2005: 149). It was the biggest recip- Armenian State University of Economics,
ient of foreign tourists in South America in 2011. Yerevan, Armenia
Against this background of growth in tourism,
the government enacted ▶ law 25997/04, which
makes this industry a priority policy for the Armenia is a landlocked mountainous country
country’s ▶ development. The current Ministry (29,743 km2 or 11,490 miles2) located in the
of Tourism has responsibility for the implementa- Southern Caucasus between the Black and
tion of this law and to that end has (in conjunction Caspian Seas. It borders Georgia, Azerbaijan,
with the country’s provinces) drawn up its strate- Iran, and Turkey (Figure 1), with a population of
gic federal ▶ sustainable tourism plan. This iden- three million (2011). Armenia possesses the sec-
tifies four fields of action for developing tourism: ond largest reserves of copper in the world. The
offer development, ▶ investment and funding, GDP per capita was about US$7400 in 2012.
advertising and ▶ marketing, and quality manage-
ment. At the same time, there are numerous pro-
vincial level plans. Local resident participation is GEORGIA
gradually being introduced. Research in regional

areas is needed in order to determine if this
induced development enhances tourism Gyumri Vanadzor
(Kirovakan)
sustainability. Sevan AZERBAIJAN
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ development, ▶ educa- YEREVAN

Sevana
Lich
tion, ▶ marketing. Sot’k’
Angeghakot’
References TURKEY
AZ
E
(N RB
ax AI
Bertoncello, R. 2005 Bases para un Plan Estratégico de IRAN
civ JA Kapan
an N
Mediano Plazo en Ciencia, Tecnología e Innovación )
(Argentina, Ministerio de Educación, Ciencia y 0 25 50 km
Tecnología de la Nación). Anexo 4 Paneles estratégicos 0 25 50 ml
II, pp.133-167. Buenos Aires: Secretary of Science and
Technology. Armenia, Figure 1 Map of Armenia
52 Art
Armenia features a wealth of cultural, natural, Armenia’s Union of Incoming Tour Operators and
and historical sites, including six UNESCO world the Armenian Guides Guild. Future development
heritage sites, medieval monasteries, churches,, plans will involve the country’s religious, histor-
and fortresses. The country’s tourism industry ical, and cultural monuments, as well as natural
benefits considerably from the arrivals generated conditions favorable for the development and
by the Armenian diaspora, which contributes commercialization of ecotourism, adventure, and
about 60 % of arrivals. Culturally, historically, agritourism. Future research in Armenia should
and politically, Armenia is considered as a part capture existing problems in relation to the cost of
of Europe. Nevertheless, due to its location transportation, low value-added feature of tour-
(border between Europe and Asia), it has always ism, regional development for tourism, as well
been a meeting ground through which the Great as branding strategies and techniques.
Silk Road passed.
During the Soviet era (1922–1991), Armenia See also ▶ Agritourism, ▶ diaspora, ▶ ecotour-
was known for its Jermuk spa center. After inde- ism, ▶ historical tourism, ▶ religion.
pendence, tourism languished until 2001 when the
government identified it as an economic priority.
Recent plans for its development include the References
Armenian tourism cluster strategic action plan
prepared in 2007 and the hospitality and tourism Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa, eds. 2013 The Travel and Tour-
ism Competitiveness Report. Geneva: World Economic
curriculum assessment and development for edu-
Forum.
cational institutions prepared in 2012. The latest UNWTO 2012 Compendium of Tourism Statistics Dataset.
tourism development plan sets governmental pol- Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
icy targets of three million international arrivals WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact. Lon-
don: World Travel and Tourism Council.
and 1.5 million domestic tourists by 2030. The
capital Yerevan is the hub for inbound tourism.
Armenian international arrivals increased by
10.8 % in 2011 to 758,000, while domestic tour-
ism decreased by 13.4 % in 2011 to 489,000 Art
(UNWTO 2012). In 2012, tourism generated
22,000 jobs (1.9 % of total employment) and Karolina Buczkowska1 and Magdalena
contributed 8.2 % of GDP (WTTC 2013). The Banaszkiewicz2
1
Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report Poznan University School of Physical Education,
(Blanke and Chiesa 2013) ranked Armenia Poznan, Poland
2
79 among 140 countries and indicated that the Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
country needs to improve air transportation infra-
structure and hotel services. It identified over
2,000 hospitality companies in Armenia, includ- Art, as a vast subdivision of culture, is composed
ing hotels, bed and breakfasts, restaurants, trans- of many creative endeavors and disciplines. It
portation companies, tour operators, and travel encompasses visual/plastic arts (traditional fine,
agencies. The report also noted the low quality modern fine, modern visual, applied, decorative,
of tourism education as well as the lack of training literature, and music) and performing arts. To the
centers and services. Currently tourism as a spe- world of tourism, it brings “style, culture, beauty,
cialization is offered in 13 institutions. Approxi- and a sense of continuity of living” (Heather
mately 8 % of the tourism workforce has training Zeppel and Michael Hall, in Smith 2009: 121),
in this field. while tourism “arguably creates a channel
The tourism ▶ industry is regulated by the whereby new art forms can gain support (both
Tourism Department of the Ministry of Economy. financial and moral), and helps to broaden the
The main public-sector tourism organizations are audience for the arts” (Smith 2009: 22–23).
Art 53
The relationship between art and tourism has Artists-tourists and tourists
been close since ancient times and tourists have
had very frequent contact with art of various cen- Artists-tourists are creators (professional or ama- A
turies and countries; similarly artists have always teur) who travel to pursue the kind of art they
traveled. The two words have appeared in several practice. They are represented, among others, by
combinations such as “arts tourists”, “artists- musicians (choir singers, dancers, singers, come-
tourists” (artists as tourists), “tourists as an inspi- dians, orchestra, band and theater group members,
ration for artists”, and “tourist art”. etc.) who go on tours, festivals, music overviews,
and others. Next are the authors of modern visual
arts (painters, sculptors, photographers, graphic
Arts tourists artists, graffitist, and artistic craftsmen). They
travel to different places, especially to art
Arts tourists, as recipients of various arts- enclaves, in order to create and present their
related products, participate in art(s) tourism, works, to participate in festivals and outdoor
defined by Chris Gratton and Peter Taylor as painting workshops, to visit museums and galler-
“consumption of contemporary culture” ies or other spaces, to meet other artists or art
(Hughes 2003: 53). They, together with heritage recipients, and/or to take part in vernissages. Fur-
tourists, represent main segments of ▶ cultural thermore, artists-filmmakers travel to outdoor film
tourism. Depending on the meaning and the workshops, festivals, film contests, or meetings
degree of involvement in the arts of the visited with viewers. The artists-tourists always look for
place, Howard Hughes (2003) defined two inspiration for their art in the places they visit, and
groups: arts-core tourists and arts-peripheral the trip itself is often reflected as a theme in their
tourists. The former are the ones who ▶ travel literary, music, visual, film, or any other works
in order to see the arts. They can be further of art.
classified as “primary” arts-related tourists for Artists can also be inspired by some other
whom the main purpose is to see a performance people’s journeys. As part of their work, they
and “multi-primary” arts-related tourists for interpret tourism through different art forms.
whom the arts are equally important, with According to John Tribe, this kind of art “extends
some other reason(s) for the visit. our insights beyond the literal and more easily
The latter group are those who travel for some allows the symbolic, the impressionistic, the
non-arts purposes but experience the arts imaginative, the ironic and the surreal to
(or performance) while in a ▶ destination. challenge and extend our thinking. It reveals
They could be further classified as “incidental” some aspects of tourism that are beyond the
arts-related tourists, for whom the main reason reach of words” (2008: 24).
for visiting a destination is something else and
their theater visit decision is made before arrival,
and “accidental” arts-related tourists who will Tourist art
have shown no interest in attending performance
before arriving at the destination and the deci- Tourist art can be defined as “a form of contempo-
sion to do so is made after their arrival. rary art produced locally for consumption by out-
According to Melanie Smith, “it is generally siders” (Jules-Rosette 1984: 9). The authenticity of
recognized that arts tourists tend to be the kind tourist art is considered to be important for the
of people who regularly visit arts attractions or majority of cultural tourists, because they “want
venues at home. The profile of arts tourists tends to be assured that the product they are buying is
to be broadly similar to that of more general made by a local craftworker, and reflects traditional
cultural tourists. They usually have relatively methods and a design which is characteristic of the
high levels of education, income, and cultural local area” (Smith 2009: 116). According to Anna
competence” (2009: 124). Wieczorkiewicz, the tourists’ arrival at certain
54 Asia and the Pacific
place is, in turn, an inspiration for local inhabitants a Tourist. The Experience of the World in Travel).
to “create traditions, to experiment and go beyond Krakow: Universitas.
the used formal schemes or to introduce completely
new elements, to use so far unknown materials or
forms of presentation” (2012: 53–54).
Daniel Crowley (2000) calls the phrase “tourist Asia and the Pacific
art” an oxymoron or “denial in terms” which is
universally used to describe “all that is false, ugly, Omar Nawaz and Xu Jing
and overpriced in the worldwide marketplace for UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
contemporary arts and crafts. It includes not only
sleazy souvenirs bought in airports (‘airport art’),
but spiritless ‘folk dance’ shows around hotel pools Asia and the Pacific (Oceania), as defined by the
and lackluster carvings, paintings, clothing, and arte- ▶ UNWTO, is made up of several subregions and
facts sold in shops, galleries, and so called duty-free countries: Northeast Asia (▶ China, Hong Kong,
zones” (2000: 30). Fortunately, not all of this is bad. ▶ Japan, Korea, Macao, ▶ Mongolia, and Tai-
According to Crowley, “indeed, some truly remark- wan), Southeast Asia (▶ Brunei Darussalam,
able and important arts were created for or first ▶ Cambodia, ▶ Indonesia, ▶ Laos, ▶ Malaysia,
recognized in tourism settings” (2000: 30). ▶ Myanmar, ▶ Philippines, ▶ Singapore, ▶ Thai-
Art and tourists have been inspiring each other land, ▶ Timor-Leste, and ▶ Vietnam), Oceania
at various levels for ages, and the modern process (American Samoa, ▶ Australia, Cook Islands,
of ▶ mass tourism is nowadays fostering this rela- ▶ Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, ▶ Kiribati,
tionship. Issues for further research in the context ▶ Marshall Islands, New Caledonia, ▶ New
of these relations include the place and role of Zealand, Niue, Northern Mariana Islands,
local art authenticity in relation to its production ▶ Palau, ▶ Papua New Guinea, ▶ Samoa, ▶ Sol-
process to meet the tourists’ tastes; the aims, des- omon Islands, ▶ Tonga, ▶ Tuvalu, and ▶ Vanu-
tinations, and art effects of artists’ journeys; the atu), and South Asia (▶ Bangladesh, ▶ Bhutan,
artists’ inspirations in tourism; the increase or ▶ India, ▶ Iran, ▶ Maldives, ▶ Nepal, ▶ Paki-
decrease of cultural tourists, especially artists- stan, and ▶ Sri Lanka). These countries together
tourists and art tourists; and the creation of new cover a surface area of approximately 28 million
art tourist attractions. km2 (20 % of the earth’s total land mass), with an
estimated population of almost 4 billion, equiva-
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ cultural tourism, lent to 55 % of the world total (ESCAP 2013).
▶ product, ▶ slow tourism, ▶ souvenir. Asia and the Pacific are two regions with dif-
ferent characteristics; but being geographically
contiguous, a number of common features bind
them as a ▶ destination. Asia and the Pacific is at
References
the same time a heterogeneous complex of coun-
Crowley, D. 2000 Art. In Encyclopedia of Tourism, tries rich in natural and built resources coveted for
J. Jafari, ed., pp.30-31. London: Routledge. centuries by the rest of the world. The lure of silk
Hughes, H. 2003 Arts, Entertainment and Tourism. Bur- and spice eventually led to colonization, leaving
lington: Buttleworth-Heinemann. behind a legacy of Portuguese, Spanish, Dutch,
Jules-Rosette, B. 1984 The Messages of Tourist Art: An
African Semiotic System in Comparative Perspective. German, English, and American influences in the
New York: Plenum Press. region. Trade contacts with the Arabian Peninsula
Smith, M. 2009 Issues in Cultural Tourism Studies. Lon- ultimately resulted in the introduction of Islam to
don: Routledge. the region (UNWTO 2011a).
Tribe, J. 2008 The Art of Tourism. Annals of Tourism
Research 35:924-944. Asia and the Pacific is an amalgam of the
Wieczorkiewicz, A. 2012 Apetyt Turysty. Orient and the Occident. At first, the trade and
O Doswiadczaniu Swiata w Podrozy (The Appetite of ▶ tourist flows were essentially from the West to
Asia and the Pacific 55
the East, but now the main growth is increasingly UNWTO predicts a further increase in Asia
in the reverse direction. and the Pacific’s share of world arrivals from
23 % to 30 % – primarily at the expense of A
▶ Europe whose share is forecast to decrease
Tourism growth from 51 % to 41 % – in line with the region’s
expected economic growth and increased trade to,
The development of Asia Pacific tourism has been from, and within the region (UNWTO 2011b).
spectacular and is closely related to the political
and social changes that have taken place in the
region in the past two decades. The liberalization Opportunities and threats
of trade barriers and the ensuing globalization
have been the key to the economic growth rate A noteworthy feature of Asia Pacific tourism is
in GDP of the region. The biggest asset is its the important role of ▶ domestic tourism closely
vibrant population that has enabled its various linked to religion and family ties. Hinduism, Bud-
countries to offer the necessary manpower to dhism (with its many offshoots), Islam, and Chris-
take advantage of technological progress for tianity are deeply imbedded in Asia Pacific
greater productivity. Asia Pacific’s GDP grew by society in which holidays, festivals, and pilgrim-
4.9 % in 2013 (China 6.3 %, India 3.8 %, Austra- ages are governed by religious beliefs and prac-
lia 2.5 %, and Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, tices. While precise statistical data is not
and Thailand 4.9 %). The increase in per capita available, UNWTO estimates that the domestic
income has led to a rising middle class with the share of Asia Pacific tourism is between four to
necessary disposable income and leisure time for five times greater than that of ▶ international tour-
discretionary travel – the main drivers in the ism and that the contribution of the former to the
growth of Asia Pacific tourism. From just 82 mil- region’s economy is approximately two thirds of
lion in 1995, the region’s international tourist that of the latter (UNWTO 2013).
arrivals reached 248 million in 2013, 23 % of the Asia Pacific tourism has proved amazingly
world total, doubling from 124 million a decade resilient in the face of numerous obstacles affect-
earlier. ing the region over the past three decades – related
The growth in tourist arrivals in 2013 was to natural and man-made disasters, such as tsu-
4.7 % globally, with Asia and the Pacific record- namis, earthquakes, typhoons, SARS, acts of ter-
ing the strongest regional increase (+6.8 %), rorism, and financial crises. Despite these
thanks largely to the performance of Southeast obstacles, it has recovered rapidly from each set-
Asia (+11.3 %) and South Asia (+11.1 %). How- back, improving its performance and profiting
ever, Northeast Asia registered growth well below from the lessons learned.
par (+3.4 %), while the Pacific (Oceania) fared Nevertheless, Asia Pacific tourism faces a
only slightly better (+4.6 %). number of serious challenges linked to its rapid
One of the major features of the Asia Pacific economic development which, in turn, has created
outbound travel market in recent years has been pressure on infrastructure, human resources, and
the growth and dominance of China, which the environment. An aging population in some
accounted for 97 million outbound tourists in countries, combined with a rural exodus, socio-
2013, an increase of 14 % over 2012, conse- economic problems such as unemployment, pov-
quently generating US$102 billion in expendi- erty, pollution, and crisis management are some of
ture, or a rise of $14 million. The whole region the issues that will have to be tackled in the future
has benefited from the growth in Chinese out- to ensure sustainability.
bound travel, which has boosted the share of One of the most critical issues for the industry
intraregional tourism to an estimated 78 % of will be to ensure an adequate supply of human
total arrivals in Asia and the Pacific (UNWTO talent going forward, especially if demand for tour-
2014). ism continues to outpace supply. There is a general
56 Astrotourism
consensus across the region that, despite quality unpolluted night skies for astronomical, cultural,
educational institutes and training programs, or environmental activities” (Fayos-Solà and
investments in human resources have lagged Marín 2009: 7). Dark skies are becoming a scarce
behind spending on infrastructure such as airports resource as night lighting and atmospheric pollu-
and hotels, and the region faces a severe shortage of tion increase. Astrotourism opens new opportuni-
skilled workers in the next 10 years (WTTC 2014). ties of bridging science and tourism, motivating
A deep understanding of current trends in tourist alliances for starry nights, science, culture, and
patterns and behavior, as well as detailed projec- nature (Marín et al. 2011).
tions of both demand and supply, should form the Associating nightscapes with heritage is a logi-
basis of industry-wide cooperative research cal step in astrotourism. The night sky has played a
between the public and private sectors. key role in the development of civilization, includ-
ing orientation and navigation, agriculture, calen-
See also ▶ Disaster, ▶ domestic tourism, dars, cultural travel, and celebrations. The dawn of
▶ economic development, ▶ globalization, many cultures is marked by archeoastronomical
▶ sustainability. milestones, witnessed at widespread sites, includ-
ing Stonehenge, Chichen Itzá, Giza, Mesa Verde,
Chankillo, Persepolis, Almendres, Gochang, or
Chaco Canyon. The relevance of these sites, the
References
commemoration of key dates in ancient calendars,
ESCAP 2013 Statistical Yearbook for Asia and the and other intangible and oral manifestations are a
Pacific. Bangkok: United Nations Economic and Social resource for cultural-scientific event tourism.
Commission for Asia and the Pacific. Astrotourism entails observatories, stargazing
UNWTO 2011a Religious Tourism in Asia and the places and dates, heritage sites related to astron-
Pacific. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
UNWTO 2011b Tourism towards 2030 – Global Over- omy, and natural dark sky areas of outstanding
view. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. beauty. Countries such as ▶ Chile, ▶ South
UNWTO 2013 Domestic Tourism in Asia and the Africa, ▶ Portugal, ▶ Canada, ▶ New Zealand,
Pacific. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. ▶ Spain, and the ▶ United States, as well as spe-
UNWTO 2014 World Tourism Barometer, volume 12.
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. cific regions like La Palma, Baja California, La
WTTC 2014 Global Talent Trends and Issues for the Travel Serena, or Hawaii, have invested in protected
and Tourism Sector. London: World Travel and Tour- starlight and dark sky areas, often through astro-
ism Council. nomical associations and astrotourism start-ups
(Rashidi 2012). However, for people living
under light pollution, the night sky has only a
few bright stars and planets, and an ubiquitous
Astrotourism sky glows from artificial illumination. Light scat-
tering of artificial illumination, airborne particu-
Eduardo Fayos-Solà1, Cipriano Marín2 and lates, other forms of air pollution, and
Mohammad Reza Rashidi3 atmospheric turbulence worsen astrotourism
1
UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain experiences. This provides an opportunity for
2
Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, StarLight locations with unpolluted and diaphanous night
Initiative, Tenerife, Spain skies and specific product offerings, including
3
Allameh Tabatabae’i University, Tehran, Iran national/regional parks, unique astronomical or
archeoastronomical sites and events, and astro-
nomical observatories (Marín et al. 2011).
The concept of astrotourism has expanded over From this perspective, astrotourism becomes an
the years, from dictionary definitions of “activities important instrument of scientific and cultural out-
by tourists paying to ▶ travel into space for ▶ rec- reach, providing fulfilling experiences (Jafari and
reation” to “tourism using the natural resource of Marín 2007), subject to additional research and
Attention 57
implementation of quality standards being carried an effort and resource since it demands mental
out. This is extremely important for both tourists energy to allocate some cognitive capacity; control
and host destinations as new approaches to tourism given that it implies human will despite also possi- A
for ▶ development can be followed in this context bly being subliminal; and connection and orienta-
(Fayos-Solà et al. 2014). tion as it focuses on picking, choosing, or going.
Therefore, attention selects specific objects while
See also ▶ Desert tourism, ▶ nature tourism, discarding others in order to concentrate its energy
▶ policy and policymaking, ▶ space tourism. on one or distribute it among several, persisting,
and undistracted over a period of time.
Attention has been studied as a variable in
References psychology, in areas such as ▶ tourist behavior
as a key process for understanding why and how
Fayos-Solà, E., and C. Marín 2009 Tourism and Science an individual exposes mental activity to a stimu-
Outreach: The Starlight Initiative. Madrid: World Tour-
lus. In fact, attention is an essential field of study,
ism Organization.
Fayos-Solà, E., M. Alvarez, and C. Cooper, eds. 2014 for modern tourism ▶ management techniques
Tourism as an Instrument for Development. Bingley: regard behavior analysis as the bottom line
Emerald. (Pizam and Manfeld 2000).
Jafari, J., and C. Marín 2007 Starlight: A Common Heri-
tage. Proceedings of the International Conference in
Defence of the Quality of the Night Sky and the Right
to Observe the Stars. La Palma: UNESCO-MaB. Existing findings
Marín, C., R. Wainscoat, and E. Fayos-Solà 2011 Windows
to the Universe: Starlight, Dark-Sky Areas and Obser-
It is known that the selection of information or
vatory Sites. In Heritage Sites of Astronomy and
Archaeoastronomy, C. Ruggles and M. Cotte, eds., stimuli depends on several factors. One of these is
pp.238-259. Paris: ICOMOS-IAU. the nature of the stimulus, which explains why
Rashidi, M. 2012 Astrotourism Development Strategies in attention is more likely to be devoted to prominent
Iran: Ecotourism and Desert Capacities. Allameh
stimuli (for instance, big rather than small things).
Tabatabae’i University, Tehran, Iran.
Another factor is the contrast effect, which explains
why two objects are much more conspicuous if
their characteristics oppose or clash. The contrast
effect is used in tourism for attracting attention. For
Attention example, a brochure combines red and yellow,
black and white, and the like. In addition, expecta-
Gonzalo Díaz-Meneses tions and motivation are determinants in under-
Faculty of Economy, Business and Tourism, standing why tourists perceive much more easily,
University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, quickly, and with more efficiency what they expect
The Canary Islands, Spain and need to process, even though the object could
be more difficult or complicated. For example, if
drivers are traveling along the motorway, they will
Etymologically, the word attention comes from be more unlikely to catch sight of a petrol station
Latin attendĕre, comprised of at (proximity) and from the road when the tank is full. Furthermore,
tendĕre (tend to and incline toward). It is a psycho- hedonistic exposure obviously serves to elucidate
logical process that consists of bringing into focus a not only why tourists prefer pleasurable over
given object. In other words, attention refers to how unpleasant experiences but also to reveal the
the perception mechanism selects, captures, or greater attractive power of destinations with a
detects a specific piece of information. In this classy image and plush hotels vs to run-down or
sense, attention might be considered a filter, effort, run-of-the-mill hotels. In other words, attractive
resource, control, orientation, connection, or focus. images are more likely to be noticed (Goocens
It is a filter because it discards what is not selected; 2000; Pearce 2005).
58 Attitude
Logically, understanding how attention func- Finally, the fact that attention is a limited human
tions is also relevant, given that the management of capacity suffering from overexposure, saturation,
companies operating in service and tourism try to or overcapacity because of the development of new
capture attention for their own brands, services, information technology in modern society should
products, and shops. To be precise, managers intend also be taken into account. In fact, there is a danger
to attract the attention of tourists by intensifying, of exceeding cognitive capacity. Hence, it seems
contrasting, repeating, and moving stimuli. For logical to state that the essential content should be
instance, playing music and telling stories are pow- highlighted over the impacting aim in any action
erful tools for gathering attention. Furthermore, that draws people’s attention. Retrospective atten-
making good use of geometric and natural forms is tion is the opposite of habituation, or being indif-
useful, given that they retrievesensorial memory in a ferent to the significant and the noteworthy. Indeed,
way that is both efficient and emotive. Since unex- it is interesting to note that attention and attend in
pected sensations, novelty, and emotions are always English, as in other languages, such as Spanish,
surprising and alluring, attention might be drawn by Portuguese, Italian, and French, have the same
provoking target audiences by touching their hearts Latin root, and both imply a deeper meaning of
or by appealing to their sense of humor (Hoyer and being present to give help or assist.
Macinnis 2004; Moutinho 1987).
Another line of investigation with implications See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ mapping, perceptual,
for tourism stems from management experiences. ▶ motivation, ▶ novelty, ▶ psychology.
In fact, attention is an experiential process, which,
if intensive, involves all five senses. Thus, senso-
rial experiences connected to brilliant colors,
intense flavor, deep aroma, luxurious comfort, References
and inspiring sounds are designed to draw the
Fronchot, I., and W. Batat 2013 Marketing and Designing
attention of the tourist. No doubt, social interac- the Tourist Experience. Oxford: Goodfellow.
tion during the quality of co-creation service pro- Goocens, C. 2000 Tourism Information and Pleasure Moti-
cess calls for attention and provokes an emotional vation. Annals of Tourism Research 27: 301-321.
response. In particular, the emotion of surprise Hoyer, W., and D. Macinnis 2004 Consumer Behavior.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
plays an important role in setting in motion the Moutinho, L. 1987 Consumer Behavior in Tourism. Euro-
attention process for customers, for advertising pean Journal of Marketing 21(10):5-44.
audiences, and for tourists. Likewise, attention is Pearce, P. 2005 Tourist Behavior: Themes and Conceptual
fundamental in gaining a lasting experience and a Schemes. Clavedon: Cromwell.
Pizam, A., and Y. Manfeld 2000 Consumer Behavior in
persistent memory of brand, service, and any Travel and Tourism. New York: Haworth.
management output (Fronchot and Batat 2013).
New lines of research

Attitude
Fostering better understanding of shallow atten-
tion responses represents some of the most impor- Alfonso Vargas-Sánchez, Ma Ángeles Plaza-
tant challenges in the management of tourism, Mejía and Nuria Porras-Bueno
especially in the context of high competition, Management and Marketing Department, Faculty
oversaturated markets, and limited cognitive of Business Studies, University of Huelva,
potential tourist capacity. In addition, it is also Huelva, Spain
interesting to give more insight into how attention
works with new technologies so that studies can
not only understand the cognitive process but also Attitude can be defined as the way in which a
optimize management. person views and evaluates something or
Attitude 59
someone, a predisposition or a tendency to attitude toward tourism demonstrated by the var-

respond positively or negatively toward a certain ious stakeholders. However, to date, the majority
idea, object, person, or situation. It is traditionally of the studies on this topic have focused princi- A
structured along three dimensions: cognitive pally on examining the attitude of residents of the
(perceptions and beliefs), affective (likes and dis- host community (residents’ perceptions of
likes, feelings, or evoked emotions), and behav- tourism).
ioral (actions or expressed intentions toward the
object based upon the “cognitive” and “affective”
responses). Attitudes and residents
Two models are offered to explain the causes of
attitudes. The first proposes that the cognitive and The attitude of residents toward tourism and their
affective bases of attitudes are predictive of the support are fundamental for the ▶ development
behavior of the subject. In the second, however, and success of a ▶ destination. On this basis,
behavior is taken to determine attitude. The two Nunkoo et al. (2013) conclude that the studies
views can be considered complementary and not on this matter present a fundamentally quantita-
antagonistic. Cognitive, affective, and behavioral tive and nontheoretical character. They propose,
components are often not empirically distinguish- however, that research in this field is evolving in
able, and the three-component terminology is three respects: growing use of diverse theories
inappropriate in its implication that responses extracted from other disciplines, testing on the
are distinct. This suggests that only a basis of empirical data of the theories developed,
one-dimensional model of attitude is acceptable, and adoption of methods of combined collection
because all its measures (cognitive, affective, and analysis of data, both qualitative and quanti-
behavioral) place individuals along an evaluative tative, so as to improve the results.
continuum. To study the attitude of residents toward tour-
One characteristic of attitudes is that they are ism, there are two distinct approaches: one based
not directly observable; they constitute a latent on the analysis of the factors (intrinsic and extrin-
variable that can be inferred through the behavior sic) and the other on examining theories that
or verbal declarations of people. Attitude can be might explain this attitude. As indicated by Jack-
measured explicitly (by asking subjects directly son and Inbakaran (2006), the factors that influ-
through questionnaires) or implicitly (by studying ence residents’ attitude toward tourism and its
indirectly responses that are believed to be asso- development would include ▶ demography, per-
ciated with certain attitudes). sonal opinion, social factors, and factors related to
Translating this generic framework of attitude tourism. These factors, under other names and
to the particular field of tourism, this can be with different groupings of variables, are also
described as a set of beliefs, predispositions, and indicated in the theoretical study made by Harrill
behavior (or intended behavior) toward specific (2004), who refers to sociodemographic, spatial,
aspects of tourism. The definition and its tripartite and economic dependence.
conformation help to understand why in the tour- Among the demographic factors, the principal
ism literature there exists a certain conceptual independent variables analyzed are gender, age,
confusion among attitude, perception, opinion, occupational situation, educational level, income,
and ▶ other similar terms often used synony- and place of residence (urban or rural). Among the
mously or interchangeably, although in reality social factors, the more notable are the time that
they have different meanings. residents have lived in the locality (length of res-
From the perspective of the ▶ stakeholder idence), the state of the local economy, the pattern
▶ theory, and conceiving tourism as a complex of property ownership (home owned or rented),
▶ system that involves a wide range of interest and the different geographic zones. The spatial
groups, it is relevant to understand and compare factors related to tourism are intended to analyze
the degree of conflict and conformity in the the influences on the attitude attributable to
60 Attitude
residents’ degree of “physical” contact or interac- Researchers have attempted to understand how
tion with tourists. This variable is measured the cognitive, affective, and behavioral elements
mainly by means of two indicators: the physical are integrated in the formation and change of
distance between the residents’ home locality and attitudes and the relationship between tourism-
principal tourism zones and the concentration of related behavior and the attitude of the tourist.
tourists in a particular ▶ region. With regard to the Attitude is one of the most critical topics of dis-
economic dependence factor, according to Harrill cussion in the development of a model for tourist
(2004), the hypothesis most frequently put for- motivation and behavior, although Hsu
ward and supported proposes that the greater the et al. (2010) argue that the relationship between
economic dependence of residents or of the com- motivation and other behavioral constructs, such
munity on tourism, the more favorable their col- as expectation and attitude, is surprisingly rarely
lective attitudes are toward tourism and its further studied.
development. Other relevant aspects are the cycle According to Gnoth (1997), tourists’ attitudes
of tourism development, the actual ▶ model of toward an object are determined by both their felt
development proposed, the type of tourists who needs and value system. The three concepts of
visit the zone, and ▶ seasonality. motivation – one’s psychological need to pursue
The wide range of variables with direct or a goal state, expectation (belief that a particular
indirect impacts on the formation of attitudes action will lead to some defined outcome), and
needs to be incorporated into models in order to attitude – are interrelated and should be examined
illuminate the interrelationships among the vari- holistically. More specifically, Hsu et al. (2010)
ables. Diverse theoretical bases have been used. propose a model according to which tourists’
The social exchange theory framework has been motivation and their expectation of visiting an
applied most frequently by researchers, and so outbound destination have a direct effect on their
have other perspectives, such as the level of com- attitude toward visiting it; motivation exerts a
munity attachment, the growth rate, the locality’s mediating effect on the relationship between
carrying capacity, the destination life cycle, or the expectation and attitude.
“Irridex” model by George Doxey. Additionally, Several studies have analyzed how attitudes of
with the ultimate aim of deepening in the complex tourists are related to their decisions, the quality
relationship between residents (host) and tourists perceived in the services used, their satisfaction
(guest) in a destination, other theories have joined, with them, and their behavior. Attitude dimensions
such as Durkheim’s theory of emotional solidar- with regard to a destination are likely to be critical
ity, social distance theory, intimacy theory, the elements in the choice process, irrespective of
contact-hypothesis theory, and the integrative the- whether or not they are true representations.
ory of cross-cultural ▶ adaptation. A positive attitude determines a consumer’s inten-
In light of these different theories, diverse tion to purchase, and behavioral intention is the
models have been devised. Only on a few occa- best proximal measure of actual behavior. For
sions has the approach been longitudinal. There- ▶ travel planning, Ayeh (2013) conclude that the
fore, it is important to integrate different attitude toward using “user-generated content”
theoretical approaches and construct for a more positively influences the behavioral intention to
holistic model which accommodates some of the use it. Concerning the relationship between attitude
partial perspectives. and satisfaction, the former (more consistent over
time and more generically evaluated than satisfac-
tion) is an essential element prior to the moment
Attitudes toward tourism when a destination is chosen, whereas the latter
after the experience acts as a mental link immedi-
Another of the key stakeholders whose attitudes ately prior to a possible change of attitude toward
have been the subject of study is the ▶ tourist. that destination.
Attitude 61
Attitudes of stakeholders Future directions
Evaluating differences between the attitudes of Within the scientific literature, the study of atti- A
the ▶ host and guest populations of an area can tudes in tourism has focused principally on exam-
provide crucial information for improvement of ining the attitudes of residents, although the
tourism facilities. Despite this, a few comparative studies analyzing the attitudes of tourists are also
studies have been carried out in this respect, significant as one of the variables that influence
including Murphy (1983) who surveyed three consumer behavior. Nunkoo et al. (2013)
decisionmaking groups in various tourism centers acknowledge that research on this topic has
and found significant differences in the attitudes achieved great importance both theoretically and
and perceptions of local development for the busi- empirically. However, they alert on the need for
ness sector, administration, and residents; Witter mixed method approaches, which combine both
(1985) who compared the attitudes that tourists quantitative and qualitative techniques for data
and small local retailers have about a resort area, collection and analysis.
concluding that retailers evaluated their resort Future research is needed to deepen the relation-
area significantly more favorably than did the ships between attitude and behavior. Notably, lon-
tourists and that the two groups had different gitudinal studies are essential in identifying and
perspectives on what tourists seek; Kuvan and analyzing the attributes of attitudes that may corre-
Akan (2012) who analyzed the degree of conflict late among the four strength features – persistence,
and agreement in the attitudes of the residents and resistance, ▶ impact on information processing
hotel managers; and Lankford (1994) who com- and judgments, and guiding behavior – and in
pared the attitude toward tourism development of explaining how these may change over time.
residents, government employees, decision-
makers, and local business owners, concluding See also ▶ Host and guest, ▶ impact,
that the key factors involved are not in agreement ▶ stakeholder.
with the role of regional ▶ rural tourism and
▶ recreation development.
In essence, researchers have to not only con-
sider the attitude of the different stakeholders but References
also be aware that the tourism ▶ phenomenon
itself can produce different effects on the atti- Ayeh, J., N. Au, and R. Law 2013 Do We Believe in
tudes presented by the various individual mem- TripAdvisor? Examining Credibility Perceptions and
Online Travelers' Attitude toward Using User-
bers of each stakeholder group. There are diverse Generated Content. Journal of Travel Research
studies aimed at ascertaining the influence that 52:437-452.
the interaction between tourists and residents has Gnoth, J. 1997 Tourism Motivation and Expectation For-
on their attitudes and whether, for example, the mation. Annals of Tourism Research 24:283-304.
Harrill, R. 2004 Residents’ Attitudes toward Tourism
tourism experience in a foreign country can Development: A Literature Review with Implications
affect and even alter previously acquired atti- for Tourism Planning. Journal of Planning Literature
tudes. Studying attitudes makes it possible to 18:215-266.
understand better the effects that are generated Hsu, C., L. Cai, and M. Li 2010 Expectation, Motivation
and Attitude: A Tourist Behavioral Model. Journal of
by the interaction between tourists and residents, Travel Research 49:282-296.
the contact that can lead to changes in the atti- Jackson, M., and R. Inbakaran 2006 Evaluating Residents’
tudes of both groups, bearing in mind that these Attitudes and Intentions to Act towards Tourism Devel-
attitudes are directly related to the perception that opment in Regional Victoria, Australia. International
Journal of Tourism Research 8:355-366.
the two groups have of each other, and the degree Kuvan, Y., and P. Akan 2012 Conflict and Agreement in
of interest and tolerance that they have in Stakeholder Attitudes: Residents' and Hotel Managers'
experiencing a foreign culture. Views of Tourism Impacts and Forest-related Tourism
62 Attraction
Development. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 20:571- natural or cultural attractions that were not created
584. or managed principally to appeal to tourists. Con-
Lankford, S. 1994 Attitudes and Perceptions toward Tour-
ism and Rural Regional Development. Journal of versely, many modern attractions such as
Travel Research 32:35-43. Disneyland have been purpose-built for tourists.
Murphy, P. 1983 Perceptions and Attitudes of Decision- A historic analysis of attractions reveals a number
making Groups in Tourism Centers. Journal of Travel of key developments and motives for visitation.
Research 21:8-12.
Nunkoo, R., S. Smith, and H. Ramkissoon 2013 Residents´ During the New Kingdom in Egypt (1,600–1,200
Attitudes to Tourism: A Longitudinal Study of 140 Arti- BC), a number of prominent monuments such as
cles from 1984 to 2010. Journal of Sustainable Tourism the Sphinx and the great pyramids of Giza were
21:5-25. already over 1,000 years old. Graffiti left by
Witter, B. 1985 Attitudes about a Resort Area:
A Comparison of Tourists and Local Retailers. Journal ancient sightseers can be found on the walls of
of Travel Research 24:14-19. such attractions. In ancient Greece, attractions
such as the Parthenon, the Oracle at Delphi, the
“Seven Wonders of the World,” and the athletic
competitions at Olympia were important sites.
Attraction The Roman calendar boasted many public holi-
days allowing Roman citizens the opportunity to
Pierre Benckendorff visit attractions such as the Colosseum, coastal
UQ Business School, The University of resorts such as the Bay of Naples, and mineral
Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia springs or baths.
During the Medieval period, religious pilgrim-
ages were actively encouraged by the church, and
Attractions are a core component of tourism. They attractions such as cathedrals, shrines, and reli-
are often called “tourist attractions” because they gious artifacts became popular. Similarly, in
tend to attract tourists. Attractions are the places, Asia, sites of natural or spiritual significance
people, events, and things that make up the became important attractions. During the rule of
objects of the ▶ tourist gaze and attract tourists Elizabeth I of England (1558–1603), travel was
to destinations. Common examples include natu- fueled partly by a special type of attraction-based
ral and cultural sites, historical places, monu- journey known as the Grand Tour, which included
ments, zoos and game reserves, aquaria, important historical and cultural attractions such
museums and art galleries, gardens, architectural as European universities, art galleries, museums
structures, themeparks, sports facilities, festivals and collections, and architectural marvels.
and events, wildlife, and people. The history of The reemergence of hot springs and spa towns
attractions is inextricably linked with the devel- in the seventeenth century triggered the develop-
opment of the tourism industry. An attraction ment of a number of secondary attractions such as
exists when a tourism system is created to desig- theaters, parks and gardens, assembly rooms,
nate and elevate it to the status of an attraction pumping rooms, and dancing halls. The industrial
(Lew, 2000). Sectors such as transport, accommo- revolution created new transport modes and
dation, and travel retail exist as part of this system fueled the demand for leisure attractions.
because they support the desire for tourists to see Burgeoning seaside resorts offering a variety of
attractions. attractions such as tea gardens, aviaries, aquaria,
winter gardens, pier promenades, and open-air
entertainment emerged. In the latter part of the
Historical evolution nineteenth century, pleasure gardens and traveling
fairs began to evolve into static amusement parks,
Many attractions from ancient times are still pop- which became the forerunners of modern
ular today. Older attractions such as the Egyptian themeparks. During this period, a number of casi-
pyramids or the Great Barrier Reef tend to be nos also emerged as attractions on the French
Attraction 63
Riviera and ski runs developed in both Europe and contention can be identified from existing defini-
North America to meet the growing demand for tions of attractions.
skiing and mountaineering activities. Firstly, a number of definitions infer that some A
Increases in leisure time, greater mobility, form of magnetic force or drawing power pulls
and higher disposable income heralded a boom tourists toward an attraction. Leiper (1990) pro-
in the attractions sector after World War II. Many vides a model of attraction that includes a tourist
businesses traditionally not associated with tour- or human element, a nucleus or sight, and a
ism began to develop themed tourist attractions. marker or informative element. A tourist attrac-
The entertainment industry embraced the con- tion exists when the three elements are connected,
cept of themeparks to create mass entertainment but care needs to be taken to emphasize that this is
venues such as Disneyland. Farms, factories, a model of attraction, as opposed to a model of an
and mining companies also sought to diversify attraction. The attraction itself is represented by
into the tourism industry, leading to themed the nucleus or sight. Leiper’s model does not
attractions such as Knott’s Berry Farm in the adhere to the conventional view that tourists are
United States and Sovereign Hill in Australia. “pulled” toward a nucleus; rather, they are
Historical sites associated with war and other “pushed” by their own motives.
atrocities provide useful examples of “dark tour- Secondly, several definitions exclude extended
ism” attractions. natural landscapes, wildlife, and cultural aspects
This consideration of the evolution of attrac- such as language, food, and customs. These defi-
tions heightens awareness of the social and tech- nitions limit attractions to features, sites, or areas
nological changes that continually reshape tourist with fixed perimeters and imply that all attractions
demand for leisure opportunities. Attractions are are associated with a location. However, Wall
constantly being discovered, planned, created, (1997) observed that tourist attractions could be
and managed to suit changing national and inter- classified as line, point, or areal attractions. Point
national tastes, motives, and purchasing power. attractions refer to specific sites, while line attrac-
This has resulted in a bewildering array of con- tions include features that are linear in nature,
temporary attractions, from traditional castles and such as tourist strips or natural features such as
natural environments to postmodern sites like mountain ranges, coastlines, or reefs. Areal attrac-
sewers and slums. tions are associated with the broader interpretation
of destinations, regions, or precincts as tourist
attractions. Attractions can also be isolated, dis-
Definitions and frameworks persed, or clustered together, and this spatial
arrangement is an important consideration for
Given this diversity, attractions are notoriously the planning and management of destinations
troublesome to define. While various definitions and experiences.
have been suggested, they vary in terms of their Thirdly, some definitions explicitly describe
purposes, disciplinary approaches, applicability, attractions as permanent, thereby excluding tem-
and simplicity. Swarbrooke (2002) offers two porary events that may attract tourists in their own
key reasons that contribute to the lack of a univer- right. However, other definitions acknowledge
sal definition. Firstly, it is difficult to determine the that both staged and natural events can be charac-
number of tourists that have to travel to a site terized as attractions. Thus, events such as a solar
before it can be classified as an attraction. Sec- eclipse or coral spawning can draw tourists to a
ondly, the purpose for visiting a site can be an particular site.
important consideration for whether it should be The diversity of definitions highlights the dif-
classified as an attraction. These technicalities are ficulties in deriving meaning from a highly dispa-
further compounded by the multiple disciplinary rate and continuously evolving sector of the
backgrounds of researchers and practitioners who tourism industry. Rather than proposing a defini-
attempt to study them, and several points of tion, it is perhaps more useful to consider the
64 Attraction
various frameworks which have been developed framework also acknowledges the managerial
to understand attractions. Gunn’s (1988) concen- context and the importance of tourists, awareness
tric rings model represents one of the first attempts markers, and transit markers.
to present an attraction in a diagrammatic form.
The model describes the physical resource setting
and consists of three concentric rings representing Typologies and future directions
the nucleus or core resource upon which the
attraction is based; the inviolate belt or space Any discussion of tourist attraction models would
needed to give meaning to the attraction; and the be incomplete without a consideration of the var-
zone of closure that includes the collection of ious methods of classifying them. Attraction
services and facilities that support the attraction. typologies are necessitated by the need for mean-
Building on this work, Pearce (1991) used both ingful comparisons among the many disparate
inductive and deductive methods to derive six parts of the attraction sector. Some of the most
principles for successful tourist attractions. These common typologies are based on dimensions such
consist of a core resource – a striking and/or as cultural vs natural and permanent sites vs tem-
distinctive physical or cultural resource; porary events. Some typologies combine these
meaning – the resource should be readily appreci- two classifications to create a two-dimensional
ated by the public or offer interpretive facilities so matrix of attractions. For example, cultural sites
that the public may understand and appreciate the might include themeparks, museums, and historic
resource; activities and experiences – the resource buildings, while cultural events may include fes-
will provide scope for tourist experience and activ- tivals and sports events. Similarly, natural sites
ities which are responsible, accessible, and excite might include geological features, flora, or
public imagination; an inviolate belt – the resource fauna, while natural events might include astro-
will be presented in a context that preserves it and nomic events or wildlife migrations. Examples of
enables the tourist to appreciate and reflect on its other continua for classifying attractions include
qualities; a services zone – a successful tourist price, ownership, access, capacity, image, and
attraction will provide tourists services (e.g., toi- market (Wanhill 2008). Leask (2008) combines a
lets, shopping) but not to the detriment of the number of these dimensions into a model, while
resource; and price – a successful tourist attraction image and market are used by Wanhill (2008) to
will be priced to reflect the quality of the resource identify four types of attractions: “me too attrac-
and its management, tourists’ length of stay, and a tions” (current market-current image), “grand
healthy return on public or private investment. inspiration attractions” (current market-new
Swarbrooke (2002) places greater emphasis on image), “new version attractions” (new market-
the core needs and benefits obtained by tourists current image), and “wonder attractions” (new
rather than the physical aspects of the attraction. market-new image).
This moves the discussion into the realm of expe- The further development of a
riences, because the core can be described in terms multidimensional approach that makes use of con-
of intangible benefits such as education, entertain- tinua offers a more sophisticated method of clas-
ment, escape, and aesthetics. Benckendorff sifying attractions. Lew (1987) adopts this
(2006) synthesizes the various attraction models approach by suggesting that attractions research
and proposes a framework consisting of four could be classified according to ideographic, orga-
dimensions made up of the core resource nizational, and cognitive perspectives. Ideo-
(natural, built, site, event), augmented services graphic perspectives emphasize the general
(retail, transport, catering, facilities), intangible environmental features of a place, including nat-
experiential benefits (escape, excitement, enter- ural beauty, climate, culture, and social customs or
tainment, education), and contextual markers characteristics. Organizational perspectives focus
(meaning, interpretation, sense of place). The on spatial, capacity, and temporal characteristics,
Australia 65
and cognitive perspectives emphasize the study of

tourist perceptions and experiences. Australia
While some researchers have argued that tour- A
ist attractions are under-researched and poorly Lisa Ruhanen
understood, Lew’s (1987) schema is a reminder UQ Business School, The University of
that large bodies of work dealing with destination Queensland, St Lucia, Australia
image, authenticity, experiences, experien-
cescapes, interpretation, crowding, information
technology, satisfaction, and service quality are Australia is unique in that it is both a country and a
directly relevant to the understanding of attrac- continent: the world’s smallest continent but the
tions. Recent attempts to understand tourist expe- sixth largest country, comprised of eight states and
riences using concepts such as cocreation, flow, territories (Figure 1). It is located in the Southern
mindfulness, and other psychological constructs Hemisphere, covering a land area of 7,682,300 km2
also make a useful contribution to understanding (4,773,559 mi2), with a population of 23.3 million.
the affective, cognitive, and conative aspects of The Australian economy is the 13th largest by GDP.
attractions. Research progress in these areas rep-
resents ongoing attempts to advance the frontiers
of knowledge about tourist attractions. Tourism in Australia
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ destination, ▶ expe- Due to Australia’s remoteness from major gener-
rience, ▶ marker, ▶ themepark. ating markets and the distances between the main
population centers within the country, its tourism
▶ industry developed comparatively later than
other parts of the world, such as ▶ Europe and
References North America. Beach and mountain resorts first
emerged adjacent to capital cities, serviced by the
Benckendorff, P. 2006 Attractions Megatrends. In Tourism expanding rail network from the 1850s and
Business Frontiers: Consumers, Products and Industry, catering to the free ▶ time and disposable income
D. Buhalis and C. Costa, eds., pp.200-210. Oxford:
of the increasingly urbanized population. How-
Butterworth-Heinemann.
Gunn, C. 1988 Vacationscape: Designing Tourist Regions. ever, it was not until the advances in air ▶ trans-
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. portation from the 1950s that ▶ inbound tourism
Leask, A. 2008 The Nature and Role of Visitor Attractions. gained significant momentum in Australia
In Managing Visitor Attractions: New Directions,
(Cooper and Ruhanen 2005).
A. Fyall, B. Garrod, A. Leask and S. Wanhill, eds.,
pp.16-37. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. Through the 1980s, inbound arrivals grew
Leiper, N. 1990 Tourist Attraction Systems. Annals of steadily and reached some 2.5 million by the end
Tourism Research 17:367-384. of the decade. Since 2000, tourism arrivals have
Lew, A. 1987 A Framework of Tourist Attraction
been steady despite difficult global conditions,
Research. Annals of Tourism Research 14:553-575.
Lew, A. 2000 Attraction. In Encyclopedia of Tourism, J. including the global financial crisis and the
Jafari, eds., p. 35-37. London: Routledge. strengthening of the Australian dollar in the latter
Pearce, P. 1991 Analyzing Tourist Attractions. Journal of part of the decade. In 2012/2013, Australia
Tourism Studies 2:46-55.
reached a new record of 6.3 million arrivals, led
Swarbrooke, J. 2002 The Development and Management of
Visitor Attractions. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. by ▶ New Zealand, ▶ China, the ▶ United King-
Wall, G. 1997 Tourist Attractions: Points, Lines, and dom, the ▶ United States, and ▶ Japan (TRA
Areas. Annals of Tourism Research 24:240-243. 2013). ▶ Domestic tourism represents some
Wanhill, S. 2008 Interpreting the Development of the Visitor
Attraction Product. In Managing Visitor Attractions: New
80 % of the demand, but this is constrained by
Directions, A. Fyall, B. Garrod, A. Leask and S. Wanhill, the strength of the Australian dollar which has
eds., pp.3-15. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. made international travel to short-haul leisure
66 Australia
Australia, Figure 1 Map

of Australia
Darwin
NORTHERN
TERRITORY
QUEENSLAND
WESTERN
AUSTRALIA
SOUTH Brisbane
AUSTRALIA
NEW SOUTH
WALES
Perth
Adelaide Sydney
Canberra
VICTORIA
Commonwealth of Melbourne
Australia
Tasmania
Hobart
destinations in ▶ Asia and the Pacific increasingly Estimates that incorporate both direct and indirect
attractive, further enabled by the introduction of a employment show that tourism employed some
number of low-cost carriers in the ▶ region. 870,000 persons or 7.9 % of total employment
Australia’s tourism appeal is largely connected (TRA 2011), generally within the “▶ accommo-
to its natural attractions, ▶ world heritage sites, dation, cafés and restaurants” (27 %) and “retail
and some 500 national parks and protected areas, trade” (14 %) sectors (TRA 2011).
including the Great Barrier Reef and Uluru. Built
icons include the internationally recognized Syd-
ney Opera House and Harbour Bridge. Despite its Structure and operation
geographic vastness and diversity, much of the
population resides in the eastern seaboard cities; After peaks in the late 1990s and early 2000s, there
thus, much of the tourism flow is similarly cen- has been much consolidation in tourism-related
tered on the coastal cities, making city-based higher ▶ education programs (including ▶ hospi-
▶ sightseeing, food and wine tasting, and events/ tality, events, sports, and ▶ leisure). Recent audits
important activities for international tourists. have found some 62 undergraduate programs
Although Australia’s share of the global tour- offered in the tourism, hospitality, and event areas
ism market is small (less than 3 %) (UNWTO across 28 higher ▶ education institutions (Dredge
2011), total tourism GDP contributes US$36.7 et al. 2012). There are also a number of vocational
billion (A$41 billion) or 5.3 % to its economy education providers and hotel schools offering var-
and makes up 8 % of all exports (TRA 2013). ious degree, diploma, and certificate programs.
Direct tourism ▶ employment for the same period Australia’s tourism industry is complicated
is 531,900 or 0.3 % of the Australian workforce. with a myriad of organizations and structures
Austria 67
encompassing multiple levels and jurisdictions of Looking forward, the issues that are of con-
government, the private sector, as well as lobbies, cern to Australian policymakers, researchers,
interest groups, and trade associations. The and industry stakeholders include the unfavor- A
federal-level tourism portfolio encompasses pol- able predictions for Australia under ▶ climate
icy, programs, and research functions. Tourism change scenarios. These are concerning not
Australia is a separate statutory authority with only in terms of supply-side adaptation and mit-
responsibility for the international marketing of igation but also the likely adverse impacts to
Australia. Each state or territory similarly has its consumer demand and preferences. Other key
own tourism agency responsible for international challenges facing Australia’s tourism industry
and domestic marketing. include the ▶ supply of an appropriately skilled
The current national tourism strategy, Tourism labor force and broader mega trends, such as
2020, is a whole-of-government and industry changing consumer behavior patterns and demo-
approach to support tourism growth and increase graphic changes.
overnight expenditure. The ▶ strategy is built
around priority areas: growing demand from Aus- See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ domestic tour-
tralia; building competitive digital capability; ism, ▶ employment, ▶ policy and policymaking,
encouraging investment and implementing regu- ▶ strategy.
latory reform agenda; increasing supply of labor,
skills, and indigenous participation; and building
industry resilience, productivity, and quality.
References
Opportunities and challenges Australian Government (2015). Map of Austraila.

Available at. www.arpansa.gov.au
Cooper, C., and L. Ruhanen 2005 Demand for Tourism in
While not large by world standards, Australia’s Australia. In Oceania: A Tourism Handbook,
tourism industry is economically significant. It is C. Cooper and M. Hall, eds., pp.17-34. Clevedon:
an important source of employment, particularly Channel View.
Dredge, D., P. Benckendorff, M. Day, M. Gross, M. Walo,
in regional parts of the country, and offers eco- P. Weeks, and P. Whitelaw 2012 Key Issues in Tourism,
nomic diversification from the country’s depen- Hospitality and Events Curriculum Design and Devel-
dency on ▶ resources and mining. opment. Canberra: Office for Learning and Teaching.
The growth of Chinese outbound ▶ travel is TRA 2011 State of the Industry 2011. Canberra: Tourism
Research Australia.
having favorable impacts on Australia’s inbound TRA 2013 State of the Industry 2013. Canberra: Tourism
arrivals, and increasing the economic impor- Research Australia.
tance of this market (and other Asia source mar- UNWTO 2011 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
kets) is a key part of the country’s growth ism Organization.
objectives. While its international arrivals have
reached record levels, the industry has been
impacted upon by sustained global uncertainty
and the subsequent softening of consumer Austria
spending. The appreciating Australian dollar
has reduced the country’s international compet- Andreas H. Zins
itiveness and the spending power of tourists Department of Tourism and Service Management,
once in the country while also making domestic Modul University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
tourism less competitive to outbound travel.
Indeed, declining competitiveness for domestic
destinations due to current exchange rates has Austria is located in ▶ Europe at 47 N latitude,
resulted in a negative balance of trade of A$6.7 with a surface of 83,878 km2 (32,385 mi2,
billion (TRA 2013). Figure 1). The official language is German and
68
Austria, Figure 1 Map of Austria

Austria
Austria 69
the population counts 8.4 million (2011 census). Kingdom and ▶ Italy (3 each), ▶ Belgium (2.6),
Its GDP per capita of US$46.640(€ 34.116 in the ▶ Czech Republic (2.1), and ▶ France and
2012) positions Austria among the 15 wealthiest ▶ Russia (1.8 each). A
countries in the world. The climate can be The hotel and ▶ restaurant sector employed
described as moderately continental. The diver- 191,606 persons in 2012, which represent a
sity of landscapes (large freshwater lakes, rivers, share of 5.7 % of the total workforce; 59 % of
alpine mountains, and smooth hills), the rich cul- the employees in tourism are female, 41 % are
tural heritage, and the population’s positive atti- immigrants. This is exceptionally above the
tude have helped placing Austria as the 11th most national average of 15 %. Of the employed work-
popular international destination (UNWTO force, 22 % are below the age of 25 years
2013). (BMWFJ 2013b).
The roots of a broader tourism ▶ development
can be traced back to the nineteenth century when
water-based and climate-based spa destinations Structure and operation
were established, the construction of railways
started, and alpine associations supported hiking Tourism matters are essentially provincial respon-
tours by building mountain huts. The first formal sibility. However, promotion and policies for the
conference in support of a coordinated tourism development of Austria as a national and interna-
development took place in 1884 where more than tional ▶ destination are federal agendas. In 1923,
100 tourism communities, the ▶ rail and postal the federal ministry for commerce and traffic was
companies, ministries, the chambers of commerce, commissioned for the first time with the support of
as well as alpine associations participated. tourism nationwide. Soon after, the first tourism
promotion agencies opened abroad in Budapest,
Rome, Paris, Stockholm, London, and New York.
Economic importance of tourism After World War II, tourism promotional activities
resumed. In 1955, a specialized promotional asso-
Based on the 2011 data, Austria’s tourism relies ciation was established. Today, this agency (the
on about 45,000 hotel and ▶ restaurant enter- Austria National Tourism Organization) is still
prises. In total, these two sectors contribute to active and financed by the federal government
GDP by $18.67 bn (€ 13.66 bn) or 4.4 % of the and the chamber of commerce.
total GDP (BMWFJ 2013a). According to the Development and promotion are strongly
Tourism Satellite Account statistics, the contribu- assisted and administered by local and regional
tion of tourism to the GDP amounts to $ 31.17 bn tourism and destination marketing organizations.
(€ 22.8 bn), which represents 7.4 % of the total More than 30 years ago, the Austria National
and induces 624,900 full-time equivalent jobs Tourism Organization initiated special interest
(BMWFJ 2013b). About 52 % is generated by groups for coordinated marketing along specific
international demand. ▶ leisure activities, interest, and motivations dur-
The number of international overnights grew ing holidays. In 2000, the federal government
from 82.3 in 2000 to 95.0 million in 2012. Domes- launched an initiative to professionalize activities
tic demand increased at about a similar rate of of destination marketing organizations.
15 %, from 31.0 to 35.9 million overnights. In A ▶ network of 14 destinations (the so-called
total, Austria’s tourism counts 36.16 million Destination Management Monitor Austria) was
arrivals and 131.0 million overnights for the year founded, today representing more than 25 million
2012 (BMWFJ 2013b). Its worldwide market overnights per year with 19 destinations. The
share is 2.33 % and within Europe 4.52 %. The explicit, strategic, and unique selling propositions
main tourism generating countries, in millions of for improving Austria’s international competitive-
overnight stays, are ▶ Germany (50), the ▶ Neth- ness focus on “the Alps, the Danube and lakes,
erlands (9), ▶ Switzerland (4.6), the ▶ United and cities and culture” (BMWFJ 2010). Despite a
70 Authenticity
balanced demand volume for the winter and sum- See also ▶ eTourism, ▶ skiing tourism, ▶ spa
mer seasons, occupancy rates of individual desti- tourism, ▶ special interest tourism.
nations are one of the ongoing challenges for the
entire tourism ▶ industry.
Tourism-related ▶ education and ▶ training
References
facilities have a long ▶ tradition in Austria. The
second oldest hotel school in the world was BMWFJ 2010 Neue Wege im Tourismus. Die neue
established in Vienna in 1908. Nowadays, Austria österreichische Tourismusstrategie. Vienna: Bundesmi-
offers more than 20 hotel and tourism-related nisterium f€
ur Wirtschaft, Familie und Jugend.
secondary schools, tourism and ▶ hospitality pro- BMWFJ 2013a Bericht € uber die Entwicklung und Struktur
der österreichischen Tourismus- und Freizeitwirtschaft
grams at bachelor and master levels at eight dif- im Jahr 2012. Vienna: Bundesministerium f€ ur
ferent universities of applied sciences, and two Wirtschaft, Familie und Jugend.
universities. ▶ Knowledge creation and dissemi- BMWFJ 2013b Lagebericht 2012. Bericht € uber die Lage
nation in tourism has strongly been supported by der Tourismus- und Freizeitwirtschaft in Österreich
2012. Vienna: Bundesministerium f€ ur Wirtschaft,
academic institutions, individual scholars, federal Familie und Jugend.
and provincial governments, as well as the Hallmann, K., S. M€ uller, and S. Feiler 2014 Destination
National Tourism Organization. Visible out- Competitiveness of Winter Sport Resorts in the Alps:
comes, among others, are TourMIS (www. How Sport Tourists Perceive Destinations? Current
Issues in Tourism 17:327-349.
tourmis.info), a digital tourism data repository Pröbstl, U., A. Prutsch, H. Formayer, M. Landauer,
which is used nationally and internationally by K. Grabler, A. Kulnig, and M. Jesch 2013 Climate
the European Travel Commission and the Euro- Change in Winter Sport Destinations: Transdisciplinary
pean Cities Marketing Organization, and the Research for Implementing Sustainable Tourism. In
Tourism and Environment, F. Pineda, ed., pp.85-93.
ENTER (global conference on tourism and tech- Southampton: WIT Press.
nology; www.ifitt.org). UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
ism Organization.
Current issues
In terms of ▶ national tourism policy, priorities Authenticity

are given to rewarding sustainable destinations
within the program of “European Destinations of Ning Wang1 and Juergen Gnoth2
1
Excellence”; supporting the development and dis- Department of Sociology, Sun Yat-Sen
semination of codes of conduct for an increasing University, Guangzhou, China
2
awareness of ethical issues related to tourism Department of Marketing, University of Otago,
▶ supply and demand; participating in the devel- Dunedin, New Zealand
opment of a European Danube Region Strategy
and European cultural itineraries; emphasis on
flattening the ▶ seasonality; international negoti- The Greeks thought of authenticity in terms of
ations for facilitating ▶ mobility and ▶ visa regu- principals and derivatives. Authentic objects and
lations; promoting access and participation in ideas are original or genuine and thus help orga-
winter sport activities; raising awareness of and nize conceptualizations of the world, including its
preparing measures related to ▶ climate change; ontology. Debating metaphysical traditions in phi-
monitoring and improving ▶ attitudes towards losophy and science, René Descartes and Francis
tourism; and fostering innovations through Bacon required ▶ knowledge to be transparent and
awards and prizes (Hallmann et al. 2014; Pröbstl to be based on rationality and induction. Rational-
et al. 2013). These all suggest promising research ism holds that some knowledge can be innate or a
itineraries to follow. priori (prior to experience) – proving God – such
Authenticity 71
as an intuition or fundamentals of mathematics; Aabye Kierkegaard, Friedrich Nietzsche, Jean-

sensory or empirical knowledge can then be Paul Sartre, and Martin Heidegger all grappled
consulted and understood in their wake. with the mind’s potential of individualism and of A
In contrast, a posteriori empirical knowledge is the self to go beyond the ego and social condition-
obtained by observing nature and testing the mate- ing. While the latter are often seen as having their
rially genuine experience. Hence, inductive rea- bases in (empirical) materialism, existentialism
soning can lead to the discovery of physical laws begins with the idea that existence comes before
as evidence of a greater truth (God). These two essence or before ideas or concepts as defined by
lines of thought represent the contradistinctive others.
dogmas of rationalism versus empiricism, on the As a result of these philosophical streams of
origins, reality, and truth of knowledge. They thought, some claim that it is sufficient for tourists
keep affecting the discussions on the position, to just seek object authenticity (Lau 2010). For
value, and validity of what is authentic. Hence, others, the concept was to be abandoned
ever since MacCannell (1976) introduced this (Reisinger and Steiner 2006). They hold that tour-
concept to tourism studies four decades ago, ists are justified in seeking existential authenticity
authenticity has become a key term in both tour- as that aligns with their subjectivity of experienc-
ism studies and the business of tourism. ing and recreational needs (Reisinger and Steiner
Wang (1999) surveyed the literature in tourism 2006; Wang 1999). From Heidegger’s (1962) per-
and found there were three approaches to the issue spective, this quest is for the convergence of emo-
of authenticity: Objectivism, as a consequence of tions and the lived, moment-by-moment situation
Cartesian demands on science; constructivism, as that tourists seek out. For still others, both object
a response to the increasing need for authentica- authenticity and existential authenticity interact.
tion of experiences, particularly in individualizing They are thought not to be exclusive of each the
exchange processes; and ▶ postmodernism, as a Other in ▶ tourist experiences (Belhassen
response to the increasing hold of the positivistic et al. 2008; Rickly-Boyd 2012). How object
scientization of ▶ technology, society, and hence authenticity is related to existential authenticity
the individual. As a result, there were three differ- remains unresolved.
ent conceptualizations: Constructive, objective
(object), and existential authenticity.
Heralding structuralism, constructivism The dilemma of authenticity
maintained that all knowledge is based on belief
and ▶ culture and hence socially constructed. The touristic ▶ quest for authenticity leads to a
Empirical inquiry then discovers how something dilemma which often ends up as the negation of
is and whether it is what it is made out to be. Object object authenticity (MacCannell 1976). One rea-
authenticity thus aligns both with Cartesian ratio- son for this consequence is the commoditization
nalism and empiricism, as it helps address the of tourism, including both its supply and con-
space-time dilemma in that no situation ever sumption. The latter is usually considered a
remains the same yet and that people need some pseudo-event that is in opposition to the motiva-
things to be “true” in order to organize their lives. tion for object authenticity. For MacCannell
However, whereas constructivists assume conven- (1976) and others, the commoditization of tourism
tions, habits, and ▶ power issues to be at ▶ play, ▶ supply brings an end to authenticity in destina-
rationalists still acknowledge the existence of a tions, or at most, brings about staged authenticity.
priori or independent knowledge, for example, of Thus, the key question is whether authenticity can
what it means to lead a “good” life or what is a be achievable in the context of commoditization.
“good” experience. Existentialism sidesteps this Usually, the relation between object and exis-
dilemma by viewing the mind as essentially differ- tential authenticity is treated as causal, with the
ent from yet part of the physical world. Søren former seen as a cause of the latter. This is
72 Authenticity
misleading because it confuses epistemological inauthenticity would occur. Likewise, and beyond
with ontological processes. It is not denied that empathy, existential understanding is contingent
the perception of object authenticity may some- on knowledge and a willingness to learn as tour-
times or in certain circumstances cause the feeling ists need to understand the empirical reality of
of existential authenticity, but the former does not what they interact with.
necessarily cause the latter all the ▶ time. On the
contrary, object authenticity may sometimes
cause feelings of disgust, and existential authen- Experiencing existential authenticity
ticity may merely be felt as the consequence of
tourists’ ultimate connectedness to the world as a Existential authenticity-oriented tourists are able
whole. For example, for some tourists, certain to achieve the feeling of authenticity in the context
phenomena of “brutality,” “rudeness,” “insanity,” of the commoditization of culture, because a
or “bad manners” are authentic (object authentic- humanistic orientation makes them have an
ity), although they may cause negative experi- empathic understanding of local people’s rights
ences (being disgusted or aversion). of ▶ development and suppliers’ rights of profit
It is here that socially acquired norms and making. However, there is a precondition that the
expectations of what is “wrong” may hold sway commoditization of culture and ▶ heritage does
over perceptions. To this, existentialists appeal to not violate the basic principle of sincerity and
humans’ aspirations to freedom which demand of trust, and the commercial presentation of authen-
individuals that they liberate themselves from ticity is not beyond the threshold of tourists’ tol-
socially acquired tastes, values, and habits, and erance of certain “acceptable” reproductions and
question the “rightness” or “wrongness” of what beautification. Acceptability thus relies on how
they experience. In the ▶ history of existential much tourists know and how much they are will-
philosophy, it is here where many of Sartre’s ing to question and learn.
characters in his plays fail, and where Heidegger Existential authenticity-oriented tourists are
assumes much of Kant’s transcendental theory of also able to achieve the feeling of authenticity in
the imagination and ▶ cognition, essentially the context of host-guest interactions, based on
pointing back to the fundamental notions of tourists’ empathic understanding of local hosts’
rationalism. rights of privacy. The relations between tourists
Existential authenticity is an empathic orienta- and local hosts are social ones yet guided by uni-
tion as well as an experiential consequence, since versal norms or morality. The very act of authen-
it focuses on “the Other” on its own terms, rather ticity seeking (searching for the experience of the
than in contrast to it. As a humanistic orientation, backstage) is contradictive to the norm of keeping
existential authenticity requests that tourists private space from being disturbed and intruded
acquire the ability to look at things encountered upon. As far as the commoditization of culture is
in daily life critically and from a fresh perspective concerned, existentialistic tourists are aware of the
and to increase their sensitivity to novel things. privacy norm and may compromise their demands
Under this orientation, even staged authenticity for the experience of the backstage. In certain cir-
will, in certain circumstances, help tourists cumstances, a pseudo-backstage exerts a certain
achieve the experience of authenticity, because it social function of keeping the interaction of hosts
allows them to have an empathic, critical under- and guests mutually acceptable and hence sustain-
standing of ▶ constraints faced by others. In other able (Daugstad and Kirchengast 2013).
words, empathic understanding is one of the man- Under the humanistic orientation of existential
ifestations of existential authenticity. If the supply authenticity, tourists are able to even reframe
of object authenticity violates the principle of instrumental or supporting experiences in tourism
basic sincerity, then it would break the threshold on the achievement of experiences of object
of existential orientation. As a result, a feeling of authenticity. Therefore, one may distinguish
Authenticity 73
between peak experiences (derived from tourism Those for immediate, sensuous pleasure derived
attractions) and supporting experiences (often from consuming attractions; those felt during
habitualized, instrumental experiences of hotels, recuperation, ▶ recreation, and ▶ leisure; and A
restaurants, transport, and so on) in support of those during contemplation and learning that pro-
achieving the experience of attractions. As the mote self-growth as a consequence. The first two
supporting experiences are often home-linked or often tend to turn toured objects into self-serving
everyday life experiences, they may be detrimen- means whereas the latter, including volunteering,
tal to the achievement of experiences of object tend to appreciate them as ends in themselves
authenticity. However, it is due to the discerning (Gnoth and Mateucci 2014). It is critical for the
orientation of existential authenticity that tourists process of existentially authentic experiencing
can reframe the home-linked ways of life in their that tourists retain their humility and are aware
journeys or reexperience these familiar elements of their prejudice that comes with the empirically
from a fresh and alternative perspective. Authen- acquired norms and expectations that form habi-
ticity can thereby emerge from moment-by- tus. These everyday experiences form a pervasive,
moment experiencing, frequently felt as aura experiential filter on object authenticity, but can
(Rickly-Boyd 2012). be overcome by a genuine, self-critical quest for
This reframing has its limits as when toured existential authenticity.
objects are experienced as decontextualized
which occurs because tourists often lack suffi- See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ experience, ▶ lei-
cient historical and cultural context by means of sure, ▶ psychology, ▶ recreation.
which one is able to distinguish the inauthentic
from the authentic. In these circumstances, tour-
ists may turn their goal from epistemological
assessment of whether the objects encountered References
are genuine, real, or authentic to the experiential
question of whether they are novel, unique, and Belhassen, Y., K. Caton, and W. Stewart 2008 The Search
different. Existential authenticity may here man- for Authenticity in the Pilgrim Experience. Annals of
ifest itself as an endless quest for the enrichment Tourism Research 35:668-689.
Daugstad, K., and C. Kirchengast 2013 Authenticity and
of experiences and for the enlargement of hori- the Pseudo-Backstage of Agri-Tourism. Annals of
zons. ▶ Novelty is not an objective feature Tourism Research 43:170-191.
derived from things; instead, it is a psychological Fennell, D. 2009 The Nature of Pleasure in Pleasure
state that stems from the history of tourists’ Travel. Tourism Recreation Research 34(2):126-134.
Gnoth, J., and X. Mateucci 2014 A Phenomenological
empirical experiences. Once something is expe- View of the Behavioural Tourism Research Literature.
rienced, it is no longer novel. Thus, the search for International Journal of Culture, Tourism, and Hospi-
novelty may pose as an endless process and a tality Research 8(1):3-21.
transcendent act that is aimed at breaking the Heidegger, M. 1962 [1927] Sein und Zeit, translated by
J. Macquarrie and E. Robinson, 1962, New York:
limit of experiences. Harper and Row.
Novelty seeking and the quest for object Lau, R. 2010 Revisiting Authenticity: A Social Realist
authenticity are indeed dictated by the humanistic Approach. Annals of Tourism Research 37:478-498.
orientation of existential authenticity. They are MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the
motivated by an existential need of all organic Reisinger, Y., and C. Steiner 2006 Reconceptualizing
systems, namely, to learn and adapt in order to Object Authenticity. Annals of Tourism Research
survive. One of the organismic responses that 33:65-86.
come with learning and insights are, apart from Rickly-Boyd, J. 2012 Authenticity and Aura:
A Benjaminian Approach to Tourism. Annals of Tour-
material consequences, feelings of pleasure ism Research 39:269-289.
(Fennell 2009). However, it is necessary to distin- Wang, N. 1999 Rethinking Authenticity in Tourism Expe-
guish here among at least three touristic desires: rience. Annals of Tourism Research 26:349-70.
74 Autoethnography
including those affected by tourism, are best treated

Autoethnography by analysis of triggering causes, which can be elu-
cidated by ethnography and most especially analytic
Sagar Singh autoethnography (Anderson 2006) used in conjunc-
Centre for Tourism Research and Development, tion with ▶ grounded theory method and a relativist
Tourism Recreation Research, Lucknow, Uttar spirit. Thus, while two societies appear to be head-
Pradesh, India ing in the same direction, autoethnography can
reveal the nuances of social meaning and values to
bring about a wanted state post-tourism.
Autoethnography is a method of ethnographic Autoethnography is both a process and a ▶ product
description that is based on participant observation (Ellis et al. 2011) and requires good literary skills as
and other fieldwork techniques usually employed well as an analytic mind. This could be the reason
in ▶ ethnography, with the chief difference that the why the method remains rarely used.
ethnographer describes a community in detail in ▶ Future research would include analysis of
the first person, instead of the third. As a qualitative ▶ development paradigms (combinations of the
technique, it affords a new way of describing social top-down and bottom-up approaches), thus evoking
situations, where the feelings and questions that better understanding through description of all those
arise in the mind of the fieldworker are also “voices” in the tourism debate that have often been
accounted for, and thus becomes more revealing marginalized. A second use of the method could be
than traditional ethnography. It also shows how the to help in targeted ▶ marketing and demarketing of
gap between the observer and the observed nar- destinations through on-the-ground and detailed
rows as the ethnographer’s predilections and biases study in order to make tourism sustainable.
become evident through the text.
Normally, as demonstrated in tourism studies, See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ ethnography,
largely through modern travelogues and articles ▶ grounded theory.
by anthropologist tourists, the plain or evocative
form of autoethnography is used. But some
researchers have questioned the value of this qual- References
itative method and sought to give it more of a
Anderson, L. 2006 Analytic Autoethnography. Journal of
“scientific” status, such as using analytical Contemporary Ethnography 35:373–395.
autoethnography, where, as questions come up in Ellis, C., T. Adams, and A. Bochner 2011
the text, the underlying ▶ epistemology and the- Autoethnography: An Overview. Forum: Qualitative
oretical constructs are made evident. This way it Social Research 12(1):35–43.
Singh, S. 2015 Where is the Host? An Analytic
remains no more like an autobiography of an Autoethnographic Inquiry in Transformational Tour-
ethnographer but more like a purposeful ethnog- ism. In Transformational Tourism: Host Perspectives,
raphy that reveals questions that different anthro- Y. Reisinger, ed., pp. 47–66. New York: CABI.
pologists may answer differently. Therefore, the
purpose is to give a more lucid description, which
underlies the contention of some anthropologists
that “description itself becomes the explanation.” Automatic interaction detection
All in all, the point of subjectivity remains, which
is why this method has been less used in anthropol- Bart Neuts
ogy and why very stray instances of it are found in Auckland University of Technology, Auckland,
tourism studies. Most of the autoethnography works New Zealand
are found in sports and ▶ sports tourism. Recently, a
rare instance of analytic autoethnography has been
used by an anthropologist to analyze host perspec- Automatic interaction detection is a multivariate
tives vis-à-vis tourists (Singh 2015). Social systems, technique used to group respondents into
Automation 75
homogeneous segments in order to increase pre- Explicitly identifying a dependent variable,

dictability of the dependent variable (Assael criterion segmentation techniques such as auto-
1970). Originating in ▶ marketing research, it matic interaction detection are capable of A
has been applied in tourism studies since the detecting segments more strongly related to the
1970s for identifying typologies, behavior, and criterion of interest than non-criterion cluster tech-
market niches. The algorithm bisects the sample niques (Chen 2003). Further research would do
into mutually exclusive subgroups through a step- well to compare both approaches and their respec-
wise series of binary splits with respect to the tive practicality for ▶ destination managers, with
predictor levels. In the first step, the predictor automatic interaction detection being preferable
maximizing the between-level sum of squared in case of clear segmentation criteria such as
deviation is chosen from all possible dichotomies. ▶ tourist expenditure.
The subgroup with the largest sum of squares on
the dependent variable is then further divided by a See also ▶ Marketing, ▶ methodology, ▶ seg-
second predictor in order to maximize explained mentation, ▶ typology, tourist.
variance. This procedure continues until mini-
mum requirements concerning group size and
variance explained are no longer met. References
Automatic interaction detection is a nonpara-
metric test, not requiring strict assumptions Amir, S., M. Osman, S. Bachok, and M. Ibrahim 2015
Understanding Domestic and International Tourists’
regarding linearity, correlations, and interaction
Expenditure Pattern in Melaka, Malaysia: Result of
of variables. Predictors are treated as nominal or CHAID Analysis. Procedia – Social and Behavioral
interval, while the dependent variable can be a Sciences 172:390-397.
ratio, interval, or dichotomous variable, with Andersen, R., B. Smedby, and G. Eklund 1971 Automatic
Interaction Detector Program for Analyzing Health
dichotomous data transformed into a continuous
Survey Data. Health Services Research 6:165-183.
variable by treating one of the categories as a Assael, H. 1970 Segmenting Markets by Group Purchasing
proportion (Andersen et al. 1971; Assael 1970). Behavior: An Application of the AID Technique. Jour-
The main advantage of the technique lies in a nal of Marketing Research 7:153-158.
Chen, J. 2003 Marketing Segmentation by Tourists’ Senti-
readily interpretable output that lends itself to a
ments. Annals of Tourism Research 30:178-193.
graphical tree display. Ritschard, G. 2010 CHAID and Earlier Supervised Tree
However, allowing for bifurcation of the sam- Methods. Cahiers du department d’économétrie
ple leads to an important shortcoming. Bisection Université de Genève 02:1-30.
of the sample in two branches favors predictive
variables with several codes over dichotomous
questions on artificial grounds, since there are
more possible combinations for splitting large Automation
numbers of codes into two groups, increasing the
odds of finding a better predictive split. Further- Edward Addo1 and Kamil Yagci2
1
more, the traditional approach lacks a test of School of Business, Tourism and Hospitality
between-group significance. These issues inspired Management, Zenith University College, Accra,
methodological improvements, with Chi-squared Ghana
2
automatic interaction detection replacing the tra- Faculty of Tourism, Department of Travel
ditional technique, as also noticeable in contem- Management and Tourism Guidance, Pamukkale
porary tourism marketing research (Amir University, Denizli, Turkey
et al. 2015; Chen 2003). Chi-squared automatic
interaction detection allows for multilevel splits,
using Chi-square statistic as a decision metric and Automation is designing, building, and
adjusting observed significance of a variable for implementing automatic machines/systems by
the number of codes (Ritschard 2010). which a process or procedure is accomplished
76 Aviation
without human assistance (Sandler 1999). Auto- Expedia to compare prices of products or pack-
mated solutions include several subsystems which ages, check photos of facilities and destinations,
are related to mechanics, electric/electronics, and read holiday reviews by other tourists, and do
computer technology. Modular and mechatronic reservations. User-friendly websites and search
designing strategies are routed to integrate various engine optimization enhance digital sales of
components (Groover 2001). In terms of products, destination and hospitality manage-
e-marketing, automation generally implies elec- ment, and virtual tourism. Cyber theft, virus
tronic interfaces or interactive media that connect attacks, spams, and server/network
suppliers with intermediaries and consumers. The malfunctioning or failure are some of the chal-
overarching objective of the connections is to lenges facing automation in the tourism industry
efficiently and cost-effectively provide products/ (Kotler et al. 2010; Law et al. 2009). Future
services to intermediaries and consumers who research and development in automaton should
constantly want value for money in the competi- focus on these challenges.
tive global market of the tourism industry. Conse-
quently, the mode and ability to quickly, See also ▶ Aviation, ▶ eCommerce,
accurately, and efficiently collect, store, analyze, ▶ eTourism, ▶ global distribution system,
process, retrieve, and disseminate customized ▶ information technology.
information are key factors in information and
communication technologies and e-marketing of
destinations, facilities, sites, and products. References
Automation is important to all the sectors of the
Buhalis, D. 1998 Strategic Use of Information Technolo-
industry. However, transportation, especially avi- gies in the Tourism Industry. Tourism Management
ation, is the major user and beneficiary. Chrono- 19:409-421.
logically, the three main systems of automation in Groover, M. 2001 Automation, Production Systems, and
tourism are computer reservation systems in the Computer Integrated Manufacturing. Upper Saddle
River: Prentice Hall.
1970s, which were subsequently operated jointly Kotler, P., J. Bowen, and J. Makens 2010 Marketing for
as global distribution systems in the 1980s, and the Hospitality and Tourism. Boston: Prentice Hall.
internet in the 1990s. The two electronic opera- Law, R., R. Leung, and D. Buhalis 2009 Information
tions underlying these technological advances are Technology Applications in Hospitality and Tourism:
A Review of Publications from 2005 to 2007. Journal
digitalization and connectivity in three main ways: of Travel & Tourism Marketing 26:599-562.
intranets (connecting people within a company), Sandler, B. 1999 Robotics: Designing the Mechanisms for
extranets (connecting a business with its suppliers Automated Machinery. San Diego: Academic Press.
and clients), and internet (connecting users with
the rest of the world). The latter covers the infor-
mation superhighway (Buhalis 1998). Accommo-
dation, which is often the under-automated sector Aviation
of the industry, benefits from automation in the
forms of self-check-in kiosks, intelligent rooms, Markus Schuckert1 and Wilhelm Pompl2
1
property management software, and interactive School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
voice response systems, which reduce the work- The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
loads of employees. Automated beverage distribu- Hong Kong, China
2
tion systems in hotels and restaurants also help International Business and Tourism
such facilities to avoid human-related losses. Management, Heilbronn University, Heilbronn,
Before the introduction of computer reserva- Germany
tion systems and the internet, consumers had to
telephone or go to travel agents for reservations.
Currently, consumers can use web-based systems According to Collins English Dictionary, “avia-
such as Travelocity, Hotwire, Orbitz, and tion” emerged in the second half of the nineteenth
Azerbaijan 77
century, first as a French term and then later angli- country regulates aviation differently, for example,
cized. It has two chief meanings. First, it is the art in terms of market access, business operations, and
and/or science of flying an aircraft and is synony- supply of capacity. Because of these differences, A
mous with aeronautics as all activities of aerial the ▶ UNWTO recognizes that aviation and tour-
locomotion. Second, it refers to the design, devel- ism policies are closely interconnected.
opment, production, operation, administration, Future challenges and issues for research and
and use of heavier-than-air aircraft. This implies managers include the liberalization and deregula-
that aviation is an amalgam of modes, stake- tion of aviation markets; the development, main-
holders, industries, and organizations. tenance, and innovation of international standards
Related activities can be divided using differ- such as safety, security, and quality; the impact of
ent modes and systems (Doganis 2010). A major aviation on the environment; the modes of capac-
differentiation is between military and civil avia- ity supply during crises; as well as the future of
tion. The former is for the purposes of national or sales and marketing in aviation with respect to the
international defense as well as for ▶ warfare. The internet, big data, yield management, “zero” com-
latter incorporates all nonmilitary activities and mission, and online travel agencies’ or airlines’
can be divided into scheduled (commercial) new business models.
▶ air transport (passenger, freight, and airmail)
and general aviation. General aviation includes See also ▶ Airline, ▶ accessibility, ▶ air trans-
all other activities on a commercial or private port, ▶ distance decay, ▶ transportation.
basis (Wensveen 2011). In its commercial sense,
in contrast to private operation, a pilot and crew
are hired and paid for private or business flights or
References
for contracted labor. The purpose instead is simply
to fly (pastime/sport) or to use flight as a means of Doganis, R. 2010 Flying Off Course: Airline Economics
private transportation for visiting, shopping, or and Marketing. New York: Routledge.
commuting. For the latter, separate licensing, reg- Graham, A., A. Papatheodorou, and P. Forsyth 2010 Avi-
istration, and operation certificates are required. ation and Tourism: Implications for Leisure Travel.
Aldershot: Ashgate.
From a value creating perspective, aviation Pompl, W. 2007 Luftverkehr: Eine ökonomische und
incorporates airlines, engineering, manufacturing politische Einf€
uhrung. Berlin: Springer.
and service companies, infrastructure providers Wensveen, J. 2011 Air Transportation. Aldershot: Ashgate.
(airports; distribution, communication, and navi-
gation systems; and air traffic control), as well as
national and international agencies or organiza-
tions (Pompl 2007). The International Civil Avia- Azerbaijan
tion Organization is the most prominent body,
establishing common standards and Jafar Jafarov
recommended practices for civil aviation. Azerbaijan Tourism and Management University,
While ▶ transportation is a fundamental com- Baku, Azerbaijan
ponent of modern society and tourism ▶ develop-
ment, aviation is an increasingly important mode of The Republic of Azerbaijan neighbors the
transport (Graham et al. 2010). It is vital for fast Caspian Sea and borders with Georgia, Iran, the
and convenient ▶ travel, especially over long- Russian Federation, and Armenia (Figure 1). It
distance travel across continents or to remote has a land area of 86,600 km2 (33,436 mi2). Its
areas and island or mountain destinations. It is population reached 9.5 million in 2014. Azerbai-
closely related with a country’s sovereignty, a stra- jani is the official language.
tegic asset in terms of mobility, transport markets, The country has rich historical and cultural heri-
and destination accessibility, and is therefore tage, including traces of thousand-year empires
strongly protected by governments. Thus, each from five religions (Tengriism, Shamanism,
78 Azerbaijan
Azerbaijan, Figure 1 Map of Azerbaijan
Zoroastrianism, Christianity, and Islam). Situated at The Ministry of Culture and Tourism is an
the junction of Western and Eastern civilization, the executive body that regulates the state policy in
characteristic of its culture is tolerance and hospital- the field of ▶ culture, art, tourism, and the preser-
ity. This provides the basis for the service culture that vation of historical and cultural monuments. Tour-
is important for the development of the country’s ism is developing strongly and the number of
tourism ▶ industry. There are 14 state nature reserves related businesses has increased from 74 in 2003
and 8 national parks and 4,500 types of plants from to 170 in 2014. Over that period, the number of
930 genera belonging to 125 families. There are more hotels has increased from 96 to 530, the number of
than 1,000 government-registered mineral water guesthouses from 9,600 to 35,000, and the num-
springs reputed to have curative properties (MCT ber of people working in the industry has
2012). There are around 7,000 protected monuments increased from 2,700 to 9,050. Arrivals have
of local, national, and world value that are of touristic also grown from 767,500 to two million and
interest (Bilaov 2006). Cultural heritage includes income increased from US$58 million to $1,479
carpet making, music, cuisine, pottery, and stone million (Jafarov 2015). The majority of the tour-
carving. ists are from ▶ Russia (SSC 2014).
Azerbaijan 79
Currently, some 50 new hotels and major com- ▶ SWOT analysis show that a priority is to
plexes are being constructed, leading to a scarcity enhance the quality of research on topics related
of trained staff. Two major tourism complex to culture, business, health, and ▶ ecotourism A
developments, the Shahdag Winter-Summer and (MCT 2012).
the Tufan Alpine Ski Gabala, will recruit 5,000
employees each. There are also numerous projects See also ▶ Culture, ▶ development, ▶ heritage,
on the Caspian coast and on islands near Baku. ▶ international tourism.
One such development is a new town on Great
Zira Island offering recreation and entertainment, References
costing $6 billion.
In 2006, the National Tourism Institute was Bilaov, B. 2006 Turizm Fəaliyyətinin İdarəolunması
(Regulation of Tourism Activities). Baku: Mutercim.
established. In 2014, the President of the
Jafarov, J. 2015 On a New Path. Tourism and Hospitality
Republic issued a decree on the establishment Studies 4:4-13.
of Azerbaijan Tourism and Management Uni- MCT 2012 About Tourism in Azerbaijan. Ministry of Cul-
versity, for training personnel at all stages of ture and Tourism of Azerbaijan Republic www.mct.gov.
az/service/lang/en/page/35/ (26 January 2015).
higher education (Jafarov 2015). The industry
SSC 2014 Statistical Yearbook. State Statistical Committee
is likely to develop based on culture, business, of the Republic of Azerbaijan. www.stat.gov.az/menu/
health, and ▶ beach tourism. Results of a 6/statistical_yearbooks/indexen.php (4 March 2015).
B
Backpacker of ▶ travel, which were extensive and which were

followed mostly by adolescents and young adults.
Chaim Noy The first is the seventeenth and eighteenth centu-
Department of Communication, University of ries’ ▶ Grand Tour, pursued by European aristoc-
South Florida, Tampa, USA racy for ▶ education and initiation purposes. The
second is tramping associated travel, favored by
working class European youths since the Middle
Backpacking is a form of modern tourism charac- Ages. While the former (the more popular type)
terized by a particular combination of travel prac- suggests a “top-down” cultural process of democ-
tices and discourses. These include relatively ratization, the latter suggests an “upwardly rather
lengthy travel duration, typically longer than than downwardly mobile cultural tradition” (1985:
annual holidays; use of inexpensive ▶ accommo- 337). These convergent travel cultures partly
dation and ▶ transportation, with preference for account for contemporary backpacker heterogene-
youth hostels, YMCAs, and other local facilities, ity, including the romanticist travel ideology and
plus a corresponding preference for local ground practices such as combining work with travel.
transportation (instead of high-end commercial More recent influences on the experience and pop-
and airborne transportation); intense social inter- ularity of backpacking in the second half of the
actions and networking through dominant roman- twentieth century (post-World War II) are the
ticist discourse entailing ▶ authenticity, affordability of air travel and the countercultures
▶ novelty, and spontaneity, often manifested in of the Beat Movement (1950s) and the hippies
contrasting the categories of “backpackers” and (1960s). In both cases, travel to Far East destina-
“mass tourists”; and discourse of initiation and rite tions (the Beatles in the 1960s), extensive
of passage, usually from adolescence to early hitchhiking, and a rich travel lore (Ginsberg’
adulthood. Backpackers have typically been char- poetry, Kerouac’s novels) were central and inspired
acterized as young adults (around their 20s), orig- the backpackers of the 1970s.
inating from Western countries, favoring The unique characteristics of backpacking tour-
destinations in the developing countries. ism have drawn much ▶ attention, in both popular
imagination and academic scholarship, resulting in
a rich empirical and theoretical body of research.
Modern emergence Initial reflections were offered by Cohen (1972)
who addressed backpackers within the conceptual
Adler’s (1985) sociological analysis traces the his- framework of classification of tourists’ experiences
tories of modern backpacking to two earlier forms and ▶ roles. In Cohen’s initial typologies, which
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
82 Backpacker
classified tourists according to their adventurous- backpackers’ populations nowadays extend to

ness and phenomenological distancing from one’s include both younger and considerably older
existential center, a number of categories were ages (including multigeneration backpacking,
suggested (such as “drifter” and “explorer”). such as parents traveling to or with their children).
These embodied the “noninstitutionalized tourists’ Further, more and more backpackers originate
roles” (1972: 168–169). Yet with the exponential from Asia and South America, rather than from
growth of backpacking in the 1980s (in line with Western countries. The trip itself is expanded cul-
the growth of tourism as a whole), backpackers turally and is embodied in repeated trips and in the
have come to be seen as a subcategory in modern transformation of backpacking into a longer and
tourism, with its unique characteristics and a sig- extensive endeavor, namely, a ▶ lifestyle.
nificant degree of heterogeneity. Another recent ▶ development concerns back-
Studies of backpacking have since focused on packers’ enthusiastic appropriation of new mobile
such issues as change in travel trends, itineraries, (social) media and their consequences on travel
and destinations across time, as well as examining practices and ▶ ideology. Although research is
the correspondence between backpackers’ travel yet to produce a rich description of backpackers’
ideology and ▶ discourse and the actual travel preferences with regard to mobile media, their
behavior. Noy’s (2004, 2007) works show how the documented actual use and the ▶ adaptation of
trip is framed as a rite of passage, whereby back- new technologies onto the backpacking travel cul-
packers narrate travel-induced self-transformation ture suggest that new ▶ media are highly popular
stories, or how, despite the romanticist image of a with backpackers. It is also clear that the introduc-
lone traveler, backpackers engage in effect in intense tion of ▶ social media onto backpackers’ commu-
social interactions that sustain a strong sense of nities carries impact on their sense of authenticity
community. In light of the romanticist image of the and spontaneity, which is essential for the (self-)
male tourists, attention is paid to women back- definition of backpacking tourism. For instance,
packers’ experiences and to the neocolonial ideolo- the persistent question of how the extended trip,
gies embodied in contemporary (Eurocentric) which is pursued as a rite of passage that entails a
backpacking cultures. Still other research illumi- distancing from backpackers’ families, will be
nates how lucrative the backpacking market has affected by the availability and ▶ accessibility of
become, and this is despite the term “budget the travelers remains to be further explored. The
traveler” (Hampton 2013) and the effects of emergence of the term “flashpacker” (Paris 2012),
institutionalization, ▶ commercialization, and addressing a high-tech and “connected” travel
“massification” which threaten travelers’ romanti- style, where technological savvy backpackers
cist ideology (Noy 2006). These studies make frequent and creative use of mobile social
de-emphasize boundaries between categories in media, suggests that shifts may be taking place in
travel/tourism studies and point at the resonances the trope of the backpacker, as it moves deeper into
(rather than discrepancies) between backpacking the twenty-first century.
and other forms of modern travel.
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ budget tourism,
▶ drifter, ▶ experience, ▶ rite of passage,
Trends and future developments ▶ youth tourism.
Contemporary backpacking trends are character-

ized by developing global itineraries, by a grow-
ing heterogeneity in backpackers’ ▶ demography, References
and by addressing the ▶ impact they carry on their
Adler, J. 1985 Youth on the Road: Reflections on the History
destinations. With regard to the backpackers’
of Tramping. Annals of Tourism Research 12: 335-254.
growing heterogeneity, recent research calls Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour-
▶ attention to a growing age variability: ism. Social Research 39:164-189.
Bahamas 83
Hampton, M. 2013 Backpacker Tourism and Economic displayed in festivals like Junkanoo. Tourism in
Development. Oxon: Routledge. the Bahamas dates back to the early nineteenth
Noy, C. 2004 “The Trip Really Changed Me”: Back-
packers’ Narratives of Self-Change. Annals of Tourism century when tourists came to the islands mainly
Research 31:78-102. for the health benefits of the moderate climate. The
Noy, C. 2006 Israeli Backpacking since the 1960s: A Historic- first hotel, the Royal Victoria, was completed in B
Cultural View of Institutionalization and Experience in 1861 (Cleare 2007). Tourism growth continued
Tourism. Tourism Recreation Research 31:39-54.
Noy, C. 2007 Narrative Community. Detroit: Wayne State and in 1952 the Bahamas Hotel Association was
University Press. formed, and the Hotels Encouragement Act was
Paris, C. 2012 Flashpackers: An Emerging Sub-Culture? passed in 1954. In 2000, total arrivals stood at 4.20
Annals of Tourism Research 39:1094-1115. million, growing to 5.94 million in 2012 (4.43 mil-
lion of which were cruise passengers). Tourism gen-
erates approximately 60 % of GDP and employs
Bahamas about half of the labor force (MOT 2012); this in
May 2013 totaled 195,660 jobs.
Elizabeth Mackay There are four international and numerous
Centre for Hotel and Tourism Management, The other airports. Access between the islands is
University of The West Indies, Nassau, Bahamas supported by an array of airports and seaports.
At July 2013, the Hotel Licensing Department
recorded a total of 312 hotels with 14,836
The Bahamas is located in the Atlantic Ocean rooms. Government and private sector capital
between the southeast coast of the ▶ United States ▶ investment in the ▶ industry is strong,
and northern coast of Hispaniola (Figure 1). It is an evidenced by the ongoing construction of the
archipelago of more than 700 islands and cays $3.5 billion Baha Mar Resort. Scheduled to open
extending more than 804.7 km with an estimated in December 2014, the 4 km2 luxury resort
land area of 13.94 km2 (5,382 mi2). The population includes four hotels, approximately 3,800 rooms,
is 372,000 (about 70 % reside in New Providence); an 18-hole golf course, and a 9,000 m2 casino (the
the economy, GDP US$8.149 billion, is based largest in the ▶ Caribbean). The government con-
primarily on tourism (World Bank 2012a, b, 2013). tinues to invest in ▶ infrastructure with a $410
The country’s main appeals are its warm tropical million redevelopment of the gateway airport in
climate, pristine waters, and rich ▶ heritage New Providence, increasing its capacity to
over five million passengers annually. Tourism
UNITED 0 50 100 km ▶ education and ▶ training are available through
STATES private and public institutions, from elementary
0 50 100 ml
Grand Freeport Great levels to postgraduate degree programs.

North
Bahama Abaco
Atlantic While there is a focus on ▶ mass tourism,
Ocean the government recognizes the importance of
NASSAU Eleuthera
New
▶ conservation. The Bahamas National Trust,
Providence Cat Island established in 1959, administers 26 national
Andros
Island
parks and protected areas covering more than
Great Long Island 2,832.8 km2. The Ministry of Tourism and the
Exuma
private sector Bahama Out Island Promotion
Board encourage the ▶ development of alterna-
tive forms of tourism throughout the Out Islands,
Great Inagua including fishing, boating, and ▶ ecotourism.
CUBA
Matthew Tourism will likely remain the mainstay of the
Town
Caribbean Sea economy for the foreseeable ▶ future. Research
questions remain as to the optimum forms of
Bahamas, Figure 1 Map of the Bahamas ▶ alternative tourism in the Out Islands and the
84 Bahrain
long-term ▶ sustainability of the mass market

▶ model that dominates in New Providence. Bahrain
See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ casino tourism, Ali Hassan Follad

▶ coastal tourism, ▶ cruise tourism, ▶ mass Ministry of Industry, Commerce and Tourism,
tourism. Manama, Bahrain
References The Kingdom of Bahrain comprises a group of

33 islands, with a total land area of about
Cleare, A. 2007 History of Tourism in the Bahamas: 765.3 km2 (295.5 mi2) – slightly larger than the
A Global Perspective. Philadelphia: Xlibris.
size of Singapore – and is the smallest country in
MOT 2012 Air and Sea Landed and Cruise Arrivals: 1998 -
2012. Bahamas: Ministry of Tourism. the Middle East (Figure 1). It is densely populated
World Bank 2012a Country Data: The Bahamas. The with 1.235 million inhabitants in 2010 (BCIO
World Bank. 2010). Bahrain is situated approximately halfway
World Bank 2012b The Bahamas Handbook. Bahamas:
Dupuch.
between Qatar and Saudi Arabia, along the west-
World Bank 2013 May Labor Force Survey. Bahamas: ern coastline of the Arabian Gulf. The island’s
Department of Statistics. strategic location on the old Arabian Gulf trading
Bahrain, Figure 1 Map of Bahrain

Balance of payment 85
route, pearling industry, abundant supply of fresh- See also ▶ Culture, ▶ Middle East, ▶ museum,
water, and sheltered anchorage have made it a ▶ Saudi Arabia.
natural commercial center throughout its history:
it was known to ancient Sumerians (3000–600
BC) as Dilmun. References B
Modern history began with the arrival of the
Al-Khalifa family from the Arabian mainland in BCIO 2010 Bahrain Central Informatics Organization.
Census Summary Result 2010.
1782 (Follad 2007). Bahrain was the first country in
Bahrain Tourism Affairs 2013 Inbound and Outbound for
the Arabian Gulf to discover oil and to establish a 2013-14: Annual Statistics Report. Manama: Ministry
tourism ▶ industry to diversify the economy. Built of Industry and Commerce, Bahrain.
in 1986, the 25 km long King Fahd Causeway links Follad, A.H. 2007 The Role of Handicrafts within the
Tourism and Economic Development Sectors in the
Bahrain with ▶ Saudi Arabia, signals the strength-
Kingdom of Bahrain. PhD Dissertation, Napier Edin-
ening of economic relations between the two coun- burgh University, United Kingdom.
tries, and has carried 100 million tourists by 2004. OBG 2013 The Report Bahrain 2013. London: Oxford
Bahrain received 10.5 million tourists in 2014, Business Group.
with 83 % across the causeway. Tourism contrib-
uted 2.5 % to the country’s GDP with a revenue of
US$608 million and employed 21,000 people
with 20 % locals (Bahrain Tourism Affairs Balance of payment
2014). Bahrain Tourism Affairs is responsible
for promoting the country, licensing, and Božena Krce Miočić1 and Nevenka Čavlek2
1
inspecting the hotel and other sectors. The Eco- Department of Tourism and Communication
nomic Development Board is implementing Studies, University of Zadar, Zadar, Croatia
2
Bahrain Vision 2030, developing comprehensive Department of Tourism, Faculty of Economics
strategies, and raising the country’s profile inter- and Business, University of Zagreb, Zagreb,
nationally. The Bahrain Exhibition and Conven- Croatia
tion Authority hosts a number of industry events
and exhibitions (OBG 2013).
The Bahrain International Circuit opened in The balance of payments is a macroeconomic
2004 and hosts the annual Formula One Grand statistical statement that systematically summa-
Prix, with direct economic impact estimated at rizes the economic transactions of a country with
$1.3 billion (OBG 2013). Recently, ▶ culture the rest of the world during a specific period of
has been promoted: Manama was “Capital of time (usually a year). In the area of international
Arab Culture” in 2012 and “Capital of Arab economics, the key accounts are a nation’s bal-
Tourism” in 2013 by the Arab Tourism Organiza- ance of payment that provides all economic trans-
tion. In 2014, Bahrain had around 109 hotels with actions between that country and the rest of the
a total of 13,644 rooms, with 58 five-/four-star world (Samuelson and Nordhaus 2010).
properties. Service apartments are popular alter- The balance of payments administers the prin-
natives for the Middle Eastern family tourists. ciple of double-entry accounting, while transac-
Bahrain has a number of museums, archeological, tions and accounts are divided into credit and
and other historic sites like Bahrain Fort, a debit. While the overall balance of payments will
UNESCO world heritage site. The souk and old always be in balance, imbalances are possible on
houses in Manama and Muharraq are being individual elements. Principal parts of balance of
restored. The country’s peak ▶ tourist seasons payments, as stated in the IMF’s manual (2009),
are from October to mid-December and from are the current account and the capital and finan-
mid-January to April. Tourism ▶ education and cial account. Potential imbalance is listed as sta-
▶ training are to be further developed to sustain tistical error and discrepancy. The current account
continual growth of tourism in Bahrain. includes current receipts and payments on account
86 Balance of payment
of export and import of goods and services, for- primary, secondary, and tertiary effects. Primary
eign investment incomes and payments, private effects are easiest to measure since they refer to
transfer payments, and intergovernment transfer actual tourism ▶ expenditure made by interna-
payments. List of transactions generated by export tional visitors in the home country and tourism
and import of merchandize is called “visible” expenditure of residents abroad. Because of their
current account (or balance of trade). “Invisible” measurement complexity, secondary and tertiary
current account shows import and export of ser- effects are in most cases left out of the balance of
vices (transport, ▶ travel, communication, con- payments. Secondary effects relate to the effects
struction service, insurance service, financial that do not require the initial ▶ visitor expenditure
service, and computer and information service). to have taken place in another country and tertiary
Since ▶ international tourism ▶ expenditure has effects refer to flows of currency not initiated by
an ▶ impact on the balance of payments, the ▶ tourist expenditure (imported goods purchased
importance of international tourism as an earner by residents of the home country in preparation
of foreign currencies has caught ▶ attention of for travel).
many governments, especially from developing
countries.
Practical implications
Theoretical background
To overcome the abovementioned challenges, the
In the seventeenth century, mercantilist Thomas travel account is usually devised according to two
Mun introduced invisible items (services) into possible approaches: using periodic surveys to
the balance of payment and recognized the effect measure tourism receipts and expenditure or bank
of “travel costs” on balance of payments. As method (Vanhove 2005). This account can show
quoted by Mathieson and Wall (1982), some of both deficit and surplus. Countries which in a cer-
the earliest studies theoretically relate tourism tain time period generate higher expenditures than
and balance of payments effects of international revenue have a current account deficit
tourism expenditure. Balance of payments was (▶ Germany, ▶ Japan, the ▶ United Kingdom),
for a long time considered to be the best measure while countries which generate more revenue
of economic tourism ▶ activity. The studies of than expenditures generate current account surplus
Airey (1978) and Baretje (1982) followed a more (the United States, ▶ Spain, ▶ France). Interna-
profound critical approach to balance of pay- tional tourism directly affects the balance of pay-
ments on tourism account as the best measure ments as an invisible ▶ export entry. Tourism in
of economic activity and recognized its short- many countries has a favorable effect in overcom-
comings. Baretje (1982) pleaded to replace this ing their trade ▶ deficit. Some of the most impor-
measurement method with “real tourism external tant economic functions that tourism has refer
account,” which includes expenditures and primarily to balance of payments rebalancing.
receipts from tourists together with ▶ other inter- Imbalances in the balance of payment accounts
national transactions which follow indirectly can be short term or long term. Short-term imbal-
from tourism (goods and services needed for ance can be caused by recession abroad, higher
▶ investment and operation of the tourism increase in prices in the country than abroad, fluc-
▶ system). tuations of exchange rates, and changes in political
However, the critical issue is in estimation of climate. Long-term imbalances are caused by dis-
all the different items in the international tourism crepancies between economic growth in a country
transactions (Vanhove 2005). Airey (1978) was or abroad, technological slowdown, changes in
the first to divide the effects of tourism on the consumer preferences, available production fac-
balance of payments into three categories: tors, and changes in institutional framework. Not
Bangladesh 87
all imbalances are negative. Blanchard and

SaKong (2010) list three cases of positive imbal- Bangladesh
ance: saving behavior, investment behavior, and
portfolio behavior of a country. Mohammad Nurul Huda Mazumder
Finally, tourist expenditure can affect balance Faculty of Administrative Sciences, Laval B
of payments in two ways. Income generated from University, Quebec, Canada
international tourist expenditure is recorded as an
“invisible export” on the balance of payments of
the host country, while at the same time when Bangladesh has an area of 147,570 km2
residents of the host country travel abroad, this (57,000 mi2), a population of 160 million, and is
has a negative effect on the balance of payment of the eighth most populous and the fourth largest
the host country since it is recorded as an Muslim country in the world. Situated in South
“invisible import.” Therefore, some countries Asia, it shares borders with ▶ India to the east,
introduce protectionist measures to keep tourism west, and north, the Bay of Bengal to the south,
expenditure in their home country by limiting and ▶ Myanmar to the southeast (Figure 1).
expenditure out of the country. If there is a con- The country is endowed with numerous attrac-
siderable surplus, as was the case in Japan in tions, including archaeological sites, historical
the early 1990s, the government can introduce mosques and monuments, beaches, ▶ ecotourism
measures to motivate its residents to travel by areas, forests, and the culture of aboriginal people.
increasing the limit on the value of merchandize Two natural sites, Sundarbans, the world’s largest
they can bring into the country. Future research deltaic single-patch mangrove forest (Islam et al.
should be more focused on practical application of 2013), and Cox’s Bazar (the largest seabeach in the
the outcomes for different stakeholders in the world), secured their place among the top 10 and
whole tourism system. 77 new seven wonders of nature, respectively,
ranked by the Swiss-based New Seven Wonders
Foundation. In 2011, Bangladesh was ranked as the
See also ▶ Expenditure, ▶ foreign exchange, best value ▶ destination by the Lonely Planet. It
▶ input-output analysis, ▶ Tourism Satellite
Account.
References
Airey, D. 1978 Tourism and Balance of Payments. Tourism

International Research Europe, 3rd Quarter: 2-16.
Baretje, R. 1982 Tourism External Account and the
Balance of Payments. Annals of Tourism Research
9:57-67.
Blanchard, O., and I. SaKong 2010 Reconstructing the
World Economy. Washington DC: International
Monetary Fund.
IMF 2009 Balance of Payments and International Invest-
ment Position Manual. Washington DC: International
Monetary Fund.
Mathieson, A., and G. Wall 1982 Tourism – Economic,
Physical and Social Impacts. London: Longman.
Samuelson, P., and W. Nordhaus 2010 Economics. Boston:
McGraw-Hill.
Vanhove, N. 2005 The Economics of Tourism Destina-
tions. Oxford: Elsevier. Bangladesh, Figure 1 Map of Bangladesh
88 Barbados
offers a wide range of touristic activities, including References

sea bathing, yachting, rowing, fishing, water-
skiing, river cruising, and hiking. ▶ International Euromonitor International 2014 Tourist Arrivals by Region
and Tourism Receipts. Retrieved from www.portal.
tourism has the potential to be a cushion for eco-
euromonitor.com/Portal/Pages/Statistics/Statistics.aspx#
nomic development, as the service sector contrib- (8 January, 2014).
utes more than half of the GDP of the country. Islam, M., M. Rahman, M. Iftekhar, and M. Rakkibu 2013
In 1986, the government established the Min- Can Community-based Tourism Facilitate Conserva-
tion of the Bangladesh Sundarbans? Journal of Eco-
istry of Civil Aviation and Tourism to foster the
tourism 12(1):119-129.
development of tourism. Since then, tourism has WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact.
grown rapidly with earnings from international World Travel and Tourism Council. Retrieved from
tourism increasing steadily. In 2010, the Govern- www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/bangladesh
2013.pdf (12 February, 2014).
ment of Bangladesh has taken steps to categorize
and control the development of authorized tour-
ism sites in an attempt to develop ▶ sustainable
tourism.
During 2007–2012, capital investment in tour- Barbados
ism experienced a significant increase from
US$250 million (BDT19.5bn) to US$480 million Michael Scantlebury
(BDT37.5bn). In the same period, arrivals have Hospitality and Tourism Management, Grand
increased from 289,000 to 985,800 and tourism Valley State University, Allendale, MI, USA
receipts have grown from US$60 million
(BDT4.9bn) to US$100 million (BDT7.7bn)
(Euromonitor International, 2014). The total con- Barbados is the most eastern Caribbean island,
tribution of tourism to GDP experienced an located at 13 100 north latitude and 59o 320 west
increase from US$4.54 billion (BDT352.2bn) to longitude (Figure 1). It is composed of 85 % coral
US$5.08 billion (BDT394.8bn) (WTTC, 2013); limestone and 15 % oceanic, clays, and chalks
this amounts to 4.3 % of GDP. In 2012, tourism (Donovan 2005), resulting in white sandy
generated 2,714,500 jobs or 3.7 % of total beaches. The abundance of coral reefs makes it
employment (WTTC, 2013). ▶ Domestic tourism an ideal destination for snorkeling and scuba div-
is more important than international tourism. ing. In 2013, of a population of 289,000, a major-
More than a thousand graduates are complet- ity is of African descent.
ing their studies at 13 public and private institu- The introduction of sugarcane in the 1640s was
tions each year as skilled manpower to serve the based on slave labor and initiated the development
industry. With further improvement of products of the triangular Atlantic slave trade of the 1700s
related to tourism, such as touristic facilities, and 1800s. The island was a British colony until
transportation network, safety and security, brand- its independence in 1966. Today, the economy is
ing, marketing, and image development, Bangla- based on agriculture, tourism, offshore interna-
desh has the potential to emerge as an important tional business, and manufacturing.
tourism destination. Although tourism is growing, The country received 536,300 tourists in 2012.
very little has been explored in the literature There were an additional 874,000 cruise passen-
regarding ▶ travel patterns of tourists, climate gers. The ▶ United Kingdom contributes 31 % of
change effect on tourism, sustainability, economic arrivals, while 25 % are from the ▶ United States
impacts, and tourism policy and planning to be (Central Bank 2013). Tourism directly accounts
taken into account in future research. for 14,500 jobs (10 %) of the employed work-
force. Direct and indirect tourism ▶ employment
accounts for 36 % of total employment (WTTC
See also ▶ Archaeology, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ nature 2014). Tourism accounts for 85 % of the ▶ foreign
tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism. exchange (Economic Affairs 2013). Barbados’
Beach tourism 89
59'40°
0 4 8 km
A number of challenges inhibit tourism
13'20° North Point
0 4 8 mi ▶ development, including increased competition,
challenges of ▶ safety and security, as well as
NORTH ATLANTIC global warming. The latter has resulted in an
OCEAN increased number and severity of tropical weather B
Speightstown systems and hurricanes; furthermore, rising sea-
Mount
water temperatures have also adversely impacted
Bathsheba
Hillaby
the coral reefs, changing the patterns of vector-
borne diseases.
Holetown
13'10° 13'10°
See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ coastal tourism,

▶ cruise tourism, ▶ island tourism, ▶ sun, sand,
BRIDGETOWN The Crane sea and sex.
Grantley Adams
International Airport
Caribbean
Sea
References
59'40° 59'30°
BHTA 2011 Barbados Hotel and Tourism Association: Our

Barbados, Figure 1 Map of Barbados History. www.bhta.org/index/about-bhta/our-history.
html (30 August 2013).
Central Bank 2013 Barbados Economy Challenges
and Opportunities. Central Bank of Barbados www.
tourism experience combines the traditional “sun, centralbank.org.bb/WEBCBB.nsf/vwNews/4241FED
15AB4B06404257B9E0050E04A/$FILE/National%
sand, and sea,” with a variety of events and festi-
20Consultation_2013.v6.pdf (30 August).
vals (Crop Over, Holetown, Oistins Fish, Holders Donovan, S. 2005 The Geology of Barbados:
Season, Gospelfest, Celtic, and Food, Wine, and A Field Guide. Caribbean Journal of Earth Science
Rum). 38:21-33.
Economic Affairs 2013 Barbados Ministry of Finance and
Institutionalization of tourism dates from the
Economic Affairs. Barbados Social and Economic
1950s. The formation of the Barbados Hotel Report 2012 www.economicaffairs.gov.bb/economy.
Association was in 1952 (BHTA 2011), the pass- php (30 August).
ing of the Barbados Hotel Aids Act in 1956, and WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic
Impact – Barbados. London: World Travel and Tourism
then the emergence of the Tourist Board in 1958.
Council.
In 2014, its Act was repealed and two new orga-
nizations were created: the Barbados Tourism
Marketing Incorporated and the Barbados Tour-
ism Product Authority, separating ▶ marketing
and ▶ management. In addition to marketing, the Beach tourism
Tourism Authority is responsible for the registra-
tion and classification of accommodations. Christine Metusela
Recently the development of second homes and Centre for Health Research, Western Sydney
condominiums has supplanted the growth in University, Campbelltown, Australia
accommodation establishments. There are 6,000
hotel rooms in 150 establishments.
Tourism ▶ education is available at secondary Beach tourism is a product of Western modernity
schools. The Barbados Community College also that includes a diverse range of leisure practices
offers an associate degree in ▶ hospitality and associated with the coast that contribute to the
tourism, while the University of the West Indies economy. These practices are shaped by transna-
provides a bachelor program in tourism tional as well as local influences and are dynamic
management. and fluid. The majority of studies on beach
90 Behavior
tourism address its marketing, economic growth, American economy is 25 times that of national
and sustainable practices. parks (Houston 2008). Due to mass tourism and
The origins of beach tourism are attributed to the enormous popularity of beaches, beach ero-
the nineteenth-century England, where seaside sion is a major threat to beach tourism. Ecotour-
resorts replaced the spa towns as fashionable ism and sustainable tourism practices are
places of recreation for the affluent (Walton contemporary research concerns of beach preser-
1983). These seasonal coastal resorts were vation for future generations.
established upon presumed health-giving prop-
erties of exposing the body to the sun, sea, and See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ lei-
salt air through practices such as promenading, sure, ▶ mass tourism, ▶ sun, sand, sea and sex.
sea bathing, and drinking seawater as a
tonic. From the mid-nineteenth century, the rail-
way with its increased accessibility and afford- References
ability, along with the holiday movement, played
a crucial role in enabling the development of a Booth, D. 2001 Australian Beach Cultures: The History of
Sun, Sand and Surf. London: University of Otago.
working-class holiday market that catered to
Houston, J. 2008 The Economic Value of Beaches: A 2008
mass tourists (Urry 2002). As the beach became Update. Shore and Beach 76(3):22-26.
socially constructed as both “natural” and Mitchell, G. 1997 The Garden of the Illawarra. In
“healthy” by an emerging tourism industry, it A History of Wollongong, J. Hagan and A. Wells,
eds., pp.143-156. Wollongong: The University of Wol-
grew in popularity as a tonic to the stresses and
longong Press.
pollution associated with modern living or as an Urry, J. 2002 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage.
escape from drab everyday routines. In contrast Walton, J. 1983 The English Seaside Resort: A Social
to the bourgeois coastal resorts, beach tourism History 1750-1914. New York: Leicester University
Press.
began to be enjoyed by an intersection of classes,
ethnicities, sexes, and ages.
The practices of beach tourism have at times
been questioned and contested. Bans on swim-
ming in public during daylight hours, for exam- Behavior
ple, were enforced in ▶ Australia between 1860
and 1903 due to rigid Victorian moral codes that Statia Elliot
prevented sea bathing being seen as an acceptable School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism
beach leisure practice (Booth 2001). When these Management, University of Guelph, Guelph,
bans were lifted, regulations controlled what peo- Canada
ple could wear and what beach activities they
could participate in, and laws were enforced
until the 1930s. Similarly, authorities have not ▶ Tourist behavior is the process a tourist under-
always seen beach tourism in the light of eco- takes, both observable and unobservable, when
nomic growth. In the early 1900s, in the Illawarra ▶ planning and participating in tourism. It is the
(New South Wales, Australia), beach leisure prac- dynamic of affect and cognition, as well as bio-
tices were positioned as a “craze” by local author- logical and cultural forces interacting with mar-
ities who chose instead to support industrial keting and environmental stimuli. In marketing,
growth (Mitchell 1997). consumer behavior is a relatively young subfield
Today, the marketing of beaches as destina- that seeks to understand the where, when, and
tions is nationally funded. Beaches are key drivers why of consumers and how their behavior might
of the economy of countries worldwide. It is esti- be influenced. Also known as consumer psychol-
mated, for example, that its contribution to the ogy, a branch of applied psychology that began
Behavior 91
in the mid-twentieth century, the field has grown inner-directed motivations, outer-directed values,
and adapted, blending elements from sociology, as well as tourist ▶ attitudes and expectations,
philosophy, anthropology, and other social sci- thereby producing an array of individual experi-
ences related to the understanding of human ences (Gnoth 1997).
behavior. In tourism, the challenge is to under- B
stand the complexities of behavior with the
added dimensions of space, time, and the con- Decisionmaking
sumption of experiences.
It follows that tourist behavior finds its roots in A linear approach to the tourism decisionmaking
the social sciences, particularly psychologists’ process begins with a decision to travel, then
theories of motivation to understand what makes involves information search, evaluation, selection,
people want to ▶ travel. Abraham Maslow’s hier- and post-purchase assessment. Examining infor-
archy of needs identifies a range of human moti- mation search behavior has been a focus in the
vations driven by different desires and contexts, literature since the 1980s (Pizam and Mansfeld
from basic physiological needs to eat and drink to 1999). An important concept influencing search is
self-actualization at the top of his pyramid. Simi- involvement. The more highly involved potential
larly, people have different behaviors driven by tourists are with their information search, the more
different tourism needs, wants, values, expecta- likely they will search multiple sources, including
tions, and motivations. The study attempts to ▶ destination-specific and personal information.
identify patterns and relationships as means to Prior experience, friends, and family can be very
understand behavior and by extension, influence influential, by word-of-mouth and by increasingly
tourists and predict outcomes. Understanding pervasive electronic word-of-mouth sources
tourist behavior is seen as a prerequisite to the (Gursoy 2011). Models help to explain the tourist
development of effective marketing strategy and decisionmaking process (Sirakaya and Woodside
media campaigns, as well as the application of 2005), many adopting rational choice theory,
segmentation techniques. whereby behavior is assumed to be utilitarian.
Broadly, tourist behavior is affected by two Alternatively, constructive choice theory
dimensions: environmental or pull factors and considers less rational responses, such as decision
tourist characteristics or push factors. The envi- shortcuts and subconscious information
ronment encompasses everything from promo- processing, and ecological systems theory accounts
tional and marketing stimuli, to economic, for the ▶ impact of a person’s environment on
technological, political, cultural, and other macro decisionmaking.
factors. Tourist characteristics include Another well-studied subject within tourist
sociodemographic and psychographic traits, atti- behavior research is destination choice. Choice
tudes, perceptions, lifestyle, knowledge, and set models consider sequential stages that
motivations. Motivations are considered to be begin with an initial set of many destinations
push factors, coming from within the individual. based on awareness, subsequently narrowed
By contrast, pull factors come from the destina- down to an evoked set, before a final destination
tion as external stimuli to attract potential tourists. is chosen. In reality, choice is multifaceted,
Building on these concepts, and Maslow’s hierar- influenced by individual and trip characteristics
chy, Pearce’s (2005) travel career pattern schema (Hwang et al. 2006), as well as by constraints.
proposes that tourist motivational needs change Recent approaches to information search and
with his experience over time, yet some factors destination choice research apply less
seem to motivate all: to escape, relax, enhance structured, fuzzy multiple-criteria decision-
relationships, and self-develop. As such, tourist making models to reflect the complexity of tourist
behavior is dynamic and complex, involving behavior.
92 Belarus
The experience and future directions Applications, D. Fesenmaier, K. Woeber and

H. Werthner, eds., pp.17–29. Cambridge: CABI.
Iso-Ahola, S. 1980 The Social Psychology of Leisure and
Behavioral concepts, such as satisfaction and the Recreation. Hamburg, Iowa: William C. Brown.
desired outcome, can be traced to the earliest Pearce, P. 2005 Tourist Behavior: Themes and Conceptual
histories, when Greek philosophers claimed hedo- Schemes. Clevedon: Channel View.
nism to be the highest purpose of life. While Pizam, A., and Y. Mansfeld 1999 Consumer Behavior in
Travel and Tourism. New York: Haworth.
pleasure and gratification are still linked to posi- Sirakaya, E., and A. Woodside 2005 Building and Testing
tive tourism experiences, the pure hedonistic view Theories of Decision Makers by Travelers. Tourism
of self-satisfaction without consequence cannot Management 26:815-832.
be generalized. In theory, for each ▶ leisure par-
ticipant there is an optimal arousal state of stimu-
lation (Iso-Ahola 1980), whether it is from
relaxation or high adventure, pre-trip fantasizing, Belarus
or post-trip memories. It is shaped by the tourist’s
own behavior and expectations and by environ- Viachaslau Nikitsin and Albrecht Steinecke
mental and situational factors. When optimal University of Paderborn, Paderborn, Germany
arousal is attained, a tourist is more likely to feel
a sense of loyalty and satisfaction, which then
increases behavioral intentions. Belarus is the 85th largest country in the world
Behavior is a domain of research that will con- (207,600 km2, 80,155 mi2). Located in Eastern
tinue to extend theories from other social sciences Europe (Figure 1), with a population of 9.6 million,
to tourism. Just as humans are not static, neither is it borders ▶ Latvia, ▶ Lithuania, ▶ Poland, ▶ Rus-
their study. The aging of society, rapid adoption of sia, and ▶ Ukraine. Belarus gained political sover-
new technologies, greater cultural diversity, and eignty from the former Soviet Union in 1991, but
▶ globalization’s potential to homogenize tourism its economy remains dependent on Russia as an
are just some of the critical shifts impacting tourist important export market, as well as a supplier of
behavior. Methodologically, surveys have been crude oil and natural gas at prices that are substan-
most common for what has largely been correla- tially below the world market. The economy still
tional, exploratory, and applied behavior research. has a socialist structure: 80 % of the country’s
To determine causality, experimentation and other industry and 75 % of the banking sector are in
designs present effective alternatives to assess state hands. Tourism is also heavily regulated by
behavior in a moving world. the state, with complicated visa procedures.
Belarus is a relatively flat country and has large
tracts of marshy land. Its main attractions are the
See also ▶ Cognition, ▶ decisionmaking, capital Minsk (laid out in a typical socialist
▶ experience, ▶ motivation, ▶ psychology. design) and four UNESCO world heritage sites:
the Mir Castle Complex, the Nesvizh Castle, the
Belovezhskaya Pushcha, and the Struve Geodetic
Arc. Nearly 25 % of Belarus’ territory in the
References southeastern parts of the country remains heavily
affected by the fallout of the Chernobyl nuclear
Gnoth, J. 1997 Tourism Motivation and Expectation For-
disaster in Ukraine in 1986.
mation. Annals of Tourism Research 24:283-304.
Gursoy, D. 2011 Destination Information Search Strate- With a total of 5.8 million arrivals in 2011, tour-
gies. In Destination Marketing and Management The- ism plays a minor role within the economy of Bela-
ories and Applications, Y. Wang and A. Pizam, eds., rus. As of 2011, there were only 1,656 tourism-
pp.67-81. Cambridge: CABI.
related establishments (very few run by foreign
Hwang, Y., U. Grezel, Z. Xiang, and D. Fesenmaier 2006
Travel Destination Choice Models. In Destination Rec- companies) and 8,400 employees in this industry.
ommendation Systems: Behavioral Foundations and The ▶ inbound tourism expenditure accounted for
Belarus 93
Belarus, Figure 1 Map of Belarus
1.6 % of GDP (a slight increase since 2007) and 20 universities and nine colleges offering courses
1.9 % of exports and goods (nearly stagnating since in tourism ▶ management, guiding, and related
2007) (UNWTO 2013). subjects. Several of the institutions take part in
On a national level, tourism is coordinated by European education programs. Over the last
the Ministry for Sports and Tourism (founded in decade, cooperation with neighboring EU coun-
1995). Since 2000, there have been three national tries, as well as Russia and Ukraine, has gained
programs for tourism ▶ development (2001–2005, greater significance. There are also cooperation
2006–2010, and 2011–2015), promoting expan- projects financed by the United Nations Develop-
sion and modernization of the general and ment Program that aimed at supporting the small
tourism-related ▶ infrastructure, marketing Bela- and medium enterprises and developing tourism
rus as a ▶ destination, and strengthening interna- clusters in areas such as Brest and Grodno. These
tional cooperation (Belarus has been a member of programs promote ▶ ecotourism, ▶ rural tourism,
the UNWTO since 2005) (Herntrei and Nikitsin and the better use of cultural resources.
2013; Nikitsin 2009).
The ▶ national tourism policy includes
improving and furthering ▶ education and See also ▶ Border tourism, ▶ cultural tourism,
▶ training in tourism. There are more than ▶ ecotourism, ▶ rural tourism.
94 Belgium
References 3 5 6
R
Maas
hi
North
ne
Herntrei, M., and V. Nikitsin 2013 Modernisierung der Sea NETHERLANDS
Touristischen Aus- und Weiterbildung in Belarus: Zeebrugge
Ziele, Evaluierungsergebnisse und Perspektiven. In Oostende Antwerp
Kulturtourismus zu Beginn des 21 Jahrhunderts, H-D. Brugge
F L A N D E R S
Quack and K. Klemm, eds., pp.177-191. Munich: Fest- 5 Gent Mechelen 51
schrift f€ur Albrecht Steinecke. Kortrijk de
el Aalst
c h Leuven GER.
Nikitsin, V. 2009 Tourismuspolitik und Tourismusplanung S
BRUSSELS
in Transformationsl€andern – Untersucht am Beispiel se Liège
Mons Charleroi Meu
von Belarus und Litauen. Paderborn: Paderborner Botrange
Namur
Geographische Studien zu Tourismusforschung und W A L L O N I A
ut
ca
Destinationsmanagement. S
Es
NE
UNWTO 2013 Compendium of Tourism Statistics. E N
50 D 50
R
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. A Bastogne
LUX.
FRANCE
0 20 40 km
Belgium
Me
us
0 20 40 mi
e
4 5 6
Bart Neuts
Belgium, Figure 1 Map of Belgium
Auckland University of Technology, Auckland,
New Zealand
the presence of the European Union institutions

Belgium occupies a central position in Western and foreign company head offices. The coastline
Europe, bordering Germany, the Netherlands, and natural landscapes, on the other hand, princi-
Luxembourg, and France. The political system is pally attract national residents and tourists from
characterized by a three-tiered federation, com- neighboring countries.
prising a federal government, three communities
(Flemish, French, and German speaking), and
three regions (Flemish, Walloon, and Brussels Significance of tourism
Capital). The country has a population of 10.4
million in 30,528 km2 (11,787 mi2). In 2012, its In 2012, Belgium registered 7.6 million interna-
national GDP was US$484.7 billion, or $43,686 tional arrivals, ranking 38th in the world. Receipts
per capita, ranking 18th worldwide (IMF 2013) ranked 26th at $11.4 billion, yielding approximately
(Figure 1). $1,500 per trip (UNWTO 2013a). These receipts
The thermal baths of Spa and Chaudfontaine account for 3.2 % of total exports of goods and
have attracted European interest from the eigh- services and 2.4 % of GDP (UNWTO 2013b).
teenth century, while tourism at the coast and in About 70 % of total international arrivals were
major historic cities developed further in the nine- from the ▶ Netherlands (26 %), ▶ France (16 %),
teenth century. Nonetheless, it was only after the the ▶ United Kingdom (12 %), ▶ Germany (11 %),
introduction of holiday rights and paid leave and ▶ Spain (5 %). A further 6.3 million were
throughout ▶ Europe (instituted in 1936 in Bel- domestic (UNWTO 2013b). Based on an estimated
gium) that holidaymaking became widespread. average expenditure of $332 per domestic trip, inter-
Currently, international ▶ leisure tourism is pri- nal tourism contributed $2.1 billion to the ▶ indus-
marily situated in the historic cities of Brussels, try, equaling 0.4 % of GDP (WES 2011).
Bruges and Antwerp, and to a lesser extent Ghent, While incoming and ▶ domestic tourism con-
Liège, Leuven, Mechelen, Mons, and Namur. Fur- tributes significantly to the economy, the out-
thermore, Brussels is an important meeting, incen- bound expenditure by Belgians exceeds inbound
tive, convention, and exhibition destination due to receipts, reaching an estimated $21.7 billion,
Belgium 95
ranking 13th (UNWTO 2013a). This expenditure have a ▶ national tourism office. International pro-
was linked to 7.9 million departures (UNWTO motion of the ▶ destination is shared by Wallonia-
2013b) with France, Spain, ▶ Italy, the Nether- Brussels Tourism Bureau, Visit Brussels, and the
lands, and Germany as the main receiving desti- Tourist Office for Flanders. In Flanders, the latter is
nations (WES 2011). also responsible for direct investments and subsidi- B
The importance of tourism is further zation, while the implementation and enforcement
highlighted by its share in ▶ employment. In of regulations and licensing of tourism establish-
2011, tourism directly supported 139,000 full- ments are carried out by the Flemish Department of
time equivalent jobs or 3.7 % of total jobs. The Foreign Affairs. In Wallonia, Brussels, and the
majority of employees (57.8 %) are male, cour- German-speaking community, separate entities are
tesy of the strong male dominance in the passen- responsible for all aspects concerning direct and
ger transport sector. Accommodation and travel indirect ▶ investment and ▶ legislation (OECD
agencies are primarily female-dominated sectors 2012). The ten provinces, as well as the municipal-
(UNWTO 2013b). ities, have their own organizations with distinct
funding instruments and ▶ marketing and research
activities (Toerisme Vlaanderen 2001).
Structure and operations
Belgium has an advantage in its central location Opportunities and challenges

and transportation connections. The main cities
are directly connected by high-speed train with Belgium is a mature destination with a well-
the Netherlands, France, Germany, ▶ Luxem- developed tourism ▶ infrastructure and a central
bourg, and the United Kingdom, with this net- location in Europe. Furthermore, the country has
work extending further throughout Europe. recovered well from a drop in international arrivals
Flights by traditional and low-cost carriers con- in 2009 and has since registered continuous growth.
nect Belgium with generating markets in Europe However, challenges exist. The vast majority of
and North America, a significant number of Afri- arrivals can be attributed to just five origin markets,
can destinations, and a limited number of Asian while emerging destinations provide only a mar-
cities. The tourism ▶ supply side is composed of ginal share. The absence of direct flight connections
both small- and medium-sized enterprises and between Belgium and growth markets in South
large international chains, with a number of asso- America and Asia is a weakness.
ciations improving knowledge dissemination and The federalization of tourism offers a further
industry advocacy. challenge for the destination. The lack of a
Tourism-related ▶ education is possible from national ▶ tourist office means that both Flanders
the second grade of high school onward. In high and Wallonia promote their own region
school, around 25 specific tourism programs are abroad, thereby failing to take advantage of the
taught in over 250 institutions. Some 20 university brand “Belgium.” It will require a continued
colleges provide four professional bachelors, effort to build reputation value for the different
while a master degree in tourism is offered by regions.
two consortia of ▶ universities and university col- In light of these opportunities and challenges,
leges in Flanders and Wallonia. Furthermore, a research interests include the use of new social
significant number of public and private adult media channels to increase destination awareness
education centers offer certified courses in various and reputation, the introduction of quality screen-
aspects of tourism. ing and labeling in ▶ accommodation, service
Since the federalization of the country in providers and tourist information offices, and
1970–1971, destination marketing is the responsi- enhancement of communication and social skills
bility of the communities and infrastructure invest- to prepare the supply side for tourists from emerg-
ment of the regions. As a result, Belgium does not ing destinations.
96 Belize
See also ▶ Domestic tourism, ▶ expenditure, in the overnight market and an increase of over ten
▶ inbound tourism, ▶ marketing, ▶ national tour- times the number of cruise tourists in the same
ism organization and administration. time period (SIB 2014). In 2013, ▶ domestic tour-
ism generated 16.5 % of direct contributions to the
GDP. In the same year, the industry generated
References 17,000 jobs, representing 12.0 % of ▶ employ-
ment (WTTC 2014).
IMF 2013 Data and Statistics. Washington DC: Interna- Most international tourists, the majority of
tional Monetary Fund. whom come from the ▶ United States, arrive in
OECD 2012 Tourism Trends and Policies. Paris: Organi- Belize City by air or on cruiseships (SIB 2014).
zation for Economic Cooperation and Development.
Toerisme Vlaanderen 2001 Toerisme in België. Product/ A second international airport under construction
Organisatie/Beleid. Brussels: Toerisme Vlaanderen. in Placencia and plans to build additional
UNWTO 2013a World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World cruiseship ports in the south are currently under
Tourism Organization. debate. There are three tertiary education institu-
UNWTO 2013b Compendium of Tourism Statistics.
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. tions offering tourism and ▶ hospitality programs
WES 2011 Reisgedrag van de Belgen 2010. Bruges: West- which include Belize Technical College, Center for
Vlaams Economisch Studiebureau. Employment Training, and University of Belize.
▶ Tour guides are required by ▶ law to undergo
intensive ▶ training delivered by the government.
Belize The Belize Tourism Industry Association is the
main private sector association, with roughly
Amy Diedrich 400 members. The Belize Tourism Board is the
College of Marine and Environmental Sciences, government-appointed entity responsible for
James Cook University, Townsville, Australia developing, ▶ marketing, and regulating tourism.
The majority of policy and enforcement happens
from the top down, with some collaboration with
Belize (Figure 1) is a small country on the north- non-governmental organizations, ▶ tour guide
east coast of Central America with an area of associations, and other local groups.
22,966 km2 (8,867 mi2), a population of 350,000 Non-governmental organizations are particularly
(as of 2013), and a GDP of US$1,583.5 million influential in regulating ▶ marine tourism, which
(BZ$3,167 million) in 2013 (SIB 2014). Formerly is closely tied to marine protected areas.
British ▶ Honduras, it was the last country in Belize’s tourism ▶ industry depends on the
Central America to gain independence, which ▶ conservation of its fragile natural and cul-
occurred in 1981. tural attractions. In 2009, UNESCO placed
Belize is rich in natural and cultural attractions, Belize’s Barrier Reef on the list of ▶ world
including rainforests, the Belize Barrier Reef, the heritage sites in danger, citing tourism as an
largest in the Western Hemisphere, and Mayan imminent threat. In the same year, the gov-
archeological sites. Nature-based tourism began ernment implemented the Belize Sustainable
in the 1940s but was slow to develop. Although Tourism Program. Future research should sup-
absolute numbers of visitors are low compared port the goals of this program by finding ways
with other ▶ Caribbean destinations, growth to improve and sustain environmental and
from the 1990s has been substantial. Tourism is cultural conservation efforts while building
now Belize’s biggest earner of ▶ foreign the capacity of local people to benefit from
exchange, followed by marine products, agricul- tourism (EUROPRAX 2011).
tural crops, and garments. In 2013, there were
294,177 overnight arrivals and 677,350 cruise See also ▶ Cruise tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
passengers, representing 13.5 % of direct contri- ▶ marine tourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ protected
butions to the GDP, a growth of 50 % since 2000 area tourism.
Belize 97
Belize, Figure 1 Map of Belize
References SIB 2014 National Statistics Database. Statistical

Institute of Belize <www.statisticsbelize.org.bz/>
(23 April).
EUROPRAX 2011 National Sustainable Tourism Master
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2014
Plan for Belize 2030. Belmopan: Belize Tourism Board
Belize. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
and Ministry of Tourism and Culture.
98 Benin
Benin has significant tourism potential, but it

Benin suffers great deficiencies in ▶ infrastructure, lack
of accessibility to attractions, and low service
Javier de León and Marta Wood quality and training of workers. There is insuffi-
Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic cient ▶ investment because of the high cost of
Development, Universidad de Las Palmas de supplies and the tax regime, credit access, ▶ leg-
Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain islation, and a high level of corruption
(Ambassade du Danemark 2009: 9). The ▶ devel-
opment of tourism requires the creation of
Republic of Benin is a French-speaking country corresponding policy, as well as the improvement
that borders ▶ Togo, ▶ Nigeria, ▶ Burkina Faso, and construction of infrastructure at the places of
and ▶ Niger. It has a total surface area of interest; the government seeks to achieve such
112,760 km2 (43,536 mi2) and an estimated pop- actions through public-private investment
ulation of ten million (Figure 1). It is one of the (République du Bénin 2011: 61).
world’s least developed countries, according to Benin offers a variety of cultural, historical,
the United Nations, occupying the 134th and and environmental attractions. The ethnic diver-
155th position of a total of 180 countries in sity and its associated cultural manifestations, as
terms of GDP and per capita, respectively. well as the practice of voodoo, originally from
Benin, are significant cultural attractions. The tra-
ditional and colonial period architectural patri-
1 2 3
mony is also noteworthy. Other historical
NIGER attractions are the royal palace and sites related
Ni
ge
r to the slave trade, for which Benin was one of the
12 BURKIMA 12
FASO Malanville
main African exit ports between the sixteenth and
nineteenth centuries. The W-Arly Pendjari Parks
(shared with Burkina Faso and Niger) constitute
Kandi
important but threatened environmental reserves
in Western Africa.
Natitingou
Benin is the seventh most popular destination
in Western Africa (UNWTO 2013) with an annual
10 10 average growth of 2.2 % in number of tourists
Djougou
between 2003 and 2011 (209,000 estimated tour-
Moni Sokbaro Parakou ists in 2011). During the last five years, income
from tourism has represented an average of 10 %
TOGO of the country’s exports, US$180 million in the
last five years (UNWTO 2013).
NIGERIA
Benin does not offer undergraduate or post-
8 8 graduate programs specialized in tourism, nor
does it have research centers. Tourism is margin-
ally covered as a specialized profession in the
Bohicon Cové
framework of other training programs. In 2009,
Abomey
Benin had 108 tourism establishments
Lokossa PORTO-
NOVO
(Ambassade du Danemark 2009: 12). The reasons
Ouidah for ▶ travel are mainly professional (35.46 %),
Cotonou
GHANA
Bight of Benin 6
business (19.15 %), family and friends
6 0 30 60 km
2 0 30 60 ml
(13.48 %), adventure (9.93 %), and cultural
(8.51 %) (Dumoulin 2008). The ▶ future of the
Benin, Figure 1 Map of Benin tourism ▶ industry in this country will depend on
Bhutan 99
the real and effective implementation of appropri- 0 30 60 km 90 92

Brahmaputra
ate policies. An example is the document devel- 0 30 60 mi
oped by the Economic and Social Council (CES

C H I N A
2010) which was never applied.
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ development, ▶ human H
B
I
resource management, ▶ infrastructure. 28
M
A L 28
Gangkar A Y A S
ey Bhutan/China Puensum
l
al
Trashi
iV
claim lines
Yangtse
mb
THIMPHU
Chu
Trongsa
References
hu
Paro Wangdue
Ch
Phodrang
me
Mongar
ng
Tsimasham
Da
Ambassade du Danemark 2009 Diagnostique sur la Per- Samdrup
Phuentsholing Gelephu Jongkhar
ception du Secteur Privé sur le Climat des Affaires au
Bénin: Ambassade du Danemark au Bénin.
CES 2010 La Contribution du Secteur du Tourisme à I N D I A
l’économie Beninoise. Conseil Economique et Social
du Benin.
26 Brahmaputra 26
Dumoulin, M. 2008 Enquête sur l’offre Touristique à Coto-
nou. Coopération Bénin et Union Européenne. Coto- BANGLADESH 90 92
nou, Bénin.
République du Bénin 2011 Bénin: Document Stratégique Bhutan, Figure 1 Map of Bhutan
de Croissance etréduction de la Pauvreté (SCRP 2011-
2015). Bénin: Disponible par leFonds Monétaire
International. of human society takes place when material and
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- spiritual development occur side by side to comple-
ism Organization.
ment and reinforce each other. This philosophy
appeals to many of the source markets attracted to
Bhutan (Vorster 2012), guiding the national “middle
Bhutan path” to modernization and allowing Bhutanese to
maintain control of the type, amount, and impacts of
Steve Noakes tourism on cultural traditions, ▶ religion, and natu-
Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport ral environment (Brunet et al. 2001). Approxi-
Management, Griffith University, Queensland, mately 72 % of the total land area is under forest
Australia cover with some 60 % under protected area status
comprising ten national parks and sanctuaries,
enhancing nature-based tourism experiences.
The Kingdom of Bhutan rests in the eastern Tourism began in 1974 with international tour-
Himalaya Mountains between ▶ China and the ist arrivals of 287, increasing to 2,850 by 1992,
Indian territories of Arunachal Pradesh to the and over 7,000 in 1999. By 2011, Bhutan received
east, Assam and West Bengal to the south, and 37,479 arrivals, up from 27,195 in 2010. In the
Sikkim to the west. Approximately 300 km same year, the ▶ United States provided the
(186.4 ml) long and 150 km (93.2 ml) wide, the highest number of arrivals (16.61 %), followed
nation covers an area of 38,394 km2 (14,824 ml2), by ▶ Japan (10.52 %), ▶ China (7.73 %), and the
between 88 450 and 92 100 longitude east and ▶ United Kingdom (7.46 %). Bhutan had 741 reg-
26 420 and 28 150 latitude north (RSPN 2013). istered tour operators in 2011, with 318 opera-
The world’s only Mahayana Buddhism Kingdom, tional. Gross earnings from ▶ international
Bhutan’s population is 720,679. GDP in 2011 was tourism increased to a total of US$35.98 million
US$1,725 million (Bhutanese ngultrum, in 2010 and $47.68 million in 2011 (National
106,870.9 million) (UNdata 2013) (Figure 1). Statistics Bureau 2013).
Bhutan’s development philosophy involves Construction of the Royal Institute of Tourism
gross national happiness, where the development and Hospitality commenced in 2004 with a
100 Bicycle tourism
renovation of the former Motithang Hotel oper- ▶ holiday experience. It includes activities under-
ated by the state-owned Bhutan Tourism Corpo- taken by those “on ▶ vacation for longer than 24 h
ration. Its development was supported by the or one night, and for whom the bicycle is an integral
Royal Government of Bhutan and the Austrian part of this trip” (Ritchie 1998: 569). However, day
Government. excursions centered around the bicycle are often
The “high value, low volume” philosophy included in cycle tourism research (Weston
adopted by Bhutan challenges tourism stake- et al. 2012).
holders to explore issues such as ▶ carrying capac- The bicycle has been used for ▶ recreation
ity and how the people of Bhutan can receive net since the 1890s, but its popularity declined after
benefits from supplying Himalayan experiences to the advent of the car. Over the last decades,
international visitors interested in their ▶ lifestyle cycling for various purposes – daily activities,
and Buddhist culture. Research prospects for tour- recreation, tourism – has regained popularity
ism in Bhutan particularly relate to the continuing (Lamont 2009). It has now become well
national desire to develop sustainable and established as a (niche) market, particularly
▶ responsible tourism practices which take into in Western Europe. Bicycle tourism generally
account the need for preservation of the country’s enjoys high participation in countries where
environment and cultural heritage. bicycles are frequently used for daily transport
and with good cycling infrastructure (Weston
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ mountain tour- et al. 2012).
ism, ▶ protected area tourism. Many destinations have set up routes and net-
works for various types of cycling, including
transnational routes and networks. A wide spec-
References trum of subproducts has evolved, based on
motivation (sport, relaxation, watching a cycle
Brunet, S., J. Bauer, T. De Lacy, and K. Tshering 2001 event), bicycle types (touring bicycle, mountain
Tourism Development in Bhutan: Tensions between
Tradition and Modernity. Journal of Sustainable Tour- bike, race bike), level of organization
ism 9:243-263. (individually planned, ▶ guided tour), type of
National Statistics Bureau 2013 Statistical Yearbook of route (multistage, center based), and trip
Bhutan 2012. Royal Government of Bhutan. length (multiple days, day trip, short
RSPN 2013 Location of Bhutan. Royal Society for the
Protection of Nature www.rspnbhutan.org/about- ▶ excursion).
bhutan/location.html (30 December). Ritchie (1998) and Lamont (2009) have
UNdata 2013 Bhutan http://data.un.org/CountryProfile. increased the understanding of bicycle tourism
aspx?crName=Bhutan (30 December). as a concept, while Ritchie et al. (2010) have
Vorster, S. 2012 GNH, EI and the Wellbeing of Nations:
Lessons for Public Policy Makers, with Specific Refer- attempted to study cycle tourist behavior, provid-
ence to the Happiness Dividend of Tourism. Journal of ing further insight for bicycle tourism product
Bhutan Studies 27:15-33. development and marketing communication.
Weston et al. (2012) have analyzed the various
impacts of bicycle tourism in ▶ Europe, showing
Bicycle tourism positive, local economic impacts, specifically for
underdeveloped regions. Bicycle tourists tend to
Eke Eijgelaar and Paul Peeters use more environmentally friendly transportation
Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport, and travel shorter distances to their ▶ destination
NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences, than other tourists, resulting in lower impacts on
Breda, The Netherlands climate change. This makes bicycle tourism a
good case for sustainable, ▶ low-carbon, and
▶ slow tourism (Dickinson and Lumsdon 2010).
Bicycle or cycle tourism is a market segment in Bicycle tourism’s success exceeds the scope of
which cycling plays a significant part of the a niche product, but further promotion and growth
Biological diversity 101
in other countries and continents is partly depen- Understanding biodiversity

dent on policy changes (Weston et al. 2012).
Future research should be directed to finding Biodiversity has different definitions. The most
ways on how to increase this (economically) well-received interpretation comes from the Con-
attractive segment in a wider range of countries vention on Biological Diversity in 1992, which B
while maintaining its sustainable character. refers to the variability among living organisms
from sources such as terrestrial, marine and other
See also ▶ Low-carbon tourism, ▶ sustainable aquatic ecosystems, and the ecological complexes
tourism, ▶ sport tourism, ▶ climate change, of which they are part, including diversity within
▶ slow tourism. species, among species, and of ecosystems. This
definition consists of four levels: genetic, species,
ecosystem, and landscape.
References Genetic diversity indicates the source of life
evolution and species differentiation, in which
Dickinson, J., and L. Lumsdon 2010 Slow Travel and genetic materials are the causes of changes or
Tourism. London: Earthscan.
Lamont, M. 2009 Reinventing the Wheel: A Definitional
mutations. Species diversity is the “heart” of bio-
Discussion of Bicycle Tourism. Journal of Sport and diversity, which can be measured by species rich-
Tourism 14:5-23. ness and abundance. Ecosystem diversity is the
Ritchie, B. 1998 Bicycle Tourism in the South Island of “body” of biodiversity, which refers to varied
New Zealand: Planning and Management Issues. Tour-
compositions, functions, habitats, biotic commu-
ism Management 19:567-582.
Ritchie, B., A. Tkaczynski, and P. Faulks 2010 Under- nities, and ecological processes of an ecosystem.
standing the Motivation and Travel Behavior of Cycle Landscape diversity, however, is the “appear-
Tourists Using Involvement Profiles. Journal of Travel ance” of biodiversity, relating to the variety of
and Tourism Marketing 27:409-425.
spatial patterns, landscape evolution, and driving
Weston, R., N. Davies, P. Peeters, E. Eijgelaar,
L. Lumsdon, P. McGrath, and P. Piket 2012 The Euro- mechanism.
pean Cycle Route Network EuroVelo: Challenges and Tourism played a marginal role in biodiversity
Opportunities for Sustainable Tourism. Brussels: Euro- discussions in the 1970s and 1980s. It was not
pean Parliament, Directorate General for Internal Poli-
cies, Policy Department B: Structural and Cohesion
until the first World Conference on Sustainable
Policies, Transport and Tourism. Tourism in 1995, when the Charter on Sustainable
Tourism and the Action Plan on Sustainable
Tourism were declared, that tourism was included
as one of the major subjects for the implementa-
tion of Agenda 21 and Biodiversity Convention
Biological diversity (Van der Duim and Caalders 2002). Notably,
Tourism and Biodiversity was the theme of the
Jinhe Zhang 31st World Tourism Day in 2010, with its themed
Nanjing University, Nanjing, China conference held in China, in which tourism
received high praise from the UN Secretary-
General for its contributions to protecting
Biological diversity or biodiversity originates biodiversity.
from the concept of “species diversity” in ecology
proposed by Fisher et al. (1943). Its first scientific
interpretation was made by Wilson (1985). The Biodiversity and tourism
central foci of worldwide conservation strategies
were established at Rio Earth Summit in 1992. Tourism takes advantage of biodiversity for its
The complex relationship between biodiversity growth. The aesthetic value of the latter, in the
protection and tourism development is an epitome forms of colorful sceneries and landscapes, con-
of naturalism and anthropocentrism. stitutes core attractions to stimulate tourism
102 Biological diversity
development. However, tourism development is mountains, forests, lakes, coastal zones, grass-
not the end; it is a means to pursuing sustainabil- lands, wetlands, and other ecologically fragile
ity. Ecotourism, for example, is an important way and sensitive regions. Second, research was
to achieving biodiversity conservation and sus- mainly related to the nature and impacts of tour-
tainable development, which is exemplified by ism on biodiversity, habitats influenced by tour-
instances of Huangshan and Jiuzhaigou National ism, particular species or population affected by
Park in China (Zhang 2005). This form of tourism tourist activities, and impact assessment and pro-
can awaken and raise human beings’ conscious- tection countermeasures on biodiversity. Third,
ness and provide necessary support for biodiver- research methods were mainly based on field
sity protection. monitoring, through statistical analyses to reveal
Tourism development should pay more atten- the degree and paths of tourism impacts on
tion to biodiversity protection. Habitat destruction biodiversity.
threatens global biodiversity; infrastructure con- However, current tourism research has two
struction, activities, and wastes are three major main weaknesses. First, in terms of perspectives,
factors to cause detrimental changes in habitat. the issues on biodiversity emphasize the negative
Construction includes highways, airports, docks, impacts of tourism. In fact, tourism impacts can be
shopping malls, hotels, restaurants, cableways, either positive or negative in nature, direct or
ski resorts, golf courses, viewing platforms, walk- indirect in manner, temporary or long lasting in
ways, cabins, and pavilions. Infrastructures and time, and local or global in scope (Zhang 2008).
facilities have different types and purposes but Second, in terms of research methods, attention
would change the land use patterns, weaken land- has been paid to the analysis of a single factor in a
scape diversity, destroy ecosystems, and lead to particular destination. Such factors include, but
habitat fragmentation and segregation. are not limited to, landform, soil, plants, animals,
Different types of tourism activities have dif- water, air, and noise. However, past research has
ferent effects on biodiversity. Trampling caused failed to establish the relationship among these
by riding, camping, and other activities has direct different factors.
influence on soil, vegetation, and soil microorgan- Four aspects need to be further investigated in
isms. Wastes contain sewage discharge, exhaust the future. One, a large set of factors lead to
gas, and solid wastes generated by tourism devel- changes in biodiversity, including both tourism-
opment. The waste not only affects biodiversity in and non-tourism-related factors. It will be imper-
destinations but also spreads to outer zones and ative to look into the approaches to observing and
exerts global eco-environmental effects. These analyzing tourism’s contribution to biodiversity.
threats and effects on biodiversity from tourism Two, different species or populations have differ-
growth are complex, multifaceted, and potentially ent functions in the ecosystem; therefore, the
very dangerous. selection of species or populations as foci for
analysis will be another promising line of impact
research. Three, different tourism development
Biodiversity studies and trends strategies and intensities may have different
impacts on biodiversity. It is therefore essential
Tourism is a goose that lays golden eggs and at the to analyze and compare the different impacts of
same time contaminates its own nest. Since the tourism activities, facilities, and services on bio-
1960s, biodiversity topic has become one of the diversity. Four, comprehensive research on strat-
critical issues in tourism research. First, case stud- egies, policies, and measures of biodiversity
ies were conducted to look into biodiversity and conservation will also need to be in order. Addi-
tourism, mainly involving landscapes such as tionally, biodiversity interrelates with cultural
Birdwatching tourism 103
diversity. By applying theories and concepts of it has traditionally been viewed as a homogenous
the former such as genes, species, systems, and group of people obsessed with seeing as many
landscapes, the latter will present another vista for new species as possible. Despite this perception,
future tourism studies. more comprehensive research has uncovered that
these tourists consists of a diverse population, B
See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ environment, with participants exhibiting varying levels of ded-
▶ impact, ▶ landscape, ▶ sustainable tourism. ication and commitment to the activity (Connell
2009; Green and Jones 2010). Historically domi-
nated by British and North American participants,
the market is now becoming more diverse in its
References origin and scope with increased interest from
Asian markets such as China, Japan, and India.
Fisher, R., A. Corbet, and C. Williams 1943 The Relation Depending on infrastructure and safety, bird-
between the Number of Species and the Number of
Individuals in a Random Sample of an Animal Popula-
watching tourists often travel in organized tours or
tion. The Journal of Animal Ecology 12:42-58. independently. Alternatively, they may engage
Wilson, E. 1985 The Biological Diversity Crisis. BioSci- local guides upon arrival in a destination. This
ence 35:700-706. practice has provided some less developed
Van der Duim, R., and J. Caalders 2002 Biodiversity and
Tourism: Impacts and Interventions. Annals of Tourism
regions with diverse avifauna an opportunity to
Research 29:743-761. develop low-impact tourism and increase capacity
Zhang, J. H. 2005 An Analysis of Touristic Ecological building in remote communities. This often coin-
Footprint and Eco-compensation of Jiuzhaigou in cides with the opportunity for locals to be trained
2002. Journal of Natural Resources 20:735-744.
Zhang, J. H. 2008 Measuring the Ecological Impacts of
as guides by international bird conservation orga-
Tourism Wastes. Acta Ecological Sinica 28:2764-2773. nizations, thus promoting sustainable develop-
ment and conservation in those destinations
(Biggs et al. 2011).
Motivations of birdwatching tourists in terms
Birdwatching tourism of the broader experience are relatively well
researched. Gaps remain in understanding the
Rochelle Steven and Darryl Jones relationships between birdwatching tourism and
Environmental Futures Research Institute, conservation at birding destinations, and the
Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia potential impacts arising from the former.
Negative impacts may include direct effects on
birds themselves or, more broadly, the habitats
Viewing birds in their natural habitat is known as where this practice takes place. Despite this,
bird-watching or avitourism (Moss 2004). This bird-watching tourism also has the potential to
practice developed mostly from a local pastime provide positive outcomes for protected areas in
watching birds in one’s backyard or park to some of the world’s most bio-diverse regions.
observing birds further afield. Various species or Provided representative populations of wild
destinations are targeted by bird-watching tourists birds are sustained, birdwatching could be
(Higham 1998). The 1990s saw an increase in the among the most sustainable of all tourism
number of bird-watchers taking their hobby over- activities.
seas in search of new species of birds (Connell
2009). See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ ecotourism,
As a broader nature tourism niche, bird- ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism,
watching forms a specialist market. As a result, ▶ wildlife tourism.
104 Bolivia
References pre-Columbian art form, and villages such as

Potolo and Tarabuco (Chuquisaca Province) are
Biggs, D., J. Turpie, C. Fabricius, and A. Spenceley 2011 known for their fine textiles (Healy 2001). Span-
The Value of Avitourism for Conservation and Job
ish colonialism, beginning in the mid-sixteenth
Creation – An Analysis from South Africa. Conserva-
tion and Society 9:80-90. century, resulted in a unique syncretism of cul-
Connell, J. 2009 Birdwatching, Twitching and Tourism: tures, religions, and cuisines. This is evident in the
Towards an Australian Perspective. Australian Geogra- San Francisco cathedral and nearby “Witch’s
pher 40(2):203-217.
Market” in the city of La Paz, Oruro’s annual
Green, R., and D. Jones 2010 Practices, Needs and Atti-
tudes of Bird-watching Tourists in Australia. Coopera- carnival celebrations, the Cerro Rico silver/tin
tive Research Centre for Sustainable Tourism. mines of Potosí (Pretes 2002), and the Jesuit Mis-
Brisbane: Griffith University. sions of Chiquitos.
Higham, J. 1998 Tourists and Albatrosses: The Dynamics
▶ Ecotourism focuses on Bolivia’s wide bio-
of Tourism at the Northern Royal Albatross Colony,
Taiaroa Head, New Zealand. Tourism Management diversity and range of ecosystems. The Altiplano
19:521-531. lies between the Andean peaks at 3,600–5,400 m
Moss, S. 2004 A Bird in the Bush: A Social History of in elevation (12–18,000 ft). The eastern side of the
Birdwatching. London: Aurum.
Andes descends into lush valleys, between 1,800
and 3,000 m in elevation (6–10,000 ft). The north-
east of the country lies in the Amazonian basin,
while the southeast lies in the semiarid Chaco
region. Madidi National Park, one of Bolivia’s
Bolivia largest parks, spans all these ecological zones
(Stronza and Gordillo 2008). Other attractions
Clare A. Sammells
include Lake Titicaca (the highest lake in the
Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
world), Sajama National Park in Oruro Province,
Bucknell University, Lewisburg, PA, USA
and the Uyuni Salt Flats in Potosí Province
(Nielsen et al. 2003).
Formal regulation of tourism has increased in
▶ Bolivia is a landlocked South American coun-
the last decade. Most universities now offer
try bordering ▶ Peru, ▶ Chile, ▶ Argentina,
degrees and technical training in this field, and
▶ Paraguay, and ▶ Brazil (Figure 1). With a land
the industry is promoted by the state.
area of 1.1 million km2 (0.42 million mi2) and
▶ Community-based tourism is central to these
population of ten million, the economy is primar-
efforts. Although this approach may gloss over
ily focused on agriculture, mining, petroleum, and
local inequalities, the Bolivian government and
natural gas. In 2012, its GDP was US$27 billion.
other organizations hope that greater community
Tourism has risen dramatically from 319,000 for-
involvement will counteract political and eco-
eign tourists and $101 million in revenue in 2000
nomic marginalization. Research on the growth
to 1.1 million arrivals and over $581 million in
of tourism in Bolivia will provide important
revenue in 2012 (INE 2012).
insights into the potential for the industry to
Contemporary and historic indigenous cultures
reduce poverty and address the concerns of tradi-
are a major focus for tourism. Over 70 % of
tionally marginalized ethnic groups, such as
Bolivians self-identify as indigenous and at least
indigenous peoples.
35 % speak an indigenous language (INE 2012).
Archaeological tourism to pre-Columbian sites
includes Tiwanaku and the Lake Titicaca region See also ▶ Archaeology, ▶ community-based
(La Paz Province) and Samaipata (Santa Cruz tourism, ▶ cultural tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
Province). Weavings were a quintessential ▶ world heritage.
Bolivia 105
Bolivia, Figure 1 Map of Bolivia
References Nielsen, A, J. Calcina, and B. Quispe 2003 Arqueologuía,

Turismo y Comunidades Originarias: Una Experiencia
INE 2012 Anuario Estadístico. Instituto Nacional de en Nor Lípez. Chungara 35:369-377.
Estadística, Bolivia www.ine.gob.bo/ (19 May 2014). Pretes, M. 2002 Touring Mines and Mining Tourists.
Healy, K. 2001 Llamas, Weavings and Organic Chocolate: Annals of Tourism Research 29:439-456.
Multicultural Grassroots Development in the Andes Stronza, A., and J. Gordillo 2008 Community Views
and Amazon of Bolivia. Notre Dame: University of of Ecotourism. Annals of Tourism Research 35:448-
Notre Dame Press. 468.
106 Border tourism
many divided buildings are off-the-beaten-path

Border tourism tourism novelties. The main appeal of the Kalin
Restaurant is the Croatian-Slovenian border,
Dallen J. Timothy which runs through it. The same is true for Hotel
School of Community Resources and Arbez, where the dining hall and some guest
Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, rooms are bisected by the Swiss-French border.
AZ, USA The second attraction type owes its existence
to the legal, cultural, and market differences
between the two sides. Of the second sort, the
The relationships between tourism and borders most common borderland activities/attractions
are complex and include borders as ▶ tourist include shopping, prostitution, medical care,
attractions and destinations, transit spaces, land- petty trading, international parks, and gambling.
scape transformers, barriers to ▶ travel (e.g., Cross-border shopping occurs where price and
visas, border functions), and ▶ constraints to ▶ tax disparities or ▶ product selection warrants
▶ development (Timothy 2001; Wachowiak international travel. This happens at almost all
2006). Some relationships have changed recently open borders throughout the world. Tourism of
with the geopolitics that occurred in the 1990s. vice (gambling, prostitution, drinking) thrives
For instance, some boundaries that were barriers when laws and policies are more permissive on
in the 1980s have now become lines of transit or one side than on the other. ▶ Medical tourism
attractions (Prokkola 2010). The most prominent draws people to the borderlands in search of less
relationship today is borders as destinations. expensive surgeries or other health-related treat-
Many resources are located at international ments, such as on the south side of the
boundaries. Border tourism has two perspectives. USA-Mexico border. There are also many exam-
First, the borderline is an anomalous part of the ples of natural and cultural areas being bisected by
cultural landscape and an interesting attraction. an international boundary or lying adjacent to one.
Second, the areas adjacent to a border have As a result, hundreds of transfrontier peace and
become settings for several touristic activities. nature parks are found in areas of natural or cul-
The first type exists because of a border’s physical tural significance. As borders continue to evolve,
composition and includes sites such as the former future research needs to address issues related to
Berlin Wall, the current inter-Korean border, his- transfrontier collaboration, neoliberal change, and
toric boundary markers, welcome gateways, the transformational effects of borders on tourism
border-related infrastructure, divided towns and ▶ development.
buildings, and sociocultural differences on oppo-
site sides. An increasing number of destinations See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ destination, ▶ geogra-
are embracing their border identities and utilizing phy, ▶ law, ▶ political science.
the international boundary to their promotional
advantage. For most such locations, the divide is
References
an important part of their heritage; it has deter-
mined the physical, economic, and social growth Prokkola, E. 2010 Borders in Tourism: The Transformation
of communities, and much of their collective iden- of the Swedish-Finnish Border Landscape. Current
tity derives from their division by, or proximity to, Issues in Tourism 13:223-238.
the border. This has spurred a movement in many Timothy, D. 2001 Tourism and Political Boundaries. Lon-
don: Routledge.
places to preserve and promote old boundary Wachowiak, H., ed. 2006 Tourism and Borders: Contem-
markers/stones as historic monuments that can porary Issues, Policies and International Research.
be used to interpret a place’s ▶ heritage. Likewise, Aldershot: Ashgate.
Bosnia and Herzegovina 107
mountain biking, bird watching, fly fishing,

Bosnia and Herzegovina organic food and wine, and snow sports in winter.
Sarajevo and Mostar offer numerous cultural her-
Senija Causevic itage sites as well as the Sarajevo Film Festival
Faculty of Law and Social Sciences, School of and Medjugorje Catholic pilgrimage site. In 1984, B
Oriental and African Studies, University of the capital, Sarajevo, hosted the XIV Winter
London, London, UK Olympic Games which attracted vast ▶ invest-
ment in tourism ▶ development and ▶ infrastruc-
ture. However, the 1992–1995 aggression
Bosnia and Herzegovina, with an estimated pop- devastated the tourism ▶ industry completely.
ulation of 3.9 million, border ▶ Croatia, ▶ Serbia, Governance is complex with the two entities of
and ▶ Montenegro (Figure 1) and gained its inde- the Republic of Srpska and Federation of Bosnia
pendence from Yugoslavia in 1992. After its dec- and Herzegovina. There is also a separate District
laration of independence, the Yugoslav People’s Brčko which is not a part of the Dayton Agree-
Army did a military aggression and ethnic cleans- ment. The industry is regulated by the Ministry of
ing on Bosnia and Herzegovina from 6 April Trade and Tourism in the Republic Srpska and by
1992, when bewildered army snipers opened fire the Ministry of the Environment and Tourism in
on peace protestors that joined a peace rally in the Federation of Bosnia and Herzegovina,
Sarajevo, to 15 December 1993, when the Dayton respectively.
Agreement was signed (ICTY 2002). Tourism appears to be ahead of ▶ other indus-
The country has a short coastline on the trial sectors in encouraging partnerships between
Adriatic Sea (20 km), numerous cultural heritage the two sides previously in conflict (Causevic and
sites, and a pristine natural environment. Main Lynch 2013). However, laws and regulations in
tourism activities include rafting, hiking, the entities are not equable, making collaborations
between the entities very complex. Although there
are neither strategies nor ▶ planning efforts, tour-
0 20 40 km
0 20 40 mi
17
CROATIA
18 D an
ub e ism in Bosnia and Herzegovina is steadily devel-
Sava
oping mostly through online word of mouth, joint
Prijedor 45
45 Bosanski Brod efforts of aid agencies and private sectors, and
Republika Srpska
Bihac
Banja
Brcko sporadic public sector support.
Luka According to the Agency for Statistics of Bos-
Tuzla
SERBIA nia and Herzegovina (2014), there have been
Zenica 844,189 registered tourist arrivals in 2013 which
44
Republika 44 is 12.9 % more than that of 2012. Of the registered
CROATIA SARAJEVO Srpska arrivals, 528,579 are international tourists, with
Federation of Bosnia
and Herzegovina Gorazde 20.5 % increase, and number of overnight stay has
Mostar
increased by 10.8 % compared to the previous
Maglic year. Tourism income grew by 3.6 % in the same
43
period. Most tourists are from the territory of the
43
former Yugoslavia, with others coming from
MONTENEGRO
Western ▶ Europe, ▶ China, ▶ Japan, ▶ United
Adriatic Sea
16 17
CROATIA
18 19
ALB. States, and ▶ Australia. However, due to its early
stage of development and ▶ product limitations,
Bosnia and Herzegovina, Figure 1 Map of Bosnia and tourism accounts for only 1.6 % of foreign invest-
Herzegovina ment in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The country still
108 Botswana
needs road and rail construction and better ▶ air- 20 ANG. 25 ZAM. Lake
Capri
l
vi Zipfe Strip) Zamb ezi Kariba
line connections. Popavalle
O
ka (Capri
vi
Kasane
nti
va ya
▶ Education is offered at the University of (Popa Falls) ngo Lin
Tsodilo
Sarajevo in the Department for Tourism and Nat- Hills DEL
TA
Makgadikgad ZIMBABWE
GO
ural Environment Protection. There are also voca- 20 AV
AN Maun (salt pans)
20
K
tional training qualifications for ▶ tour guides.
O
Bote
ti
▶ Future offerings and product development in NAM.

Ghanzi Francistown Shas
he
tourism should go beyond small- and medium- Selebi-Phikwe
sized entrepreneurial activities and social Mamuno
Serowe
▶ entrepreneurship. Mahalapye
m
po
po
KALAHARI Li
DESERT
See also ▶ Development, ▶ heritage, ▶ rural Molepolole
tourism. GABORONE
25 Kanye 25
Tshabong
References SOUTH AFRICA 0 50 100 km
20 25 0 50 100 mi
Agency for Statistics of Bosnia and Herzegovina 2014

Tourism Statistics www.bhas.ba/saopstenja/2014/ Botswana, Figure 1 Map of Botswana
TUR_2013%20M%2012_01_bos.pdf (11 May 2015).
Causevic, S., and P. Lynch 2013 Political (In)stability and
Its Influence on Tourism Development. Tourism Man- first ▶ national tourism policy, which identified
agement 34:145-157. wildlife and wilderness as the mainstay of its
ICTY 2002 Biljana Plavsic Guilty Plea Statement. Interna-
tourism ▶ product. With vast tracts of open land
tional Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia
www.icty.org/sid/221 (25 May 2009). and abundance of wildlife resources mainly con-
centrated in the northern parts of the country, as
well as the country’s proximity to South Africa
and the Victoria Falls (Zambia and Zimbabwe),
Botswana has good ▶ resources and strategic
Botswana ▶ location to attract safari and nature-based tour-
ists. Its main sites include Okavango Delta, Chobe
Monkgogi Lenao1 and Jarkko Saarinen2 National Park, Moremi Game Reserve, Tsodilo
1
University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana Hills, and the capital city of Gaborone. Other
2
Department of Geography, University of Oulu, elements of its tourism product, such as ▶ culture
Oulu, Finland and ▶ heritage, are still relatively undeveloped.
Botswana’s largest source markets are South
Africa, the ▶ United States, the ▶ United King-
Botswana, a landlocked country in Southern dom, and ▶ Germany (Department of Tourism
Africa bordered by ▶ Namibia, Republic of 2009).
South Africa, ▶ Zambia, and ▶ Zimbabwe In 2011, Botswana’s tourism industry made a
(Figure 1), has a land area of roughly direct contribution of $341 million (BWP 3.013
582,000 km2 (224,711 Mi2) with a total popula- billion) to the GDP and directly supported 18,000
tion of two million (Statistics Botswana 2012). jobs (3.1 % of national employment). In 2011, the
Botswana is a middle-income country, with an industry provided 45,000 jobs (7.6 % of national
annual per capita GDP of US$16,800. employment) (WTTC 2012). Tourism revenues
Before independence in 1966, tourism was are forecast to rise by 5.2 % per annum from
almost nonexistent in the country (Mbaiwa 2012 to 2022. It is estimated that by 2022, the
2004). Botswana’s tourism ▶ industry began tak- industry shall be contributing a direct value of
ing shape in the 1990s with the formulation of the $5.4 million (BWP 5.4 billion) (WTTC 2012).
Brazil 109
In order to enhance Botswana’s benefit from country in the world, with an area of
tourism ▶ development, there is a need to involve 8,515,767.049 km2 (Figure 1) and 204.450.649
communities and empower local ▶ entrepreneur- inhabitants. Brazil has 26 states, one federal dis-
ship by diversifying both the country’s tourism trict, and 5,570 municipalities. The official lan-
product and concentration away from the northern guage is Portuguese. It is the world’s seventh B
regions. Consideration should also be given to largest economy, with a GDP of US$2,246
domestic and regional tourism and emerging mar- trillion in 2013. Its principal attractions to national
kets of ▶ Brazil, ▶ Russia, ▶ India, ▶ China, and and international tourists alike include its ▶ hospi-
South Africa for a more diversified customer base. tality, gastronomy, ▶ culture, the Amazon
In addition, there is a need to develop tourism and rainforest, the possibility of business, as well as
hospitality education. Currently, three institutions sunshine and beaches. However, the distance of
in the country offer undergraduate degree pro- other major tourism markets, an image of insecu-
grams in tourism studies, including the University rity, and a less well-developed infrastructure repre-
of Botswana which offers a combined degree in sent difficulties for ▶ international tourism.
tourism and ▶ hospitality. In addition, a number
of other private schools offer certificate and
diploma courses in related fields. At the moment, Tourism economy
there are no master or PhD programs offered in
this field. Some of the key tourism issues for The beginnings of the country’s tourism date back
▶ future research are the socioeconomic impacts, to the early twentieth century in Rio de Janeiro
community relations, and environmental change. State. Effective public tourism activities began in
the 1960s, reaching their peak in 1996 with a new
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ nature marketing strategy. In 2003, the Department of
tourism, ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ safari. Tourism was created; in the same year, the Brazil-
ian Institute of Tourism started to focus its efforts
on the international market (Brasil 2003). The
References ▶ National Tourism Plan 2003–2007 and
2007–2010 provided guidelines for the ▶ devel-
Department of Tourism 2009 Tourism Statistics, 2006- opment of tourism in the country. The current
2009. Gaborone: Government Printing and Publishing.
2013–2016 plan has as an agenda a new strategy
Mbaiwa, J. 2004 The Socio-cultural Impacts of Tourism
Development in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Jour- that will set tourism policies until the year 2022, a
nal of Tourism and Cultural Change 2:163-184. move that had been desired by the ▶ industry for
Statistics Botswana 2012 Population and Housing Census several years (Panosso Netto and Trigo 2003).
2011. Gaborone: Government Printing and Publishing.
In 2011, tourism represented 3.7 % of Brazil’s
WTTC 2012 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2010:
Botswana. London: World Travel and Tourism GDP, generating $76.9 billion and 2.74 million
Council. jobs (WTTC 2013). In 2014, there were 6.4
million arrivals (Brasil 2015). Between 2003 and
2009, the industry grew 32.4 %, which is 7 %
greater growth than the country’s entire economy
in the same period (Brasil 2013).
Brazil The metropolitan region of Rio de Janeiro
offers beaches, Christ the Redeemer, and beautiful
Alexandre Panosso Netto landscapes, while São Paulo offers the business
Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil and leisure markets. The capital cities of the
Northeastern region offer sunshine, beaches, and
a rich gastronomy. The main attractions in the
The Federative Republic of Brazil is the largest Southern region are the Serra Gaúcha
country in South America and the fifth largest (highlands), Foz do Iguaçu, and the coast of
110 Brazil
Brazil, Figure 1 Map of Brazil
Santa Catarina State. The Northern region has the Pantanal (wetlands) and the Cerrado
Manaus and Belém, cities that offer products (savannah). The unique ▶ architecture and urban
connected to the Amazon rainforest. The heart- design of Brasilia (the country’s capital) also
land of the country boasts the natural beauties of make it an ▶ attraction for tourists.
Brazil 111
Some of the principal social, geographical, and The main challenges for the tourism industry
▶ critical studies on tourism in Brazil come from are also its main opportunities: projecting a posi-
the University of São Paulo. The principal eco- tive image of the country, making new invest-
nomic studies are conducted by Fundação Getúlio ments in ▶ infrastructure, attracting international
Vargas, Instituto Brasileiro de Geografia e tourists and investors, increasing the number of B
Estatística, Instituto de Pesquisa Econômica domestic tourists, training professionals, and
Aplicada, and Fundação Instituto de Pesquisa establishing a strategic agenda for tourism. To
Econômica. The main portal for technical infor- overcome these challenges, the national tourism
mation is provided by the Department of Tourism policy since 2008 has been focused on
(www.dadosefatos.turismo.gov.br). The three empowering the 65 major national destinations.
most renowned scientific journals on tourism are These are inductor destinations of regional and
Turismo em Análise (tourism in analysis), national development and are expected to reach
Turismo – Visão e Ação (tourism – vision and international quality by strengthening their capac-
action), and Revista Brasileira de Pesquisa em ity to attract tourists. The project aims to empower
Turismo (Brazilian journal of tourism research). local stakeholders to manage tourism and increase
According to CAPES (2015), Brazil has nine their knowledge of strategic planning.
master and four doctorate programs in tourism of There is ongoing ▶ work to increase interac-
international quality. tion among the bodies that manage tourism in the
country. The expectation is that the mega events
of 2014 and 2016 can improve the quality of
tourism products in the country and strengthen
Challenges and prospects its image as a welcoming, happy, and multicul-
tural destination that offers a vast array of attrac-
While most of the country’s highways require tions of interest to all.
improvements, and airports and seaports are in
need to be expanded, the main tourism facilities
are located on the coast and in the state capitals. See also ▶ Americas, ▶ developing country,
▶ Governance and political issues are structured ▶ festival and event, ▶ Olympic tourism.
and managed by the Federal Department of
Tourism, as well as the industry’s state and munic-
ipal departments. National strategies are
focused on mega events like the 2014 FIFA
References
World Cup and the 2016 Olympic Games, which
will increase the number of international tourists, Brasil 2003 Plano Nacional de Turismo: Diretrizes, Metas
strengthen ▶ domestic tourism, improve the com- e Programas 2003–2007. Brasília: Ministério do
petitiveness of its tourism products, and support Turismo.
research, ▶ innovation, and ▶ knowledge (Brasil Brasil 2013 Plano Nacional de Turismo 2013-2016.
Brasília: Ministério do Turismo.
2013). Brasil 2015 Ministério do Turismo. www.capes.gov.br
At the federal government level, tourism is (25 November).
represented by the Department of Tourism, Bra- CAPES 2015 Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de
zilian Institute of Tourism, and the National Coun- Pessoal de Nível Superior. Relação de Cursos
Recomendados e Reconhecidos www.capes.gov.br
cil on Tourism. All 27 states have a department of (25 November).
tourism. Some of the principal tourism-related Panosso Netto, A., and L. Trigo 2003 Reflexões sobre um
nongovernment organizations are Brazilian novo Turismo. Política, Ciência e Sociedade. São
Hotel Industry Association, Brazilian Travel Paulo: Aleph.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2012
Agencies Association, Brazilian Airlines Associ- Brazil. World Travel and Tourism Council www.wttc.
ation, and National Association of Research and org/site_media/uploads/downloads/brazil2012.pdf
Post-Graduate Studies in Tourism. (10 July).
112 Brunei Darussalam
diversification. Brunei Darussalam joined the

Brunei Darussalam World Tourism Organization in 2007 (Brunei Tour-
ism 2014). Most tourism products are located in the
Philipp Wassler and Karin Weber capital Bandar Seri Begawan, including several
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, mosques and the reputedly largest water village in
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, the world.
Hong Kong, China Ecotourism is growing in importance as the
country has been developing its tropical forests
(Ahmad 2014). Brunei Tourism, a subdivision of
Brunei Darussalam (Figure 1), an Islamic sultan- the Ministry of Industry and Primary Resources,
ate located on the northern coast of the island of has been responsible for promotion since the
Borneo, is one of the smallest countries in South- 1990s. This organization has identified culture,
east Asia, occupying only 5,675 km2 (2,226 mi2) heritage, nature, and contemporary Asia as the
and hosting a population of 415,700 (Brunei Tour- four pillars of Brunei Darussalam’s tourism prod-
ism 2014). It borders the South China Sea in the uct and has invested heavily into local and interna-
north and is surrounded by the Malaysian state of tional manpower and expertise. Although the
Sarawak that splits it into two detached territories country has launched several tourism and hospital-
(Ahmad 2014). ity higher education programs, its lack of education
Despite a small size, Brunei Darussalam is one of and training in this field are considered a notable
the wealthiest countries in the region, with a GDP weakness (Oxford Business Group 2012).
amounting to US$16.95 billion in 2012. Export of International arrivals are mostly from neigh-
petroleum and natural gas accounts for more than boring Malaysia; the number has fluctuated and
90 % of the country’s total earnings, although the in 2012 diminished to 209,000, about 13 % below
government employs 57 % of the total labor force the previous year (UNWTO 2013). Tourism facil-
(Crosby 2007). Since the mid-1990s, tourism has ities are well established but underutilized (Brunei
gained recognition as an industry, with a significant Tourism 2014), and tourism currently has a minor
potential contribution to the nation’s economic role in Brunei Darussalam’s overall economy,
contributing less than 2 % of its GDP. However,
in the long term, tourism has the potential to
114°30⬘ 115°00⬘
diversify the country’s economy and soften its
Brunei
South China Muara Bay economic dependence on natural resources.
Kampong
5°00⬘ Sea Jerudong 5°00⬘ Future tourism challenges include the develop-
BANDAR SERI ment of sustainable small-scale tourism, encourag-
BEGAWAN
Tutong
ing of foreign investment, and establishing Brunei
Lumut
Darussalam as an international air travel hub
Bangar
Kuala
Belait
Seria Kampong (Brunei Tourism 2014). The “Heart of Borneo”
Lamunin Limbang
corridor
declaration in 2007 aims to develop a collaborative
4°30⬘ 4°30⬘
network of Bornean protected areas among Malay-
Labi sia, Indonesia, and Brunei Darussalam.
Sukang Bukit
Pagon
See also ▶ Environment, ▶ ethnicity, ▶ island
B o r n e o
tourism, ▶ religion, ▶ sustainable tourism.
4°00⬘ 4°00⬘
0 10 20 km M A L AY S I A
0 10 20 mi
114°30⬘ 115°00⬘
References
Brunei Darussalam, Figure 1 Map of Brunei Ahmad, A. 2014 The Disengagement of the Tourism Busi-
Darussalam nesses in Ecotourism and Environmental Practices in
Budget tourism 113
Brunei Darussalam. Tourism Management Perspec- they worry less about foreign cultures (Larsen
tives 10:16. et al. 2011).
Brunei Tourism 2014 Country Overview. Bandar
Seri Begawan: Ministry of Industry and Primary The imprecise understanding of budget tourists
Resources. as backpackers has undoubtedly confounded the
Crosby, M. 2007 Economic Diversification. CSPS Report. concepts of “budget tourism” and “backpacking.” B
Bandar Seri Begawan: Centre for Strategic and Policy While it may be true that one of the defining
Studies.
Oxford Business Group 2012 Economic Update - Brunei characteristics of backpackers is budget minded-
Darussalam: Tourism’s Time to Shine. London: Oxford ness (Locker-Murphy and Pearce 1995), it is not
Business Group. true that all budget-minded tourists share the
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- remaining characteristics of backpackers. This
ism Organization.
implies that other tourists may also be budget
tourists and not all budget tourists are
backpackers.
If one accepts willingness (and ability) to pay
Budget tourism as the central defining characteristic of budget
tourists, an empirical approach to identifying bud-
Svein Larsen get travelers is in order. In a recent study of tour-
Department of Psychosocial Science, University ists’ actual expenditures, Larsen et al. (2013)
of Bergen, Bergen, Norway categorize tourists based on their last overnight
stay. The results indicate that tourists who spend
the least at their destination are cruise passengers
Budget tourism is the economic sector that facil- (not counting for the cost of the overnight stay). In
itates travel and activities for individuals who are addition, the study indicates that cruise tourists
away from home and who have low willingness overestimate their expenditure to a higher degree
and/or ability to pay. The sector comprises sup- than other tourists. This implies that cruise tourists
pliers of tourism products and tourists (or budget could also be viewed as budget tourists. It may
travelers). In the tourism literature, budget tourists therefore be that traveling on a cruiseship repre-
are often synonymous to backpackers, and budget sents a new form of budget tourism, which is far
tourism to backpacking (Elsrud 2001). Locker- from the original explorer and drifter roles
Murphy and Pearce’s (1995) defining criteria for portrayed in Cohen’s typology and far from the
backpackers are age (usually young), expenditure prototypical backpacker.
in terms of willingness and ability to pay (often
budget minded), cordiality (meeting other peo- See also ▶ Backpacker, ▶ drifter, ▶ expenditure,
ple), individuality (organizing their itineraries ▶ role, ▶ willingness to pay.
independently), length of trip (long rather than
brief vacations), and preferences to informal and
participatory recreation activities, in compliance References
to Cohen’s (1972) explorer and drifter roles.
Cohen’s typology contrasts explorers and drifters Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour-
(noninstitutionalized roles) with organized and ism. Social Research 39:164-182.
individual mass tourists (institutionalized ones), Elsrud, T. 2001 Risk Creation in Traveling: Backpacker
Adventure Narration. Annals of Tourism Research
using the extent of institutionalization as one 28:597-617.
dominating principle of organization. A recent Larsen, S., T. Øgaard, and W. Brun 2011 Backpackers and
study however finds that backpackers are not Mainstreamers — Realities and Myths. Annals of Tour-
very different from other tourists regarding psy- ism Research 38:690-707.
Larsen, S., K. Wolff, E. Marnburg, and T. Øgaard 2013
chological aspects such as travel motivation, but Belly Full, Purse Closed: Cruise Line Passengers’
they are less motivated by needs for luxury and Expenditures. Tourism Management Perspectives
relaxation, they are less risk apprehensive, and 6:142-148.
114 Bulgaria
Locker-Murphy, L., and P. Pearce 1995 Young Budget golf, eco-, spa/wellness, wine, rural, and city-
Travelers: Backpackers in Australia. Annals of break tourism. In 2012, Bulgaria had 301,140
Tourism Research 22:819-843.
beds in 2,758 ▶ accommodation establishments
(NSI 2013), almost twice the number of beds
(159,871) and three times the establishments
Bulgaria (914) compared to 2002. Tourism is concentrated
geographically, as 67.94 % of the beds in 2012
Stanislav Ivanov were located along Black Sea coast in Dobrich,
Varna University of Management, Varna, Varna, and Bourgas regions. In 2012, Bulgaria
Bulgaria had 8.87 million international arrivals, 2.63 mil-
lion of whom used accommodation services, gen-
erating nearly US$ 3.7 billion in ▶ international
Located on the Balkan Peninsula (Figure 1), with tourism receipts. The main source markets include
a territory of 110,879 km2 (42,829 mi2) and ▶ Germany, ▶ Russia, ▶ Romania, the ▶ United
population of 7.36 million (2011), Bulgaria is Kingdom, and ▶ Poland, whose tourists visit the
one of the mid-sized countries in the world. country mostly for ▶ vacation during the summer
It borders ▶ Romania, ▶ Serbia, ▶ Macedonia, months. The average stay of these tourists was
▶ Greece, ▶ Turkey, and the Black Sea. 5.11 nights that year. As of July 2013, there
During the Socialist Period (1944–1989), were 2,640 registered ▶ travel agencies operating
▶ inbound tourism was a major source of foreign in the country (MEET 2013). Main international
currency. This led to the ▶ development of airports include Sofia, Varna, Bourgas, and
▶ mass tourism whose legacy is still felt today. Plovdiv.
Domestic ▶ social tourism was also developed Until 2009 a separate State Agency for
during this period. Currently, the nation’s main Tourism was responsible for the marketing and
tourism products include mass sea, sun, and sand tourism policy of the destination. In that year, the
tourism to Black Sea resorts and winter ski tour- agency was closed and its functions were assumed
ism in the mountains. The country also promotes by the Ministry of Economy, ▶ Energy and
the heritage of the Thracian civilization, cultural, Tourism. As of July 2014, tourism is the respon-
sibility of the Ministry of Economy and Energy.
Despite its economic importance, tourism’s
regulatory body has never received ministerial
status. As of 2013, 23 out of the Bulgaria’s 51
universities and colleges offer tourism and hospi-
tality education, enrolling 10,021 students (2,555
in 3-year professional bachelor, 6,285 in 4-year
bachelor, and 1,181 in master degree programs)
(MES 2013). As of August 2013, none of the
programs has received UNWTO TedQual
accreditation.
▶ Future challenges in tourism ▶ development
include diversification of the types of tourism the
country offers and source markets, improvement
of transport infrastructure, and improving
Bulgaria’s image as a budget destination.
Despite its controversial nature, the communist
heritage of the past may in the future be success-
fully included in the tourism offering (Ivanov
Bulgaria, Figure 1 Map of Bulgaria 2009).
Burkina Faso 115
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ health tourism,

▶ social tourism, ▶ spa tourism.
References B
Ivanov, S. 2009 Opportunities for Developing Communist
Heritage Tourism in Bulgaria. Tourism 57(2):177-192.
MEET 2013 Ministry of Economy, Energy and Tourism.
Registered Tour Operators and Travel Agents http://
bulgariatravel.org/data/doc/ntr__to-ta_16_07_2013_
6910.xls (29 July).
MES 2013 Ministry of Education and Science. Registry of
Students www2.mon.bg/adminureg/html/reports.asp
(27 August).
NSI 2013 National Statistic Institute. Tourism Data www.
nsi.bg/otrasal.php?otr=8 (29 July).
Burkina Faso Burkina Faso, Figure 1 Map of Burkina Faso
Liza Debevec1 and Yacouba Banhoro2 are from neighboring francophone countries, as
1
International Water Management Institute, well as from ▶ France, ▶ Switzerland, and
Addis Ababa, Ethiopia ▶ Belgium. Tourism and related activities are
2
Department of History, Archaeology and History under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Culture
of Art, Université de Ouagadougou, and Tourism. The Office National du Tourisme
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso Burkinabè (National Burkinabe Bureau for Tour-
ism) was created in 1989 with the mandate to
promote Burkina Faso.
Burkina Faso (population 17 million in 2006) is a The country’s attractions include traditional/
landlocked country with an area of 273,187 km2 religious architecture and natural attractions such
(105,870 mi2). Located in West Africa, it borders as lakes, waterfalls, and escarpments. The main
▶ Mali, ▶ Niger, Côte d’Ivoire, ▶ Ghana, draws are its many festivals and trade fairs, with
▶ Benin, and ▶ Togo (Figure 1). the most well-known being the Pan-African film
Burkina Faso is one of the poorest countries in festival and the week of African Arts and Crafts,
the world, ranked 183rd on the Human Develop- both biannual events. Following the success of
ment Index (UNDP 2013), with gross per capita these events, many smaller towns have set up
income of US$580 (World Bank 2014). Its main arts and heritage festivals.
export is gold, followed by cotton and animal Recently there has been an increase in volun-
products. Burkina Faso is a former French colony teer and fair-trade tourism; however, there are no
that gained its independence in 1960. From its statistics available. According to the latest official
independence until 1984, the country was known statistics, in 2010, the country received 427,026
as Upper Volta (Le Haute Volta). tourists, an increase of 6.4 % from 2009. In the
The official language of the country is French same year, hotels and ▶ travel agencies earned a
and it is the language of communication in large total of over $137 million (66 billion FCFA)
urban centers, with three national languages (Direction Nationale du Tourisme 2011). Burkina
(Moore, Fulfulde, and Jula) also being used. Faso is ranked fourth in West Africa in terms of
English is spoken by very few people, even in ▶ tourist visits. Recent conflicts in Cote d’Ivoire
the tourism ▶ industry. Most inbound tourists and Mali have had negative effects on tourism in
116 Burundi
Burkina Faso, especially the Mali crisis, as the among the poorest country in the world with a
north of the country, bordering on Mali, has been GDP growth of 4.2 % (World Bank 2013).
deemed unsafe for tourists. Burundi’s economy is predominantly agricul-
In the past, there was no formal training avail- tural (30 % of GDP), employing more than 90 %
able for the tourism industry. Recently, the of its population. Coffee and tea are major sources
University of Koudougou offers a degree in of export earnings (amounting to 90 % of foreign
“Management of Tourist Organizations or exchange) and employment for some 800,000
Hotels.” Nonmanagerial staff mostly learns as households (World Bank 2013). Due to this
part of an on-the-job apprenticeship. Tourism in dependency, Burundi has a high risk of debt dis-
Burkina Faso is an understudied topic, and its tress and high reliance on foreign aid. Emerging
aspects would merit scholarly attention in the from a protracted civil conflict, which started in
future. 1993 until 2007, peace agreement’s talks, and
political instability, the country has recently
improved its trade and development status. Since
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ festival and event, ▶ Mali,
joining the East African Community as a regional
▶ volunteer tourism.
trading partner in 2009, Burundi has designated
tourism and banking as key economic sectors.
In the case of tourism, the government
References launched a campaign to reinstate it as one of the
economy’s pillars in 2008. In 2011, a national
Direction Nationale du Tourisme 2011 Tableau de Bord de ▶ sustainable tourism development strategy was
Statistique du Tourisme 2010. Ouagadougou:
launched. It identified several key development
Ministère de la Culture et du Tourisme.
UNDP 2013 Human Development Report. United Nations areas, including environment, marketing, and
Development Program. http://hdr.undp.org/en/coun human resources within a reformed institutional
tries (14 March 2014). and legal framework. The future of Burundi’s
World Bank 2014 Burkina Faso. Country Data http://data.
economy is seen as driven by agriculture, con-
worldbank.org/country/burkina-faso (14 March).
struction, and tourism.
Before 2010, tourism consisted of business
▶ travel, mainly associated with the peace and
rebuilding process (Novelli et al. 2012). More
Burundi recently, the number of ▶ leisure tourists from
the region has increased. This growth is mainly
Carmen Nibigira1 and Marina Novelli2 related to three national parks (Kibira, Ruvubu,
1
Department of Parks, Recreation and Tourism and Rusizi), as well as the natural forests and Lake
Management, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, Tanganyika as the most popular attraction, with an
USA increasing number of ▶ accommodation estab-
2
School of Sport and Service Management, lishments, ranging from resort-type hotels to
University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK self-catering units.
Despite tourism being underdeveloped, the
long-term vision is to increase arrivals from
Republic of Burundi is a landlocked country 192,000 in 2007 to 300,000 in 2020 (ONT 2013).
located in the Great Lakes region of Eastern The country does not yet host any international
Africa, bordered by Democratic Republic of hotel brands, with a Double Tree Hilton currently
Congo, ▶ Rwanda, and ▶ Tanzania (Figure 1). under construction. Tourism is still not seen as a
A small country (27,830 km2/10,745 mi2) with a career path, with training broadly left to compa-
population of 10,939,822 in 2014, it is ranked nies’ in-house initiatives or overseas education for
Burundi 117
Burundi, Figure 1 Map of Burundi (Source: www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/burundi_map2.htm)
those that can afford it. Together with other East destination business referral, and joint marketing
African Community members, Burundi is develop- efforts (Okello and Novelli 2014). The structure
ing its tourism ▶ industry through common mea- and levels of this regional cooperation await further
sures, including a single ▶ tourist visa, multi- research and development.
118 Business tourism
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ coffee and tea tourism, spending power than other types of tourists and
▶ economic development, ▶ developing country, they often travel by air to save time. Many ▶ air-
▶ nature tourism. line and hotel companies heavily rely on them,
particularly on weekdays (Robinson 2012). This
segment accounts for at least two thirds of occu-
References pancy for many leading hotels, and it represents
the largest and least price-sensitive market seg-
Novelli, M., N. Morgan, and C. Nibigira 2012 Tourism in a ment in the lodging sector. Characteristic of work-
Post-Conflict Situation of Fragility. Annals of Tourism
related ▶ travel activities, business tourism is less
Research 39:1446-1469.
Okello, M., and M. Novelli 2014 Tourism in the East seasonal and often acts as a supplement to, or
African Community: Challenges, Opportunities and strategy for, the low season in many destinations.
Ways Forward. Tourism and Hospitality Research It tends to become a combination of business and
14(1-2):53-66.
▶ holiday, with boundary between work and lei-
ONT 2013 Strategy Nationale de Development du
Tourisme. Office National du Tourisme www. sure gradually fading. Urban locations with well-
burunditourisme.com (17 September). developed infrastructure, services, and industrial
World Bank 2013 Burundi Country at Glance www.world resources are more attractive to the business tour-
bank.org/en/country/burundi/overview (17 September).
ism market, with modern conference facilities and
exhibition centers as major influential factors in
selecting destinations (Wootton and Stevens
1995).
Business tourism Because of its nature and feature, business
tourism is more sensitive to recurring changes
Zhuowei Huang in national and international economic condi-
Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, tions and environments, which over the years
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, has actually been buffeted by economic down-
Champaign, USA turns many times. In addition, the prevalence of
information technology has dramatically
changed the ways of how people communicate
Business tourism denotes the activities of persons and meet with each other (Swarbrooke and
traveling away from their usual place of environ- Horner 2001). Video conferencing may poten-
ment for the primary purpose of work or business tially ▶ impact face-to-face meetings, as compa-
interests. It excludes all forms of commuting to nies are pressed to reduce hotel and travel costs.
work and regular working journeys in their local Studies on business tourism have not received
areas, as well as all types of ▶ leisure activities enough attentions from the academic society.
during their trips as the secondary motivation. In Some particular market segments deserve more
addition, business tourists may also bring their investigations such as women business tourists
families along for ▶ vacation. Generally speak- and disabled business tourists. In the era of glob-
ing, business tourism has three components. The alization, people are more likely to travel inter-
first is general business traveling, which involves nationally for business purposes. It will therefore
off-site face-to-face meetings with business part- be meaningful that future research explores
ners. The second is incentive trips that aim at cross-cultural issues in international business
rewarding and motivating employees. The third tourism.
type is in reference to participations in large scale
conferences, conventions, exhibitions, and trade
shows (UNWTO 2013). See also ▶ Economics, ▶ festival and event,
Business tourism is different from other types. ▶ incentive tourism, ▶ information technology,
Business tourists generally have a higher level of ▶ management.
Business tourism 119
References UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-

ism Organization.
Robinson, P. 2012 Tourism: The Key Concepts. New York: Wootton, G., and T. Stevens 1995 Business Tourism:
Routledge. A Study of the Market for Hotel-based Meetings and
Swarbrooke, J., and S. Horner 2001 Business Travel and Its Contribution to Wale’s Tourism. Tourism Manage-
Tourism. New York: Routledge. ment 16:305-313. B
C
Cambodia People’s Party for its human rights abuses and

lack of transparency.
Tim Winter In a post-conflict era, tourism has been driven
Alfred Deakin Research Institute for Citizenship by the international fame of the Angkor temple
and Globalisation, Deakin University, Melbourne, complex in the northwest of the country
Australia (Winter 2007). Listed as a ▶ world heritage site
in 1992, Angkor is one of Southeast Asia’s
largest archaeological sites and very significant
Cambodia is located in the southern part of main- in the national imaginary. From visitation
land Southeast Asia. With a population of 14.36 numbers of just a few thousand in the early
million, as of 2010, it is bordered by ▶ Thailand, 1990s, by 2012, nearly three million people vis-
▶ Vietnam, ▶ Laos, and the Gulf of ▶ Thailand to ited this site.
the southwest (Figure 1). Its official religion is Cambodia has also become one of Southeast
Theravada Buddhism, practiced by around 95 % Asia’s leading ecotourism destinations. Much of
of the population. Two cities dominate the econ- this development has taken place around the Tonle
omy: the capital, Phnom Penh, and Siem Reap to Sap Lake (one of Asia’s largest inland bodies of
the north, which acts as an important gateway for water), wildlife reserves in the southwest of the
▶ international tourism. country, and along the coastline (Reimer and Wal-
Cambodia remains one of Southeast Asia’s ter 2013). One of the key challenges of the last
poorest countries, with per capita income at 20 years or so has been linking tourism to more
$2,230 for 2011. From the late 1960s onwards, sustainable forms of economic development, and
the country was embroiled in the Vietnam-US much research has been undertaken into this area
War, suffered extensively from a protracted civil by academics and international non-governmental
war, and endured one of the most brutal social organizations operating in the country (Mitchell
experiments ever inflicted upon a nation from and Ashley 2010). While some work has been
1976 to 1979 at the hands of Pol Pot and his done on the links among tourism, ▶ development,
Khmer Rouge regime. Much of the country’s and issues such as ▶ gender or community partic-
▶ economic development has centered upon two ipation, the speed and importance of tourism
industries: textiles and tourism (Chheang 2008). ▶ development in the country means much more
In a country heavily dependent upon foreign aid, research still needs to be done concerning the
political stability has been accompanied by inter- complex social and cultural issues and challenges
national criticism of the ruling Cambodian it delivers.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
122 Cameroon
104 106
LAOS
THAILAND
14
Preah Vihéar
14
Temple
Sisophon
Angkor Wat
Stung Treng
Siem Reap
Mekong
Tonle Sap
Battambang
Pursat Kampong Kratie

Chhang
Phnum Aöral Kampong

12 12
Cham
Koh
Kong PHNOM Prey
PENH Veng VIETNAM
Kampot
Sihanoukville
Gulf of
10 10
Thailand
0 50 100 km South China
106 Sea
0 50 100 mi
Cambodia, Figure 1 Map of Cambodia Cameroon, Figure 1 Map of Cameroon
surface area of 475,442 km2 (295,425 mi2). In

See also ▶ Development, ▶ heritage, ▶ sustain-
2012, its population was 21.7 million, while the
able tourism, ▶ world heritage.
GDP stood at US$24.98 billion (The World Bank
2012). English and French are the official lan-
guages (Figure 1).
References
The beginnings of tourism in Cameroon date
Chheang, C. 2008 The Political Economy of Tourism in back to the period of joint English and French
Cambodia. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research trusteeship (1919–1960) when some areas of the
13:281-297. country were designated as big-game hunting
Mitchell, J., and C. Ashley 2010 Tourism and Poverty
Reduction: Pathways to Prosperity. London: Earthscan.
reserves. These were later transformed into
Reimer, J., and P. Walter 2013 How Do You Know It When national parks due to their rich biodiversity
You See It? Community-based Ecotourism in the Car- (Kimbu 2010). In 2010, Cameroon was ranked
damom Mountains of Southwestern Cambodia. Tour- 5th in Africa in terms of the concentration and
number of total known floral and faunal species,
Winter, T. 2007 Post-Conflict Heritage, Postcolonial Tour-
ism: Culture, Politics and Development at Angkor. and in 2012, it ranked 32nd out of 140 countries in
London: Routledge. terms of natural ▶ resources and the current level
of ecologically ▶ sustainable tourism ▶ develop-
ment and opportunities (Blanke and Chiesa 2013).
Cameroon’s main tourism products are photo-
Cameroon graphic wildlife and eco/nature safaris often in
combination with sun, sand, and sea, while the
Albert N. Kimbu discovery/adventure, cultural, mountaineering,
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, and hiking tourism segments are growing. This
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK diversity, coupled with its relative peace and bilin-
gual people, allows tourism in Cameroon to com-
pare favorably with its neighbors. In 2012, the
Cameroon is located between West and Central tourism ▶ industry contributed an estimated
▶ Africa in the Gulf of ▶ Guinea. It has a total 2.5 % or $633.2 million to GDP and directly
Camping tourism 123
supported 97,600 jobs. The tourism economy as a MINTOURL 2014 Tourists Arrivals to Cameroon in 2013.
whole supported 224,000 jobs, or 4.8 % of all jobs Yaoundé: Ministry of Tourism and Leisure.
The World Bank 2012 World Development Indicators:
in the country. International arrivals increased Cameroon <http://data.worldbank.org/country/
from 277,000 in 2000 to 912,000 in 2013, with cameroon> (30 July 2013).
receipts estimated at $159 million in 2010. Out-
side of Africa, most of the tourists come from
▶ France, ▶ Germany, the ▶ United States, C
▶ China, and ▶ Belgium (Blanke and Chiesa Camping tourism
2013; MINTOURL 2014).
Cameroon’s tourism industry faces daunting Bodil Stilling Blichfeldt and
challenges due to a weak regulatory framework Marie Vestergaard Mikkelsen
for its development, unfavorable business ▶ envi- Department of Culture and Global Studies,
ronment, and deficient hard and soft ▶ infrastruc- Aalborg University, Aalborg, Denmark
ture (transport, ▶ accommodation, and
▶ technology); shortage of ▶ education and
▶ training facilities and qualified human Camping was originally defined as staying in a
resources; and price competiveness compared to tent in nature as an inexpensive ▶ accommodation
other destinations offering similar products option when on ▶ holiday. In its various forms,
(Kimbu 2010). These issues notwithstanding, camping has been touched upon by tourism
over the last decade, a concerted effort facilitated research related to nature, second homes, scenic-
by a series of administrative and structural drive tourism, and the like. Today, the subject is
reforms by Cameroon’s government has seen the closely connected with cars, as motorized vehicles
private, public, and not-for-profit sectors begin- enable people to ▶ travel further and for longer
ning to ▶ work together toward addressing these periods while bringing along camping equipment.
challenges and accelerating the development of Such equipment has become increasingly special-
tourism in the country (Kimbu and Ngoasong ized over the years with customized solutions
2013). ▶ Future research should investigate the targeting this particular type of holidaymakers.
effectiveness of these reforms as well as the role Therefore, camping has its roots in scenic-drive
played by small tourism firms and informal tourism which enables the bringing of a “home” in
microfinance organizations in promoting the the form of recreational vehicles, such as “caravans,
development of tourism in the country. pop-tops, campervans, camper-trailers, tent-trailers,
motor homes, slide-ons, and fifth wheelers”
(Caldicott and Scherrer 2013: 128). With the popu-
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ nature tourism, larization of scenic-drive tourism, camping became
▶ infrastructure. a widespread holiday where people brought their
recreational vehicle out in nature to dwell and
socialize. The term “camping tourism” primarily
References refers to people staying at bounded areas together
with other campers. Such camping sites are usually
Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa, eds. 2013 The Travel and Tour- placed in scenic surroundings in nature, ranging
ism Competitiveness Report 2013: Reducing Barriers from luxurious commercial sites with cafeterias,
to Economic Growth and Job Creation. Geneva: World
Economic Forum.
restaurants, playgrounds, organized activities,
Kimbu, A. 2010 Sustainable Tourism Development Man- cabins, free Wi-Fi, and swimming pools to simple
agement in Central Africa: A Case Study of the Tour- ones that might only have electricity and running
ism Industry in Cameroon. Nottingham: Doctoral water. Key activities at the campsite include on-site
dissertation, Nottingham Trent University.
Kimbu, A., and M. Ngoasong 2013 Centralized Decentral-
barbecuing, relaxation, and socialization and
ization of Tourism Development: A Network Perspec- off-site ▶ sightseeing, trekking, biking, and
tive. Annals of Tourism Research 40:235-259. much more.
124 Canada
Camping tourism is a widely used term in prac-

tice, but it has been subject to limited academic Canada
research. According to Hardy, Gretzel, and Han-
son, people traveling in recreational vehicles have Scott Meis
“a desire for freedom, flexibility, ▶ lifestyle Tourism HR Canada, Ottawa, Canada
change, fluidity in membership, a desire to
self-actualize, and the abandonment of social struc-
tures” (2013: 53). Blichfeldt and Mikkelsen (2013) Canada, the world’s second largest country (10 mil-
define camping as relating to vacability (the wish to lion km2 or 3,500,000 mi2) with ten provinces and
“vacare” and being “freed from experiences”) and three territories (Figure 1), two official languages
sociability (the wish to socialize with ▶ other tour- (English and French), and a population of 35.1
ists). Further, Crouch’s (2001) ethnographic study million, has the 14th largest economy and 9th
on recreational caravanning in the ▶ United King- highest GDP per capita. The combination of its
dom shows how such tourists use and inhabit space geographic grandeur, northern climate, cultural
at the caravan site. diversity, well-developed infrastructure, proximity
In recent years, performances, multiple dwell- to the USA, and ties to ▶ Europe and Asia makes it
ing, and ▶ mobility have become central concepts the 7th leading origin and 18th leading ▶ destina-
in tourism research, with the boundaries between tion for ▶ international tourism (UNWTO 2013).
ordinary/extraordinary and home/away becoming The beginnings of its tourism date back to the
increasingly blurred. As research is moving away developments of the Canadian national parks in
from such dualities and toward more nuanced 1885 and the Canadian Pacific Railway through
understandings of dwellings, mobility, and bodily its ▶ rail and steamship services and its marketing
performance, camping tourism is likely to be sub- campaigns targeted to Europeans and Americans in
ject to further studies. ▶ Future investigation could the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries.
explore how the processes of everyday perfor-
mances within mundane contexts can make up a
great part of extraordinary experiences on holiday. Significance of tourism
Canada has a highly developed system of statistics,

See also ▶ Family tourism, ▶ mobility, ▶ nature providing comprehensive national coverage of tour-
tourism, ▶ park tourism, ▶ wilderness tourism. ism flows, commodities, economic activities, and
resulting benefits. The Canadian System of Tourism
Statistics provides data on demand and supply, such
References as the International Travel Survey, the Travel Sur-
vey of Residents of Canada, and tourism-specific
Blichfeldt, B., and M. Mikkelsen 2013 Vacability and
Sociability as Touristic Attraction. Tourist Studies
components of the Annual Survey of Service Indus-
13:235-250. tries. Other components – including the Tourism
Caldicott, R., and P. Scherrer 2013 Facing Divergent Sup- Satellite Account, the National Tourism Indicators,
ply and Demand Trajectories in Australian Caravan- and the Human Resource Module – provide inte-
ning: Learnings from the Evolution of Caravan Park
grative analytical syntheses of tourism data.
Site-Mix Options in Tweed Shire. Journal of Vacation
Marketing 19:117-131. Canada ranks 6th in the world in ▶ interna-
Crouch, D. 2001 Spatialities and the Feeling of Doing. tional tourism expenditures and 18th on measures
Social and Cultural Geography 2:61-75. of its demand, accounting for 1.5 % of arrivals and
Hardy, A., U. Gretzel, and D. Hanson 2013 Traveling
receipts. In 2011, it ranked 8th in obtained yield,
Neo-tribes: Conceptualizing Recreational
Vehicle Users. Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change registering $1,043 (C$1,032) per trip, an increase
11:48-60. of 183 % since 1996 (UNWTO 2013). In the same
Canada 125
Canada, Figure 1 Map of Canada
year, Canada earned $15.5 billion (C$15.3bn) In 2011, tourism directly supported 603,400
from sales of goods and services to 24.1 million jobs in Canada (Statistics Canada 2012a: 19);
international arrivals, making tourism its largest tourism businesses provided 1.7 million jobs
service export (CTC 2013: 14). ▶ Domestic tour- or 9.7 % of all jobs in the country (Statistics
ism is more significant, amounting to $64.3 bil- Canada 2012b: 8) and 10.3 % of all persons in
lion (C$63.6bn) from 318 million person-trips, the workforce. Of those, women, youth,
accounting for 82 % of all revenue from tourism and immigrants account for higher proportions
(Statistics Canada 2012a). than the Canadian workforce, with 52.3 %,
Domestic, inbound, and ▶ outbound tourism 33.0 %, and 23.7 % compared to 47.4 %,
together generate $79.6 billion (C$78.7) in total 15.0 %, and 21.1 %, respectively (CTHRC
accumulated 2011 revenue, contributing $31.4 bil- 2010).
lion (C$31.1bn), or 1.9 %, to Canada’s GDP
(Statistics Canada 2012a), supporting over 157,000
tourism businesses (CTC 2013: 1), and generating Structure and operation
$21.6 billion (C$21.4bn) in government revenue
from direct and indirect taxes and fees or 27 cents Canada’s tourism products compare favorably
on every tourism dollar (Morissette 2013: 4). with those of its international competition. The
126 Canada
US and European market shares are declining but Opportunities and challenges
still account for about 80 % and 10 % of total
arrivals, respectively. By contrast, arrivals and Even with Canada’s fully developed tourism,
expenditures from Asia, especially ▶ China and there are opportunities for growth. Based on the
▶ India, have been rising rapidly. In 2012, China projected increases in global tourism, Canada has
surpassed ▶ Germany as the third most valuable much to offer arrivals from emerging economies
overseas market. and long-haul tourists from established
Tourism in Canada has a well-developed infra- markets. To meet such goals, it is important to
structure, with many different private, public, and increase awareness of Canada as a premier
not-for-profit sectors, including government destination, to facilitate ease of access and move-
departments, trades, industry advocacy groups, ment of travelers while ensuring the safety and
and destination marketing organizations. The integrity of its borders, to encourage product
majority of businesses (98 %) consist of small- development and investments, and to foster an
and medium-sized enterprises, but the large hotel adequate supply of skilled labor to enhance tour-
chains, airlines, and ▶ tour operators remain ism experiences.
important. Addressing these opportunities and challenges
Canada also has a well-developed education continues to concern Canadian tourism stake-
and training infrastructure, with more than 1,000 holders and researchers. Topics of particular
tourism-related programs offered by approxi- research interest include the impacts of new com-
mately 100 public (including 30 universities, munications and information management tech-
some being leaders in tourism research and nologies on marketing, supply chains,
scholarship worldwide) and 200–300 private competitiveness, sustainability, and productivity
institutions. The Canadian Tourism Human and the standardization of concepts, definitions,
Resource Council (a unique national coordinating and measures of characteristic tourism
membership organization spanning industry, gov- occupations.
ernment, education, and labor) has pioneered
Canadian workforce development, producing
sector-specific qualification frameworks, 50+ See also ▶ Human resource management,
occupational standards, and over 600 education ▶ employment, ▶ statistics, ▶ Tourism Satellite
and training resources; all directed toward Account.
increased industry relevance and labor mobility
(CTHRC 2013).
The federal, provincial, territorial, and local
governments share tourism responsibilities. References
They, directly or indirectly, run many important
attractions, including parks, museums, sports sta- Canadian Tourism Commission 2013 Delivering Value for
diums, and convention centers. They also estab- Canada’s Tourism Businesses through Innovation and
Efficiency. Canadian Tourism Commission, 2012
lish policy and legislative frameworks and Annual Report. Vancouver: CTC.
practices that affect tourism. Many national Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council 2010 Who’s
agencies have provincial, territorial, and Working for You? A Demographic Profile of Tourism
local counterparts. Operators often work with des- Sector Employees. Ottawa: CTHRC.
Canadian Tourism Human Resource Council 2013 Spark:
tination marketing organizations at all levels to The Tourism Educator Resource Guide. Ottawa:
promote tourism experiences. Tourism govern- CTHRC.
ment policy changes, including the 2001 Morissette, C. 2013 Government Revenue Attributable to
Canadian Tourism Commission Act and the Tourism, 2011, Research Paper, Income and Expendi-
ture Accounts Technical Series, No. 13-604-M —
2011 Federal Tourism Strategy, address issues of No. 071. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
structural alignment, coordination, and Statistics Canada 2012a National Tourism Indicators,
collaboration. Fourth Quarter, 2011. Ottawa: Statistics Canada.
Cape Verde 127
Statistics Canada 2012b Human Resource Module of the covering a total area of 4,033 km2 (1,557 mi2). The
Tourism Satellite Account, 2011. Ottawa: Statistics population in 2010 was about 491,900.
Canada.
UNWTO, 2013, UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, The tourism industry started with foreign direct
volume 11, January. Madrid: World Tourism investment in the early 1990s made on the island
Organization. of Sal and later on the island of Boa Vista. The
good ▶ performance of Cape Verde economy in
the last few decades allowed it to be ranked as a C
middle-income country in 2008. Academic stud-
Cape Verde ies on tourism in Cape Verde include those by
Sarmento (2008), Lopez-Guzman et al. (2013),
Manuel Alector Ribeiro and Ribeiro et al. (2013). The Cape
Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, Verde National Institute of Statistics is responsible
Faro, Portugal for collecting tourism data. The ▶ industry
was unplanned up until 2009, when the govern-
ment developed its tourism ▶ master plan
Cape Verde is an archipelago located in the Atlan- (2010–2013) and the tourism ▶ marketing plan
tic Ocean, 550 km off Western ▶ Africa. The (2010–2013).
country consists of the islands of Santo Antão, In 2013, the government introduced an over-
São Vicente, Santa Luzia, São Nicolau, Sal, Boa night tourist tax to be used to improve and sustain
Vista, Maio, Santiago, Fogo, and Brava (Figure 1), the industry. Tourism contribution to GDP has
Cape Verde, Figure 1 Map of Cape Verde

128 Car rental
increased from 10 % in 2003 to 24.3 % in 2012,

when it generated US$414 million, employed Car rental
about 37,000 persons, and provided 65.8 % of
all service jobs. Tourism has developed by creat- Magiel Venema
ing large resorts based on all-inclusive packages NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences,
on the islands of Sal and Boa Vista and by the Breda, The Netherlands
creation of small businesses managed in part by
local residents and mainly funded by migrant
capital. Car rental is an ancillary ▶ service of supplying
Over the past 10 years, the number of tourists vehicles to business and ▶ leisure travelers for a
visiting Cape Verde has grown by an average of certain ▶ time and fee for short periods. Longer
13 % annually, rising from 157,052 international periods are referred to as leasing. Cars are rented
arrivals in 2004 to 502,874 in 2013 (NIS 2014). for a daily or weekly fee with unlimited mileage.
The most popular types of tourism products are About 45 % of revenues come from corporate
sun and sea, especially in Sal, Boa Vista, and rentals and another 45 % from leisure. Additional
Maio, ▶ cultural tourism in São Vicente revenue sources are the sales of ▶ insurance
and Cidade Velha in Santiago (a ▶ world (liability and loss damage waivers), extras as navi-
heritage site), and ▶ ecotourism in Fogo, Santo gation equipment, and the sale of used cars to the
Antão, and Santiago that offers an integrated general public. Cost factors are depreciation (about
experience. 30 %), salaries (about 25 %), and interest (about
The Ministry of Tourism, Directorate General 15 %) (Investor Campus 2013).
of Tourism, and Cape Verde Investment Agency By the order of revenue, major car rental com-
are the main government tourism organizations. panies are Enterprise (including National and
Four ▶ universities have undergraduate tourism Alamo as sub-brands), Hertz (including Advantage,
and hospitality degrees. The main challenge that Thrifty, and Dollar), and Avis (including Budget).
the tourism industry in Cape Verde faces is to The sector is heavily franchised with many local
attract more international investment, create offices operating under a license of the mother com-
incentives for local investment, and develop a pany. In 2012, the revenue of the US car rental
sustainable and high-value-added tourism market was estimated to be US$23.6 billion ($22.7
▶ product. billion in 2011). Together, they operate more than
1.8 million cars at 18,293 locations. They account
for 92 % of the cars, 65 % of the locations, and 95 %
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ developing
of the revenue (Auto Rental News Fact Book 2013).
country, ▶ island tourism.
It is expected that in 2015, the global revenue will
reach $53 billion (Global Industry Analysts 2011).
Airport offices are the main sources of revenue.
References Negative ▶ economic development, slimmer
Lopez-Guzman, T., O. Borges, M. Hernandez-Merino, and
▶ travel budgets, and alternatives such as video-
J. Cerezo 2013 Tourism in Cape Verde: An Analysis conferencing put pressure on this sector. Insur-
from the Perspective of Demand. Tourism Economics ance replacement (car owners needing another
19:675-688. car) and car sharing are new markets (Highbeam
NIS 2014 Statistical Data. Praia: National Institute of
Statistics.
Business 2013).
Ribeiro, M., P. Valle, and J. Silva 2013 Residents’ Atti- Fleets are leased or owned under a buyback
tudes towards Tourism Development in Cape Verde program from carmakers, which have a large stake
Islands. Tourism Geographies 15:654-679. in car rental companies. Cars are kept for around
Sarmento, E. 2008 O Turismo Sustentável como Factor de
Desenvolvimento das Pequenas Economias Insulares:
34,000 miles. Fleet management is aimed at the
o Caso de Cabo Verde. Lisboa: Edições Universitárias maximization of yield by matching the number
Lusófonas. and categories of cars to the expected demand. For
Career 129
this, they use similar software as the ▶ airline sec- crises since the early 1900s, the developments in
tor. The fleet structure shows a transition to electric, the world economy after the 1950s, and the
hybrid, and more fuel-efficient cars (Highbeam increasing life expectancy gave rise to the emer-
Business 2013). The ▶ internet and mobile devices gence of new career options. These developments
have changed the car rental distribution. To facili- led to major changes in career inclinations of
tate bookings, the Association of Car Rental Indus- individuals, leading to a dynamic, changing, and
try Systems Standards has developed a 4-character multidirectional concept for organizations which C
code with which car types can be categorized. formerly had static management systems and
The ▶ future is tied to the development of the strict hierarchical structures. In this context, career
economy, the discretionary income of the trav- can be defined as a series of ▶ education/▶ train-
elers, as well as the development of technology ing and working processes attended by people to
such as distribution, the need for travel, and car obtain benefits for themselves or for their organi-
technology. The presence of strong major brands zations (Tymon and Stumpf 2003).
will prevent new market entrants.
See also ▶ Automation, ▶ franchising, ▶ global Prominent figures and theories

distribution system, ▶ information technology,
▶ revenue management. The 3-stage model suggested by Franc Parsons in
1909 is one of the first serious academic studies in
career development. According to this model,
References Parsons suggests that there are three stages for
individuals in choosing a career: qualities of one-
Auto Rental News 2012 US Car Rental Market www. self (self-concept), ▶ knowledge on the job and
autorentalnews.com/fileviewer/1650.aspx (22 August
qualities about its ▶ environment, and the skill to
2013).
Auto Rental News 2013 Fact Book http://autorentalnews. establish a “cause and effect” relationship
epubxp.com/i/97296/39 (22 August). between these two factors. In his book published
Global Industry Analysts 2011 Global Car Rental Revenues in 1942 and 1951, Carl Rogers referred to the
to Exceed US$53 Billion in 2015 www.prweb.com/
model of Parsons as “trait and factor theory” and
releases/car_rental/airport_car_rental/prweb8075794.htm
(22 August 2013). made some suggestions on professions which
Highbeam Business 2013 Passenger Car Rental (SIC 7514) directly dealt with clients such as in therapy and
http://business.highbeam.com/industry-reports/personal/ counseling jobs. Donald Super articulated his
passenger-car-rental (22 August).
career theory in 1953 and explained it with the
Investor Campus 2013 How to Analyze a Car Rental
Company www.investorcampus.com/Courses/TheHowto “self” concept. Super’s theory suggests that career
AnalyseSeries/Commerceandindustry/HowtoAnalysea choice consists of interest areas which reflect the
CarRentalCompanyFree/502.pdf (22 August). skills and abilities of the individual (Brown 2002).
When career development theories are consid-
ered, one of the most important figures in this field
is psychologist John Holland. According to him,
Career career choices are in fact the expressions of one’s
personality. Holland revised his theory twice in
A. Celil Çakici and Ozan G€uler 1973 (when it was first introduced) and 1997.
Faculty of Tourism, Mersin University, Mersin, Consequently, he developed the model which is
Turkey today commonly known as Holland Codes.
According to this model, when people with simi-
lar characters do the same work, more creative
Preferring the right job or career indecision has thoughts and behaviors come into existence. His
long been one of the basic interest areas in psy- model consists of six major personality types:
chology. Factors such as the wars and economic realistic, investigative, artistic, social,
130 Career
enterprising, and conventional (Holland 1973). relations among a set of management values and a
Thus, people should work in jobs and environ- set of tourism job adaption strategies by taking
ments in which they can use their skills and abil- David McClelland’s theory of needs. The study of
ities and where they can express their own values Silva (2006) took the “Big Five” personality
and behaviors. By doing so, individuals may be model developed by Lewis Goldberg in 1990.
happier and more successful. Her findings are important in that she identifies
personality types ideal for career in tourism.
When the studies dealing with career choices
Career studies in tourism in tourism are considered, it is observed that the
influence of personality types on work outcomes
According to the research conducted by World is treated more often than their influence on career
Travel and Tourism Council, nearly 103 million choices. However, McGinley et al. (2014) study
people were directly employed and 272 million deals with the factors which affect the decisions of
people totally employed in the tourism ▶ industry young managers wanting to change careers. They
in 2014. Besides, the total numbers of employ- found that job satisfaction or ▶ identity was not in
ments are expected to reach 316 million by 2020, the core. Instead young managers were concerned
and the industry will account for one in every ten with conflicts in their work environment and slow
jobs on the planet by 2022 (WTTC 2014). progress in their career development. Therefore
The more visitors go to a ▶ destination, the the importance of the congruence between the
more services are needed, and the more jobs in personality type and work environment,
tourism are created. For young people who are suggested by Holland, becomes evident. For
looking for suitable careers in tourism, both future research, it is suggested that studies should
internship and ▶ employment opportunities are expand the scope of factors predicting career plan-
numerous. Particularly, destinations enriched by ning, career choice, and career change for both
rural and cultural heritage, golf and spa facilities, student interns and graduate employees. Besides,
sport events and festivals, religious and pilgrim- studies examining the relationships among per-
age values, and medical technology and gastro- sonality trait, vocational interest, and willingness
nomical prosperities could be promising venues to remain in tourism should treat students differ-
for employment. ently by their specializations in ▶ travel agency
Based on Holland’s (1973) model, careers in and tour operation, food and beverage, recreation
tourism show a great variety in terms of personal- management, and ▶ hospitality.
ity types. For instance, housekeepers are consid-
ered under the “realistic,” flight attendants under See also ▶ Decision support system, ▶ employ-
the “artistic,” receptionist under the “organizer,” ment, ▶ identity, ▶ perception, community,
and management jobs under the “enterprising” ▶ work.
types of personality. Many career studies are inter-
ested in finding out why tourism undergraduate
and graduate students either abandon or choose to References
stay in this industry. Studies show that students
perceive the negative properties of tourism Brown, D. (ed.). 2002 Career Choice and Development.
employment: stressful jobs, lack of family life New York: Wiley.
Holland, J. 1973 Making Vocational Choices: A Theory of
due to the nature of work, long working hours, Careers. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
low social status, low pay, and poor physical McGinley, S., J. O’Neill, S. Damaske, and A. Mattila. 2014
conditions. These contribute negatively to their A Grounded Theory Approach to Developing a Career
commitments to tourism as a career. Nonetheless, Change Model in Hospitality. International Journal of
Hospitality Management 38: 89-98.
much of the career research suffers from a lack of Ross, G. 1992 Work Attitudes and Management Values:
depth in theoretical underpinnings. Ross (1992) The Hospitality Industry. International Journal of Con-
performed one of the first studies examining the temporary Hospitality Management 13: 375-386.
Caribbean 131
Silva, P. 2006 Effects of Disposition on Hospitality Employee (Figure 1). ▶ Antigua and Barbuda, ▶ Bahamas,
Job Satisfaction and Commitment. International Journal ▶ Barbados, ▶ Cuba, ▶ Dominica, ▶ Dominican
of Contemporary Hospitality Management 18: 317-328.
Tymon, W., and S. Stumpf. 2003 Social Capital in the Republic, ▶ Grenada, ▶ Haiti, ▶ Jamaica,
Success of Knowledge Workers. Career Development ▶ Saint Kitts and Nevis, ▶ Saint Lucia, ▶ Saint
International 8: 12-20. Vincent and the Grenadines, and ▶ Trinidad and
World Travel & Tourism Council. 2014 Economic Data Tobago are independent island nations of this
Search Tool www.wttc.org/research/economic-data-
search-tool/ (28 June). region. Other islands are overseas territories of C
Puerto Rico, the ▶ United States, Martinique,
and ▶ France. The region has strong cultural and
historical connections to European colonization,
Caribbean slavery, and the plantation system. Its tropical
climate, beaches, upscale hotels and resorts, and
George Gmelch1 and Diane Royal2 political stability have made it one of the world’s
1
Anthropology Department, Union College, major destinations with approximately 20 million
Schenectady, USA arrivals annually.
2
Department of Anthropology, Memorial
University of Newfoundland, St. John's,
Newfoundland, Canada Spread of tourism in the region
Caribbean governments began to welcome tour-

The Caribbean region comprises the Caribbean ists as early as the 1950s. Many viewed (and still
Sea, a chain of islands, and the surrounding coasts do) tourism as the key to their economic
Caribbean, Figure 1 Map of the Caribbean

132 Caribbean
development, and they were encouraged by inter- Hosts and guests

national organizations favoring tourism for the
developing world as a “promising new resource” What makes tourism distinctive from most jobs is
(Crick 1989: 316). This industry was also consid- the frequent interaction its workers have with
ered attractive for development, because it relied guests. In the Caribbean, workers, who are mostly
on natural resources – sand, sun, sea, and friendly from modest educational and social backgrounds,
people – and supposedly required low capital intermingle with guests from distant lands and
investments in infrastructure (Gmelch 2003). cultures who have widely different lifestyles, stan-
Tourism increased in the 1960s when jet service dards, and levels of income. The guest is at ▶ lei-
made the region affordable and accessible to the sure while the host is at work (Crick 1989). One
mass markets of the United States and ▶ Europe. has economic assets but little knowledge of the
For the latter, ▶ travel time was reduced from local culture, while the Other has cultural knowl-
3 weeks by sea to 8 h or less. Postwar affluence edge but little money. One is usually white and the
and the adoption of guaranteed paid holidays for Other usually black. One is from the developed
most North American and European workers gave world and the Other from the developing world.
their citizens the time and money to explore desti- In the Caribbean, encounters between host and
nations in the Caribbean and elsewhere. guest are mostly transitory, non-repetitive, and
Travel agencies and ▶ tour operators popular- asymmetrical. Most tourists are uninterested in
ized the idea of winter vacations in tropical places forming relationships with their hosts. While the
by promoting Caribbean packages within the relationship between workers and guests is com-
price range of middle-income families. The new mercial, it must also involve ▶ hospitality, which
tourists, for whom the term “▶ mass tourism” was is essential to the success of tourism. There is a
coined, overtook in number and importance of the keen awareness that guests are unlikely to return,
elites of the earlier period. Throughout the region, whether to a specific hotel or to the country, if they
resorts of various types sprouted along the coasts. are not treated well.
Today, the economies of many islands rely Many observers have raised concerns that
heavily on tourism as a primary earner of foreign Caribbean tourism is a form of neocolonialism
exchange. or leisure imperialism (Chambers 2002; Hiller
Tourism is generally more important to island 1976). It is argued that tourism involves relation-
than to mainland destinations. In ▶ Germany and ships of ▶ power in which the metropolitan coun-
▶ Spain, for example, tourism represents only a tries have the upper hand over the developing
small percentage of the GDP, whereas to an island, tourism-dependent nations. As early as the
such as Bermuda, it can equal half or more of its 1970s, some intellectuals began to criticize for-
GDP. While its importance to the economies is eign influence in the region (Pattullo 1996). Some
unquestionable, tourism in the Caribbean has con- scholars argue that tourism ▶ development often
tributed less to long-term economic development follows the preexisting socioeconomic structure
than expected. The industry has required larger (Crick 1989). According to this line of thought,
capital outlays for infrastructure than anticipated, tourism recapitulates its colonial past and is
as governments and investors discovered they defended with the rhetoric of development. Some-
needed modern, Western-style amenities to attract times it is wrongly assumed that tourism was
tourists (Pattullo 1996). To raise the large sums of entirely imposed on developing societies
money required, Caribbean states have borrowed (Stronza 2001). While tourism was actively
from foreign governments. Paying off those loans, sought by regional governments and elites, there
along with the cost of maintaining the expensive is an ongoing debate as to whether they were
new infrastructure, has stretched some govern- convinced of its merits or conned by international
ments and their taxpayers to the limit. On the agencies. These issues are complex and not read-
brink of bankruptcy, some have required bailouts ily discernible on the ground to most locals, even
by the International Monetary Fund. tourism workers.
Carrying capacity 133
The recession of the late 2000s was a reminder since the 1960s, but its emergence can be traced to
of how fragile and dependent the island econo- the 1930s. Although it can be viewed as an
mies are on the ability of tourists to afford and to important concept in the eventual emergence of
desire a Caribbean ▶ vacation. Whenever the sustainablity discourse, it has become less
global economy turns down, Caribbean islanders popular in recent years as sustainability and asso-
rediscover that there is no guarantee that interna- ciated concepts have come to dominate discus-
tional tourists will always come. Topics for future sions on the ▶ management of tourism and its C
research include the influence of new technology impacts.
in the promotion of tourism, the role of entrepre- Measurements of carrying capacity were first
neurship, and the collection of systematic and used as a way of deciding optimum stocking rates
comparable empirical evidence on the local in agriculture. In addition, its measurements have
impacts and wider implications for destinations been utilized in fields such as ecology, biology,
and national economies. To serve the interests of and population studies. In livestock research, car-
all stakeholders, future research should combine rying capacity was defined as the maximum num-
formal quantification with qualitative methods. ber of grazing animals that could make use of a
defined area, and this natural-resource based tra-
See also ▶ Aviation, ▶ developing country, dition (Saarinen 2006) has informed many tour-
▶ island tourism, ▶ mass tourism, ▶ sun, sand, ism studies. Thus, attempts were made to arrive at
sea and sex. a single, ideal number of tourists who can make
use of a tourism resource at any given point, using
a variety of “scientific” methods.
Carrying capacity was one of the earliest
References attempts to define the limits of tourism growth,
as concerns over its impacts emerged in academia
Chambers, E. 2002 Native Tours: The Anthropology of and policy communities. In contrast to ▶ sustain-
Travel and Tourism. Prospect Heights: Waveland.
Crick, M. 1989 Representation of the International Tour-
able tourism, which actively seeks to draw links
ism in the Social Sciences: Sun, Sex, Sights, Savings, between the local and the global, measurements of
and Servility. Annual Review of Anthropology carrying capacity concentrate on local factors
18:307-344. when evaluating the limits to tourism ▶ develop-
Gmelch, G. 2003 Behind the Smile: The Working Lives of
Caribbean Tourism. Bloomington: Indiana University
ment or the usage of a resource, whether this is a
Press. ▶ destination, attraction, or any other spatially
Hiller, H. 1976 Escapism, Penetration, and Response: defined unit of this industry.
Industrial Tourism in the Caribbean. Caribbean Studies The World Tourism Organization defines car-
16:92-116.
Pattullo, P. 1996 Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in the
rying capacity as “the maximum number of peo-
Caribbean. London: Cassell. ple that may visit a ▶ tourist destination at the
Stronza, A. 2001 Anthropology of Tourism. Annual same time, without causing destruction of the
Review of Anthropology 30:261-283. physical, economic, sociocultural environment
and an unacceptable decrease in the quality of
visitors’ satisfaction” (UNWTO 1981: 4).
Mathieson and Wall define it as “the maximum
Carrying capacity number of people who can use a recreational
environment and without an unacceptable decline
James Kennell in the quality of the recreational experience”
University of Greenwich, Greenwich, UK (1982: 184). Saveriades links the concept of car-
rying capacity directly to ▶ sustainability and
tourism: “the sustainability of a specific level of
Carrying capacity is a concept that has been tourist development and use within a specified
widely applied in tourism and ▶ recreation studies region” (2000: 147).
134 Carrying capacity
Measures of carrying capacity measure the growth of tourism and moderate its
negative effects. Prominent among these is the
There is no simple measure of carrying capacity limits of acceptable change model (McCool
that can be evenly and equally applied to all des- 1994). In common with many post-carrying
tinations and attractions. In fact, it is most com- capacity approaches, it is framed as a management
monly split into at least four or more elements. technique in which key stakeholders are consulted
Getz (1983) splits it into six categories: physical, on the management of a resource in order to agree
economic, perceptual, social, ecological, and upon the values and techniques to be used to
political. The physical is the maximum use of a manage it. In this consultative process, concerned
resource by tourists before it begins to be unac- parties agree on the key indicators to be used in
ceptably degraded. The economic is the maxi- managing the resource and the thresholds beyond
mum use of a resource by tourists before leading which change would be unacceptable. In contrast
to an unacceptable level of economic dependency. to carrying capacity approaches, these techniques
The perceptual is a measurement of tourists’ per- set limits in terms of the changes in key indicators,
ceived level of carrying capacity in a resource, rather than in absolute numbers of tourists.
beyond which it is perceived as overcrowded. Recently, Singh (2006) and others have argued
The social refers to the maximum use of a that carrying capacity had a limited utility in the
resource without causing unacceptable levels of period when it was introduced to tourism. This
negative feelings towards tourism among the was due to difficulties in collecting and measuring
locals. The ecological is the maximum use level data and conceptual difficulties in integrating it
without causing unacceptable damage to the nat- into emerging discourses that privileged narra-
ural environment of the resource. Finally, the tives of postmodernism and post-structuralism.
political refers to the maximum use of a resource It is possible that as the possibilities for the
without causing political instability, such as con- collection of large data sets on a wide range of
flicts over land rights or control of the incomes indicators, both quantitative and qualitative,
from tourism. The carrying capacity approach, in are embraced in the management of tourism as
all these cases, attempts to quantify these concepts part of the move towards “big data” and “smart
in terms of numbers of tourists. cities,” carrying capacity and future variants of
All measurements of carrying capacity, includ- this approach may demonstrate greater utility in
ing those set out above, are dependent on setting the interests of developing more sustainable
out a measurable variable in order to define the tourism.
acceptability of its level of change. Taking this
approach inevitably leads to a proliferation of See also ▶ Constraint, ▶ destination lifecycle,
carrying capacities for any given tourism resource ▶ development, ▶ impact, ▶ sustainable tourism.
and associated problems of acceptability of
change to itself and to stakeholders concerned.
While quantitative carrying capacity measures
aspire to provide objective scientific measure- References
ments, in practice they are reliant on a number of
subjective judgments. Getz, D. 1983 Capacity to Absorb Tourism: Concepts and
Implications for Strategic Planning. Annals of Tourism
Research 10:239-263.
Mathieson, A., and G. Wall 1982 Tourism: Economic,
Acceptable change Physical and Social Impacts. New York: Longman.
McCool, S. 1994 Planning for Sustainable Nature Depen-
The multiplication of measures and perspectives dent Tourism Development: The Limits of Acceptable
Change System. Tourism Recreation Research
generated in the application of carrying capacity 19(2):51-55.
has led to the development of alternative method- Saarinen, J. 2006 Traditions of Sustainability in Tourism
ologies that similarly respond to the need to Studies. Annals of Tourism Research 33:1121-1140.
Case study 135
Saveriades, A. 2000 Establishing the Social Tourism Car- enable comparison and contrasts to be drawn
rying Capacity for the Tourist Resorts of the East Coast which in turn facilitates a deeper and more
of the Republic of Cyprus. Tourism Management
21:147-156. detailed understanding of the specific research
Singh, S. 2006 What’s Wrong with Carrying Capacity for context. This is to be inductive in nature in order
Tourism? Tourism Recreation Research 31(2):67-72. to enable a broader understanding of the subject
UNWTO, 1981, Saturation of Tourist Destinations: Report (Xiao and Smith 2006).
of the Secretary General. Madrid: World Tourism
Organization. Each of these three types can be described as C
exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory. Explor-
atory studies are designed to identify and fine-tune
research questions and hypothesize about a par-
ticular phenomenon, while descriptive investiga-
Case study tions examine the case in greater detail.
Explanatory methods are more critical in nature
Alan Fyall in that they endeavor to identify cause-and-effect
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA relationships. Irrespective of the type, the key is to
analyze a phenomenon that is so deeply embed-
ded in its context that it is hard to distinguish one
A case study represents a holistic, in-depth empir- from another (Garrod and Fyall 2013).
ical analysis where the focus is on the understand- Case studies are widely viewed as being
ing of a contemporary ▶ phenomenon in its real- equally appropriate for both quantitative
life context in a particular point in ▶ time (Beeton hypothetico-deductive and the holistic-inductive
2005). What distinguishes it from most other paradigms of research and thus demonstrate flex-
research methods is its reliance on multiple ibility not evident in many alternative investiga-
sources of evidence. One of the key proponents tion modes. According to Jennings, “for a broad-
of this method is Yin (2009) who advocates that ranging, psychologically complex field such as
case studies should be significant, mix practice tourism, there is no singular pertinent research
with theoretical ▶ development, be contemporary modality” (2001: 37). By their very nature, they
in nature, and represent leading edge research. Its represent multiple methodologies and are
boundaries should be complete while evidence information-rich and interrelated in nature. For
should be sufficiently displayed with reports writ- example, they have the advantage of hindsight,
ten in an engaging manner. In essence, this study yet can be relevant in the present and to the
method represents an all-encompassing research ▶ future, can illustrate the complexities of a situ-
▶ strategy that covers design, data collection, and ation by recognizing more than one contributing
analysis. factor, can show the influence of personalities and
politics on an issue, can show the influence of the
passage of time through longitudinal studies, can
Types of case studies often utilize information from a wide variety of
sources, can present information in a wide variety
Types of case studies include intrinsic, instrumen- of ways, and can illuminate a general problem
tal, and collective. While the former explore a through examination of a specific instance
particular situation in isolation, instrumental (Jennings 2001).
cases seek to extrapolate wider lessons to facilitate
understanding of the context. Both intrinsic and
instrumental cases tend to be deductive in that Research position and criticism
they explore how a concept (or ▶ theory) might
be adapted to a particular contemporary context. Case studies are used widely, to the extent that
The final type is the collective or multiple case they have become a “pervasive methodology in
which represents a set of cases that together tourism research and study that it appears that its
136 Casino tourism
justification is no longer deemed necessary” For the future, the greater acceptability of qual-
(Beeton 2005: 37). One specific area where they itative methodologies in tourism research and the
are particularly prevalent is at the ▶ destination increasing willingness of researchers to adopt a
level. Although quantitative approaches facilitate deeper and more inclusive approach to their inves-
description and analysis at a particular moment in tigations is such that the long-term use of case
time, “case studies contribute important insights study methodologies remains assured. The histor-
into [destination] networks since the role and ical need to justify their use is no longer necessary
influence of networks are best understood at the with researchers now far more confident to argue
level at which destination planning and manage- for specific types of case research to be
ment takes place” (Dredge 2006: 271). implemented in addressing those problems
As a valid and robust methodological unreachable through more traditional, and pre-
approach, it offers, “an ontological view that rec- dictable, methods.
ognizes multiple realities needs to be taken.
A combination of theoretical approaches is often See also ▶ Destination, ▶ longitudinal study,
required, which may range from descriptive ▶ methodology, ▶ qualitative research, ▶ quanti-
observation through to use of ▶ media reports tative research.
and survey work, all of which can be incorporated
into the case study” (Beeton 2005: 40). This “tri-
angulated” or “multi-method” approach provides
a richness of detail and explanatory ▶ power in References
tourism research that is not possible with singular
methods (Jennings 2001). Beeton, S. 2005 The Case Study in Tourism Research:
A Multi-Method Case Study Approach. In Tourism
Despite many advantages, case studies do come Research Methods: Integrating Theory with Practice,
with some limitations. For example, they can B. Ritchie, P. Burns and C. Palmer, eds., pp.37-48.
reflect the bias of the researcher who is the primary Oxford: CABI.
instrument of data collection and analysis. For the Dredge, D. 2006 Policy Networks and the Local Organi-
zation of Tourism. Tourism Management 27: 269-280.
investigation to be “clean,” the value ▶ system of Garrod, B., and A. Fyall 2013 Contemporary Cases in
the researcher needs to be taken into consideration, Heritage. Oxford: Goodfellow.
although the use of effective triangulation tech- Jennings, G. 2001 Tourism Research. Milton: Wiley.
niques ought to overcome any discrepancy (Yin Stake, R. 1995 The Art of Case Study Research. Thousand
Oaks: Sage.
2009). Recognition of researcher bias can, how- Xiao, H., and S. Smith 2006 Case Studies in Tourism
ever, be viewed as a positive trait; as long as two or Research: A State-of-the-Art Analysis. Tourism Man-
more independent evaluators review and analyze agement 27:738-749.
the data, when combined with triangulation, then Yin, R. 2009 Case Study Research: Design and Methods.
Los Angeles: Sage.
bias should be reduced (Stake 1995).
The length of case studies can represent a
problem. The richness of data and complexity of
analysis, if too long, can serve as a significant
limitation, as the thrust of what is being said gets Casino tourism
lost. Case studies are criticized as inferior to other
research methods, because they tend to be atheo- WooMi Jo
retical, ungeneralizable, and fundamentally intui- School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism
tive (Xiao and Smith 2006). But as long as their Management, University of Guelph, Guelph,
limitations are identified, recognized, and under- Canada
stood, their rich and contemporary nature pro-
vides significant insights, contributing to the
advancement of ▶ knowledge in the field of The word “casino” originated from the Italian
tourism. word casa (house) which means a small country
Casino tourism 137
house or lodge. It was a place where all the theaters, and concert halls for hosting concerts
players’ bets and winning stacks were dealt in and sporting events.
the early seventeenth century. The origin of casino Las Vegas in the US State of Nevada has
is unclear. However, the first casa Ridotto was enjoyed being the world’s largest casino ▶ desti-
found in Venice, ▶ Italy, in 1638, where con- nation and highest gambling revenue-generating
trolled gambling was offered to people during center until the new casino market in Macao,
the carnival season. Besides casa, European spa ▶ China, has emerged after the government C
resorts became popular gambling destinations in ended the casino monopoly in 2002. The gam-
the early eighteenth century. Many UK tourists bling revenue in Macao has been reported as
visited spa resorts in other European countries approximately six times that of the counterpart
when gambling was banned in England. Two in the Las Vegas Strip in 2012 (Gaming Inspection
famous casino spas were Baden Baden Casino in and Coordination Bureau Macao 2013). Approx-
▶ Germany and the Casino Spa in ▶ Belgium. imately, 35 casinos in Macao offer over 23,000
While people spent time away from home and hotel rooms to their customers and more than
tried to heal physically and mentally by soaking 600,000 jobs to the local residents (Johanson
in the mineral spas and public baths, they either 2013). More than 28 million people were drawn
bet or play cards and dice. Later, Monte Carlo to Macao in 2012. Some of the key players, such
Casino in ▶ Monaco became one of the well- as Las Vegas Sands, Wynn Resorts, and MGM
known attractions for the rich Europeans. Resorts International, have reported in recent
years that the vast majority of their revenue was
earned from the Macao market. These companies
Definition and operation have started to expand their businesses even to a
greater scale to gain their share in the new world’s
Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines casino as a largest casino market. As a replica of the Las
building or room used for social amusement, Vegas Strip, casinos along the Cotai Strip in
especially a place used for gambling, whereas Macao are expected to continue to grow in reve-
gambling, accordingly, is known as playing a nue, number of tourists, and their length of stay
game for money or valuable things or betting/ with the new leader in the casino market.
risking on an uncertain outcome. Modern casinos
offer a wide range of games such as blackjack,
roulette, baccarat, craps, bingo, keno, variations Casino and tourism development
of poker, and slot machines. Games of chance,
such as slot machines, require very little know- One of the many reasons, including tax revenues
how to play and are usually used by the less and job creations, that jurisdictions in many coun-
skilled players, whereas the more experienced tries authorize legal casino gambling is for tour-
players favor other games, such as blackjack, ism ▶ development. Casino destinations attract
poker, baccarat, and craps. From the definition of tourists from outside where gambling is either
casino, modern establishments offer various state- unavailable or illegal. Traditionally, tourists arrive
of-the-art ▶ gaming outlets, as well as other social mainly for the gambling opportunity. Since the
amusements. Evolutionarily casinos today have 1990s, developers have recognized that many
become mega resort entertainment centers with casinos earned much of their revenues from
facilities such as luxury hotel rooms; various non-gaming-related sources, such as hotel guest
types of restaurants for culinary experiences; siz- rooms, food outlets, meeting and convention
able spaces for meetings and conventions; differ- facilities, as well as retail and various forms of
ent retail stores for shopping; indoor and outdoor shows and events. The casino sector as a whole
▶ recreation, including golf courses, swimming has been shifting from “gambling to casino enter-
pools, fitness clubs, and spas; and other types of tainment” (Eadington 1999: 127), which is still
offerings for entertainment like themeparks, true today. Many newer developments with more
138 Causal model
complex and all-inclusive casino resorts have 2) www.ibtimes.com/las-vegas-now-macau-america-

broadened their market share and profit in very 989948 (24 September).
Morriosn, A., C. Braunlich, A. Liping, and J. O’Leary
competitive environment by responding to 1996 A Profile of the Casino Resort Vacationers.
diverse demands, including non-gambling tourists Journal of Travel Research 35(2):55-61.
(Morriosn et al. 1996).
The market has been challenged with some of
the major issues in developing new or expanding
existing casino tourism products. First, as many
jurisdictions have been opening their doors to Causal model
various forms of gambling, including casinos,
the market is becoming more saturated and com- Patrícia Oom do Valle
petitive. It will be even more so as a casino desti- Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve,
nation reaches the maturity stage in its life cycle Faro, Portugal
(Butler 1980). By adding newer attractions, such
as retail stores and meeting facilities, casino des-
tinations could prolong the maturity stage and stay A causal model can be defined as a representation
in the market; otherwise they will experience mar- of the relationships between/among variables. It is
ket decline. Second, this challenge brings another based on the assumption that one variable (Y) is a
issue of balancing the usages of casinos between mathematical function of another (X). The former
tourists from outside the region and local resi- is called the dependent and the latter the indepen-
dents. Ultimately, the majority of the business dent variable. This model can be portrayed using a
comes from incoming tourists in order to benefit path diagram – a pictorial representation of hypo-
the host community. Finally, one of the greatest thetical relationships between/among variables.
and ongoing debates is the negative sociocultural Generally, researchers are interested in the ▶ sign,
impacts of casino gambling and development. strength, and significance of these relationships.
Social costs such as problem gambling and eco- Although causality implies some correlation
nomic benefits must be assessed and balanced. between two variables, this does not imply causal
Casino destinations must take ownership of its linkage between them, because coincidences or
negative impacts and accept greater social respon- the existence of other variable(s) exerting effects
sibilities in the future. on them can explain such correlations. In other
words, significant correlation is a necessary but
not a sufficient condition for causality. Strictly
See also ▶ Culinary tourism, ▶ gaming tourism,
▶ recreation, ▶ shopping tourism, ▶ spa tourism. speaking, one would say that X causes Y when
an increase of the former results in an increase of
the latter, ceteris paribus.
In addition, it is generally accepted that the
References relationship between the two variables should
not be reciprocal (i.e., X causes Y but not the
Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of opposite) and the change in X should happen
Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources. before the change in Y. It is hence easier to talk
Canadian Geographer 24:5-12. about causal relationships in controlled experi-
Eadington, W. 1999 The Spread of Casinos and their Roles
in Tourism Development. In Contemporary Issues in
mental designs. In social sciences, the
Tourism Development, D. Pearce and R. Butler, eds., nonexperimental nature of most data makes
pp.125-140. London: Routledge. uncovering causal relationships a challenge. In
Gaming Inspection and Coordination Bureau Macau 2013 many cases, researchers avoid using the word
Game Statistics www.dicj.gov.mo/web/en/information/
DadosEstat/2013/content.html#n5 (26 September).
“causal” in their models (Wooldridge 2008).
Johanson, M. 2013 Is Las Vegas Now “The Macau of Simple causal models with only one dependent
America?” International Business Times (January and one independent variable are scarce in
Center-periphery 139
tourism research. Instead, there are examples of

models using multiple regressions (those with one Center-periphery
metric dependent and two or more metric/categor-
ical independent variables). In some cases, the David Weaver
dependent variable is itself categorical, nominal, Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel
or ordinal. In such cases, special types of regres- Management, Griffith University, Gold Coast,
sion models are applied, such as logit, probit, Australia C
multinomial, and ordinal regressions (Long and
Freese 2006). These models have been exten-
sively used to explain tourists’ behavior. Center-periphery dynamics, implicitly or explic-
As in other social sciences, one approach that itly, pervade tourism and reflect broader realities
has been gaining increasing attention in tourism of structural and spatial imbalance. Deliberations
research is ▶ structural equation modeling on the interplay of “push” (demand) and “pull”
(Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2011). This technique (▶ supply), for example, include the desire of
allows researchers to test complex relationships harried urban residents to seek respite in the envi-
among non-observable (latent) variables and ronmental tranquillity afforded by nonindustrial
between latent and observed variables peripheral settings (Dann 1977). This dynamic
(or indicators). Structural equation modeling has stimulates the emergence of regional hinterlands
been used to test causal relationships involving such as the Canadian Laurentians and summer
variables such as ▶ attitudes, motivations, quality coastal resorts in northern ▶ Europe. More
of destinations, and destination image. Using this recently, ▶ attention is paid to the major tourism
approach, several types of causal relationships can opportunities provided by the rural-urban fringe,
be tested simultaneously (direct, indirect, total, or proximate periphery, which includes the devel-
and moderator), and both dependent and indepen- opment of “hyper-destinations” where (mostly
dent latent variables can be included in such day) tourists vastly outnumber residents.
models. More broadly, post-1950 mass consumer
Applications of causal models in tourism are demands for sea-sand-sun tourism prompt large-
innumerous and are likely to increase by year. scale ▶ travel from North to South, spawning a
Different types of models can be specified, and global pleasure periphery incorporating the
more importantly, the particularities of each ▶ Caribbean, ▶ Mediterranean, South Pacific,
modeling including assumptions, interpretations, and Indian Ocean basins (Turner and Ash 1975).
and validations have to be carefully considered to Originally, the pleasure periphery is articulated as
ensure rigorous application of this approach in a manifestation of long-standing inequities, as per
▶ future tourism research. ▶ dependency theory, wherein the center method-
ically exploits or “underdevelops” its peripheries
for the benefit of its own capital accumulation.
See also ▶ Model, ▶ regression, ▶ structural
While historically this relationship is often based
equation modeling.
on plantation agriculture, post-1950 socioeco-
nomic circumstances result in a shift to sea-sand-
sun ▶ resources, giving rise to a “plantation
References
model” of tourism ▶ development (Weaver
Long, J., and J. Freese 2006 Regression Models for Cate-
1988). Modernization narratives, alternatively,
gorical Dependent Variables Using Stata. College Sta- accept the global center-periphery dichotomy but
tion: Stata Press. position tourism as an economic stimulant,
Nunkoo, R., and H. Ramkissoon 2011 Structural through “trickle-down” and growth pole effects,
Equation Modeling and Regression Analysis in Tour-
ism Research. Current Issues in Tourism 15(8):1-26.
in places unsuitable for sustained development
Wooldridge, J. 2008 Introductory Econometrics. Mason: through industrialization. Changing consumer
Cengage Learning. demands expand the pleasure periphery to include
140 Central African Republic
landscapes and seascapes that accommodate Weaver, D. 1998 Peripheries of the Periphery: Tourism in
▶ ecotourism ▶ adventure tourism and winter Tobago and Barbuda. Annals of Tourism Research
25:292-313.
sports. Weaver, D. 2013 Moving in from the Margins: Experiential
Contemporary ▶ globalization discourses Consumption and the Pleasure Core. Tourism Recrea-
challenge the ideologically charged meta-▶ nar- tion Review 38:81-85.
rative of North/South tourism by repositioning
and recontextualizing center and periphery as
fluid and nested constructs (Mowforth and Munt
2009). Tourism corporations from the South, for
example, are increasingly implicated in the expan- Central African Republic
sion of this ▶ industry within other developing
countries as well as in the North. Within the Elizabeth Ifeyinwa Benson
South, entities such as Tobago and Barbuda con- Obafemi Awolowo University, Ile-Ife, Nigeria
stitute a periphery within a periphery, wherein the
respective dominant islands of Trinidad and Anti-
gua situate as center in relation to their smaller Central African Republic is the world’s 45th larg-
sister islands (Weaver 1998). Internal center- est country, with an area of about 620,000 km2
periphery structures are also emerging in large (240,000 mi2). It is a landlocked country
and rapidly developing “peripheral” countries bordered by ▶ Chad in the north, ▶ Sudan in the
such as ▶ Brazil, ▶ India, and ▶ China, illustrated northeast, ▶ South Sudan in the east, the
by the movement of tourists and capital from Democratic Republic of the Congo and the
Beijing, Shanghai, and other major coastal Republic of the Congo in the south, and ▶ Cam-
agglomerations to the southern sea-sand-sun eroon in the west. The eastern border lies along
island province of Hainan. ▶ Future research the edge of the Nile River watershed. In 2009, it
should consider the prospects of periphery had a population of 4.4 million, and the official
empowerment as a “pleasure core” conferring ▶ language is French (Kalck 2004). Major
spiritual intimacy, psychological and physical ▶ export products include cotton, coffee, tobacco,
emancipation, and inspiration for tourists and palm trees.
(Weaver 2013). ▶ Ecotourism is the main tourism ▶ product of
the Central African Republic. The hills, plateau,
wilderness regions, very thick forests with more
See also ▶ Dependency theory, ▶ developing than 200 species of mammals and birds, and the
country, ▶ geography, ▶ globalization, waterfalls of Les Chutes de la Mbi and Chutes de
▶ recreation. Boali are great ecotourism potentials of the coun-
try. The Dzanga-Sangha and Manovo-Gounda
St. Floris which are UNESCO ▶ world heritage
sites are the two national parks in the country. The
References
parks sustain about 57 endangered mammal spe-
Dann, G. 1977 Anomie, Ego-enhancement and Tourism. cies such as black rhinos, lions, elephants, chim-
Annals of Tourism Research 4:184-194. panzees, gorillas, and hippos and about 320 bird
Mowforth, M., and I. Munt 2009 Tourism and Sustainabil- species. ▶ Heritage attractions include N’Dele, a
ity: Development, Globalisation and New Tourism in town in the northeast with a fortified wall and
the Third World. London: Routledge.
Turner, L., and J. Ash 1975 The Golden Hordes: Interna- palace, constructed in the nineteenth century by
tional Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery. London: order of the Sultan. This fortified city was also a
Constable. notable place of refuge for slave traders during the
Weaver, D. 1988 The Evolution of a “Plantation” Tourism Sultan’s reign. The ▶ development of tourism in
Landscape on the Caribbean Island of Antigua.
Tijdschrift voor Economische en Sociale Geografie Central African Republic can be categorized into
70:319-331. three phases: the pre-independence period
Central African Republic 141
(1920–1960), postindependence period total employment with a growth rate of 1.3 %

(1961–2000), and the modern period (2000 (WTTC 2014).
onwards) (Woodfrok 2006). The tourism ▶ infrastructure and superstruc-
In 2004, tourism provided ▶ employment for ture require development; however, the country
11,900 people, rising to 15,800 in 2010 with has good telecommunication services and a
54,000 international arrivals, giving the Central developing ▶ network of highways. The Ministry
African Republic a global rank of 180th on this of Tourism Development and Craftwork has C
measure (UNWTO 2012). In 2013, the been created to formulate policies and strategies
employment that tourism provided for people for tourism development. The University of
declined to 14,500. In 2014, the employment Bangui and Euclid University provide
increased to 15,000 jobs, accounting for 1.7 % ▶ training. Tourism has been negatively
of total employment in the country, and is forecast affected by its recent troubled ▶ history and fight-
to grow by 3.1 %. With a growth rate of 3.7 %, ing. This is a major challenge that needs to be
tourism in the Central African Republic ranks addressed in order to promote ▶ sustainable tour-
67th in the world. By 2024, tourism is forecast ism industry in the Central African Republic
to support 44,000 jobs, accounting for 3.9 % of (Figure 1).
Central African Republic, Figure 1 Map of Central African Republic

142 Centrally planned economy
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ forest tour- outputs, inputs, and inventories at the microlevel.
ism, ▶ park tourism, ▶ world heritage. Fourth, its extensive development often results in
output-oriented planning, emphasizing ever-
increasing quantities of output, achieved by mas-
References
sive infusions of labor and capital inputs. Fifth,
Kalck, P. 2004 Historical Dictionary of the Central African the economy is closed, with basic primacy of
Republic. Lanham: Scarecrow. domestic economic considerations over the exi-
UNWTO 2012 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World gencies of foreign trade. Sixth, its priority reflects
Tourism Organization.
the dominance of political and ideological criteria
Woodfrok, J. 2006 Culture and Customs of the Central
African Republic. over economic considerations in the overall for-
Westport: Greenwood. mulation of economic policy. This includes the
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Annual Research. primacy of industry over agriculture, of pro-
London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
ducers’ over consumers’ goods, and of material
goods over services, excluding high priority
assigned to education, especially technical educa-
Centrally planned economy tion (Brown and Neuberger 1994: 179). Seventh,
fundamental microeconomic disequilibrium often
Ivo Druzic results where prices do not balance supply and
Faculty of Economics and Business, University of demand. Eighth, a large second of unofficial econ-
Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia omy of production and trade has arisen due to that
disequilibrium. The excess demand for many goods
and services at official prices means that many
Economy is centrally planned if there is a central buyers are willing to pay higher prices to obtain
agency which has the capacity to collect informa- additional supplies over and above what is available
tion from other members of the economy, to through official channels. It consists of activities of
define the preferences of the economy as a all shadings of legality (Carson 1997: 20/21).
whole, to determine the course of action that is Comprehending theoretical origin of the primacy
to be pursued by the economy, to implement the of production of material goods over services in
plan, and to actually exercise its authority (Conn general is crucial to understanding the position and
1984: 26). This type of organization of the econ- role of tourism as a part of the service industry.
omy as a rule is applied to the less developed Although there are approaches that favor universal
countries as an instrument of forced industrializa- features of central planning applicable to different
tion considered as the engine for rapid growth. economic systems, its essence is closely connected
with socialism regarding property rights in pro-
ducers’ goods, decisions relative to those goods,
Relationship with tourism and the distribution of the real income produced
when the labor is combined with them. The eco-
The main features of a centrally planned economy nomic content is to do away with the basic contra-
and its relationship with tourism can be summa- dictions in the market economy (the social character
rized as follows. First, because of public owner- of production and the private ownership of profits),
ship of natural resources and capital, the resultant which cause the business cycles in a market econ-
social ownership of the means of production helps omy. This is the reason why the main purpose in the
to simultaneously achieve centralization and rapid economic sphere is nationalization of privately
growth. Second, the centralized bureaucratic man- owned resources, factors, and gains of an economy.
agement commands detailed physical planning of State or social ownership as a result of
supply and demand. Third, its characteristics as a these activities accordingly enables the market econ-
pressure economy emphasize a high rate of forced omy to be wholly substituted by “the production of
saving at the macro-level and the taut planning of products (not commodities)” (Druzic 2006: 12).
Certification 143
In this rigid theoretical Marxian environment, centrally planned economies in China and some
tourism as a part of the service industry is of Southeast Asian countries defined as market com-
secondary interest. It is due to ideological stand- munism (Rosenfielde 2013) has generated incen-
ing that although the expenditure of labor-time is tives for further research into tourism in these
the sole cause of natural value of commodities, authoritarian market economies as a combination
people spending large amounts of labor in produc- of political monopoly of the communist party,
ing different services (like merchants) are not overall privatization, and free market C
creating new products or values. It is from these implementation.
notions that most of the services (tourism
included) are considered necessary to the value-
added creation in the economy as a whole, but are See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ developing
not creating added value by themselves. There- country, ▶ foreign exchange.
fore, tourism originally is not included in the GDP
or national income accounting. It is not part of
growth rate measurement as the sole indicator of
the progress of the centrally planned economy. References
Aganbegyan, A. 1988 The Challenges of Perestroika. Lon-

don: Hutchinson.
Failures, reforms, and tourism Brown, A., and E. Neuberger 1994 Basic Feature of Cen-
trally Planned Economy. In Comparative Economic
The basic theoretical fallacies of the Marxian- Systems: Models and Cases, M. Bornstein, ed.,
pp.175-187. Delhi: Surjeet.
based centrally planned systems and economies Carson, R. 1997 Comparative Economic Systems,
like the neglect of the market demand and scarcity Volume I. New York: M. E. Sharpe.
of resources, as well as the need for the free market Conn, D. 1984 The Evaluation of Centrally Planned Econ-
price system as a means to employ opportunity omies. In Comaprative Economic Systems,
A. Zimbalist, ed., pp.15-46. Boston: Kluwer.
costs in efficient use of scarce resources, were the Druzic, I. 2006 A Journey through Transition Time.
main reasons for the evident failures and final Zagreb: Political Culture.
demise of centrally planned economies in Eastern Gardner, H. 1998 Comparative Economic Systems.
Europe and the former Soviet Union in the 1990s. Orlando: Dryden.
Gregory, P., and R. Stuart 1995 Comparative Economic
In the meantime, numerous reforms have been Systems. Boston: Houghton.
established from the 1950s to 1980s under the Rosenfielde, S. 2013 Asian Economic Systems. Singapore:
name of worker-managed market socialism in for- World Scientific Press.
mer Yugoslavia, administrative market socialism
in Hungary (Gardner 1998), reformed economic
system in Poland, Prague Spring reforms in for-
mer Czechoslovakia (Gregory and Stuart 1995), Certification
and perestroika in former Russia (Aganbegyan
1988). During the reform period, tourism was Josefa García Mestanza1 and
mainly used as a balance of payment stabilization Raquel García Revilla2
1
instrument. Centrally planned economies suffer Departamento de Economía y Administración de
from “endemic” trade imbalances with developed Empresas, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain
2
economies. Foreign currency earnings from tour- UDIMA Universidad a Distancia de Madrid,
ism have been used to cover the trade deficit. Collado Villalba, Madrid, Spain
Attempts to reform centrally planned economies
are doomed to fail because reformers suffer from
the illusion that it is possible to combine and Certification is a set of actions undertaken by a
choose only the positive features of both planned body, regardless of the interested parties, which
and market economies. Formal survival of demonstrates that an organization, product,
144 Chad
process, or service meets the requirements as industry, the key to mitigating tourism’s negative
defined in a series of regulations or specifications. environmental and social externalities is the certi-
In tourism, certification might cover a range fication of its products. For this reason, it is nec-
of areas, including quality, environmental com- essary that future research advances for
mitment, corporate social responsibility, and unification a variety of criteria related to different
sustainability, with the corresponding certificates dimensions of sustainability.
normally issued by private or public bodies.
Many countries have their own unification See also ▶ Corporate social responsibility,
criteria, which, through voluntary agreements ▶ environment, ▶ service quality,
and consensus among parties involved, are then ▶ sustainability.
approved through regulatory bodies such as BS in
the United Kingdom, ANSI in the United States,
DIN in Germany, NF in France, PN in Portugal, References
UNI in Italy, SNV in Switzerland, and UNE in
▶ Spain. Many of these standards are redrawn at a Alonso-Almeida, M., J. Rodríguez-Antón, and L. Rubio-
Andrada 2012 Reasons for Implementing Certified
regional and international level. For example, the
Quality Systems and Impact on Performance. The Ser-
International Organization for Standardization, vice Industries Journal 32:919-936.
the largest developer and publisher of interna- Corbett, C., M. Montes-Sancho, and D. Kirsch 2005 The
tional standards, approves for a range of areas Financial Impact of ISO 9000 Certification in the
United States. Management Science 51:1026-1059.
such as ISO 9000, ISO 14000, and ISO 26000 in
Font, X. 2002 Environmental Certification in Tourism and
ratification by (or with) national standards. Hospitality. Tourism Management 23:197-205.
Although certification is considered as a Lo, C., A. Yeung, and T. Cheng 2011 Meta-standards,
voluntary process, the number of certified tourism Financial Performance and Senior Executive Compen-
sation in China. International Journal of Production
countries around the world has increased consid-
Economics 129:119-126.
erably. Having such official certification bestows Marimon, F., M. Casadesus, and I. Heras 2010 Certifica-
the organization in question with a guarantee of its tion Intensity Level of the Leading Nations in ISO 9000
compliance with a series of requirements, which and ISO 14000 Standards. International Journal of
Quality and Reliability Management 27:1002-1020.
serves as a distinguishing feature in the market,
improving the image of its products/services, and
generating trust among customers. Depending on
the field certified, trust may be directed toward the
organization, customers, shareholders, Chad
employees, government bodies, and the
company’s social context. This can have a range G€urkan Akdağ1 and Abdoulaye Garba Bako2
of positive effects: financial (increased sales, 1
Faculty of Tourism, Mersin University, Mersin,
greater market share), operational (improved rela- Turkey
2
tions with suppliers, reduction of costs and com- Institute of Social Sciences, Tourism
pliances, timely delivery), customer satisfaction Management Graduate Program, Mersin
(less complaints, greater satisfaction), employee University, Mersin, Turkey
satisfaction (improved workplace health and
safety, less absenteeism, increased staff participa-
tion), and social reputation (respect for the envi- Chad is a landlocked country located in the
ronment, conservation of local and national sub-Saharan region in Central Africa. It is bor-
heritage) (Font 2002; Miramon et al. 2010). dered by ▶ Libya, ▶ Sudan, ▶ Central African
Nevertheless, studies show that the results of Republic, ▶ Cameroon, ▶ Nigeria, and ▶ Niger
certified companies in tourism present varied con- (Figure 1). With an estimated population of 11 mil-
clusions (Alonso-Almeida et al. 2012; Corbett lion in 2013, Chad’s economy depends heavily on
et al. 2005; Lo et al. 2011), and with an expanding agriculture and stock breeding (African Economic
Chad 145
floating islands. Chad experienced significant

tourism development in the 1970s under the lead-
ership of the government. During this time, new
hotel investments were undertaken, including the
La Tchadiènne hotel, the resort of Barh Tinga in
Zakouma, and the expansion of the hunting hotel
Sarh in the small town of Middle Chari (Ministry C
of Environment and Water Resources 2012).
Analysis of government policy statements
indicates that tourism development peaked in
1998, centered mainly on ▶ ecotourism, in
which marketing and conservation of the
country’s natural and cultural heritage and the
wellbeing of local populations are taken into con-
sideration (Diagana et al. 2013). A good example
of the government’s tourism policy is the estab-
lishment of the Zakouma National Park which
contains diverse ecologies and wildlife. Chad’s
diversity of distinctive wildlife is an attraction
for adventurous international tourists (RAPAC
2008). The national development plan of
2013–2015 includes a number of projects involv-
ing building and renovation of hotels in all hunt-
ing areas, creation of a zoo in N’Djamena, and
establishment of national schools for the tourism
and hotel industry in Fada and N’Djamena. Cur-
rently, Chad has no active institutions teaching
tourism and hotel management. When it comes
Chad, Figure 1 Map of Chad to Chad’s development in tourism, ecotourism
comes to the fore. Hence both the academicians
and practitioners are supposed to be involved in
Outlook 2012). Chad has significant potential, but future studies regarding management of ▶ wild-
its tourism ▶ industry is still in its infancy. Its life tourism, ▶ hunting tourism, and preserving
contribution to GDP was 4.3 % and to employ- natural and ecological sources as well as national
ment was 76,500 jobs in 2013 (3.7 % of total parks.
employment). The country expected to attract
51,000 international ▶ tourist arrivals in 2014. See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ hunting
By 2024, international arrivals are forecast to tourism, ▶ wildlife tourism.
total 60,000 (WTTC 2014).
Chad tourism development started in 1948
with the launch of big game hunting in Sarh
References
(formerly Fort Archambault). The Chad Tourism
Agency was established in 1960. In 1964, the African Economic Outlook 2012 Country Notes: Chad
French Argonauts Club and the French airline, www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/central-
Union de Transports Aériens, launched small africa/chad/ (30 December 2013).
Diagana, O., D. Robinson, and M. Flanagan 2013 Chad
and medium-hunting organizations in Douguia.
Republic, National Development Plan 2013-2015.
Lake Chad, located in the far west of Chad, is Report No. 78692-TD Poverty Reduction and Eco-
the largest wetland in the country and contains nomic Management, International Development
146 Change, sociocultural
Association and International Monetary Fund: The acquisition of cultural features of the more devel-
World Bank. oped group by the “backward” group.
Ministry of Environment and Water Resources 2012
National Report on Sustainable Development in Prep- Viewing acculturation from a functionalist per-
aration for Rio+20 www.uncsd2012.org/index.php? spective, Ralph Linton, Robert Redfield, and
page=view&type=6&nr=145&menu=32 (20 January especially Melville Herskovits put together its
2014). theory during the 1930s. This was based on a
RAPAC 2008 Tourisme Destination: Tchad. Réseau des
Airs Protégés d’Afrique Centrale www.rapac.org/ systemic conception of culture in which contact
index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id= produced a general reorganization of the system,
34&Itemid=100030 (18 March 2014). among two very similar groups. Despite Robert
WTTC 2014 Chad Economic Impact Report, Economic Redfield indicating tourism as an acculturation
Impact of Travel and Tourism. London: World Travel
and Tourism Council. factor in his 1930s book Tepoztlan, a Mexican
Village: A Study in Folk Life, this functionalist
perspective took a long time to be adopted as a
theoretical frame, since it was not until the 1960s
when the first anthropological work focusing on
Change, sociocultural tourism as a major acculturation factor was writ-
ten (Nuñez 1963).
Daniel Carmona-Zubiri and Raúl Travé-Molero
Ciencias Sociales y Humanas, University Miguel
Hernández de Elche, Elche, Spain Application
Since the 1960s, some scholars have started

Since early times, there has been a sustained inter- questioning the general applicability of the accul-
est in observing sociocultural change as a ▶ phe- turation theory to describe a wide range of pro-
nomenon in each and every society. In the social cesses of social and cultural change. On the other
sciences, change has been a central issue in describ- hand, it was undeniable that all changes could be
ing social dynamics. In the middle of the nineteenth defined as the acquisition, or attempted acquisition,
century, Auguste Comte drew up his theory of the of characteristics shared by more developed coun-
three states (theological, metaphysical, and posi- tries, which involved admitting that the contact was
tive) where change appeared as an inevitable and never symmetric and the final result was not nec-
universal process, consubstantial to the growth of essarily homogeneous. Hence, the emphasis of
the complexity and the structural differentiation of social and cultural change has moved toward the
societies. This conception fitted very well with the concept of “modernization” (Einsenstadt 1966), a
evolutionist theories, which prevailed in the end of frame that focuses on the achievements and aspi-
that century, and even with Marxist theory. rations in developed and developing countries,
According to evolutionism, internal tenseness overcoming the question of the origin of the change
and adaptation to the environment would make (whether it is internal or external).
every human group evolve in the same direction, In anthropological tourism studies, accultura-
although their rhythms and phases were distinct. tion theory was applied to analyses of sociocul-
However, such theories neglected the empirical tural impacts of tourism on dominated societies
evidence that showed the influence of intercultural (Smith 1977). But, from the perspective of mod-
contact by cultural diffusion and historical particu- ernization, Boissevain (1977) pointed out the
larism. The anthropologists who first popularized epistemological failure of social and cultural
this phenomenon called it “acculturation.” anthropology to distinguish between the effects
Although the concept had different connotations of tourism and other contemporary social forces
depending on who was using it, acculturation in the change processes. Thus, the original influ-
referred to a particular process where contact trig- ence of acculturation theory has given way to
gered a change that was evidenced in the dialogical studies that focus upon the process of
Chaos theory 147
change, overcoming the initial essentialism involved in change, and what kind of changes are
(Nogués-Pedregal 2009) to recognize agency favored over others in a community or society.
capacity to the social actors, who can resist, Hence, research must aspire to understand the
accept, or appropriate the consequences of the factors linked to tourism, especially in relation to
transformation of its territory in a ▶ tourist area. social production, such as homogenization, trivi-
Therefore, the most significant advance in tourism alization, and petrifaction. Finally, it is important
research focuses on the social processes to dis- for tourism studies to analyze the complex (inter) C
cover the effects of touristic action in particular relationship between ▶ mass tourism and ▶ glob-
contexts, instead of considering tourism as a nat- alization in hyper-industrial societies: Is tourism
ural evil (Jovičić 2011), something that was some- an agent of globalization, an accomplice, an
what implied by the earlier perspectives. unavoidable consequence, or maybe a desirable
A wide range of ethnographies and analyses one?
provided by the anthropological perspective to
tourism studies (Hall and Richards 2000) have See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ culture, ▶ develop-
contributed to enhancing the understanding of ment, ▶ host and guest, ▶ power.
the nature of tourism. This was unavoidable for
all those concerned with ▶ leisure and tourism
▶ management and, in particular, with “▶ cultural
tourism,” where cultural heritage and local iden- References
tity are involved. In this sense, supranational or
intergovernmental organizations such as Boissevain, J. 1977 Tourism and Development in Malta.
Development and Change 8:523-538.
UNESCO, ▶ UNWTO, and the European Com- Einsenstadt, S. 1966 Modernization, Protest and Change.
mission, probably concerned about and decidedly Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall.
opposed to the homogenization that globalization Hall, D. and G. Richards 2000 Tourism and Sustainable
involves, promote administrative distinctions that Community Development. New York: Routledge.
Jovičić, D. 2011 Sociocultural Impacts of Contemporary
point out some cultural items Tourism. Collegium Antropologicum 35:599-605.
(or patrimonialization) as a way of generating a Nogués-Pedregal, A. 2009 Genealogía de la difícil relación
desirable (and orientated) sociocultural change entre antropología social y turismo. PASOS 7:43-56.
such as sustainable development. Nuñez, T. 1963 Tourism, Tradition and Acculturation:
Weekendismo in a Mexican Village. Ethnology
2:347-352.
Smith, V. (ed.) 1977 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology
Future perspectives of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Tourism is one of the many sources of social
changes in society. In fact, currently it is one of
the major sources, but it is not the only one, and,
frequently, it is not the most influential factor of Chaos theory
social and cultural transformation in touristic con-
texts. Some other factors, such as political shifts, Nicholas E. Johnston1 and James Brian Aday2
1
reorganization of the productive fabric, techno- Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA
2
logical development, or the adoption of innova- Hospitality and Tourism Management, San
tive customs and thinking, could be more Francisco State University, College of Business,
significant in the process of sociocultural change. San Francisco, CA, USA
In hindsight, tourism must not be considered as
a negative factor for society, since negative or
undesirable changes are a consequence of social As defined by Merriam-Webster, chaos theory is a
dynamics. Thus, tourism studies should focus on “mathematical theory that describes chaotic
how such changes are produced, what factors are behavior in a complex system.” It is the science
148 Charter tourism
of the unpredictable and unexpected. Its roots and Ruggero 2011). Future research should focus
stem from the mathematical property of a dynam- on the application of chaos theory in other areas of
ical system with applications in several fields, tourism research such as marketing and finance,
including biology, physics, engineering, and eco- combine chaos theory with existing models (such
nomics. “A dynamical system is a deterministic as the life cycle model), and reexamine extant
mathematical model, where time can be either a studies to better establish theoretical frameworks
continuous or a discrete variable” (Bishop 2009: for chaos theory research.
no page). A simple example of time as a deter-
ministic variable is of a man driving down a See Also ▶ Crisis management, ▶ demand
highway on his way to work. Unknown to him, modeling, ▶ destination lifecycle, ▶ economics,
there is a truck slightly in front of him with a loose ▶ theory.
trailer. The trailer breaks loose and crashes into
the man’s car. If he would have left a moment
earlier or later, the accident could have been References
avoided. This example illustrates that chaos is
not simply disorder, rather an explanation of the Baggio, R., and R. Ruggero 2011 Complex and Chaotic
Tourism Systems: Towards a Quantitative Approach.
transitions between order and disorder.
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
The “butterfly effect” as explained by Lorenz 23:840-861.
(1972) is often used as an illustration of the basic Bishop, R. 2009 Chaos. The Stanford Encyclopedia of
principle of chaos theory. He theorized that, Philosophy http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2009/
entries/chaos/ (5 July 2014).
through a series of chain events, a butterfly flap-
Lorenz, E. (1972). Predictability: does the flap of a
ping its wings in ▶ Brazil can set off a tornado in butterfly's wing in Brazil set off a tornado in Texas?. na.
Texas. The idea is that although the flapping of a Russell, R., and B. Faulkner 2004 Entrepreneurship, Chaos
butterfly’s wings seems nonsignificant, the subse- and the Tourism Area Lifecycle. Annals of Tourism
quent reactions could lead to large-scale
Zahra, A., and C. Ryan 2007 From Chaos to Cohesion—
phenomena. Complexity in Tourism Structures: An Analysis of New
The study of tourism has a multidisciplinary Zealand's Regional Tourism Organizations. Tourism
approach that is founded on traditional scientific Management 28:854-862.
methods which can be traced to sixteenth-century
Newtonian/Cartesian criterion. However, it is
argued that tourism ▶ phenomenon is complex,
nonlinear, and chaotic. Further, it is described as Charter tourism
being “lifelike” or “organic,” having multiple,
often unpredictable outliers that initiate instability Jakob Lauring
(Russell and Faulkner 2004). Thus, using tradi- Department of Management, University of
tional linear models to understand and/or predict Aarhus, Aarhus, Denmark
tourism functions fails to grasp the complexity of
the system (Zahra and Ryan 2007).
▶ Adaptation of chaos theory into tourism The term “charter” originates from the Latin word
research is relatively new. Russell and Faulkner chartula, denoting a contract or to hire means of
(2004) initially explored chaos in tourism and ▶ transportation. In the tourism ▶ industry, char-
▶ entrepreneurship and later focused on chaos in ter tours have come to signify package trips
the area of crisis and disasters. Extant research has consisting of prearranged services, including
also examined small business networks, ▶ desti- transport, ▶ accommodation, and often meals
nation development, life cycle models, and and options for associated activities. By offering
demand forecasting using chaos theory (Baggio package tours at competitive prices, guaranteeing
Chile 149
customer safety, and reducing the individual’s lack of cutting-edge research in this area, due to
need to organize the ▶ holiday, charter agencies the absence of knowledge on recent changes in
have opened up a growing number of destinations consumer demands, is unfortunate. Hence,
for the average ▶ tourist. ▶ future research may focus on the role of chang-
Charter agencies generally hire planes from ing consumer patterns for charter tourism in the
different airlines on a temporal basis, but may coming years.
also use bus, trains, or ships for transportation. C
Charter tourism has been particularly popular in See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ package tourism,
Scandinavian counties where individuals seek to ▶ service.
avoid long, cold, and dark winters to visit the
warmer “South.” In East Asia, charter or ▶ pack-
age tourism is also popular. References
Since the 1960s, charter tourism has become an
important factor in the expansion of international Andrew, H. 2011 The British on Holiday: Charter Tourism,
Identity Consumption. Clevedon: Channel View.
markets. However, the first organized charter trips
Jacobsen, J. 2000 Anti-tourist Attitudes: Mediterranean
took place in England in the 1840s. Those ▶ rail Charter Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
excursions were organized by Thomas Cook and 27:284-300.
quickly became a success. Hence, he understood Lauring, J. 2011 Individuality and Mass Consumption in
Charter Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 38:319-
that this could be profitable on a larger scale,
322.
which gradually led to new international destina- Lauring, J. 2013 Creating the Tourist Product in the Oppo-
tions being introduced. In the 1950s, organized sition between Self-actualization and Collective Con-
charter flights started to depart from Scandinavia sumption: The Case of Charter Tourism. Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism Research 37:217-236.
and England. ▶ Spain is the most popular ▶ des-
tination for charter tourism (Andrew 2011). Other
countries such as ▶ Greece, ▶ Tunisia, ▶ Turkey,
and ▶ Thailand have also experienced increasing
popularity in different periods. Chile
A long-term threat to charter tourism is chang-
ing consumer ▶ identity and behavior among Hugo Marcelo Zunino
tourists, reflecting a more individualized con- Department of Social Sciences, Universidad de la
sumption of goods and services. It has been Frontera, Temuco, Chile
argued that many tourists are now seeking more
individualized or customized forms of vacation
instead of traveling with budget airlines and book- Located in South America, the Republic of Chile
ing their own accommodation (Jacobsen 2000; occupies a long, narrow piece of land between the
Lauring 2013). Charter tourism has also received Andes Mountains to the east and the Pacific
a derogatory reputation of being the “sun and sand Ocean to the west. It borders ▶ Peru to the north,
tourism” on “playa del anywhere,” indicating a ▶ Bolivia to the northeast, and ▶ Argentina to the
shallowness of holiday interest of this type of east, with an area of 756,096.3 km2
tourists. (or 291,930.4 mi2) (Figure 1) and a population
Despite historical crises in charter tourism and of 17 million (INE 2013).
the fact that type of ▶ travel has varied among As one of South America’s most stable coun-
different regions, its overall ▶ impact on today’s tries, Chile enjoys a high-income economy and is
tourism has been substantial (Lauring 2011). also known for its human development and com-
Therefore it is surprising that this important sector petitiveness. Its economy is heavily based on the
has generally remained under-researched. The exploitation of natural resources, especially
150 Chile
annual growth since 2000 of 12 % (INE 2011).

Due to its geographic particularities, Chile is
endowed with a range of natural and tourism
▶ resources, including desert landscapes and
beaches in the north, bucolic rural landscapes and
metropolitan areas in the central core of the coun-
try, and forest, lakes, and volcanoes in the south.
Chile is the gateway to the Antarctica and has
become one of the main hubs for operators offer-
ing a variety of alternatives to visiting the white
continent. The country displays the heritage of
Andean civilizations in the north, Mapuche peo-
ple in the south, and Polynesian culture in the
Eastern Island.
Commercial airlines operate regular daily
flights to Chile’s main cities, from Arica (the
northern border) to Punta Arenas (the continent’s
southern tip), while the Pan-American Highway
connects the country from the north (Arica) to the
south (Puerto Mont). The most southern regions
can be reached by ferry or via Argentina. Hanga
Roa, the only city of the Eastern Island, can be
easily reached by commercial flights from the
capital Santiago.
Chile’s tourism is regulated under the Ministry
of Economy – the leading body responsible for the
promotion of economic growth. This demon-
strates the economic importance attached to this
industry. Universities are increasingly considering
tourism as a key area of knowledge. Undergradu-
ate and graduate programs are offered at many
▶ universities, coupled with the consolidation of
research programs focusing on topics such as
sustainable ▶ development through tourism and
▶ destination ▶ management.
Chile, Figure 1 Map of Chile
See also ▶ Antarctic tourism, ▶ cultural tourism,
▶ economic development, ▶ nature tourism.
copper, fruits, and wines. The military dictator-
ship, between 1973 and 1990, implemented a
deep economic liberalization program which
References
impacted its economic and sociocultural struc-
tures (French-Davis 2002). French-Davis, R. 2002. Economic Reforms in Chile: From
Chile’s tourism ▶ industry has expanded sig- Dictatorship to Democracy. Ann Arbor: University of
nificantly since the 1990s, due to the liberalization Michigan Press.
INE 2011 Informe Anual de Turismo 2011. Santiago:
of its economy and its integration into the world
Instituto Nacional de Turismo.
▶ network. In 2011, the country received INE 2013 Informe Preliminar del Censo 2012. Santiago:
3,670,000 foreign tourists, representing average Instituto Nacacional de Estadísticas.
China 151
a path for commerce and cultural exchange for

China thousands of years. Historical records and
archeological relics demonstrate that ▶ travel for
Guangrui Zhang commerce, trade, ▶ religion, ▶ sightseeing, and
Tourism Research Centre, Chinese Academy of other purposes has been common throughout its
Social Sciences, Beijing, China ▶ history. However, China began tourism as an
▶ industry only recently. Professional travel agen- C
cies owned by, and only serving, foreigners
The People’s Republic of China is located in appeared in the early 1920s. The first Chinese-
Northeast Asia (Figure 1). One of the world’s owned travel agency, China Travel Service, was
largest countries with a land area of 9.6 million established in Shanghai in 1923 and soon spread
km2 (3.7 million mi2) and population over 1.34 to other cities (Lew et al. 2003). The start of the
billion in 2012, China has the second largest 1937 Japanese War of Aggression and prolonged
economy, behind the ▶ United States and ahead civil war which followed effectively destroyed
of ▶ Japan. tourism. After the establishment of the new
Republic, tourism developed rapidly, but first as
a political and diplomatic tool. Over the last three
History and development decades, as a result of the country’s policy of
openness and reform, it has become an important
China is the home of one of the world’s ancient part of the national economy. Between 2000 and
civilizations. The Silk Road across Asia has been 2012, overseas arrivals increased from 31.23 to
China, Figure 1 Map of China

152 China
57.49 million, and their spending increased from From 1949 to 1978, the industry had a political
US$16.2 to $50 billion. During the same period, and diplomatic function, only ▶ inbound tourism
domestic ▶ tourist trips increased from 744 was allowed, the central Foreign Ministry and
million to 2.9 billion, and their spending grew Foreign Affairs offices at a local level were in
from $38.4 billion (RMB317.6bn) to $360 billion charge of its administration, and inbound travel
(RMB2,279bn). Correspondingly, outbound was operated by state-owned enterprises. After
departures by the Chinese residents increased 1978, China has transformed from a planned to a
even more rapidly, from 10.47 up to 83.18 market economy, and tourism has become a
million, with their spending jumping from $13.1 source of ▶ foreign exchange earnings and eco-
to $102 billion (China National Tourism Admin- nomic growth. The administration of tourism was
istration 2001, 2013). In 2012, China spent $50bn transferred from the Foreign Ministry to the China
more overseas than it received. National Tourism Administration, a government
With a unique political and economic system body directly under the State Council, and the
and regionally diverse natural and cultural state-owned travel business monopoly was
resources, China has become an attractive inter- broken up.
national destination. With the exception of Hong In 2009, the central government made another
Kong, Macao, and Taiwan, Asian countries are significant tourism policy readjustment, giving
China’s main tourist markets, accounting for over priority to the development of ▶ domestic tour-
60 % of all inbound tourists. Significantly, long- ism, with the function of tourism extending to
haul markets such as the United States and Euro- ▶ economic development and improving
pean countries are expanding gradually. Likewise, people’s livelihood. China’s 12th five-year
main destinations for Chinese outbound tourists (2011–2015) tourism ▶ development plan
are also within the Asia-Pacific region. (China National Tourism Administration 2011)
Tourism ▶ education started with the establish- formulated in 2011 indicates a desire to “turn the
ment of the Shanghai Higher Tourism College in tourism industry into a strategic pillar industry of
1978 and in other higher learning institutions in national economy and a modern service sector
1982, based on European and North American favored by ordinary people,” with the aim of
models. A complete ▶ system of secondary and improving the livelihood of the people and
university education in tourism ▶ management enhancement of residents’ ▶ quality of life.
was established in the mid-1990s. In 2012, there A final goal of tourism development is to promote
were 570,000 students at 1,097 higher learning sustainable and healthy tourism development and
institutions with a tourism department or major, make China the world’s leading tourism ▶ desti-
and 500,000 students enrolled in 1,139 secondary nation. The central government enacted the first
vocational schools (China National Tourism ever “tourism ▶ law” (National People’s Con-
Administration 2013). Tourism research has gress 2013).
developed along with this growth. The top state- With its continuing economic growth,
level academic institutions such as the Chinese improvement in its ▶ infrastructure, ▶ service
Academy of Social Sciences, the Chinese Acad- facilities, and its legal system, China’s tourism
emy of Sciences, and China Tourism Academy has excellent development prospects. It has an
undertake empirical policy-related studies, while important role in the country’s economic growth
higher learning institutions conduct teaching- and social harmony. According to World Tourism
related research. Organization forecasts, by 2020, China will be the
largest tourism destination and the fourth largest
▶ international tourism source country in the
Policy and strategy world. China’s tourism development model, expe-
riences, and lessons learned are worth serious
Over the past six decades, tourism policies have studies for the benefit of the world. However,
reflected the government’s changing priorities. tourism in China faces a number of challenges,
Chronotope 153
including environmental ▶ pollution and disor- temporal indicators are fused into one carefully
derly ▶ investment and development that need to thought-out, concrete whole. Time, as it were,
thickens, takes on flesh, becomes artistically visi-
be addressed to achieve its national goals. ble; likewise, space becomes charged and respon-
sive to the movements of time, plot and history. The
See also ▶ Development, ▶ foreign exchange, elements of time are revealed through space and,
▶ inbound tourism, ▶ policy and policymaking, space is understood and measured through time.
▶ strategy.
The intersection of axes and fusion of indicators
characterizes the artistic chronotope. (1937:
C
237–238, emphasis added)
It is a time-space structure to give order and

References sense to social ambiguities and disorders.
Originally used in literary studies to distin-
China National Tourism Administration 2001 The Year- guish genres in novels, the notion of chronotope
book of China Tourist Statistics. Beijing: China Tour-
widens its scope today and is employed by
ism Publishing House.
China National Tourism Administration 2011 China’s Tour- researchers from different fields in relation to the
ism Industry 12th Five-year Development Plan (2011- generation of meanings and social actions
2015) (in Chinese) www.ce.cn/cysc/newmain/yc/jsxw/ (artworks, paintings, films, or ▶ photography),
201303/06/t20130306_21439079.shtml (29 September
as well as other types of narratives such as ▶ dias-
2013).
China National Tourism Administration 2013 The Year- pora/diasporic consciousness and social memory
book of China Tourism Statistics. Beijing: China Tour- studies. The chronotopes offer a scaffold to map
ism Publishing House. out social complexity.
Lew, A., L. Yu, J. Ap, and G. Zhang, eds. 2003 Tourism in
Among tourism-related scholars, for instance,
China. New York: The Haworth Hospitality Press.
National People’s Congress 2013 The Tourism Law of the its incipient use refers to the way elements are
People’s Republic of China (Draft, in Chinese) www. dialogically produced and then politically
npc.gov.cn/npc/xinwen/lfgz/flca/2012-08/31/content_ arranged to provide people with a sense of the
1735710.htm (23 July 2014).
surrounding world as a concrete whole. Two com-
plementary research directions are found in the
field. On the one hand, Ooi (2002) looks at how
the tourism ▶ industry and local institutions medi-
Chronotope ate the production of its products through a par-
ticular combination of objects or images; Kirkham
Antonio Miguel Nogués-Pedregal (2003) addresses how this peculiar combination,
Department of Social and Human Sciences, as shown in the use and construction of time space
Universitas Miguel Hernández of Elche, at a seaside resort, helps to create the ▶ narrative
Elche, Spain structure of a movie. On the other hand,
Boissevain (1996) analyzes the chronotopic cir-
cumstances of sociocultural encounters, attending
Tourism involves ▶ travel during a qualitatively to the ▶ adaptation of social rhythms to the mode
different time. It is a social practice intrinsically of production brought in upon ▶ tourist arrivals,
connected with a particular use of ▶ time and whereas Nogués-Pedregal (2012) examines the
space. This connection makes Russian literary production of meaningful social practices and
critic Mikhail Bakhtin’s 1930s concept of identities through the mediation of tourism space.
chronotope attractive to scholars today. Lacking The notion of chronotope encourages ▶ future
a clear-cut definition, Bakhtin’s closest formula- research on dialogics that would challenge the
tion states that the chronotope is the presumptions of the customary acculturative per-
spectives such as destination management, tour-
Intrinsic connectedness of temporal and spatial rela-
tionships that are artistically expressed in literature ism development, power relations, and local
[. . .] In the literary artistic chronotope, spatial and dependency, and on the ▶ semiotics in the
154 Climate change
production of meaning, commoditization and permanent ice, and shrinking polar ice sheets,
authenticity. global sea levels have risen at an average rate of
1.8 mm per year since 1961 and 3.1 mm per year
See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ culture, ▶ dis- since 1993 (Pachauri and Reisinger 2007).
course, ▶ power, ▶ symbolism. There is widespread observational evidence
that changing climatic conditions have
profound effects on natural and human-influenced
References environmental systems. Alpine areas, arid
regions, coastal environments (including offshore
Bakhtin, M. 1937/1989 „Las formas del tiempo y del systems such as coral reefs), and small island
cronotopo en la novela. Ensayo de poética histórica“.
states are particularly vulnerable to global climate
In Teoría y estética de la novela, M. Bakhtin,
pp. 237-409. Madrid:Taurus. change. Significantly, all forms of tourism depend
Boissevain, J. ed. 1996 Coping with Tourists. Oxford: considerably on the climate (and its daily mani-
Berghahn. festation in the form of weather), and this industry
Kirkham, N. 2003 Candy Coated Chronotope: Spatial
is highly subjected to changes in the climate
Representations of a Seaside Resort. In Cultures and
Settlements, M. Miles and N. Kirkham, eds., pp. 69-74. system.
Bristol:Intellect. Research on tourism and climate change has
Nogués-Pedregal, A-M. 2012 El cronotopo del turismo: grown substantially over the last 25 years or so
espacios y ritmos. Revista de Antropología Social
and is covering an increasing diversity of topics
21:147-171.
Ooi, C-S. 2002 Cultural Tourism and Tourism Cultures: (Becken 2013). Most commonly, tourism research
The Business of Mediating Experiences in Copenhagen distinguishes between adaptation (measures to
and Singapore. Copenhagen: Copenhagen Business reduce the vulnerability of natural and human
School Press.
systems to climate change) and mitigation
(measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions
and enhance carbon sinks), although major over-
laps and synergies exist between the two.
Climate change
Susanne Becken Impacts and adaptation

Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith Business
School, Griffith University, Queensland, A changing climate and natural environment can
Australia create hazards for access and a range of barriers to
tourism participation. Such changes are likely to
influence tourist behavior more broadly, poten-
Climate change, and more specifically its anthro- tially with far-reaching societal implications
pogenic version, refers to the systematic change of (Gössling et al. 2012).
climatic patterns and weather events due to Most research on climate change impacts has
humans’ interference with the Earth system, espe- focused on winter tourism, in particular in the
cially through substantial emissions of green- European Alps and North America. There is sub-
house gases (most notably carbon dioxide) and stantial evidence that climate change will impact
deforestation resulting in a loss of carbon sinks. on snow-based tourism as a result of deteriorating
The observed warming of the global climate sys- conditions and changing consumer demand.
tem is “unequivocal.” The last 100 years A wide range of adaptation measures have been
(1906–2005) saw a warming of 0.74 C on aver- researched and implemented by the industry,
age, with the Northern Hemisphere warming including artificial snow making, snow manage-
faster than the Southern Hemisphere. As a result ment, and product diversification (Scott
of thermal expansion of oceans, melting of et al. 2003).
Climate change 155
The impacts of climate change on coastal and realities. Questions have been asked, for example,
▶ island tourism have been researched more about the implications of increasing tourism
recently, with a particular focus on vulnerability demands of a growing world population and their
assessments, changes in tourist flows and visita- incompatibility with a scientifically and politically
tion patterns, the attractiveness of “last chance” negotiated carrying capacity of the atmosphere to
destinations, and cruiseship tourism opportuni- absorb greenhouse gases (Becken 2013).
ties. There is also evidence that destinations are While climate change is already relevant to C
starting to prepare for increasing extreme events. present-day tourism, many of the more significant
Examples include crisis management templates, changes are expected in the future. As a result, and
business toolkits, and the demand for destination in combination with multiple other non-climate-
disaster response plans (Becken and Hay 2012). related stressors (potential increases in oil prices),
it is challenging to provide credible scenarios for
this industry in the medium and long term. Future
Mitigation tourism research will need to delve further into
policy, the geopolitics, and ethical aspects. Such
According to ▶ UNWTO, tourism contributes complex questions may require new research
about 5 % to global greenhouse gas emissions approaches that are able to critically approach
(Scott et al. 2007). Measuring tourism’s “carbon inter-, or maybe even trans-, disciplinary issues
footprint” and exploring the so-called mitigation of high complexity.
responses that help reduce the impact of tourism
on the global climate have been a growing focus
See also ▶ Geography, ▶ low-carbon tourism,
of research from within and outside. Particular
▶ political science, ▶ slow tourism.
attention has been paid to aviation-related emis-
sions (and tourists’ perceptions thereof), land-
based transport and itineraries, carbon-efficient
products and philosophies (such as ▶ slow tour- References
ism), and energy use of properties in the accom-
modation sector. Becken, S. 2013 Tourism and Climate Change – An Evolv-
ing Knowledge Domain. Tourism Management Per-
The concept of “carbon management” spectives 6:53-62.
(Gössling 2010) and its focus on systematic mea- Becken, S., and J. Hay 2012 Climate Change and Tourism:
surement, technology, management, and educa- From Policy to Practice. London: Routledge.
tion have become more established among Gössling, S. 2010 Carbon Management in Tourism. Miti-
gating the Impacts on Climate Change. London:
tourism academics and practitioners. However, Routledge.
detailed studies, for example, on the potential of Gössling, S., D. Scott, C. Hall, J. Ceron, and G. Dubois
renewable energy sources for tourism, are still 2012 Consumer Behavior and Demand Response of
limited. Similarly, in-depth scholarly investiga- Tourists to Climate Change. Annals of Tourism
Research 39:36-58.
tions into tourism climate change policy are Pachauri, R., and A. Reisinger (eds.) 2007 Climate Change
scant. Some researchers have investigated the 2007: Synthesis Report. Contribution of Working
impact of mitigation policies (carbon taxes) on Groups I, II and III to the Fourth Assessment Report
tourism, indicating that only extremely high levels of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
Geneva: Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change.
of a carbon price would lead to significant changes Scott, D., B. Amelung, S. Becken, J. Ceron, G. Dubois,
in emission-relevant behavior. S. Gössling, P. Peeters, and M. Simpson 2007 Climate
The field of climate change and tourism Change and Tourism: Responding to Global Chal-
requires interdisciplinary research that embraces lenges. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Scott, D., G. McBoyle, and B. Mills 2003 Climate Change
the multifaceted nature of the industry and funda- and the Skiing Industry in Southern Ontario (Canada):
mental relationships among human interests (and Exploring the Importance of Snowmaking as a Techni-
values), economic opportunities, and ecological cal Adaptation. Climate Research 23(2):171-181.
156 Cluster analysis
nonhierarchical algorithms, classifies the observa-

Cluster analysis tions into a prespecified number of clusters fol-
lowing an iterative sequence that tries to obtain
Antonio Fernández-Morales well-differentiated homogenous clusters.
Departamento de Economía Aplicada, Facultad Approaches in this category are useful when the
de Ciencias Económicas y Empresariales, researcher has previous knowledge about the
Universidad de Málaga, Malaga, Spain number of clusters, while hierarchical approaches
can help the researcher determine the number of
clusters that best represents the nature of the data
Cluster analysis is a family of multivariate tech- structure.
niques used for identifying homogenous groups The final stages of cluster analysis are interpre-
of objects or individuals based on their similarities tation and validation. The former involves a
or dissimilarities in a set of measured variables. description of each cluster to identify the variables
The origins of this method can be found in the that best differentiate one cluster from another.
biological sciences, but the technique is currently The researcher’s experience and knowledge
used in a broad spectrum of research areas, includ- play a significant role at this juncture in order to
ing social sciences. obtain a meaningful description of each cluster. In
One of the most common applications of clus- addition, a validation of the resulting classifica-
ter analysis in tourism research is market segmen- tion is generally required to evaluate the stability
tation (Fredline 2012). The technique attempts to and the interpretation of the results (Everitt
identify homogenous subsets of tourists in order et al. 2011) by comparing them with the applica-
to better understand their preferences and needs tion to two or more independent samples or sub-
and to modify and adapt marketing efforts to samples or profiling the clusters with some
specific segments, thus allowing a more efficient exogenous variables not included in the algo-
allocation of resources. The variables could be rithm. Finally, some alternative methods such as
demographic, trip-related, motivations, expecta- Bagged and fuzzy clustering, or model-based
tions, and the like. techniques, are emerging with new interesting
A specific application to tourism is often seen applications in regional clustering, in data mining
in the study of its impacts on host communities of online surveys, and in the analysis of user-
(Aguiló Pérez and Rosselló Nadal 2005). Based generated content.
on survey data, the researcher may identify
well-differentiated clusters of residents according
to their attitudes toward its development, which See also ▶ Impact, ▶ marketing, ▶ segmentation.
are often labeled as “lovers,” “haters,” “the
cautious,” “realists,” and more. The technique
can also be applied to destinations or hotels to
obtain typologies based on their relevant References
characteristics.
Aguiló Pérez, E., and J. Rosselló Nadal 2005 Host Com-
Clustering methods can be grouped into two munity Perceptions: A Cluster Analysis. Annals of
general categories. Hierarchical algorithms begin Tourism Research 32:925-941.
by considering every case or individual as a clus- Everitt, B., S. Landau, M. Leese, and D. Stahl 2011 Cluster
ter. In each successive step, the two closest clus- Analysis. London: Wiley.
Fredline, E. 2012 Cluster Analysis. In Handbook of
ters are joined, ending the algorithm with a Research Methods in Tourism: Quantitative and Qual-
hierarchical structure of clusters in which the last itative Approaches, L. Dwyer, A. Gill and N. Seetaram,
one comprises all the cases. The second category, eds., pp.212-226. New York: Elgar.
Coastal tourism 157
resorts, beach walking, beach combing), nature-

Coastal tourism based and wildlife viewing (rock pooling, sea-
birds, turtles, pinnipeds), and volunteer and edu-
Michael Lueck1 and Mark Orams2 cational activities (beach cleanups, invasive weed
1
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland eradication, species counts, language schools,
University of Technology, Auckland, New museums). In many cases, coastal tourism is
Zealand closely linked with ▶ marine tourism. The coastal C
2
School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland zone is the departing and returning point for most
University of Technology, Auckland, New marine tourism activities, such as sailing, scuba
Zealand diving, cruising, deep sea fishing, and whale
watching. The spectrum of marine ▶ recreation
opportunities (Orams and L€uck 2013) is a model
The coastal zone is the interface between terres- that categorizes experiences relative to their dis-
trial and marine environments. While it makes up tance from shore and from human settlements, and
only 10 % of the world’s entire marine environ- illustrates the close relationship between coastal
ment and 15 % of the total landmass, it is home to and marine tourism.
90 % of all marine species, and about 60 % of the Compared to other forms of tourism, academic
global population live within 60 km of the coast interest in the coastal environments has been limited
(Dowling and Pforr 2009). Coastal areas are (Agarwal and Shaw 2007). The two main research
highly contested by a variety of user groups, areas are the management of negative impacts
including residents, primary, secondary, and ter- (pollution, land degradation, crowding, displace-
tiary industries, as well as tourists and ment) and the role of tourism as an agent for com-
recreationists. munity development. The International Coastal and
With the development of modern transport, Marine Tourism Society, the academic journal Tour-
coastal areas have become readily accessible, ism in Marine Environments, and regular world
with the coastlines and islands drawing large congresses on coastal and marine tourism provide
numbers of tourists to their shores. ▶ Europe bases for research in this field. Future research will
experienced the emergence of ▶ mass tourism focus on how climate change will effect coastal
development, with millions traveling to the destinations and how tourism development may
▶ Mediterranean coasts and islands on affordable improve livelihoods of local communities.
package tours. The rise of the Mediterranean hol-
idays resulted in a rapid decline of traditional See also ▶ Marine tourism, ▶ mass tourism,
seaside resorts in the ▶ United Kingdom. Only ▶ sport tourism, ▶ sun, sand, sea and sex, ▶ wild-
recently have these resort towns experienced a life tourism.
renaissance. For example, Blackpool of the
United Kingdom reinvented itself and has become
a prime ▶ destination for short domestic trips, References
aided by the rise of low cost airlines.
After an initial rapid increase in mass tourism Agarwal, S., and G. Shaw, eds. 2007 Managing Coastal
Tourism Resorts: A Global Perspective. Clevedon:
in the traditional ▶ holiday resorts of southern
Channel View.
Europe and the ▶ Caribbean (often referred to as Dowling, R., and C. Pforr, eds. 2009 Coastal Tourism
“sun, sand, and sex holidays”), today’s ▶ coastal Development. New York: Cognizant.
tourism includes a wide variety of activities: Orams, M., and M. L€uck 2013 Marine Systems and Tour-
ism. In Handbook of Tourism and the Natural Environ-
sports (beach volleyball, coasteering, surfing,
ment, A. Holden and D. Fennell, eds., pp.170-182.
kayaking), wellness stays (spa and wellness London: Routledge.
158 Coffee and tea tourism
experiences are found in meal services (as with

Coffee and tea tourism English afternoon tea) and at local festivals and
events.
Lee Jolliffe Coffee and tea tourism research has included
Faculty of Business, University of New assessments of the supply (Jolliffe 2007, 2010);
Brunswick, Saint John, NB, Canada various related tourism ▶ development cases, as
with tea tourism in Sri Lanka’s producing hill
country (Jolliffe and Aslam 2009); and review of
Coffee and tea are commonly consumed as bev- the tea and ▶ hospitality connection (Jolliffe
erages, at home and during ▶ travel. There is more 2006). More research is needed on ▶ tourist moti-
than consumption to experiencing and learning vations for experiences, fair trade certification,
about these beverages. Tourism offers the oppor- and living wages for plantation workers, as well
tunity to visit production sites and experience as on understanding how coffee- and tea-related
local coffee cultures and tea traditions. Coffee tourism is developing at destinations.
tourism is described as “being related to the con-
sumption of the coffee history, traditions, products
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ hospitality, ▶ market,
and culture of a destination” (Jolliffe 2010:9). Tea
▶ segmentation.
tourism is defined as “tourism that is motivated by
an interest in the history, traditions and consump-
tion of tea” (Jolliffe 2007:9).
References
Coffee- and tea-related tourism appeals to con-
sumers and enthusiasts of these products. The Hall, C. M. 2010 Blending Coffee and Fair Trade Hospi-
supply component includes the distinctive land- tality. In Coffee Culture, Destinations and Tourism,
scapes created by cultivation of the coffee bean or L. Jolliffe, ed., pp.159-71. Bristol: Channel View.
the tea leaf. Tourists can also learn about local Jolliffe, L. 2006 Tea and Hospitality: More than a Cuppa.
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
cultures through related rituals and ceremonies, Management 18:164-168.
visiting attractions (such as farms and exhibi- Jolliffe, L. 2007 Tea and Tourism: Tourists, Traditions and
tions), and cultivation trails. Coffee culture has Transformations. Clevedon: Channel View.
become globalized with the replication of offer- Jolliffe, L. 2010 Coffee Culture, Destinations and Tourism.
Bristol: Channel View.
ings, for example, by Starbucks, yet it is also Jolliffe, L., and M. Aslam 2009 Tea Heritage Tourism:
possible to experience the beverage at local Evidence from Sri Lanka. Journal of Heritage Tourism
cafes, presented in a glocal context. Tea culture 4(4), 331-344.
lends itself to tourism experiences where there is a
strong history of cultivation (including ▶ China,
▶ India, ▶ Sri Lanka) and consumption (the
▶ United Kingdom) or distinctive tea culture Cognition
experiences (as with the Japanese tea ceremony).
Both coffee- and tea-related tourism have the Caroline Winter
potential to improve local livelihoods, in the The Business School, Federation University
developing countries where most production Australia, Mt Helen, Australia
takes place as demonstrated by numerous devel-
opment projects. The fair trade coffee movement
also has the ability to create value for tourists Cognition underlies a vast field of research based
(Hall 2010) allowing consumers to affect on psychology which refers to processes of the
improved working conditions at production loca- mind such as information processing, perception,
tions. Coffee-related tourism could assist pro- decisionmaking, problem solving, memory, lan-
ducers to cultivate new markets, as with ▶ Costa guage, and attention. It can be studied from sev-
Rica’s Café Britt coffee ▶ tour. Tea-related eral perspectives including computer science,
Cognitive dissonance 159
neuroscience, linguistics, and philosophy. Pearce urgent global problems such as ▶ sustainability
and Stringer (1991) offer an overview of the diver- and ▶ climate change and to position tourism as
sity and benefits of psychological studies in tour- part of the solutions in cooperation with ▶ other
ism, including cognition. Given the diverse range disciplines.
of tourism activities, many other aspects of cog-
nitive psychology can also be relevant, but they See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ decisionmaking, ▶ quan-
have been more intensely studied in other disci- titative research. C
plines, for example, ▶ education, ▶ museum
studies, communication, and those dealing with
the protection of natural environments. References
The relevance of cognition to tourism is stron-
gest within social psychology, where it has been Eagly, A., and S. Chaiken 1993 The Psychology of Atti-
tudes. Fort Worth: Harcourt.
used, for example, to measure and identify pat-
Fishbein, M., and I. Ajzen 2010 Predicting and Changing
terns of interactions among and within in-groups Behavior: The Reasoned Action Approach. New York:
of tourists as well as individual differences Psychology Press.
(Pearce and Stringer 1991). This research is well Pearce, P., and P. Stringer 1991 Psychology and Tourism.
suited to quantitative methods such as exploratory
Pitts, R., and A. Woodside 1986 Personal Values and
and confirmatory factor analyses, and it offers Travel Decisions. Journal of Travel Research
great potential for understanding large and diverse 25(1):20-25.
samples. Sirakaya, E., and A. Woodside 2005 Building and Testing
Theories of Decision Making by Travelers. Tourism
Cognition-based constructs can be more effec-
Management 26:815-832.
tively used and understood when incorporated
into models in which they are associated with
affective and behavioral components (Eagly and
Chaiken 1993). Such models are often designed
for prediction, such as decisionmaking in relation Cognitive dissonance
to ▶ destination choice. An ▶ evaluation of tour-
ism applications of decisionmaking models can be Robert H. Woods
found in Sirakaya and Woodside (2005), in which William F. Harrah College of Hotel
they point out that it is necessary to consider a Administration, University of Nevada-Las Vegas,
range of models to determine the best fit for a Las Vegas, USA
given tourism context. Fishbein and Ajzen’s
(2010) updated theory of reasoned action and its
variations, which incorporates attitudes, norms, Cognitive dissonance was first developed by
behavioral intention, and behavior, has had wide- Festinger (1962), who described cognitions
spread use in a number of disciplines, and it has (thoughts, emotions, attitudes, behaviors) as con-
yet more potential for use in tourism contexts. An sonant when they are in agreement. Thus, when
early application of values within a ▶ leisure con- one behaves in a way that is in agreement with
text is Pitts and Woodside’s (1986) study of eight his/her beliefs, the cognitions are consonant but
attractions using various quantitative techniques. feel dissonance when their actions are not in
This study also illustrates how cognitive-based agreement. When disagreement is present, one
variables can be used to create segments for use experiences unpleasant psychological emotions.
in tourism ▶ planning and ▶ marketing. This is true for most people but not true for people
Perception is a further useful construct for like serial killers, serial liars, and so on (Garrison
destination-based assessments, and it has been 1996).
applied with respect to authenticity and environ- Cognitive dissonance can occur in many ways.
mental conditions. The ▶ future for tourism For instance, Hochschild (1983) described a the-
research in this topic area will be to focus on ory of emotional labor. According to this theory,
160 Co-integration
when people behave in ways that are not conso- Festinger, L. 1962 Cognitive Dissonance. Scientific Amer-
nant with their beliefs, attitudes, and knowledge, ican 207:93-107.
Garrison, A. 1996 The Catathymic Crisis: An Explanation
they experience emotional labor or psychological of the Serial Killer. Journal of Police and Criminal
suffering similar to or the same as cognitive dis- Psychology 11(1):5-12
sonance. When a server in a ▶ restaurant is Hochschild, A. 1983 The Managed Heart. Berkeley: Uni-
responsible for five tables, for instance, and versity of California Press.
Wicklund, R., and J. Brehm 2013 Perspectives on Cogni-
behaves differently for each one – in order to tive Dissonance: Complex Human Behavior. New
please the guest(s) – he/she can suffer from emo- York: Taylor and Francis.
tional labor. This might also be called emotional
or cognitive dissonance. Hochschild described
various scenarios in which this can take a toll on
a person’s psyche and cause emotional distress.
The same stress is experienced when workers Co-integration
are forced to comply with orders which they may
know are not ethical. Workers may feel significant Vera Shanshan Lin
animosity with their boss or employer which can Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
lead to workplace burnout or actions to “get even
with” employers (Aquino et al. 2006). Actions
from lowered productivity to sabotage may The inclusion of nonstationary variables in a
occur. This outcome is often the result of what regression model can lead to spurious regression.
is called forced compliance (Wicklund and Brehm The co-integration technique developed by Engle
2013). and Granger (1987), along with the error correc-
Like other “foundational” theories in organization models, can solve the spurious regression
tional behavior and psychology, cognitive disso- problem in econometric modeling. They suggest
nance has been largely taken for granted in the that if a pair of nonstationary variables (e.g.,
recent past. It is not known, for instance, how arrivals and income) belongs to the same eco-
millennials respond to cognitive dissonance. nomic system (Figure 1), there should be an
Future tourism research could also look at attractor that pushes the economy back toward
whether more or less dissonance is felt when equilibrium whenever it moves away.
texting or using social media, or how it affects A stationary series is denoted I(0), and a
the workplace in tourism. Is increased violence at nonstationary series is known as I(d), suggesting
work due to lower levels of cognitive dissonance? that the latter will become stationary after being
Can ▶ hospitality and tourism employees be differenced d times. If the linear combination of
pretested to determine risk? Does internet access two nonstationary series yt and xt is integrated
cause tourism researchers to “borrow” more ideas with order (d-b), where b > 0, then yt and xt are
without proper attribution? said to be co-integrated. This co-integration rela-
tionship can be denoted as (yt, xt) ~ CI (d, b). This
two-variable case definition can be extended to a
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ employment, ▶ ethics, k-variable co-integration system.
▶ psychology, ▶ work. The application of co-integration in tourism
research started to appear since mid-1990s. The
advantage of co-integration approach lies in its
References ability to provide estimates of long-run equilib-
rium relationships and short-term dynamics for
Aquino, K., T. Tripp, and R. Bies 2006 Getting Even or the purpose of long-term tourism planning and
Moving on? Power, Procedural Justice, and Types of
Offense as Predictors of Revenge, Forgiveness, Recon-
short-term business forecasting and managerial
ciliation, and Avoidance in Organizations. Journal of decisions. Kulendran (1996) was among the first
Applied Psychology 91:653-668. to adopt this technique in tourism demand
Colombia 161
Visitor Arrivals from China to Hong Kong (log) enhancing the power of such tests. This newly
Real Income of China (log)
18 developed approach can provide more conclusive
16
findings compared with the existing individual
14
co-integration tests for future applications of the
method in tourism demand studies.
12
10
See also ▶ Causal model, ▶ demand modeling, C
8
▶ econometrics, ▶ error correction model,
6 ▶ forecasting.
4
2
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
References
Differenced Visitor Arrivals from China to Hong Kong (log)
Differenced Real Income of China (log)
.8 Bayer, C., and C. Hanck 2013 Combining
Non-Cointegration Tests. Journal of Time Series Anal-
.6
ysis 34:83-95.
.4 Engle, R., and C. Granger 1987 Cointegration and Error
Correction: Representation, Estimation and Testing.
.2
Econometrica 55:251-276.
.0 Johansen, S. 1988 Statistical Analysis of Cointegration
–.2 Vectors. Journal of Economic Dynamics and Control
12:231-254.
–.4
Kulendran, N. 1996 Modelling Quarterly Tourist Flows to
–.6 Australia Using Cointegration Analysis. Tourism Eco-
–.8
nomics 2:203-222.
1996 1998 2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 Pesaran, M., Y. Shin, and R. Smith 2001 Bounds Testing
Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships.
Co-integration, Figure 1 Comparison of nonstationary Journal of Applied Econometrics 16:289-326.
(left) and stationary (right) time series
modeling study, which identified both the long-

run equilibrium and short-run disequilibrium rela- Colombia
tionships among a set of demand variables. Sub-
sequently, a large number of studies have applied Javier de León and Carmelo J. León
this method to address a variety of topics on Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic
tourism ▶ demand modeling and ▶ forecasting. Development, Universidad de Las Palmas de
The two main approaches to co-integration are Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
single-equation residual-based and system-based
analyses (Engle and Granger 1987; Johansen
1988). One precondition for the above tests is The Republic of Colombia is located in the north-
that all variables in the co-integration regression west of South America and is the only country
should be integrated with the same order. But bordering the Pacific Ocean and the ▶ Caribbean
different orders of integration are found in recent Sea (Figure 1). It has an area of 1,141,748 km2
studies. For example, the autoregressive distrib- (440,831 mi2) and a population of 47 million. In
uted lag bounds test proposed by Pesaran 2012, Colombia was the 28th in the world in terms
et al. (2001) is applicable irrespective of the inte- of gross domestic product.
gration order. The test results are highly sensitive Colombia possesses both natural and cultural
to the choice of techniques as no uniformly attractions, offering sun and ▶ beach tourism,
acceptable test exists. The idea of combining dif- ▶ ecotourism, ▶ history and a rich cultural heri-
ferent co-integration tests proposed by Bayer and tage, ▶ rural tourism, sports and adventure,
Hanck (2013) offers a new perspective on ▶ medical tourism, and conferences and
162 Colonialism
this positioning of the industry, currently the

country does not offer attractive undergraduate
and postgraduate programs at its public and pri-
vate ▶ universities.
Colombia currently has a somewhat negative
image as a destination, and there is a need to
launch world-class international promotion and
marketing campaigns to address this issue. There
is also a need to address the environmental
impacts of tourism with careful planning, profes-
sional training, and research. Other research
topics of interest include ▶ tourist safety, the sig-
nificance of sustainability in the ▶ development
and ▶ management of tourism, as well as poverty
alleviation through tourism.
See also ▶ Biological diversity, ▶ competitive

advantage, ▶ image, ▶ planning, ▶ safety and
Colombia, Figure 1 Map of Colombia security.
conventions. Popular attractions include the his-

torical district of La Candelaria in Bogota, the References
Port, Fortresses and Group of Monuments of Car-
tagena de Indias, the Rosario Islands National MCIT 2009 Competitividad: El Desafío para Alcanzar un
Turismo de Clase Mundial. Colombia: Ministry of
Park, the Tayrona National Natural Park, the
Commerce, Industry and Tourism.
Archipelago of San Andres and Providencia, the Rangel-Buitrago, N., I. Correa, G. Anfuso, A. Ergin, and
historic center of Santa Marta, and the desert and A. Williams 2013 Assessing and Managing Scenery of
the beaches of La Guajira. the Caribbean Coast of Colombia. Tourism Manage-
ment 35:41-58.
In 2012, the tourism ▶ industry contributed
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism. Economic Impact 2013:
5.3 % to its GDP and is expected to reach 6 % in Colombia. London: World Travel and Tourism
2013. In the same year, tourism employed about Council.
436,000 people (2.2 % of the active labor force),
which is expected to increase by 4.3 % in 2013
(WTTC 2013:1). Approximately 80 % of tourism
in Colombia is domestic. Peak seasons are linked Colonialism
with national holidays and are observed in
December to February and July to August Christine Buzinde
(Rangel-Buitrago et al. 2013: 46). International School of Community Resources and
arrivals have grown steadily in recent years; in Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix,
2012, there were 1.69 million arrivals, which rep- AZ, USA
resent an increase of 7 % compared with 2011.
With the principal aim to make Colombia a
world-class ▶ destination, the Ministry of Com- Colonialism denotes the extension of certain
merce, Industry and Tourism has established a set European powers into ▶ Africa, Asia, and the
of guidelines within the tourism competitiveness ▶ Americas during and long after the sixteenth
policy (MCIT 2009:11). As a result of this policy, century (Loomba 2005). It was characterized by
tourism is considered as one of the most important the existence of an imperial nation from where
sectors for Colombia’s economic growth. Despite ▶ power was exerted upon a colony in the form of
Colonialism 163
domination and control. Colonialism and imperi- of domination and problematize colonial prac-
alism are two terms often used synonymously. tices. This nascent body of literature has contrib-
However, the two can be distinguished by the uted to the formation of postcolonial studies and
fact that the latter was the ideological framework the genesis of the critical “voice” within
and form of governance from which the former postcolonial analyses. Furthermore, it has facili-
was practiced. Colonialism involved the appropri- tated critical interrogations into “the effects of
ation of land and creation of colonies. It embodied colonization on cultures and societies” (Ashcroft C
imperial ▶ power vis-à-vis “the implanting of set- et al. 1998: 186). Generally, postcolonial analyses
tlements on a distant territory” (Said 1993: 9). indicate that many of the structures of power
The creation of settlements/communities in evident within contemporary society are com-
colonial territories by colonizers resulted in the plexly linked to colonial history. Scholars increas-
deconstruction and reconstruction of existing ingly speak of the recrudescence of a colonial
communities and their identities (Spivak 1999). ideology in the form of neocolonialism, which is
Indeed, the process of colonialism differed by described as the continual economic manipulation
nation; however, similarities were evident in the of former colonies by former colonial powers
unyielding definition of the relationship between (Ashcroft et al. 1998).
the colonizers and the colonized. Colonialism Neocolonialism is exemplified in “partner-
ignored the presence of locals and it regarded the ships” between non-Western governments, West-
encounter between the two “as an innocent act of ern financial entities interested in high returns that
occupying a vacant land, an inscription on a cripple borrowing economies (International
‘tabula rasa,’ a discovery rather than conquest” Development Bank), and Western investors
(Spivak 1999: 216). The implanting of settle- looking for favorable commercial policies,
ments involved practices, such as “trade, negotia- including multinational tourism corporations
tions, warfare, genocide, enslavement and (Pattullo 1996). Such partnerships disempower
rebellions” (Loomba 2005: 8). Colonizers also former colonies and force (through trade restric-
forced changes in the schooling of colonized tions) them into policies and conditions that favor
populations. In this respect, colonialism was not former colonial powers. The field of postcolonial
just the exploitation of political and economic studies draws on notions of democracy, social
arenas. It was also an appropriation of culture justice, resistance, and emancipation to
and identity (Loomba 2005). problematize racism, discrimination, and exploi-
tation embodied in the colonial and neocolonial
condition. It also unveils aspects of agency and
Critical inquiry into the colonial past resistance enacted by members of formerly colo-
nized nations.
The practices of forceful appropriation and
prolonged exploitation of local populations and
lands that characterized colonialism were often Colonialism and tourism studies
documented, by colonizers, in a variety of textual
forms, including literary texts, government docu- Postcolonial theory is increasingly influencing the
ments, plaques on national monuments, media field of tourism studies, because scholars have
accounts, maps, and personal letters. Critical found it useful in responding to the various man-
interrogation of the colonial discourses embodied ifestations of colonialism evident within destina-
in such texts reveals the predominance of stereo- tions located in former colonies (Hollinshead
typical portrayals of colonized peoples as primi- 1998). Tourism scholars have adopted
tive, immoral, vulnerable, and/or timeless postcolonial frameworks to examine identity and
(Buzinde and Osagie 2011). representation, as well as to critically interrogate
Ardent opponents of colonial rule in the colo- the cultural, social, economic, environmental,
nies have also compiled texts that document years and/or political encounters that characterize the
164 Commercialization
touristic experience in former colonies. These Loomba, A. 2005 Colonialism/Postcolonialism: A New

critical approaches to research have enabled Critical Idiom. New York: Routledge.
Pattullo, P. 1996 Last Resorts: The Cost of Tourism in
scholars to examine the legacies of colonialism the Caribbean. Kingston, Jamaica: Ian Randle
manifest in the practices and structures of tourism. Publishers.
For instance, critical examinations of the discur- Said, E. 1993 Culture and Imperialism. New York: Alfred
sive frames adopted by some Western-based tour- A. Knopf.
Spivak, G. 1999 A Critique of Post-colonial Reason
ism agencies (destination marketing toward a History of the Vanishing Present. Cambridge:
organizations, heritage centers, study abroad pro- Harvard University Press.
grams) unveil an overreliance on stereotypical
portrayals of former colonized peoples.
Tourism scholarship has been pertinent and
sympathetic to the colonized ▶ Other; it has none-
theless been framed from the perspective of the, Commercialization
often removed, Western researcher and thus rarely
takes into account the local issues as articulated, Alan Clarke
lived, and dealt with by members of former colo- Faculty of Economics, University of Pannonia,
nies. In their preface to the 2008 Handbook of Veszprém, Hungary
Critical and Indigenous Methodologies, Norman
Denzin and Yvonne Lincoln call for a decolonial
approach to research that addresses issues that Commercialization is the transformation of cul-
matter to oppressed, colonized persons living in tural forms, both tangible and intangible, through
postcolonial situations of injustice. The fulfill- the application of business values and the invest-
ment of this call requires the researcher to undergo ment of capital, which is often also seen as involv-
a reflection process wherein she/he critically ques- ing or creating a market economy.
tions how her/his epistemic location, which tends Commercialization is often defined tautologically
to be predominantly Western, privileges her/his as the introduction of the commercial to the
perceptions of formerly colonized people and production or development of new forms of
places. Such a reflection process is a necessary business. This reveals more if the values
foundation on which a decolonial research agenda underpinning the concept of the commercial are
can be formulated so as to address the nuances and explored. It can be observed that people do
complexities of tourism, especially in former increasingly live not only in a market
colonies. economy but also in a market society – which
means that the market and its categories of
thought have come to dominate over more areas
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ critical tourism of everyday lives.
studies, ▶ decolonization, ▶ economic develop- This is well demonstrated throughout the
ment, ▶ political science. ▶ history of tourism as the origins of the ▶ hos-
pitality relationships and the ability to ▶ travel
have been transformed by the injection of capital
and the recognition of the success criteria of cap-
References italism. Commercialization also involves the
introduction of standardization, with the added
Ashcroft, B., G. Griffiths, and H. Tiffin (eds.) 1998 Key
Concepts in Post-colonial Studies. London: Routledge. necessity for replicability and repeatability in the
Buzinde, C., and I. Osagie 2011 William Wells Brown: touristic offer. Standardization is often related to
Fugitive Subjectivity, Travel Writing, and the Gaze. achieving economies of scale in production pro-
Cultural Studies 25:405-425. cesses; however, the market tendency of the last
Hollinshead, K. 1998 Tourism, Hybridity, and Ambiguity:
The Relevance of Bhabha’s ‘Third Space’ Cultures. decades has increased mass customization, a com-
Journal of Leisure Studies 30:121-156. bination of individualization and mass production
Commercialization 165
while still keeping the underpinning values of the souvenirs (Swanson and Timothy 2012) where
market. even the simplest item is the result of the complex
processes underpinning commercialization. This
is more than the accounts of negative impacts in
Characteristics traditional tourism texts as the examples demon-
strate how original social practices, rituals, and
These characteristics may be contrasted with the gifts are transformed into abstract baubles of the C
spontaneity and individualized forms claimed for consumer society.
early tourism. However, tourism has always These processes also lead to standardization
included an element of the commercial even and the spread of commercialized forms through-
where it was based on voluntary and mutual out the world. The processes of globalization refer
exchanges of hospitality, but this is changing as to more than the spread of an economic model as it
can be seen even in rural homes in ▶ Thailand is also a cultural and discursive force in the
(Kontogeorgopoulos et al. 2015). The exchanges ▶ development of tourism. However, there have
were based within the contemporary economy and been objections to the homogeneity implied in
not as part of the development of a specialized this process and there have been calls to
economy. There has been much debate on the introduce and retain elements of the local in the
developments of standardized ▶ mass tourism process known as glocalization (Ritzer and
versus individualized tourism, especially around Atalay 2010).
the concept of new tourism, which exists within
the market and the processes of
commercialization. Questions for future research
Commercialization can be seen to involve a
number of processes. These include commodifi- The examinations of commercialization call into
cation which “is generally taken to be the process question the changes involved in these processes
whereby ways of life, traditions and their complex and explore whether those changes can retain any
symbolism are imaged and transformed into sale- sense of the authentic. Commercialization and
able products” (Robinson 1999: 11). While com- especially overcommercialization raise important
modification is certainly not a recent innovation, discussions about the elements of authenticity
what is new is its scope and power. It has become which would need to be retained for a commer-
intensified and institutionalized in new and cialized offer to be able to speak to authenticity
far-reaching ways, carrying meanings that (Clarke 2014; Papanicolaou 2011).
reconfigure the understanding of the world and It is also important to recognize the processes
the place of humanities within it. The very char- of commercialization require a sense of agency.
acter of life seems increasingly consumeristic and The developments are driven by entrepreneurs
commercial, which can therefore be seen as a who drive the process and seek the avenues to
parallel of commercialization. make the offers more profitable. The forces, pres-
Ritzer and Atalay (2010) develop the concept sures, and cultural changes which drive commer-
further through their analyses of McDonaldization cialization are gathering greater influence. It is
and Disneyfication as their observations produce a difficult to find anything which is resistant to
generalized view of the Americanization of com- commercialization (Clarke 2013). Future research
mercialization under the perceived hegemonic needs to examine what happens to democracy and
influences of the two giant corporations and the political order, marriage and the family, ▶ religion
spread of their products. However, not only does and morality, and ▶ identity and humanistic
the argument work on a grand scale, it is also understanding when they are reconceptualized
possible to see the impacts on a local level. For under commercialization. What sorts of changes
instance, it has been argued that the processes play occur when basic relationships are seen as
a great part in the production and consumption of commodities? Are there any realistic alternatives
166 Community development
to a consumer society dominated by share a common interest such as a retirement or

commercialization? professional community, those who share values
like a church congregation or an ethnic group, or
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ entrepreneurship, virtual communities such as Facebook or Twitter.
▶ globalization, ▶ hospitality. In the case of tourism, a community is typically
based on a geographic ▶ location such as a town
or city. A set of towns or cities that share some
form of identity or geography and act as a region
References might be described as a host community.
The basic concept of community development
Clarke, A. 2013 Value Creation - Creating Values: Contra- refers to community members coming together in
dictions and Constraints in the Development of
Religious Tourism. Pannon Management Review
a collective action to solve shared problems or
2(1):49-70. seize opportunities. Community development in
Clarke, A. 2014 Culture and Authenticity in Food and the tourism realm is focused on tourism as a
Wine Events. In Food and Wine Events in Europe, means to empower people and provide them
A. Cavicchi and C. Santini, eds., pp.45-57. London:
Routledge.
with skills to advance their local communities.
Kontogeorgopoulos, N., A. Churyen, and V. Duangsaeng Community wellbeing often evolves from this
2015 Homestay Tourism and the Commercialization of type of collective action being taken at a grassroot
Rural Home in Thailand. Asia Pacific Journal of Tour- level. Many communities can trace their origins to
ism Research 20:29-50.
Papanicolaou, A. 2011 Authenticity and Commodification.
early settlers discovering some type of natural
In Controversies in Tourism, O. Moufakkir and resources that sustained their ability to live in
P. Burns, eds., pp.41-53. Wallingford: CABI. that location and prosper as a society. Governance
Ritzer, G., and Z. Atalay (eds.) 2010 Readings in Global- would likely have involved the residents agreeing
ization. Chichester: Wiley.
Robinson, M. 1999 Cultural Conflicts in Tourism. In Tour-
on social norms and policies, as well as creating
ism and Cultural Conflicts, M. Robinson and some form of funding to pay for their community
P. Boniface, eds., pp.1-32. Wallingford: CABI. activities. Tourism, in some communities,
Swanson, K., and D. Timothy 2012 Souvenirs: Icons of occurred “organically” as a place of services for
Meaning, Commercialization and Commoditization.
those traveling to or through, while elsewhere
development was planned and marketed to attract
▶ leisure or business tourists. Today, communi-
ties across the globe are accessible by tourists as
the ability to ▶ travel almost anywhere in the
Community development world has greatly expanded over the past
100 years. While not all communities develop
Christine A. Vogt1 and Evan J. Jordan2 for tourism, most can claim they host tourists.
1
School of Community Resources and Communities ranging from small rural destina-
Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, tions to massive cities appeal to various interests,
AZ, USA and each can prosper as a ▶ destination in
2
School of Travel Industry Management, differing ways.
University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, USA Tourism ▶ development is planned and
implemented at many levels. The development
scale can range from an individual or business to
A community is one type or scale for describing a a state, country, or continent, whereas the com-
place or collection of people. Traditional defini- munity scale exists somewhere between a busi-
tions use a village, town, or city as examples of a ness developing a hotel, resort, or attraction and a
community. Contemporary examples of a com- larger government entity managing a state or
munity might include a group of people who national program. Examples of development
Community development 167
scale that are smaller and larger than community- water for personal, recreational, or agricultural
level development would be Disney Corporation and fisheries uses is essential for human existence.
building a new resort in Orlando, Florida, as Clean air is another necessary feature of the
business-level development, compared to “Visit environment that influences the health and
Florida,” a state-level tourism ▶ marketing wellbeing of a community. Additionally, land
agency, creating a statewide advertising cam- use or the policies that guide development pat-
paign. Community scale development would be terns are important to tourism, as land use can C
the city of Orlando, in collaboration with the determine the density and size of a community
municipal and county government, the Orlando and ultimately the character and attractiveness
Visitor Bureau, Orlando Regional Chamber of of a place.
Commerce, and other organizations and govern- Tourism can positively ▶ impact the environ-
ment agencies, working together on tourism ment by preserving culture or the former uses of
development. This might include developing and an environment or conserving natural resources
improving the tourism ▶ system, attracting tour- by setting aside land for public ownership that
ists, creating jobs, generating tax revenues and allows universal access. Tourism depends on a
fees to pay for tourism marketing and manage- healthy environment for outdoor activities that
ment, and enhancing local amenities and preserv- may be part of a community’s heritage and its
ing local culture, natural resources, and future economy. Outdoor activities popular in
community identity (Pearce 1989). many community settings include hiking, biking,
Community tourism provides a platform to fishing, hunting, swimming, and ▶ sightseeing in
develop community spaces and facilities or ser- a natural landscape. Tourism policies can be used
vices that appeal to and satisfy tourists, as well as to control environmental damage or the loss of
provide for improved quality of life for its resi- public access to natural resources and to form
dents. Facilities are typically managed and conservation programs to encourage residents’
financed by the government, but nonprofits, busi- and tourists’ enjoyment and stewardship of the
nesses, and individuals are increasingly being environment (Tang 2015).
asked to participate in improving the conditions.
Community services are intangible in nature and
include public safety, amenities, and the staging of Economics and business development
events, including festivals, sport events, and out-
door ▶ recreation. At the heart of community development is eco-
The character of community tourism develop- nomic and business performance. Leaders aim to
ment is in alignment with other planning initiatives attract new businesses and simultaneously retain
such as the masterplan, assessments or inventory of and grow existing economic engines. The sustain-
elements of the tourism system, or an audit of a ability of a business or the nonprofit or govern-
community’s web presence. Community tourism ment operations translate into employment for
development can have impacts on the environmen- existing and new residents, reduced unemploy-
tal, economic, sociocultural, and managerial sys- ment, and lower public costs from a nonworking
tems. Future community tourism ▶ planning is an labor force, as well as the creation of taxes and
important agent in global advancement and sus- fees that pay for the incurring costs (Sinclair
tainability (Choi and Murray 2010). 1998).
The tourism ▶ industry can play an important
role in the strength of a community’s economy. Its
Environment policies for economic growth include encourag-
ing residents and businesses to buy within their
All communities exist within a physical or natural community, stimulating local investors and
setting. The availability of plentiful and clean locally owned businesses, and repurposing former
168 Community development
manufacturing sites into new housing, shopping, Planning and management

innovative business start-ups, and art galleries.
Most tourism businesses are entrepreneurial and A plan clarifies the path that is to be taken and the
often family owned and managed. Web-based desired outcomes. Without planning, there is the
marketing can cost-effectively expose localized risk that an activity will be unregulated, formless,
businesses to tourists from across the globe. or haphazard and lead to a range of negative
environmental, economic, and sociocultural
impacts. One way to promote community tourism
Sociocultural considerations development that accounts for these impacts is
through planning and policies. Tourism
Tourism development at the community level will policymaking and planning should be inclusive
likely incorporate some elements of local culture of community stakeholder groups including but
and social norms. The subtle sociocultural differ- not limited to: governmental organizations, com-
ences between communities help differentiate munity residents, destination marketing organiza-
them from one another. Depending on the type tions, cultural and heritage organizations,
of tourism in a community, sociocultural unique- educational organizations, environmental organi-
ness can be helped or hindered by tourism devel- zations, social and health organizations, tourism
opment. For the development to be sustainable, industry sectors, and tourists. Specifically, a plan
communities must find a balance between cultural outlines the direction of the desired development
education and maintenance of local identities in based on grounded input from stakeholder groups.
order to prevent cultural tokenism or Tourism policy provides managers of organiza-
trinketization. Tourism that promotes bidirec- tions with guidance for how to proceed with
tional acculturation, or a meaningful cultural development activities. An effective policy will
exchange between tourists and residents, ensures embody the philosophy of a community,
a balance in the host/guest relationship. representing the character of its inhabitants and
A balanced relationship will allow authentic expe- outlining a vision for the community as a
riences that provide increased levels of satisfac- destination.
tion and may induce positive word-of-mouth Based upon the overarching principles of pol-
marketing for the community and repeat business icy, tourism plans outline specific goals and objec-
from the ▶ tourist. tives that provide communities with a road map to
Community development should consider guide efforts through the process of becoming
local resident attitudes toward tourism and its their ideal destination (Bramwell and Lane
affect on quality of life, especially in small 2010). Such a plan is one independently created
or rural destinations (Sharpley 2014). Residents element of an overall master or comprehensive
of communities developed for tourism tend to roadmap, guiding development in all aspects of
evaluate their social exchanges with tourists in a the community (Gunn 1988). A great deal of
cost-benefit analysis. If the economic benefit of information is compiled in a comprehensive
social interaction is high enough, negative plan. A thorough understanding of internal com-
sociocultural impacts (e.g., demonstration effect) munity characteristics, such as infrastructure,
can be ignored. However, unmitigated negative product and service inventory, residents’ attitudes
impacts can have a detrimental effect on the toward tourism development, and the environ-
quality of life in host communities. Community mental and social carrying capacity are essential
tourism development resulting in negative to the plan. Similarly, external characteristics like
sociocultural impacts can create a hostile demand, profile of current tourists, competition,
environment for tourists and a reduction in and regional/national/international economic con-
service quality. ditions are required to inform the creation of a
Community-based tourism 169
community tourism plan. Importantly, a plan fea- become a liability or eyesore. Tourism develop-
tures the overall goals and measurable objectives ment that creates thriving and resilient communi-
for the community. The plan defines specific ties as physical places or collections of people will
actions to meet goals and objectives, which are gain world-class status and succeed on many
responsible for implementation, funding, and levels.
evaluation. One type of planning initiative is mar-
keting newly created developments (Heath and See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ community-based tour- C
Wall 1992). ism, ▶ economic development, ▶ planning,
Management and financing of marketing cam- ▶ sustainability.
paigns can fall onto a variety of individuals and
organizations such as chambers of commerce,
destination marketing organizations, development
authorities, and government agencies. In many References
cases, a budget that might come from an appro-
priation, direct tax revenues, grants, or other com- Bramwell, B., and B. Lane 2010 Sustainable Tourism and
the Evolving Roles of Government Planning. Journal of
mercial activities is used to hire private marketing Sustainable Tourism 18:1-5.
firms with creative resources to successfully pro- Choi, C., and I. Murray 2010 Resident Attitudes toward
mote a destination. In the past, the marketing of Sustainable Community Tourism. Journal of Sustain-
destinations has been conducted using traditional able Tourism 18:575-594.
Edgell, D. 2006 Managing Sustainable Tourism: A Legacy
media sources like television, radio, newspaper, for the Future. New York: Haworth.
and magazine; however, an increasing number of Gunn, C. 1988 Tourism Planning. New York: Taylor and
host communities are turning to the internet as a Francis.
less expensive alternative. Social media and web Heath, E., and G. Wall 1992 Marketing Tourism Destina-
tions: A Strategic Planning Approach. New York:
2.0 sites such as Facebook, Yelp, and TripAdvisor Wiley.
allow for targeted marketing campaigns that Pearce, D. 1989 Tourist Development. New York: Wiley.
would otherwise be impossible with traditional Sharpley, R. 2014 Host Perceptions of Tourism: A Review
media sources. Attracting the desired type of tour- of the Research. Tourism Management 42:37-49.
Sinclair, M. 1998 Tourism and Economic Development:
ists can result in a better tourism experience for A Survey. Journal of Development Studies 34(5):1-51.
the host and guest alike. Tang, Z. 2015 An Integrated Approach to Evaluating the
In closing, tourism development is ripe for Coupling Coordination between Tourism and the Envi-
sustainable practices and can be an environmen- ronment. Tourism Management 46:11-19.
tal, economic, or sociocultural competitive advan-
tage for many communities across the globe
(Edgell 2006). Community development that
helps conserve natural resources, maximizes Community-based tourism
equitable distribution of economic benefits, and
allows for positive, bidirectional acculturation Heather Mair
between hosts and guests is possible through the Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies,
careful crafting of tourism policies and strategies. University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
Including local stakeholders in policymaking and
planning activities promotes a pluralist ▶ power
structure, putting decisionmaking in the hands of Community-based tourism is both an idea about
the many rather than the few. Future research and an approach to the ▶ development and
should aim to include representative stakeholders, ▶ planning of tourism. Its notion rests on the
particularly citizens as tax payers, so that assumption that the success (and ▶ sustainability)
developments achieve “asset” status rather than of tourism requires the involvement of those who
170 Community-based tourism
are affected by the development. Approaches to evaluation of the outcome of tourism develop-
community-based tourism consider how and why ment (the product) are overshadowed by a focus
those who are affected by tourism are (or should on how it has taken place (the process). Studies
be) involved in its development. Broadly speak- offering broad reviews abound (Okazaki 2008),
ing, community-based tourism takes as its starting and the discourse is full of additional descriptors,
point a concern with the needs and desires of including collaborative, participatory, and sus-
members of the host community. tainable. There are also strong critiques of the
concept, particularly in terms of its conceptual
development and tendency to over-romanticize
Concept the role of planning and development and to
ignore ▶ power differentials, which are rife in
Interest in community-based approaches to tourism community life.
development began as a response to concerns about Blackstock’s (2005) powerful reflections
the impacts of the industry on the social, environ- encouraged one to ask what is meant by the very
mental, political, and economic aspects of the host notion of community and identified a failure to
community. As Murphy (1985) and others have address the complexity and heterogeneity of its
argued, tourism that is not supported by the local members. For those concerned with the processes
residents cannot last. While Murphy is often of participatory planning, questions remain with
credited with making one of the most influential regard to expectation that community members
arguments for taking into account the views of are appropriately skilled or even interested in
members of the host community, the community- issues of tourism development (Tosun 2000). Fur-
based tourism literature draws heavily from plan- ther, Mair and Reid (2007) evaluated the pro-
ning and stakeholder theory and is part of a broader cesses and wondered whether they are adequate
shift towards participatory approaches to commu- for engendering broader social change. Bramwell
nity planning and development. (2004) and others have asked hard questions
In this way, and since Murphy’s work, the term about what have been predominantly Westernized
has evolved from an approach to addressing, alle- assumptions about participation and engagement
viating, or even preventing the direct and often relating to community-based tourism.
unintended impacts of tourism. It has taken on the Despite these valid concerns and critiques,
function of combatting seemingly broader issues community-based tourism remains an ever-
such as poverty, inequality, empowerment, own- growing area of scholarly and practical interest.
ership, and control. As well, the growing interest It is a powerful and influential notion. This area of
in community-based tourism (in both the schol- scholarship has grown rapidly, and the dramatic
arly and the practical realms) is a manifestation of growth of researchers and tourism development
an epistemological shift where “expert” knowl- practitioners from around the world can help those
edge is subjected to popular scrutiny (even cyni- interested in community-based tourism as the
cism), as members of communities feel inclined ▶ work continues to improve the understanding
and even obligated to be part of matters that affect and to develop better processes for community
them (Friedmann 1987). This shift from so-called engagement.
“top-down” to “bottom-up” approaches to gover-
nance has had an influence on approaches to tour-
ism development and policymaking. Future directions
New methodological approaches, particularly

Studying community-based tourism those situated in relatively new areas within tour-
ism scholarship, such as ▶ critical studies and
One main theme undergirds the study of interpretivism, can broaden and enhance the
community-based tourism: consideration and study and practice of community-based tourism
Comoros 171
development. In particular, feminist conceptuali-

zations of power and methods of engagement, as Comoros
well as critical assessments of participatory plan-
ning, offer new and exciting avenues, both for Martine Bakker1 and Patricia Rajeriarison2
1
providing grounded critiques of existing Tisch Center for Hospitality, Tourism, and Sports
community-based tourism efforts and for devel- Management, New York University,
oping new methods. New York, USA C
2
In addition to these new avenues, researchers Alter Ego Development, Antananarivo,
must continue to engage the notion of community- Madagascar
based tourism critically and with great rigor. Ques-
tions such as “who is the community?” and “how
can one best understand and integrate the views of The Union of the Comoros consists of three of the
community members into tourism planning and four main islands in the Comoros Archipelago:
development?” are essential to achieving a mean- Ngazidja, Ndzwani, and Mwali. The fourth iland,
ingful level of community input and control. Fur- Mayotte, is a French overseas department. The
thermore, as the environmental impacts of major island group is located in the Indian Ocean
components of the tourism ▶ industry (including, between ▶ Mozambique and ▶ Madagascar and
but not limited to, air ▶ travel and water usage) covers a total surface of 2,170 km2 (838 mi2) with
become increasingly clear, researchers need to a population of 717,500 (Figure 1). The country is
develop new ways of assessing more broadly who one of the poorest in the world, with total GDP for
is affected by tourism ▶ activity and to open the 2013 of US$595 million and $859 per capita
door for a broad-based discussion of tourism (World Bank 2013). Agriculture (ylang-ylang,
impacts and their alleviation. vanilla) contributes 44 % to GDP and employs
80 % of the population (AFDB 2012). The coun-
See also ▶ Management, ▶ partnership, ▶ sus- try depends heavily on diaspora financing, foreign
tainability, ▶ sustainable tourism, grants, and donor organizations.
▶ worldmaking. Ngazidja is dominated by one of the largest and
most active volcanoes (Mount Karthala) in the
world. Moroni and Mutsamudu, respectively, the
capital cities of Grande Comore and Anjouan,
References provide examples of the Arab-Swahili heritage.
The Moheli Marine Park contains a relatively
Blackstock, K. 2005 A Critical Look at Community Based unspoiled marine environment with endemic
Tourism. Community Development Journal 40:39-49.
Bramwell, B. 2004 Partnerships, Participation, and Social
fauna.
Science Research in Tourism Planning. In The country has suffered from several coups
A Companion to Tourism, A. Lew, C. Hall and since independence in 1975, which have had a
A. Williams, eds., pp.541-554. Oxford: Blackwell. negative impact on economic growth and its rep-
Friedmann, J. 1987 Planning the Public Domain: From Knowl-
edge to Action. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
utation. Tourism began with investments from
Mair, H., and D. Reid 2007 Tourism and Community Accor and Sunin in the late 1980s. Arrivals have
Development vs. Tourism for Community Develop- declined from 27,500 in 1998 to 22,771 in 2012.
ment: Conceptualising Planning as Power, Knowledge ▶ France is the main source market (62 %),
and Control. Leisure/Loisir 31:403-426.
Murphy, P. 1985 Tourism: A Community Approach. Lon-
followed by Madagascar (9 %) and the two neigh-
don: Methuen. boring French territories of Mayotte (8 %) and
Okazaki, E. 2008 A Community-based Tourism Model: Its Réunion (2.5 %). Tourism receipts were estimated
Conception and Use. Journal of Sustainable Tourism at almost $40 million in 2011. As of 2012, there
16:511-529.
Tosun, C. 2000 Limits to Community Participation in the
were 52 hotels and guesthouses, with a total of
Tourism Development Process in Developing Coun- 503 rooms, although only one third meets inter-
tries. Tourism Management 21:613-633. national standards. Regional airlines connect
172 Comoros
Comoros, Figure 1 Map of Comoros
Moroni with ▶ Yemen, ▶ Kenya, Madagascar, (Abdallah 2011). The University of Comoros
Réunion, ▶ Tanzania, and Mayotte. The air and offers a 2-year program as an introduction to
sea connectivity among the islands is limited. tourism for high school graduates
▶ Cruise tourism is underdeveloped. The hospi- (approximately 60 students per year in Ngazidja
tality sector contributes to about 500 jobs and Anjouan).
Comparative advantage 173
The tourism law was adopted in December to Adam Smith’s principle of absolute advantage.
2011, and the National Tourism Office was oper- Most of people and countries are not the abso-
ational in 2013. The government is relying on lutely best in the world at anything, but this does
international investors from the ▶ Middle East to not prevent them from producing and engaging in
relaunch tourism: agreements have been signed trade, hence the principle of comparative
with Doha-based Katara Hospitality and Retaj advantage.
Groups. International donor organizations such Some scholars use competitiveness and com- C
as UNDP, African Development Bank, and the parative advantage interchangeably, whereas
World Bank have all supported tourism some insist on a difference between them. For
development. example, whereas “comparative advantages con-
Comoros is in the exploration stage of tourism stitute the resources available to a destination,
development, but may be instrumental for its eco- competitive advantages relate to a destination’s
nomic growth and poverty reduction. The lack of ability to use these resources effectively over the
vision or concrete plans and weak institutional long-term” (Crouch and Ritchie 1999:143). In
capacity currently prevent the country from other words, comparative advantage relates
achieving its full tourism potential. The govern- only to factor endowment or what is given by
ment has identified tourism as a priority sector in nature to each country, while tourism competitive-
its Accelerated and Sustainable Growth Strategy ness may have a multiplicity of sources, including
for 2015–2019 with the objective to reach 50,000 the effectiveness of suppliers, the presence
arrivals annually. and qualities of infrastructure, the ability of a
▶ destination to deal with sustainability, and
See also ▶ Economic development, ▶ flora and the like. Hence, there is a link between a
fauna, ▶ island tourism, ▶ nature tourism. country’s broader development goals and its abil-
ity to gain competitive advantages in an ▶ indus-
try such as tourism (Crouch and Ritchie 2012).
References Comparative advantage is thus more likely to
derive from price competitiveness and the
Abdallah, I. 2011 Tourisme, Croissance et Reduction de la relative abundance of natural resources such as
Pauvrete aux Comoros. Comoros: Universite des sun, sea, and sand.
Comoros. More recently, some scholars have suggested
AFDB 2012 African Economic Outlook 2012. Tunis: Afri-
can Development Bank Group. that competitiveness and comparative advantage
World Bank 2013 Comoros Tourism Sector Review. Wash- may be two entirely different things from an
ington: World Bank. applied perspective (Jensen and Zhang 2013).
They argue that the two terms simply
provide different perspectives on a country’s
relative trading position in an international
Comparative advantage comparison, believing that this is what David
Ricardo really wanted to communicate when
Jie Zhang1 and Camilla Jensen2 he introduced the concept of comparative
1
Centre for Regional and Tourism Research, advantage.
Nexø, Denmark Islands are good examples of a place that holds
2
Institute for Marketing and Management, few absolute advantages (including low prices).
University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, But because there are few other activities they can
Denmark compete in, they might hold comparative advan-
tage in tourism. Jensen and Zhang (2013) applied
this distinction to tourism using the following
The principle of comparative advantage was orig- measure of comparative advantage for country
inally introduced by David Ricardo as a response i specific to tourism exports:
174 Comparative study
Arrivalsi =ArrivalsWorld would help to establish norms for judgment

CAi ¼
Populationi =PopulationWorld while distinguishing the essential from the trivial
(Feldman 1978).
Using this measure, it is the lucrative islands (such In the case of tourism studies, the comparative
as Macao, Aruba, and ▶ Palau) on the border of approach has been lengthily used for improving
development that hold comparative advantage in understanding of the subject, allowing researchers
tourism, whereas places that hold absolute advan- to gauge the significance, validity, and reliability
tages, such as ▶ Turkey and ▶ France, are more of the outcomes, both quantitatively and qualita-
often the larger countries centrally located in relatively. The advantages of the comparative context
tion to tourism-generating markets. They own rest on the definition of the research problem, the
natural and/or created endowments that favor selection of the research site, the term of the vari-
this industry. Countries with absolute advantages ables, and the description of the general charac-
are also often competitive on price. teristics of the ecological and social setting in
which research must be conducted (Cohen
See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ infrastruc- 1979). It is well known that the comparative
ture, ▶ island tourism, ▶ sustainability. study of tourists has been especially developed
from the point of view of the anthropology and
▶ sociology of tourism, while the comparative
References study of places has been the focus of geographers
and economists.
Crouch, G., and J. Ritchie 1999 Tourism, Competitiveness, A review of the literature reveals that the com-
and Societal Prosperity. Journal of Business Research parative approach has received limited attention in
44(3):137-152.
Crouch, G., and J. Ritchie 2012 Tourism and Competitive- tourism studies, with only passing mentions of
ness. London: Edward Elgar. methodological issues (Pearce 1993). But a good
Jensen, C., and J. Zhang 2013 Trade in Tourism Services: number of studies use comparative lens to high-
Explaining Tourism Trade and the Impact of the Gen- light similarities and differences among multiple
eral Agreement on Trade in Services on the Gains from
Trade. The Journal of International Trade and Eco- features of destinations or tourists, on a longitudi-
nomic Development 22:398-429. nal or structural basis (Baum 1999).
The core diamond theory of competitive
advantage of countries contributes to the compar-
ative perspective, especially when the purpose of
the research is the ▶ planning of tourism, empha-
Comparative study sizing the necessity to turn comparative advan-
tages into competitive ones. Otherwise, the
Josefina Domínguez-Mujica comparative analysis in tourism is closely linked
Human Geography, University of Las Palmas de to the case studies methodology. According to
Gran Canaria, Las Palmas, de Gran Canaria, Spain Xiao and Smith (2006), the methodology of com-
parisons helps to establish the affinity or relation-
ships of multiple case designs as a research
Comparison is at the heart of much of the research strategy. An overview of the latest academic stud-
and analysis undertaken in most areas of social, ies highlights the importance of comparisons in
economic, and political life (Baum 1999). The use tourism, especially from the cross-cultural lens.
of comparative perspectives in politics, sociology, Factors such as national origin, religion, gender,
and public policy has been built extensively since entrepreneurial training, and generational and per-
the 1970s. In these fields of knowledge, sonal background of tourists and receiving socie-
researchers develop comparisons into analyses to ties result in differences of performance,
explore the range of choices available to societies development, and marketing strategies of tourism
studied. At the same time, these assessments activities. Nevertheless, there is a lack of
Competitive advantage 175
methodological reflection on this issue which its key industries over others. In relation to tour-
must be better addressed by researchers ism and destination management, competitive
worldwide. advantage deals with the ability to use a destina-
tion’s resources efficiently and effectively over
See also ▶ Case study, ▶ cross-cultural study, the long term (Crouch and Ritchie 1999).
▶ methodology, ▶ theory. A number of researchers have provided inputs
into the understanding of destination competitive- C
ness (Tsai et al. 2009). The conceptual model
References provided by Ritchie and Crouch (2003), updated
from Crouch and Ritchie (1999), and originally
Baum, T. 1999 Themes and Issues in Comparative Desti- built on Porter’s (1990) diamond framework of
nation Research: The Use of Lesson-Drawing in Com-
national competitive advantage, is particularly
parative Tourism Research in the North
Atlantic. Tourism Management 20:627-633. useful in highlighting the sources of competitive
Cohen, E. 1979 Rethinking the Sociology of Tourism. advantage. According to this model, destination
Annals of Tourism Research 6:18-35. competitiveness has five main determinants: core
Feldman, E. 1978 Comparative Public Policy: Field or
resources and attractors (physiography and cli-
Method? Comparative Politics 10:287-305.
Pearce, D. 1993 Comparative Studies in Tourism Research. mate, culture and history, special events, market
In Tourism Research: Critiques and Challenges, ties); supporting factors and resources
D. Pearce and R. Butler, eds., pp.20-35. London: (infrastructure, accessibility, hospitality, enter-
Routledge.
prise); destination management (involving mar-
Xiao, H., and S. Smith 2006 Case Studies in Tourism
Research: A State-of-the-Art Analysis. Tourism Man- keting, organization, quality of service, resource
agement 27:738-749. stewardship, and visitor management); destina-
tion policy, planning, and development
(comprising philosophy/values, vision, develop-
ment, and positioning/branding); and qualifying
Competitive advantage and amplifying factors (location, safety/security
and cost/value).
Basak Denizci Guillet At a general level, the determinants of destina-
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, tion competitiveness are influenced by both com-
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, parative and competitive advantages. The former
Hong Kong, China is generated from the resource endowments of a
destination while the latter is created from the
efficient and effective deployment the resources.
Competitive advantage has a long history of appli- In the context of destination competitiveness,
cation in industrial studies relating to competition Crouch and Ritchie (1999) maintain that before
and competitiveness at the company or firm level. resources can be deployed to create competitive
Its application to tourism and destination manage- advantage, there must be a system to ensure the
ment started after Porter’s (1990) The Competitive audit and inventory, maintenance, and growth and
Advantage of Nations. At the industry level, com- development of the resources, as well as effi-
petitive advantage is used to describe a firm’s ciency and effectiveness in the use of these
ability to create more economic value (the differ- resources. As such, while resource endowment
ence between the perceived benefits by a customer may create comparative advantage, it does not
who purchases a firm’s products or services and automatically create competitive advantage. Its
the full economic cost of these products or ser- development has more to do with strategy than
vices) than its rival firms (Barney 2007: 17). mere resources endowments. Thus, in practice, it
At the global level, competitive advantage is possible for a destination less endowed with
depends on the country’s ability to innovatively resources to be actually more competitive than
achieve, or maintain, an advantageous position in one with abundant resources. As destinations
176 Computable general equilibrium model
strive to become competitive, future research on general equilibrium is reached. The theory can
competitive advantage will continue to focus on include imperfectly competitive market structures
destination competitiveness. and accumulation of capital over time or forward-
looking expectations. Closure rules, determining
See also ▶ Innovation, ▶ management, ▶ mar- how savings markets, governments, and foreign
keting, ▶ resource, ▶ strategy. investment operate, are specified. Good practice
should include testing the sensitivity of model
results to the choice of closure rules, market struc-
References tures, and key parameters.
The ability to include tourists as agents and to
Barney, J. 2007 Gaining and Sustaining Competitive define tourism-related industries means that
Advantage. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
changes in tourism demand can be modeled. The
Crouch, G., and J. Ritchie 1999 Tourism, Competitiveness,
and Societal Prosperity. Journal of Business Research economic ▶ impact of such changes includes a
44:137-152. range of additional factors absent from more tra-
Porter, M. 1990 The Competitive Advantage of Nations. ditional multiplier or input-output approaches
New York: Macmillan.
(Dwyer et al. 2004).
Ritchie, J., and G. Crouch 2003 The Competitive Destination:
A Sustainable Tourism Perspective. Cambridge: CABI. The first CGE model to include tourism used
Tsai, H., H. Song, and K. Wong 2009 Tourism and Hotel such an approach to show the effects of a tourism
Competitiveness Research. Journal of Travel and Tour- boom, with the particular result that price
ism Marketing 26:522-546.
increases make other export sectors less compet-
itive (Adams and Parmenter 1995). This finding
had been predicted theoretically and has since
Computable general equilibrium confirmed on other studies using CGE models,
model although an increase in tourism exports can still
lead to increased GDP and total exports (Narayan
Adam Blake 2004). It may, however, disadvantage poor house-
Faculty of Management, Bournemouth holds if they are poorly linked to the tourism
University, Poole, UK ▶ industry but gain income from other exports
(Wattanakuljarus and Coxhead 2008). The struc-
ture of a CGE model also makes it useful for
A computable general equilibrium (CGE) model analyzing the effects of negative shocks and tax
is a numerical simulation technique rooted in eco- changes (Blake and Sinclair 2003).
nomic theory. It contains various economic agents The use of CGE models in tourism is still a
and markets, which encompass an entire economy developing area of research, so there are many
ranging in scope from a small island or region to diverse areas where these models could be used
the whole world. The economy is divided into in future research. They can be developed inter-
industries, households, and other agents such as nationally, to allow modeling of multi-country
the government, entrepreneurs, and other coun- impacts, or with multiple regions in a country to
tries involved in international trade and invest- demonstrate interregional effects of tourism. The
ment. Economic theory defines how each agent use of dynamic forward-looking models is still in
reacts to changes in wages and prices. its infancy, and there are also many countries and
Accounting relationships define how demand issues for which these models are yet to be
and supply add up in each market so that disequi- applied.
librium in any individual market will require a
change in prices and wages, with consequent See also ▶ Economics, ▶ export, ▶ impact,
effects on all agents and markets, until a new ▶ input-output analysis.
Computer reservation system 177
References
Adams, P., and B. Parmenter 1995 An Applied General

Equilibrium Analysis of the Economic Effects of Tour-
ism in a Quite Small, Quite Open Economy. Applied
Blake, A., and M. Sinclair 2003 Tourism Crisis Manage-
ment. Annals of Tourism Research 30:813-832. C
Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and R. Spurr 2004 Evaluating
Tourism’s Economic Effects. Tourism Management
25:307-317.
Narayan, P. 2004 Economic Impact of Tourism on Fiji’s
Economy. Tourism Economics 10:419-433.
Wattanakuljarus, A., and I. Coxhead 2008 Is Tourism-
based Development Good for the Poor?. Journal of
Policy Modeling 30:929-955.
Computer reservation system, Figure 1 Structure of
computer reservation system
The main objective of the integrated global

Computer reservation system CRS has been to make a complete one-stop ser-
vice possible. In fact, it eliminates physical and
Masood A. Naqvi1 and Hongyan Jia2 geographical distances between the producers and
1
Centre for Tourism Research and Development, the sales mediators or consumers, respectively,
Lucknow, India and transfers accurate information to intermedi-
2
Department of Tourism, School of Humanity, aries and customers, and vice versa (Figure 1).
Southeast University, Nanjing, China With worldwide coverage, these distribution sys-
tems offer information, reservation, ticketing, and
many other facilities for airlines, hotels, car rental
Computer reservation system (CRS) is probably companies, cruise lines, ferry operators, travel
the most widely used technological tool in the agencies, corporations, hotels, travel insurance
tourism industry. It is basically an electronic sys- companies, railways, airports, ground handlers,
tem used to promote sales and provide fast and destination management organizations, and
accurate information about availability, price, and tourists.
bookings of products and services. It was origi-
nally designed and employed by airlines for flight
ticket reservation, but nowadays CRS is used to Origin, evolution and functions
store and distribute information about tourism
products and services to the public either directly Prior to the development of CRS, tourists had to
or through intermediaries, which also allows res- rely on the information provided by suppliers in
ervations to be made (Beaver 2005). The distribu- the form of printed brochures and flyers, as well as
tion of such information among customers and listings published in local or regional travel
intermediaries has resulted in a series of alliances, guides. Thus, distribution of promotional material
mergers, and acquisitions among service pro- was costly, time-consuming, and labor-intensive,
viders, and this booking system has since evolved and information remained static while much of the
into what is widely known as the ▶ global distri- data needed to be frequently changed to facilitate
bution system, also referred to as eMediaries. The booking. For smooth and dynamic flow of infor-
leading global distribution companies are mation, CRS was first introduced as an experi-
Amadeus, Galileo, Sabre, and Worldspan. ment in the 1960s by airlines to keep track of the
178 Computer reservation system
seats sold. In 1963, SABRE (Semi-Automated Significance and future trends

Business Research Environment), the world’s
first CRS was introduced by the American Air- As an information intensive industry, tourism
lines. In the 1970s, other airlines established their relies on the exchange of information at every
own operation. Thereafter, CRS has become the stage in the sales cycle of its products and services
primary means of disseminating air travel infor- (O’Connor 1999). Information must flow quickly
mation to the airline-sales distribution system and and accurately among the clients, intermediaries,
has had a major impact on competition within the and suppliers involved in the process. Tourists
airline sector (Boberg and Collison 1985). In need information to plan their trips and choose
1976, CRS terminals were first launched at travel among available options. This need for informa-
agencies. Henceforth, this integrated amalgam- tion is augmented by tourism product characteris-
ation of computing system, communications, and tics including intangibility, perishability,
electronics has become an almost universal fea- complexity, and interdependence. Since a desired
ture of the tourism industry (Bennett 1993). tourism product may involve endless combination
All global CRSs perform at least four basic and permutation of routes, transportation, and
functions (Schulz 1996). The first and most accommodation, suppliers have to face various
important function is the presentation of products challenges to gain identity with millions of poten-
and services offered by various tourism service tial customers covering the whole spectrum of
providers. The presentation is often displayed by incomes, interests, knowledge, sophistication,
categories to highlight the description of particu- and needs (O’Connor 1999). The use of CRS
lar services or products. The “flight” product, for has helped the suppliers to overcome these diffi-
example, displays the day and time schedule as culties by providing accurate and timely informa-
operated by the airlines, whereas the “hotel” prod- tion to customers.
uct presents information about the location, num- Thus CRS has the potential to capture a signif-
ber of rooms, and other facilities within a icant share of market and serve customers directly.
property. Second, the core function of the system As a distribution channel, it provides customers
is the reservation of products and/or services on with “window-shopping” opportunities and func-
offer, in which it creates passenger or guest name tions as a powerful and globally connected
record for each person. These records contain all sales outlet. To enhance its use, future research
service-related customer information and are would lead CRSs to adopt a multichannel distri-
transferred to the internal inventory system of all bution approach and capitalize on the latest tech-
service providers who are making use of the sys- nologies preferred by customers, such as smart
tem. Third, similar to product presentation, the phones and mobile devices which are presently
fare quotation and ticketing depend on the type popular media of information access and commu-
and complexity of the services offered. For flights, nication. Latest technologies and agile strategies
multiple fares are offered according to the reser- are required to ensure that facilities and services
vation category, the date of the journey, the day provided by existing global CRSs are used to the
when the reservation was made, the route, and the advantage of tourism organizations and service
length of stay. This also involves generation and providers toward enhancing their innovation and
storage of tickets, as well as cancelations of competitiveness for gaining consumer
existing reservations. The fourth and last function satisfaction.
is about the provision of additional services such
as information about trade shows, visa regula-
tions, and payment gateways that developers and See also ▶ Automation, ▶ eTourism, ▶ global
operators normally offer to meet the competitive- distribution system, ▶ information technology,
ness in the market. ▶ internet.
Concentration ratio 179
References their position. In fact, the CR is not about market

conduct, competitiveness, performance, or pro-
Beaver, A. 2005 A Dictionary of Travel and Tourism ductivity (Blake et al. 2006). Nor does it consider
Terminology. Wallingford: CABI.
the ▶ impact of participants other than those
Bennett, M. 1993 Information Technology and Travel
Agency: A Customer Service Perspective. Tourism included in the calculation and provides no infor-
Management 14:259-266. mation on the size distribution of the active com-
Boberg, K., and F. Collison 1985 Computer Reservation panies in the market. Other indexes C
System and Airline Competition. Tourism Manage-
(Herfindahl–Hirschman Index and Gini coeffi-
ment 6:174-183.
O’Connor, P. 1999 Electronic Information Distribution in cient) may provide a better picture of how the
Tourism and Hospitality. Wallingford: CABI. market is structured (Papatheodorou and
Schulz, A. 1996 The Role of Global Computer Reservation Arvanitis 2009).
Systems in the Travel Industry Today and in the Future.
The concentration ratio is also used to measure
Electronic Markets 6(2):17-20.
tourism flows across the year. The higher the
value, the more acute the exhibited pattern of
seasonality is with all associated negative reper-
cussions for a ▶ destination. If months are used as
Concentration ratio
a point of reference, CR12 is by definition one. If
flows are spread evenly across the year, then
Andreas Papatheodorou
CR1 = 100/12 = 8.33 %. This measure may
London College of Hospitality and Tourism,
complement other techniques, like the seasonality
University of West London, London, UK
indicator (Lundtorp 2001).
In a social context, the concentration ratio is a
crude measure of tourism’s impact on the host
Originally developed in industrial economics, the
community. This is done by measuring the tour-
concentration ratio (CR) measures the joint output
ists’ number in relation to the local population of a
of a number of firms ranked in descending order
destination (Smith 2000). A high CR value is
of significance as a percentage of total market
consistent with a high economic impact that may
production. For example, a CR5 (CR10) measures
result in social irritation, especially if a destina-
the market share of the five (ten) largest compa-
tion’s carrying capacity is exceeded.
nies in a specific market. The ratio takes values
Finally, the concentration ratio may be used to
between zero and one; a value of zero indicates no
measure the degree of destination dependency on
concentration, while one suggests that the market
tourism ▶ service providers and origin markets.
is monopolized. In tourism, the concept has been
A high CR value means greater dependency,
fruitfully applied in four different contexts: stan-
hence increased risks and possibly extreme fluc-
dard industrial economics, temporal, social, and
tuations in case of insolvencies or adverse condi-
risk management.
tions (Papatheodorou 2004).
In standard industrial economics, it is used to
measure the degree of concentration in various
See also ▶ Accommodation, ▶ carrying capac-
tourism sectors, with emphasis on ▶ transporta-
ity, ▶ destination, ▶ seasonality, ▶ transportation.
tion and ▶ accommodation. Having appropriately
defined a market (not an empirically easy task), a
high CR value for a small number of firms (such
as CR4 = 80 %) suggests an oligopolistic market
References
structure and the subsequent presence of market
Blake, A., M. Sinclair, and J. Campos-Soria 2006 Tourism
▶ power. This does not necessarily mean, how- Productivity: Evidence from the United Kingdom.
ever, that companies under consideration abuse Annals of Tourism Research 33:1099-1120.
180 Congo, Democratic Republic
Lundtorp, S. 2001 Measuring Tourism Seasonality. In Sea- and has its fourth largest population, about 75 mil-
sonality in Tourism, T. Baum and S. Lundtorp, eds., pp. lion as of 2013 (Index Mundi 2013). Soon after
23-50. Oxford: Elsevier.
Papatheodorou, A. 2004 Exploring the Evolution of Tour- independence in 1960, the Democratic Republic
ism Resorts. Annals of Tourism Research 31:219-237. of Congo experienced a period of turmoil,
Papatheodorou, A., and P. Arvanitis 2009 Spatial Evolu- followed by 32 years of dictatorship that ended
tion of Airport Traffic and Air Transport Liberalization: in 1997. In 2005, a new wave of civil unrest
The Case of Greece. Journal of Transport Geography
17:402-412. destabilized the country.
Smith, S. 2000 Concentration Ratio. In Encyclopedia of The economy is dependent on mining and
Tourism, J. Jafari, ed., p. 100. London: Routledge. agriculture, 21.7 % and 44.3 % of GDP, respec-
tively (CIA 2014). Congo is among the 16 coun-
tries of the world known as the haven of mega
biodiversity (IMF 2013). It has significant tourism
Congo, Democratic Republic potential which remains untapped to date. The
country has eight national parks, five of which
Nkongolo Kalala1 and Luyaku Loko Nsimpasi2 are world heritage with rare and unique species
1
Bluegrass Community and Technical College, of animals, including okapi, bonobo, white rhi-
Lexington, KY, USA noceros, and plants. Access to these parks is dif-
2
Fund for Agricultural Development, Rome, Italy ficult as the road infrastructure is extremely poor.
Reliable data on the contribution of tourism to
both its GDP and employment are lacking. For
The Democratic Republic of Congo 2009, ▶ inbound tourism was estimated to con-
(2,345,095 km2; 905,446 mi2), formerly Zaire, is tribute only 0.02 % to GDP (UNWTO 2013).
located in Central Africa, straddles the equator, The possibility for increasing the contribution
has 37 km of coastline, and is bordered by ▶ Cen- of tourism to the GDP and employment exists.
tral African Republic, ▶ South Sudan, ▶ Uganda, The country has numerous potential major attrac-
▶ Rwanda, ▶ Burundi, ▶ Tanzania, ▶ Zambia, tions, but these require substantial investment. In
▶ Angola, and the Republic of Congo addition to national parks, there is a good prospect
(Figure 1). It is Africa’s second largest country for ▶ ecotourism development based on tradi-
tional cultures and attractive landscapes. Popular
16 24 SOUTH
C.A.R.
SUDAN attractions include the Symphonies Naturelles, a
CAMER. forest park and “Amis des Animaux au Congo”
Gbadolite
Bumba
Bonobo Nursery Sanctuary in Kinshasa, the
Congo
Kisantu Botanical Gardens, Lufira Valley, Lukia
REP. Kisangani Pic
0 OF THE Equator Marguerite
UG.
0
Rapids, and Kinkole fish market.
CONGO Mbandaka
GABON The government with foreign assistance has
Goma
RW. embarked on major infrastructure improvements.
Kindu Bukavu
ANG. IIebo L
BURU. The plan is to construct a network of internal roads
KINSHASA and railways and to connect the country with its
ua
Mbuji-
laba
Matadi Kikwit Kananga TANZ.

Boma
Mayi
Kalemie neighbors which will increase tourism flow. Pri-
Banana Tshikapa
Lake vate investments are also planned, in particular the
8 Tanganyika
construction of a new Sheraton Hotel in Kinshasa.
Kolwezi
In 2011, despite the attractiveness of its sites, only
SOUTH Likasi
ATLANTIC ANGOLA Lubumbashi some 186,000 inbound tourists visited the country
OCEAN
(WTTC 2013). Additional government initiatives

0 200 400 km
0 200 400 mi 24 ZAMBIA are currently underway, aiming at promoting the
tourism ▶ industry by implementing institutional
Congo, Democratic Republic, Figure 1 Map of Dem- reform, including human, technical, logistical,
ocratic Republic of Congo and financial institutional capacity building,
Congo, Republic 181
which will help Congo to capitalize on tourism for 12 16 C.A.R.
▶ economic development. CAMEROON
gi
an
i
ang
b
Ou
Ub
EQUA. Impfondo
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ guided tour, GUI.
Ouesso
Sa
o
▶ park tourism, ▶ study tour.
ng
ng
ha
Co
0
Equator
C
GABON Owando
Oyo
References
a
im
Mount
Al
Berongou
CIA 2014 The Democratic Republic of Congo. Central Djambala DEM. REP.
Intelligence Agency www.cia.gov/library/publica- Mossendjo OF THE
ngo
tions/the-world-factbook/ (3 January). Stanley CONGO
IMF 2013 Democratic Republic of Congo: Poverty Reduc-
Co
Pool
4 Madingo- Loubomo 4
tion Strategy Paper, Country Report. Washington DC: SOUTH
ATLANTIC
Kayes Kayes
BRAZZAVILLE
International Monetary Fund. OCEAN
Pointe- ANGOLA 0 100 200 km
Index Mundi 2013 Congo, Democratic Republic of: the Noire12 (Cabinca) 0 100 200 mi
Demographic Profile www.indexmundi.com/demo-
cratic_republic_of_congo/demographics_profile.html
(3 January 2014). Congo, Republic, Figure 1 Map of Congo
UNWTO, 2013, Compendium of Tourism Statistics 2007-
2011. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2013. in both 2012 and 2013 (WTTC 2013). Tourism
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. employed 21,600 people in 2010; the number has
been increasing steadily since reaching 32,600 or
3.7 % of the workforce in 2013 (WTTC 2013).
The country has many sites that with investment
Congo, Republic can become major attractions. These sites include
Nouabalé-Ndoki National Park, Lesio-Louna
Nkongolo Kalala Gorilla Reserve, Brazzaville’s Waterfalls
Bluegrass Community and Technical College, encompassing Loufoulakari Falls and nearby
Lexington, KY, USA Bela Falls, Poto-Poto, Brazzaville’s popular
arrondissement with sprawling markets and
bazaars, Pointe-Noire, Northern Congo Trekking
The Republic of the Congo, a country with a with traditional villages, and the Congo River
population of 4,492,689 and an area of Rapids.
342,000 km2 (132,046 mi2), is located in With foreign assistance, the government has
▶ Africa. It is bordered to the east by the Demo- embarked on major infrastructure improvement.
cratic Republic of Congo, to the north by the The completion of the national highway linking
▶ Central African Republic and ▶ Cameroon, to major cities and the modernization of Maya-Maya
the west by ▶ Gabon, and to the south by International Airport will help boost both domes-
▶ Angola (Figure 1). tic and ▶ international tourism (IMF 2012). Most
Since independence in 1960, Congo has expe- tourists are from other African countries. In 2010,
rienced unstable periods of successive regime of some 200,000 arrivals, half came from other
changes and civil unrest which have paralyzed African countries, 46,000 from the ▶ Middle
the economy. Congo’s economy is dependent on East, 41,000 from the ▶ Americas, 5,000 from
oil extraction and supportive industries account- East Asia and the Pacific, and 3,000 from
ing for about 76 % of the GDP (CIA 2014). The ▶ Europe. In the same year, 112,000 domestic
tourism ▶ industry is still underdeveloped and tourists were recorded (UNWTO 2013).
contributed only 4.1 % of GDP in 2010. This Additional government initiatives aimed at
declined to 3.8 % in 2011 and rebounded to 4 % making Congo a world premier ▶ destination are
182 Conjoint analysis
underway, including notably the creation of a Conjoint analysis is a useful marketing tool for
recognizable Congolese tourism label, the tourism operators to design products that include
streamlining of entry visa procedures, and the features most important to a target market, set
creation of a tourism ▶ training school in Brazza- prices based on the value the market assigns to a
ville. A comprehensive plan of action is still product’s attributes, and focus messages on the
needed to fully achieve tourism’s potential in most appealing attributes. The conjoint model
this country. for k attributes with each defined at Mk levels is
formulated as
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ flora and
fauna, ▶ guided tour, ▶ study tour. X
k X
Mk
U ð xÞ akj Xkj
k¼1 j¼1
References
where U(x) is an overall utility or preference mea-
CIA 2014 Republic of Congo. Central Intelligence Agency
sure, akj is the part worth contribution associated
www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
(3 January). with the jth level of the kth attribute, and Xkj is the
IMF 2012 Republic of Congo: Poverty Reduction Strategy presence or absence of the jth level of the kth
Paper, Country Report. Washington DC: International attribute (Timmermans 1984: 203).
Monetary Fund.
In tourism research, conjoint analysis is used
UNWTO, 2013, Compendium of Tourism Statistics 2007-
2011. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. increasingly in a number of choice contexts.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2013. Carmichael (1996) investigated ski resort choices
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. in Victoria, British Columbia, for short- and long-
trip situations and used the method to segment the
skier market according to their part worth utility
Conjoint analysis levels for choice attributes. Other studies of the
outdoor sport market used this method of analysis
Barbara Carmichael to understand the factors influencing college
Faculty of Arts, Department of Geography and skiers and snow boarders’ choice of a ski ▶ des-
Environmental Studies, Wilfrid Laurier tination in Korea (Won and Hwang 2009) and
University, Waterloo, ON, Canada golfers’ preferred driving ranges (Hwang and
Won 2010). The scope of data collection method
has widened from personal interviews to the use
Tourism products are composed of a bundle of of Web-based technology (Kreiger et al. 2005).
attributes that have differing perceived values to For future studies, this method offers great poten-
consumers. Conjoint analysis is used in choice tial by providing a useful tool to investigate any
situations to provide an index of the relative ▶ travel choice decisions at the product, package,
value of such attributes and the “part worths” of destination, or regional scale of analysis.
attributes in influencing preferences. Since
revealed preference through actual choice may
See also ▶ Cluster analysis, ▶ destination,
be the only realistic observable phenomenon
▶ market, ▶ segmentation.
accessible to the researcher, this quantitative
decompositional approach is likely to have a
high degree of validity. Using least squares anal-
ysis, separate “part worths” may be estimated for References
each level of each attribute. Their values may be
Carmichael, B.A. 1996 Conjoint Analysis of Downhill
added together to predict the potential attractive- Skiers Used to Improve Data Collection for Market
ness of any new product given the combination of Segmentation. Journal of Travel and Tourism Market-
attributes at specific levels. ing 5:187-206.
Conservation 183
Hwang, S., and D. Won 2010 A Conjoint Analysis Regard- conservation tourism is a subset of any form of
ing Influencing Factors of Golfers’ Preferred Driving nature-based tourism on the basis of partial
Ranges in Korea. International Journal of Leisure and
Tourism Marketing 1:227-237. matching of its characteristics or settings.
Kreiger, B., H. Mostokowitz, and S. Rabino 2005 What The oxymoron concept of conservation tour-
Customers Want from a Cruise Vacation: Using ism requires concomitant achievement of two
Internet-Enabled Conjoint Analysis to Understand the ambiguous goals: biodiversity conservation and
Customer’s Mind. Journal of Hospitality and Leisure
Marketing 13:83-111. tourism ▶ development. Conservation of biologi- C
Timmermans, H. 1984 Decompositional Multi-attribute cal diversity is essential not only to warrant exis-
Preference Models in Spatial Choice Analysis: Some tence of every living organism but also to ensure
Recent Developments. Progress in Human Geography human wellbeing. Tourism is a global industry
8:189-221.
Won, D., and S. Hwang 2009 Factors Influencing the with significant economic, social, and environ-
College Skiers and Snowboarders Choice of a Ski mental impacts. Yet the ▶ biological diversity is
Destination in Korea: A Conjoint Analysis. Managing increasingly threatened by various anthropogenic
Leisure 14:17-27. activities, including tourism. Research suggests
that the promotion of a symbiotic tourism-
conservation relationship is imperative for simul-
taneous accomplishment of seemingly contradic-
Conservation tory biodiversity conservation and tourism
development outcomes (Ballantyne et al 2009;
Surya Poudel1 and Gyan Nyaupane2 Nyaupane and Poudel 2011). Conservation tour-
1
School of Community Resources and ism posits that the natural areas need to be devel-
Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, oped for tourism and the latter, in turn, should
AZ, USA make net positive contribution to conservation of
2
School of Community Resources and biological diversity. Here, the net positive contri-
Development, Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute bution means the positive impacts should grossly
of Sustainability, Arizona State University, outweigh the negative ones.
Phoenix, AZ, USA
Practice
Conservation tourism is defined as “commercial
tourism which makes an ecologically significant Although the term conservation tourism is
net positive contribution to the effective conser- adopted in the literature very recently, the accep-
vation of biological diversity” (Buckley 2010: 2). tance of tourism as a conservation
Since it is a recently coined term, the past dis- tool – conceptually and practically – is not new
courses occurred under the theme of nature-based (Buckley 2010). Tourism has long been regarded
tourism. This seems natural as the defining char- as an instrument to conserve biological diversity
acteristics of conservation tourism overlap with contained in protected areas. This ▶ strategy is
various forms of nature-based tourism, such as rooted on the ground that protected areas contain
▶ ecotourism, ▶ wildlife tourism, and a significant proportion of world’s biodiversity as
▶ protected area tourism (Ballantyne et al. 2009; well as provide avenue for nature-based tourism
Cousins et al. 2009). For example, conservation pursuits. It is generally claimed that tourism gar-
tourism, as its name suggests, should contribute to ners political support for the establishment of
biodiversity conservation, which is one of the protected areas and provides revenue to cover
defining characteristics of ecotourism. Similarly, management cost. It has also been reported that
it sounds analogous to protected area- and conservation tourism stands as an alternative to
wildlife-based tourism, as these three occur in exploitative uses of natural resources, including
national parks and other protected areas. How- mining, oil drilling, hydroelectric dam construc-
ever, it would be erroneous to assume that tion, and logging, and traditional livelihood
184 Conservation
options such as subsistence agriculture and as recession, war, ▶ terrorism, and political insta-
grazing. bility. Located in the peripheral regions, conser-
The case studies related to practice of conservation tourism projects are highly susceptible to
vation tourism have sporadically appeared in the such disturbances. Third, an emerging risk to con-
literature (Nyaupane and Poudel 2011). Its prac- servation tourism is ▶ climate change. Scientists
tices are apparently different across the globe claim that climate change would seriously
because of the variation in social, ecological, eco- threaten the very existence of earth’s biological
nomic, and political characteristics of communi- diversity. Tourism is often considered as a factor
ties, countries, and continents. Les Carlisle, contributing to climate change.
Group Conservation Manager of & Beyond The fourth challenge is associated with the
(then Conservation Corporation Africa), is scope of conservation tourism since the practices
credited as pioneer in the practicalities of conser- have been concentrated mainly on protected areas
vation tourism (Buckley 2010). Carlisle’s team (Ballantyne et al. 2009; Cousins et al. 2009). It is
has successfully established (or leased) and man- unfortunate that the biodiversity-rich areas out-
aged a number of wildlife reserves in sub-Saharan side the protected area system have received mea-
Africa, which are primarily funded through tour- ger attention. Fifth, it is difficult to measure the net
ism revenue. This approach has been adopted in contribution of tourism for conservation. Tourism
other countries. impacts have temporal (short- and long-term) and
Another successful example of conservation spatial (local, regional, and global) components.
tourism is Annapurna Conservation Area in To illustrate, revenues received from entry fees
Nepal. The area is managed by National Trust and donations from tourists help manage parks at
for Nature Conservation, a national level the local level, but the tourists ▶ travel thousands
non-governmental organization, in partnership of miles which has a large ecological footprint
with local people under the Annapurna Conserva- at the global level. Therefore, more comprehen-
tion Area Project (Nyaupane and Thapa 2004). sive research is needed to evaluate the actual
The project implements several biodiversity con- contributions of tourism to biodiversity conserva-
servation and community development activities, tion. Nevertheless, conservation tourism, if prop-
which are funded by the revenue generated from erly implemented, would have global appeal
tourist entry fee. The worldwide experiences because of its contribution to biodiversity
reveal that besides conservation, the local com- conservation.
munities residing in the vicinity of protected areas
are also benefitted from the spillover effects See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ nature tourism,
(Nyaupane and Poudel 2011). ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism,
▶ wildlife tourism.
Challenges
It is indeed challenging to achieve both the con- References

servation and development goals of conservation
tourism. The very first challenge is to sustain the Ballantyne, R., J. Packer, and K. Hughes 2009 Tourism’s
flow of tourists in protected areas. Tourism is Support for Conservation Messages and Sustainable
Management Practices in Wildlife Tourism Experience.
becoming more and more competitive with the Tourism Management 30:658-664.
entry of new destinations, which demands higher Buckley, R. 2010 Conservation Tourism. Cambridge:
level of service expectations. This puts the CABI.
protected area managers in a dilemma of whether Cousins, J., J. Evans, and J. Sadler 2009 Selling
Conservation? Scientific Legitimacy and the Commod-
to spend the tourism revenue on conservation or
ification of Conservation Tourism. Ecology and
tourists services. Second, tourism is sensitive to Society 14:32 www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol14/iss1/
various global and local level disturbances, such art32/ (29 August 2013).
Conspicuous consumption 185
Nyaupane, G., and S. Poudel 2011 Linkages among Bio- functions as a symbolic system where even the
diversity, Livelihood, and Tourism. Annals of Tourism most minute choices of distinction form bases for
Research 38:1344–1366.
Nyaupane, G., and B. Thapa 2004 Evaluation of Ecotour- social judgment.
ism: A Comparative Assessment in the Annapurna Theories of conspicuous consumption have
Conservation Area Project, Nepal. Journal of Ecotour- brought to light the realization that, as social
ism 3:20–45. beings, humans are both conformist and competi-
tive by nature, wanting to simultaneously attain C
status in the community, as well as assimilate
within it (Bourdieu 1979). Competitive forms of
Conspicuous consumption consumption allow people to form natural points
for competition and distinction while simulta-
Tiffany Low neously affording the conspicuousness desired for
School of Management and Business, many products or experiences, such as air travel
Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, and package holidays. Individuals often try to com-
Ceredigion, UK pete with each other for status and prestige, and
travel and leisure pursuits are no exception.
On the whole, while Low’s (2012) work on the
Rooted primarily in the fields of sociology and role of consumer values in the context of sustain-
psychology, this concept refers to obvious and able business practices in luxury hotels is among a
deliberate practices of consumption. Seen as the handful of attempts on this topic, tourism scholars
founding father of theories on conspicuous con- have largely neglected to study the practice of
sumption, Veblen’s (1899) seminal work, The The- conspicuous consumption. The power relations
ory of the Leisure Class, examines the mechanisms examined highlight the incomplete nature of the
behind social institutions whose core objectives are canon of tourism knowledge that remains punctu-
to exploit the consumption of nonessential goods ated by conspicuous silences and absences in
for the sake of personal or business profit. research. Questions remain unanswered regarding
Veblen’s work was preceded by other move- the accountability of the modern global bourgeoi-
ments and writings including the spread of Social sie, their continued role in shaping mass-market
Darwinism led by Herbert Spencer in the 1880s, travel and leisure consumption practices, and the
later The Gospel of Wealth by Andrew Carnegie in role and effectiveness of governments and
1889, and The Principles of Psychology by Wil- policymakers in curbing such desires for conspic-
liam James in 1890 (Banta 2007). Veblen was also uous consumption.
followed by various other commentators and aca-
demicians, but none as prominent as Bourdieu’s See also ▶ Luxury tourism, ▶ mobility,
(1979) work, La Distinction. ▶ power, ▶ prestige.
Published nearly 100 years after Veblen,
Bourdieu’s work extends the theory of the leisure
class to the bourgeoisie of France and the References
pretentions of the French middle classes. While
Veblen’s work focused on the habits of production Banta, M. 2007 Introduction. In The Theory of the Leisure
and waste with economics as the backdrop, Class, T. Veblen, ed., pp.2-11. Oxford: Oxford Univer-
sity Press.
Bourdieu posited that differing aesthetic choices
Bennett, T. 2010 Introduction. In Distinction,
are all based on deliberate acts of distinction and P. Bourdieu, ed., pp.1-7. Oxon: Routledge.
are made in opposition to those of the middle Bourdieu, P. 1979 Distinction. Oxon: Routledge.
classes or petite bourgeoisie (Bennett 2010). Low, T. 2012 The Influence of Consumer Values and Sus-
tainable Business Practices on Brand Loyalty within
Importantly, and of most relevance to tourism, Luxury Hotels. PhD Thesis, University of Bedfordshire.
Bourdieu’s work incorporated perspectives on Veblen, T. 1899 The Theory of the Leisure Class. New
power relations and the ways in which the world York: Macmillan.
186 Constraint
categorized into intrapersonal, interpersonal, and

Constraint structural dimensions which represented a more
systematic understanding of leisure constraint
Kam Hung (Crawford and Godbey 1987), followed by the
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, proposal of hierarchical models linking all con-
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, straint constructs together in order to understand
Hong Kong, China leisure participation behavior. The notion of con-
straint negotiation was also developed to explain
participation in the presence of constraint
(Crawford et al. 1991).
Tourism constraints refer to those factors that Recent research mainly focuses on developing
prevent or hinder people from traveling to places constraint measurement scales and applying and
outside their home environments or barriers to revising such models in different contexts. For
vacation travel and participating in pleasure instance, Hung and Petrick (2010, 2012) devel-
▶ tour. Theoretical understandings of the term oped a measurement scale for constraints to cruis-
are based on ▶ leisure studies literature where ing; they further tested the effects of constraints on
the concept of constraint was originally devel- travel intentions along with congruity and self-
oped. The notions and models of leisure constraint efficacy in an effort to build an alternative
have been applied and tested in different ▶ travel decisionmaking ▶ model. These endeavors have
contexts including cruising, nature-based tourism, extended the ▶ work on constraints from leisure
and tourists with physical disabilities. Therefore, studies to tourism research. In prospect, leisure
the discussion of constraints in tourism should not constraints models are to be more fully applied
be treated separately from the leisure constraint and expanded in tourism research through theo-
literature. retical advancement and methodological
Jackson and Scott (1999) identified four stages innovations.
of constraints in leisure studies. In the early
literature, the notion of “barrier” was used to
refer to any obstacles that hinder leisure See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ escape, ▶ leisure,
participation. Nonparticipation was assumed to ▶ motivation.
be the only outcome of constraints at that
▶ time. In the second stage, studies on constraints
mainly focused on providing answers to specific References
problems rather than establishing systematic
understandings of constraints to leisure participa- Crawford, D., and G. Godbey 1987 Reconceptualizing
tion. In the third stage, the assumption of Barriers to Family Leisure. Leisure Sciences 9:119-
127.
nonparticipation as a result of constraints was
Crawford, D., E. Jackson, and G. Godbey 1991
still prevailing among leisure researchers, in A Hierarchical Model of Leisure Constraints. Leisure
which constraint was assumed to occur only Sciences 13:309-320.
after the formation of one’s intention to Hung, K., and J. Petrick 2010 Develop a Measurement
Scale for Constraints to Cruising. Annals of Tourism
participate.
In the fourth stage, the definition of constraint Hung, K., and J. Petrick 2012 Testing the Effects of Con-
has been broadened to include not only nonparti- gruity, Travel Constraints, and Self-efficacy on Travel
cipation but also insufficient participation in and Intentions: An Alternative Decisionmaking Model.
lack of enjoyment of the activities. Its research
Jackson, E., and D. Scott 1999 Constraints to Leisure. In
was dominated by theoretical and methodological Leisure Studies, E. Jackson and T. Burton, eds.,
advancements. Conceptually, items were pp.299-321. State College: Venture.
Consumerism 187
structural and individual perspectives on the con-

Consumerism sequences they bring into the daily lives of people.
In the ethical domain, consumerism represents
Li-Ming Chiang1 and Daisy Wang2 activism, defined as both consumers and corpora-
1
Department of Hotel, Restaurant and Toursim tions taking responsibility for their decisions in
Management, College of Business and purchasing goods and providing services. It is
Management, East Stroudsburg University, East thought that if consumers and corporations were C
Stroudsburg, USA both aware of the environments’ limited
2
Department of Business Management, College resources, conscious about indulgence, and
of Business and Management, East Stroudsburg changing their behaviors, it would lead to a better
University, East Stroudsburg, USA economic, social, and environmental outcome as a
whole. Conscious consumerism has also had an
influence on tourism by way of growing consid-
Consumerism is used widely in different domains erations for ethical tourism, codes of conduct, and
and has been operationally defined as the protec- tourists’ consumption behaviors.
tion or promotion of the interest of consumers
(OED 2010). It involves political, social, and eth-
nic ideologies that encourage the acquisition of Consumerism in tourism
goods and services (Ehrlich and Goulder 2007).
The term was used to create rules concerning how In tourism, consumerism focuses on the eco-
consumers should behave and how manufac- nomic, social, and mobility capital and the con-
turers, sellers, and advertisers should produce sumption of nonhuman environment such as
consumer goods in constructing their social natural and ecological resources (Hall 2012).
lives (Miles 2006). The second connotation is Regarding the socioeconomic dimensions, tour-
“high levels of consumption,” either referring to ism is closely connected to a combination of var-
the fact that consumers indulge more than ious consumer experiences. These include how
they should or that companies promote consump- consumers combine and adapt personal tourism
tion in an unethical manner. In politics, it relates to experiences and social processes from their daily
the protection of consumer interests and lives, as consumption is an ecological necessity
rights that required policies for honest packaging and is inherent in biological systems.
and advertising products to limit unfulfilled Thompson and Haytko (1997) explained the
promises. This protection was thought to provide consumer fashion discourse based on 20 phenom-
people with a safer environment for consumption enological interviews concerning users’ percep-
and to support sustainability, a process that later tions and experiences that correspond to personal
led to the consumer movement in the ▶ United experiences. The study concluded that people
States. would utilize fashionable consumption, such as
In the sociological domain, researchers focus traveling to a unique destination as a representa-
on the causes of consumerism at the individual tion of a “higher” social status. As individuals
and societal levels and offer a variety of studies on respond on the basis of perceived symbolic appeal
consumer policy, social norms, and behavior pat- and ▶ quality of life, concerns emerged for
terns. Sociological theories may be summarized ▶ resources and natural capital. Arising as a con-
into structural, individual, and social practices. sequence, the term “▶ mass tourism” indicates
The first demonstrates that consumerism exacer- that a site’s or destination’s carrying capacity
bates social norms and political economic condi- may have been reached that, in turn, is defined
tions. The individual approach studies a person’s by the limits of social, ecological, and economic
behavior, while social practices integrate both resources. There are two quantitative elements of
188 Content analysis
mass tourism: one is for large numbers of people preferences for green and eco-friendly options.
that undertake long-distance travel requiring over- ▶ Sustainability is a comprehensive framework
night stays away from home and the other is a high and should be concerned with the quality of life
proportion of arrivals to a destination that have of the host population as well as incoming tour-
purchased package tours. When a destination’s ists. Future research should not be limited to mea-
resources are over-consumed, negative impacts sures such as protecting the environment and
on the natural resources, the infrastructure, the tangible resources. Instead, it should focus on
quality of service, and the quality of life of the ▶ willingness to pay, bundling services, local cul-
local residents may all be affected (Stamboulis ture conservation, and how varying behaviors
and Skyannis 2003). may impact the development of a sustainable
Due to the negative impacts of mass tourism and and “green” tourism.
changes in its consumption, people are now mov-
ing away from this trend toward alternative or See also ▶ Alternative tourism, ▶ conspicuous
▶ special interest tourism. Alternatives are small consumption, ▶ green tourism, ▶ mass tourism,
in scale with minimal impacts on the local culture ▶ sustainable tourism.
and environment, and tourists are able to experi-
ence local lifestyle. Special interest tourism is
based on the provision of customized leisure expe-
riences driven by specific interests. The primary References
drive is to participate in a particular trip rather
than just the provision of activities that meet such Ehrlich, P., and L. Goulder 2007 Is Current Consumption
Excessive? A General Framework and Some Indica-
motivations (McKercher and Chan 2005). tions for the United States. Conservation Biology
Despite popular opinions, mass tourism can be 21:1145-1154.
sustainable and it would be narrow-minded to Hall, C. 2012 Consumerism, Tourism and Voluntary Sim-
claim that only exploring alternative develop- plicity: We All Have to Consume, But Do We Really
Have to Travel So Much to Be Happy? In Critical
ments would lead to sustainability. Mass tourism Debates in Tourism, T. Singh, ed., pp.61. Buffalo:
is not always synonymous with mindless acquisi- Channel View.
tions. Actually, mass tourism can also be sustain- McKercher, B., and A. Chan 2005 How Special is Special
able in nature with well-established policies and Interest tourism? Journal of Travel Research 44:21-31.
Miles, S. 2006 Consumerism: As a Way of Life. London: Sage.
guidelines for deliberating a sustainable environ- OED 2010 Oxford Dictionary of English. Oxford: Oxford
ment and promoting responsible behaviors. University Press.
Institutes such as the UNESCO World Heritage Stamboulis, Y., and P. Skyannis 2003 Innovation Strategies
Education Program have made contributions to pro- and Technology for Experience-based Tourism. Tour-
moting awareness in national, regional, and local Thompson, C., and D. Haytko 1997 Speaking of Fashion:
governments for sustainably managing their cul- Consumer’s Uses of Fashion Discourses and the
tural/natural heritage and tourism. Other initiatives, Appropriation of Countervailing Cultural Meanings.
such as the People Protecting Places platform, pro- Journal of Consumer Research 24:15-42.
vide education and information encouraging sup-
port and engagement in the community that has
made a significant contribution to guiding a sustain- Content analysis
able and responsible tourism environment.
Islam Elgammal
Department of Tourism Studies, Faculty of
Future trends Tourism, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt
Since the rise of environmental consciousness has

become a critical factor in consumers’ Content or textual analysis is commonly used in
decisionmaking, tourists may begin to develop humanities and social sciences to assess
Contingent valuation method 189
constructed identity, particularly in the field of contexts are needed to facilitate future use of this
psychology, political science, and management. methodological tool.
It became a popular research technique in the
1960s (Glaser 1965) and can be quantitative, qual-
itative, or a mixture of the two. Questions such as See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ language, ▶ methodol-
who says what, to whom, why, how, and with ogy, ▶ narrative, ▶ qualitative research.
what effect are examined when analyzing textual C
information collected from different sources. The
approach is used to study recorded human com- References
munications, such as books, websites, and laws
Babbie, E. 2003 The Practice of Social Research. Boston:
for the objective, systematic, and quantitative Wadsworth/Thomson Learning.
description of its manifest content (Babbie Glaser, B. 1965 The Constant Comparative
2003). For example, communication and textual Method of Qualitative Analysis. Social Problems
12:436- 445.
information can be examined in order to explore
Hellemans, K., and R. Govers 2005 European Tourism
its authorship, authenticity, or meaning (Joubish Online: Comparative Content Analysis of the ETC
and Khurram 2011), or volunteer tourism referen- Website and Corresponding National NTO Websites.
tial content analysis can be used by considering In Information and Communication Technologies in
Tourism, A. Frew, ed., pp.205-214. New York:
linguistic context to enable qualitative analysis of
Springer.
implicit text within dissimilated Web content Joubish, M., and M. Khurram 2011 Outlook on Some
(Smith and Font 2014). Concepts in the Curriculum of Social Studies.World
Tourism scholars have been using content Applied Sciences Journal 12:1374–1377.
Smith, V., and X. Font 2014 Volunteer Tourism, Green-
analysis in research. For example, Graham Dann
washing and Understanding Responsible Marketing
discussed the use of structured content analysis in Using Market Signaling Theory. Journal of Sustainable
understanding destination image by looking at Tourism 22:942-963.
how places present themselves rather than how
people perceive places. In addition, content anal-
ysis is also used in examining websites for under-
standing companies’ practices. While traditional
methods are based on counting the frequencies of Contingent valuation method
certain words or themes in texts, automated Web
crawling is a handy substitute that uses large John Armbrecht and Tommy D. Andersson
amount of data to identify patterns by analyzing Centre for Tourism, School of Business
aggregate term frequencies for keywords together Economics and Law at Gothenburg University,
with semantic orientation. Actually, all the online Gothenburg, Sweden
textual elements can be collected by software
program (Hellemans and Govers 2005). Website
images are also analyzed in terms of motifs Contingent valuation method assesses individ-
(objects) and themes through three steps: record uals’ willingness to pay for a desirable change or
all the clear motifs and contexts (or scenery) individuals’ willingness to accept compensation
appearing in the images; transfer all the data gath- for negative consequences. It is “a stated prefer-
ered into SPSS in order to produce frequency ence method” that relies on hypothetical
tables and to measure correlations among the vari- (intended) behavior contrary to “revealed prefer-
ables; and develop correlation with contexts, ence methods” based on actual behavior (Mitchell
which should lead to identifying the focal theme and Carson 1989).
of the image and arrive at a conclusion. Although Originally proposed by Siegfried von Ciriacy-
scholars are increasingly interested in developing Wantrup in 1947, the method derives from envi-
techniques using content analysis, discussion and ronmental economics where it was first used by
models of applications in different tourism Robert K. Davis in 1963. After the Exxon Valdez
190 Continuum model
accident in 1989, it was further developed as a References

method to measure “non-use values” lost through
the oil spill. Studies found that this valuation Andersson, T., J. Armbrecht, and E. Lundberg 2012 Esti-
mating Use and Non-use Values of a Music Festival.
method was valid and reliable (Arrow et al. 1993).
Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
The method has been used in tourism contexts 12:215-231.
through estimating the value of natural resources Arrow, K., R. Solow, P. Portney, E. Leamer, R. Radner, and
such as beaches, forests, and lakes, as well as H. Schuman 1993 Report of the NOAA Panel on Con-
tingent Valuation. Silver Spring: National Oceanic
cultural resources and events (Andersson
Atmospheric Administration.
et al. 2012). The aim is to understand changes in Mitchell, R., and R. Carson 1989 Using Surveys to Value
welfare by measuring impacts of tourism on the Public Goods: The Contingent Valuation Method.
▶ environment and the society. Washington DC: Resources for the Future.
Noonan, D. 2003 Contingent Valuation and Cultural
In studies using the contingent valuation
Resources: A Meta-Analytic Review of the Literature.
method, respondents are confronted with a hypo- Journal of Cultural Economics 27(3):159-176.
thetical scenario which is critical for the validity,
as it will influence the obtained bids. Several
survey modes are possible, but face-to-face inter-
views are common. Answers may be obtained
from dichotomous choice, bidding games, or Continuum model
open-ended questions such as “What is the max-
imum increase of your taxes that you would Richard Sharpley
accept for supporting a specific sports event in School of Management, University of Central
town?” Here “tax increase” constitutes the “vehi- Lancashire, Preston, UK
cle of payment” (Noonan 2003).
The validity and reliability of contingent valu-
ation method measurements are affected by sam- A continuum model is a representation of a struc-
pling bias, interviewer bias, strategic bias ture or process of gradual and uninterrupted
(respondents’ strategic behavior), information change in its elements between two distinctive
bias (effects of the information provided to the points or poles defined by a particular measure,
respondents), hypothetical bias (difficulties in val- whether tangible (such as temporal or numerical)
uing hypothetical changes), part-whole bias or intangible (conceptual). Continuum models
(problems in disentangling the change of a good have long been applied to tourism, often in the
from its surrounding), payment vehicle bias context of destination development and associ-
(importance of using a relevant payment vehicle), ated responses on the part of the host community.
and starting point bias (importance of choosing For example, Richard Butler’s widely cited ▶ des-
relevant starting points in bidding games). Over tination life cycle model represents the develop-
the years, contingent valuation method has won ment of a ▶ destination along a continuum of
acceptance in tourism studies as a way to measure stages from exploration to either decline or reju-
sociocultural impacts. The valuation of tangible venation, with a commensurate decline in local
and intangible impacts in terms of monetary units community support for and engagement in tour-
makes this technique different. The scope of its ism. The latter is conceptualized as the “euphoria-
applications can include festivals, events, and antagonism” continuum model, representing the
other attractions to understand how value is cre- process whereby local residents’ attitudes become
ated for tourists as well as for local residents. less positive as tourism develops, or measured by
perceived negative ▶ impact on a continuum of
See also ▶ Cost-benefit analysis, ▶ economics, ▶ tourist types, volume, and implied behavior,
▶ input-output analysis, ▶ willingness to pay. from “explorers” to “charter tourists.”
Convention and visitor bureau 191
Most commonly, however, continuum models Kastenholz, E. 2000 The Market for Rural Tourism in
are used in the construction of tourist typologies. North and Central Portugal: A Benefit Segmentation
Approach. In Tourism and Sustainable Community
Well-known examples include Stanley Plog’s Development, D. Richards and G. Hall, eds.,
model, which seeks to explain and predict desti- pp.268-284. London: Routledge.
nation choice based on a continuum of psycho- Stone, P. 2006 A Dark Tourism Spectrum: Towards a
graphic characteristics ranging from Typology of Death and Macabre Related Tourist
psychocentrism to allocentrism, and Cohen’s
Sites, Attractions and Exhibitions. Tourism 54(2):145-
160.
C
seminal tourist typologies. Drawing explicitly on Wickens, E. 2002 The Sacred and the Profane: A Tourist
Georg Simmel’s work on the “stranger,” Cohen’s Typology. Annals of Tourism Research 29:834-851.
(1972, 1979) typologies follow a familiarity-
strangerhood continuum, reflecting tourists’ abil-
ity to escape their “environmental bubble” or,
from an existential perspective, the extent to Convention and visitor bureau
which they suffer a sense of alienation or “ano-
mie.” Other typologies are based on more tangible Nor’Ain Othman and Zaharah Mohamed Rani
continua of observed behavior in particular con- Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management,
texts, such as Wickens’ (2002) study of tourists in Universiti Teknologi MARA, Puncak Alam,
▶ Greece and the segmentation of rural tourists in Selangor, Malaysia
▶ Portugal (Kastenholz 2000), while specific
markets, such as adventure tourists or ecotourists,
are also characterized along a continuum (from Convention and visitor bureaus are increasingly
“soft” to “hard” adventure tourists or “casual” to acknowledged as significant drivers of national
“hard-core” ecotourists). ▶ economic development (Ford and Peeper
Nevertheless, there is evidence of the wider 2007). Known variously as information centers,
and more recent application of continuum models tourism bureaus, travel bureaus, and tourism com-
to tourism theory. For example, Stone’s (2006) missions, convention and visitor bureaus are
“dark tourism spectrum” categorizes sites along not-for-profit organizations, or sometimes gov-
a continuum from darkest to lightest based upon a ernment departments. The first ▶ convention and
variety of measures, including locational authen- visitor bureau was built in 1896 in Detroit,
ticity, temporal factors, and educational/entertain- ▶ United States to serve the demand from tourists
ment orientation. Thus, not only have continuum and the convention sector (Gartrell 1993). Con-
models long been applied and made a significant vention and visitor bureaus have spread steadily
contribution to tourism theory and knowledge, ever since – Cleveland (1904), Atlantic City
they will continue to do so as the study of tourism (1908), Denver and St. Louis (1909), and Louis-
itself continues to expand. ville and Los Angeles (1910) (Rogers 2013).
Today there are 424 convention visitor bureaus
See also ▶ Alienation, ▶ dark tourism, ▶ host in the United States. The International Associa-
and guest, ▶ resort development, ▶ typology, tion of Convention Bureaus was founded in 1914
tourist. and was renamed the International Association of
Convention and Visitor Bureaus in 1974.
Convention tourism has developed in parallel
References with industrialization, targeted at businessper-
sons, entrepreneurs, convention and meeting
Cohen, E. 1972 Towards a Sociology of International planners, business tourists, and ordinary tourists.
Tourism. Social Research 39(1):64-82. Convention and visitor bureaus assist convention
Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences.
Sociology 13:179-201. organizers with the marketing of group meetings
192 Corporate social responsibility
and conventions, supplying services such as hotel Wang, Y. 2008 Collaborative Destination Marketing. Jour-
reservations, tours, concierges, and on-site regis- nal of Vacation Marketing 14(3):191-209.
Spiller, J. 2002 History of Convention Tourism. In Con-
tration (Rogers 2013). The work of convention vention Tourism: International Research and Industry
and visitor bureaus also extends beyond conven- Perspectives, K. Weber and K. Chon, eds., pp.3-20.
tions, touching on a broad range of operational New York: Haworth.
activities (Spiller 2002) and synchronizing local
tourism products and services (Gartrell 1993).
Convention and visitor bureaus have the respon-
sibility for organizing marketing activities for Corporate social responsibility
other tourism products and creating product
awareness by establishing destination brand iden- Mike Peters
tities (Wang 2008). Convention and visitor Department of Strategic Management, Marketing
bureaus also play an important role in supplying and Tourism, University of Innsbruck, MCI
tourists with information, both verbally and Management Center Innsbruck, Innsbruck,
through pamphlets and brochures, and mediating Austria
tourism-related businesses and events.
In terms of future directions, sophistication of
the marketing discipline will necessarily lead to Corporate social responsibility can be defined as
the development of more efficient products, while the social responsibility of a company
the information and communication technologies encompassing “the economic, legal, ethical, and
are causing radical transformations in the tourism discretionary expectations that a society has of
industry, with concomitant effects on convention organizations at a given point in time” (Carroll
and visitor bureaus. In particular, the information 1979:500). It is always based upon the relation-
and communication technologies will have given ship between the business and its stakeholders for
convention and visitor bureaus new ways to sustainable management and is performed on a
achieve their objectives while cutting down on voluntary basis. Its strategies can be motivated
marketing expenses. Social media technologies by business targets in order to respond to societal
also play a crucial role as an information source, demands from major stakeholders. Such strategies
reaching potential customers worldwide with address purely moral considerations and man-
minimal cost. Incontestably, convention and visi- agers’ values with the goal to give something
tor bureaus have enhanced the tourism industry, back to the society or to increase welfare. The
but improvements can still be made through col- latter holds true for small and family businesses
laborative marketing programs in pursuit of embedded in a certain local culture and region.
greater satisfaction of convention attendees and Pyramid of social responsibilities of a business
stable environmental and financial costs. are economic responsibilities to ascertain busi-
nesses’ profitability, legal responsibilities to
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization, secure the maintenance of a fair business process,
▶ festival and event, ▶ incentive tourism, ethical and obligation responsibilities to do what
▶ information center, tourist, ▶ MICE. is right and fair to avoid negatively harming
others, and philanthropic responsibilities to the
community to improve overall quality of life
References (Carroll 1991). In the long term, the corporate
social responsibility initiatives are able to increase
Ford, R., and W. Peeper 2007 The Past as Prologue. Tour- customer value as tourists become more
ism Management 28:1104-1114. concerned about negative effects of tourism.
Gartrell, R. 1993 Convention and Visitor Bureau. Journal
of Travel & Tourism Marketing 1(2):71-78. This can be done with the help of government
Rogers, T. 2013 Conference and Conventions: A Global incentives; hotel and gastronomy have acknowl-
Industry (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. edged environmental and community
Correspondence analysis 193
involvement, through charitable activities and Mackenzie, M., and M. Peters 2014 Hospitality Managers’
business initiatives (Mackenzie and Peters Perception of Corporate Social Responsibility: An
Explorative Study. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism
2014). Community spirit has helped in improving Research 19:257-272.
hotel employer brand profiles and workforce sta- van Wijk, J., and W. Persoon 2006 A Long-haul Destina-
bility. Hotel chains promote these activities in tion: Sustainability Reporting Among Tour Operators.
their annual reports on corporate social responsi- European Management Journal 24(6):381-395.
bility (Bohdanowicz et al. 2011). Several certifi- C
cation efforts underline the increasing importance
of corporate social responsibility among ▶ tour
operators who attempt to address the whole tour-
ism value chain in order to reduce negative and Correspondence analysis
increase positive effects of traveling (van Wijk
and Persoon 2006). Marcus Schmidt
Benefits of corporate social responsibility ini- Department of Marketing, Copenhagen Business
tiatives in tourism are manifold. A business gains School, Frederiksberg, Denmark
a better reputation and the associated ability to
attract the best employees and customers. It
increases organizational commitment and produc- Most survey data are nominally scaled. The scal-
tivity among employees. These factors might ing may be either dichotomous or categorical.
result in greater competitive advantages as well Unlike metric- or ratio-scaled variables, nominal
as improved productivity and quality indices. Cor- variables often have no directional intensity.
porate social responsibility is an inherent concept Researchers frequently encounter nominal scaled
of strategic management; therefore, management data, such as “Do you intend to visit this destina-
education must address this notion and practice in tion?” (yes/no). In this case, correspondence anal-
all relevant management areas. Future research ysis is an appropriate analytical tool.
should assess barriers of corporate social respon- This method is an exploratory multivariate data
sibility implementation and evaluate long-term analysis technique for the graphical display of
effects on business performance in order to moti- contingency tables (cross-tabs). It portrays sets
vate entrepreneurs to translate social responsibil- of data points in a joint space where the axes are
ity into competitive advantages. principal components (contributors to explained
variance) identified in the analysis. The rows and
columns of the input table are scaled in
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ man- corresponding units so that each can be displayed
agement, ▶ stakeholder, ▶ sustainable tourism. graphically in the same low-dimensional space.
The resulting (two-dimensional) map provides
insight into similarities and differences within
References rows (a column) compared to a column (rows).
While relationships between rows and columns
Bohdanowicz, P., P. Zientara, and E. Novotna 2011 Inter- can be analyzed, comparisons of relations within
national Hotel Chains and Environmental Protection: row and column points are invalid and do make
An Analysis of Hilton’s Wecare! Programme (Europe, sense. Since correspondence analysis is an explor-
2006-2008). Journal of Sustainable Tourism
19:797-816.
atory method, it is not suitable for hypothesis
Carroll, A. 1979 A Three Dimensional Conceptual Model testing. Leading statistical software packages
of Corporate Performance. Academy of Management such as SPSS and SAS supply procedures for
Review 4:497-505. handling this method.
Carroll, A. 1991 The Pyramid of Corporate Social
Responsibility: Toward the Moral Management of
The first published application of correspon-
Organizational Stakeholders. Business Horizons dence analysis in tourism was carried out among a
34(4):39-48. sample of vacationers in ▶ Singapore (Calantone
194 Cosmopolitanism
et al. 1989). It was applied on tourists’ perceptions

of various Pacific destinations, and a Cosmopolitanism
two-dimensional attraction-destination perceptual
space was established. The analysis revealed that Megumi Doshita
Americans and Japanese have different percep- School of Global Studies, Tama University,
tions of Singapore and thus the same promotional Fujisawa, Japan
arguments cannot be used toward both markets.
Further, Tang et al. (2009) conducted another
survey dealing with the image of Macao. First, Cosmopolitanism represents the sentiment that peo-
the researchers identified frequently used words in ple are willing to engage with the Others and are
English- and Chinese-language online informa- open to divergent cultural experiences and desire to
tion sources about Macao. Next, the selected be citizens of an equal and peaceful global commu-
words were used as input for a correspondence nity (e.g., Hannerz 2004). The term kosmopolitēs,
analysis. In the end, the study demonstrated the citizen of the world, dates back to Ancient ▶ Greece
overall images of Macao projected in English and and historically travel was a prestigious prerequisite
Chinese websites were different. Additionally, for cosmopolitans. The word once referred both to
Richards and van der Ark (2013) also employed the privileged elite who appreciated Other societies
this technique to visualize the relationship and culture and to those whose admiration for Other
between cultural consumers and attractions. cultures eclipsed their loyalty to their homeland.
Using a large dataset, it uncovered two range Today, ▶ travel abroad is easier than ever, and
dimensions between “static” and “dynamic” access to Other societies and ▶ culture is widely
attractions and “high-brow” and “low-brow” cul- open to the public. Contemporary cosmopolitans
ture effectively discriminating different groups of include those who simply enjoy international cui-
arts and ▶ heritage tourists. Considering the sines and fashions (known as consumer cosmo-
increasing availability of panel data from major politanism) and those who are patriotic (rooted
▶ tourist surveys (where many variables are of cosmopolitanism). More frequently, cosmopoli-
nominal scale), correspondence analysis promises tanism is discussed in cultural and political
to be a powerful analytical technique for terms. Cultural cosmopolitanism can be identified
unraveling interesting attitudinal and behavioral by the analysis of international cultural forms,
patterns of significant value to tourism marketers. including overseas tours, whereas political cos-
mopolitanism can be seen in the ▶ evaluation of
international organizations or conventions like the
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ marketing, ▶ methodology,
▶ World Heritage Convention.
▶ quantitative research.
The relations between cosmopolitanism and
tourism can be examined through several aspects.
▶ Social media provides a useful tool for sharing
References individual experiences, and so blogs and social
Calantone, R., C. Di Benedetto, A. Hakim, and D. Bojanic
networking websites are investigated to grasp the
1989 Multiple Multinational Tourism Positioning nature of contemporary tourists (Germann Molz
Using Correspondence Analysis. Journal of Travel 2006). Tourism practices conducted by young or
Research 28(2):25-32. volunteer tourists are also explored to reveal the
Richards, G., and L. van der Ark 2013 Dimensions of
Cultural Consumption among Tourists: Multiple
ways people absorb and share diverse cultures, as
Correspondence Analysis. Tourism Management well as the ways they develop their sentiments to
37:71-76. become cosmopolitans (Lyons et al. 2012). In
Tang, L., S. Choi, A. Morrison, and X. Lehto 2009 The contrast, some scholars emphasize the influence
Many Faces of Macau: A Correspondence Analysis of
the Images Communicated by Online Tourism Infor-
of tourism practices on local participants by giv-
mation Sources in English and Chinese. Journal of ing careful ▶ attention to their voice (Swain
Vacation Marketing 15:79-94. 2009). In addition, it is thought that
Costa Rica 195
cosmopolitanism enhances the ethical aspects of 86 84
tourism practices. For instance, a number of tour- Lago de NICARAGUA

Nicaragua
ists are willing to contribute to Other societies and Ri
oS Caribbean
communities during their journeys, rather than an J
uan
Sea
Liberia
only seeking momentarily pleasure for them-
selves. Tourism researchers are expected to con- Puerto
sider the moral and ethical dimensions of tourism 10 Puntarenas Alajuela
Volcán
IrazÚ
LimÓn
10
C
Caldera SAN
by recognizing that everyone has a right to con- Cartago
JOSÉ Cerro
duct a ▶ tour (Caton 2012). ChirripÓ
San Isidro
Cosmopolitanism is a crucial issue in the current
globalized world in which almost everything, from
people to ideologies, is in motion, being NORTH
Golfito PANAMA
dis-embedded from original sites and re-embedded PACIFIC
OCEAN
elsewhere. Tourism presupposes cross border activ-
8 8
ities and enhances multifaceted human communica-
tion and interactions; hence, tourism can contribute 0 40 80 km
Isla del Coco
to the reorganization of the world as a unified entity, 86 0 40 80 mi 84 is not shown.
and its studies will elucidate the nature and dynam-

ics of the forthcoming world. Costa Rica, Figure 1 Map of Costa Rica
See also ▶ Globalization, ▶ responsible tourism, Central America’s third smallest country
▶ social tourism, ▶ volunteer tourism. (51, 100 km2; 19, 730 mi2). Its population of
4.57 million is less ethnically diverse than some
References of its regional countries. Atop the continental
divide near Monteverde, it is possible to see both
Caton, K. 2012 Taking the Moral Turn in Tourism Studies. the Pacific and the Caribbean that border the
Annals of Tourism Research 39:1906-1928. country’s west and east coasts. The country is
Germann Molz, J. 2006 Cosmopolitan Bodies: Fit to Travel
and Traveling to Fit. Body & Society 12(3):1-21. the key archaeological transition point between
Hannerz, U. 2004 Cosmopolitanism. In A Companion to North and South America. For much of its
the Anthropology of Politics, D. Nugent and J. Vincent, pre-independence history, Costa Rica was mostly
eds., pp.69-85. Oxford: Brackwell. left to its own devices, as it lacked gold, silver, and
Lyons, K., J. Hanley, S. Wearing, and J. Neil 2012 Gap
Year Volunteer Tourism: Myths of Global Citizenship? other precious commodities.
Annals of Tourism Research 39:361-378. Among Central American countries, Costa
Swain, M. 2009 The Cosmopolitan Hope of Tourism: Rica’s standard of living is the highest, hosting
Critical Action and Worldmaking Vistas. Tourism two and a half to three million tourists annually,
Geographies 11:505-525.
the largest in the ▶ region. Arrivals have steadily
increased since 1987, with a minor downtown in
2009–2010 (ICT 2013). The country’s tourism
Costa Rica income of US$2.427 billion in 2013 exceeds com-
bined proceeds from coffee, pineapple, and
Tim Wallace banana. Over 60 % of the workforce lies in the
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, service industry with tourism accounting for over
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, 5 % of GDP. Nevertheless, widespread poverty
USA has remained at 20 % since the early 1990s. How-
ever, heavy debt still contributes to the erosion of
the country’s social safety net (Hidalgo 2014).
Costa Rica, sandwiched between Nicaragua to the Costa Rica is divided into four main regions:
north and Panama to the south (Figure 1), is Guanacaste, bordering Nicaragua on the north, the
196 Cost-benefit analysis
Meseta Central, the coastal regions of the Pacific,

and the Caribbean. The beaches on both coasts are Cost-benefit analysis
major attractions. Guanacaste hosts the most
recent and intensive tourism ▶ infrastructure, Larry Dwyer
with many all-inclusive resorts and gated residen- Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana,
tial properties. The four largest cities – San Jose Ljubljana, Slovenia
(the capital), Alajuela, Heredia, and Cartago – are
all in close vicinity and served by the country’s
main international airport. Liberia, in the north, is Cost-benefit analysis is a systematic process for
the site of the other international airport. identifying and assessing all costs and benefits of
The country is best known for its ▶ nature tour- a policy, project, or program in monetary terms,
ism and its commitment to protecting ▶ biological including those not usually represented by mone-
diversity and to maintaining a high standard of tary values, subtracting the costs from the benefits
living (Stocker 2013). Its national parks include to estimate the net effect. Future costs and benefits
Manuel Antonio (the smallest and most visited), are discounted relative to their today’s worth in a
Cahuita (on the Atlantic coast), Tortuguero (known net present value sum. The policy or project is
for its turtle nests), and Corcovado (a largely deemed to be socially acceptable if the sum of the
undeveloped park). The country also has an exten- benefits to society exceeds the sum of all costs
sive network of wildlife refuges that link the south- (Boardman 2006).
ern Atlantic and northern Pacific biotic zones. In a cost-benefit analysis, “value” or “benefit” is
The recently established Comisión Nacional de measured by willingness to pay or willingness to
Educación Turística is responsible for tourism accept. Formally, using the compensating varia-
▶ education at all levels. A comprehensive train- tions principle, the net social benefit is the maxi-
ing system for guides and other programs have mum net amount that residents would be willing to
been developed to address the industry needs in pay for the proposal and be just as well off with the
▶ entrepreneurship, health services, and bilingual proposal as without it. Using the equivalent varia-
guiding. A key question for the country’s contin- tions principle, the net social benefit is the mini-
ued success is whether the government can mod- mum amount that the community would be willing
erate tourism growth while still protecting its to accept as compensation for not having the pro-
reputation as a staunch defender of biodiversity posal. The social costs of a project are measured in
(Miller 2012). terms of opportunity costs, the value of the mar-
ginal benefits foregone from the same resources in
See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ ecotourism, alternative uses. Using these two valuation princi-
▶ enclave tourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ park ples, the analyst can determine whether the value of
tourism. consumption gained is greater than that which is
given up. The net benefit is the sum of all welfare
benefits less costs. Maximizing net welfare is the
References standard policy objective implicit or explicit in
cost-benefit studies (Dupuit 1969).
ICT 2013 Tourism Statistical Yearly Report 2013. San Assessments of the economic impacts of tour-
Jose: Instituto Costaricense de Turismo. ism plans, policies, developments, or programs in
Hidalgo, J. 2014 Growth without Poverty Reduction:
The Case of Costa Rica. Cato Insitute, Economic
themselves provide an imperfect basis for deci-
Development Bulletin No. 18. www.cato.org/publica sions about resource allocation. In contrast, cost-
tions/economic-development-bulletin/growth-without- benefit analysis picks up a whole range of benefits
poverty-reduction-case-costa-rica (15 January 2015) and costs which would not be included in the
Miller, A. 2012 Ecotourism Development in Costa Rica.
Lanham: Lexington.
economic ▶ impact model due to non-priced
Stocker, K. 2013 Tourism and Cultural Change in Costa effects arising from the absence of markets for
Rica. Lanham: Lexington. some goods and services affected.
Côte d’ Ivoire 197
Developed by Dupuit in the nineteenth century,

cost-benefit analysis is particularly relevant to
▶ evaluation of various tourism developments
where wider economic, environmental, and social
implications for the host community exist but are
not captured in basic financial analyses (Dwyer
2012). Examples in tourism include assessment of C
mega events, rezoning of land, the effects of ▶ avi-
ation agreements on destinations, taxation policies
affecting the industry, and assessment of man-
power programs, as well as major developments
projects such as the creation of tourism shopping
precincts, airport and resort developments, estab-
lishment of nature reserves, environmental policy,
and construction of major ▶ transportation and
sporting facilities. Cost-benefit analysis is expected
to find increasing use in tourism-related projects
and policy assessments in the future, particularly in
the evaluation of special events.
See also ▶ Constraint, ▶ contingent valuation Côte d’ Ivoire, Figure 1 Map of Côte d’ Ivoire
method, ▶ planning, ▶ policy and policymaking,
▶ willingness to pay.
322,460 km2 (124,502 mi2). It borders ▶ Liberia
and ▶ Guinea in the west, ▶ Mali and ▶ Burkina
References Faso in the north, ▶ Ghana in the east, and the
Gulf of Guinea in the south (Figure 1). Yamous-
Boardman, N. 2006 Cost-Benefit Analysis: Concepts and soukro as its capital, Côte d’ Ivoire has a popula-
Practice. Upper Saddle River: Prentice Hall.
tion of approximately 20 million (United Nations
Dupuit, J. 1969 On the Measurement of the Utility of
Public Works. In Readings in Welfare Economics, 2012). The official language is French, though it is
K. Arrow and T. Scitovsky, eds., pp.255-283. Home- estimated that over 65 languages are spoken in the
wood: Richard D. Irwin. country.
Dwyer, L. 2012 Cost Benefit Analysis. In Research
The tourism ▶ industry in Côte d’ Ivoire has
Methods in Tourism: Quantitative and Qualitative
Approaches, L. Dwyer, A. Gill and N. Seetaram, eds., developed significantly since the early 1970s. In
pp.290-307. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. 1997, there were about 11,400 beds in some 7,800
hotel rooms, with a 70 % occupancy rate. There
were 301,000 international arrivals in 1998, with
about 25 % from ▶ France alone. However, the
Côte d’ Ivoire volume of arrival dropped to 180,000 in 2003
associated with the unstable political climate at
Oghenekaro Omodior and Holly Donohoe the time. Current promotional efforts by the gov-
Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport ernment include the establishment of a tourism
Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, ministry and development fund. ▶ International
FL, USA tourism was worth approximately US$200 mil-
lion in 2010, with domestic and international tour-
ists together spending $739 million, or nearly 2 %
The Republic of Côte d’Ivoire (or Ivory Coast) is of total GDP in 2012, while supporting 115 out of
located in West Africa and occupies an area of every 1,000 jobs (Encyclopedia of the Nations
198 Creative tourism
2014). The tourism competitiveness index

ranking of 140 countries (World Economic Creative tourism
Forum 2013) assigned an overall low rating to
Côte d’ Ivoire based on its tourism policy, rules Manuela Guerreiro
and regulations, prioritization, infrastructure, Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve,
education and training, and availability of Faro, Portugal
qualified labor.
Major attractions for inbound tourists are
beaches, ▶ tourist villages, and photo safaris in In the era of economic globalization and fashion
wildlife preserves. Destinations of interest include consumption, paradoxically a growing number of
Grand-Bassam, which is a beachfront favorite, tourists seek authentic and unique experiences on
and Abidjan, which is located between lagoons ▶ vacation. In this context, cultures are turned to
and waterways and overlooks the Atlantic Ocean. valuable assets in order to enhance the demand for
Other attractions include Mt. Tonkoui, La Dent de a ▶ destination. Considering that creativity con-
Man, San Pédro, the beach resort of Sassandra, fers distinctive authenticity and improves the
and the architecture and buildings of Le Plateau. economy of a place (Zukin 2010), especially in
Opportunities for tourism ▶ development exist cities, its cultural resources become priceless and
in Côte d’ Ivoire. However, political stability, unique selling propositions. This bears in mind
infrastructure development and renewal, and gov- that culture is a source of creative experience, so
ernment support among other factors are required one may argue that creative tourism experience
for the future growth and sustainability of the entails cultural elements. In some cases, this form
industry. Although, Cote d’ Ivoire spends a very of tourism is considered a cultural and creative
high share of its GNP on education, the internal market segment focusing on daily activities
efficiency of the educational system is still rela- instead of artistic production.
tively low, and this has impacted all sectors of Creativity is the production of something new,
education including tourism. In this regard, tour- original, and useful (Batey 2012). Since this is an
ism in Côte d’ Ivoire would benefit from research intrinsic human feature, everyone has the poten-
focused on assessing its portfolio, key markets tial to be creative. While there are many opportu-
and attractions, and the institutional support for nities for exhibiting creativity, this quality can be
its development. harnessed through formal or informal learning
processes.
Creative tourism has been defined by
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ beach tourism, ▶ nature UNESCO (2006) as ▶ travel directed toward an
tourism, ▶ safari, ▶ wildlife tourism. engaged and authentic experience, with participa-
tive learning in the arts, heritage, or special char-
acter of a place. It provides a connection with
those who reside in this place and create a living
References culture. It offers “tourists the opportunity to
develop their creative potential through. . . learn-
Encyclopedia of the Nations 2014 Côte d’ Ivoire www. ing experiences which are the characteristic of the
nationsencyclopedia.com/economies/Africa/C-te-D-
ivoire.html (21 February). destination” (Richards and Raymond 2000:18).
United Nations 2012 World Population Prospects: The This simultaneous production and consumption
2012 Revision. The UN Department of Economic and process is nurtured by the participation of the
Social Affairs http://esa.un.org/wpp/Excel-Data/popu host population that enables tourists to learn
lation.htm (21 February 2014).
World Economic Forum 2013 The Travel and Tourism about the character and living culture of a desti-
Competitiveness Report www3.weforum.org/docs/ nation (Binkhorst and den Dekker 2009). This
TTCR/2013/CotedIvoire.pdf (21 February 2014). approach is enriching and may even help the
Crime 199
participants to develop their own sense of creativ- can be defined as “an act committed or omitted in
ity. Therefore, creativity is more than a strategy violation of a law forbidding or commanding it,”
adopted by a destination as a growth technique. It and violence is “an unjust or unwarranted exercise
also functions to foster innovation and individual of force, usually with the accompanying of vehe-
enhancement. Living culture, heritage, and con- mence, outrage or fury” (Black 1979: 334).
temporary arts are important assets used to create Research on tourism and crime has occurred
unique, authentic, and meaningful experiences. for more than 40 years. However, most studies C
Although creative tourism has been growing in have been ad hoc or case studies and have
popularity among academics and practitioners, occurred without a systematic approach. Brunt
there remain some aspects that constitute interest- et al. (2000) categorize this stream of research
ing prospects for future research. These include into six themes: high crime tourism areas, tourists
questions such as “what constitutes creativity in as victims, tourists as offenders, tourism generat-
the context of tourism, who decides what is crea- ing higher levels of deviant or illegal activities,
tive, and what makes a creative experience.” terrorism and tourism, and policy responses to
tourism and crime.
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ cultural tourism, Globally, the growth of tourism has made the
▶ culture, ▶ destination, ▶ experience. propensity for tourists to experience much greater
victimization. The ease of access to cheaper air-
fares and greater accessibility to destinations pro-
References vide them with opportunities to become victims of
crime and to engage in criminal activities. Never-
Batey, M. 2012 The Measurement of Creativity: From theless, ▶ destination managements are particu-
Definitional Consensus to the Introduction of a New
larly interested in maintaining safety and
Heuristic Framework. Creativity Research Journal
24:55-65. security. Crime preventions such as implementing
Binkhorst, E., and T. den Dekker 2009 Agenda for a ▶ tourist-oriented policing program may reduce
Co-creation in Tourism Experience Research. Journal the opportunity for victimization to occur, as well
of Hospitality Marketing and Management 18:311-327.
as the negative consequences of crime on a desti-
Richards, G., and C. Raymond 2000 Creative Tourism.
ATLAS News 23:16-20. nation (Muehsam and Tarlow 1995).
UNESCO 2006 Towards Sustainable Strategies for Crea- McPheters and Strong (1974) investigate the
tive Tourism: Discussion Report of the Planning Meet- relationship between tourism and crime in Miami,
ing for 2008 International Conference on Creative
USA. They suggest that criminal activity is corre-
Tourism. Santa Fe: United Nations Educational, Scien-
tific and Cultural Organization. lated with seasonality, with a greater occurrence
Zukin, S. 2010 Naked City: The Death and Life of Authen- during the peak season. Fujii et al. (1978) study
tic Urban Places. Oxford: Oxford University Press. tourism and crime in Hawaii with regard to aver-
age daily ▶ visitor count and find mixed results
related to murder and assault for tourists.
Tourism has been seen as a target for terrorist
Crime groups who use tourists as useful and effective
tools for political advantage, as well as sending
Lori Pennington-Gray political messages. In addition, terrorist activities
Department of Tourism, Recreation, and Sport have recently been targeted at Western audiences,
Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, congregating in specific attractions such as large
USA urban upscale malls. Research confirms that ter-
rorism almost always has a sustained negative
effect on destinations. This has been most recently
Recent acts of crime and ▶ terrorism serve as exam- evidenced in ▶ Kenya following the Nairobi
ples of how sensitive tourism is to violence. Crime Westgate Mall attacks in September 2013.
200 Crisis management
Future research is imperative on effective Crisis management can reduce the impacts and
crime prevention programs for destination man- improve recovery for both organizations and des-
agement. Such research may ask: Do destinations tinations. It includes three steps: planning and
which have invested in “tourist-oriented policing preparedness activities before a crisis; response
programs” experience less intense criminal activ- to, or management of, a crisis as it occurs; and
ities? Are tourists who are more knowledgeable final resolution to a new or improved state after
about destinations less likely to be victims? Are the crisis is over (Ritchie 2009). In the case of
specific sectors more likely to fall victim to crim- tourism, it can be defined as an ongoing systemic
inal activities aimed at tourists than others? What and comprehensive effort by organizations to
is the overall rate of victimization for tourists identify and prevent potential risks and problems
when traveling internationally? and to manage those that occur in order to mini-
mize damages and maximize opportunities, taking
into account learning, ▶ planning, and ▶ training
See also ▶ Crisis management, ▶ disaster,
activities, including the interests of stakeholders
▶ risk, ▶ safety and security.
(Ritchie et al. 2011).
In recent years, tourism globally has experi-
enced many crises such as terrorist attacks, polit-
References
ical instability, economic recession, and
Black, H. 1979 Black’s Law Dictionary (5th ed.). St. Paul: biosecurity threats. As their range and occur-
West. rences have increased, so too has the number of
Brunt, P., R. Mawby, and Z. Hambly 2000 Tourist Victim- articles exploring appropriate tourism strategies.
ization and the Fear of Crime on Holiday. Tourism
In the 1990s, research focused on terrorism, polit-
Fujii, E., J. Mak and E. Nishimure 1978 Tourism and ical instability, and war. There was also a focus on
Crime. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. the Asian Economic Crisis. Since 2000, terrorism
McPheters, L., and W. Strong 1974 Crime as an Environ- in tourism has been extensively studied (e.g., Sep-
mental Externality of Tourism: Miami, Florida. Land
tember 11, bombings in Bali and London in
Muehsam, M., and P. Tarlow 1995 Involving the Police in 2005). There has also been an expansion of
Tourism. Tourism Management 16:9-14. biosecurity and disease. Examples include crisis
management of the 2011 foot-and-mouth out-
break in the ▶ United Kingdom and SARS
(severe acute respiratory syndrome). The number
Crisis management of natural disasters which have triggered crises for
tourism has also increased, due to a lack of orga-
Brent W. Ritchie nizational planning and preparedness for external
UQ Business School, University of Queensland, shocks.
St Lucia, Australia
Challenges and issues

A tourism crisis refers to any unplanned event or
situation emerging from the internal or external ▶ Planning or preparedness activities are impor-
▶ environment of a tourism organization, which tant in responding effectively to tourism crises.
can disrupt operations, threaten customers and The development and testing of contingency plans
employees physically and mentally, and endanger through scenarios, drills, and simulations are good
its financial status and future viability. Crises usu- practice. However, limited research has explored
ally develop very rapidly and involve ambiguous the planning and preparedness activities in the
situations with unknown causes and effects. This tourism ▶ industry, and researchers have been
makes managing crises very important but concerned about the lack of appropriate crisis
difficult. management plans (Wang and Ritchie 2012).
Crisis management 201
Low levels of crisis planning may be related to the and even initiatives can be created to help improve
nature of the industry and its structure, which future crisis planning. The role of knowledge man-
comprises small operators who do not plan agement and organizational learning in developing
beyond day to day survival. It is usually larger positive outcomes from crises has also been iden-
organizations, established for a longer period, that tified as important (Blackman et al. 2011). The
have a higher likelihood of undertaking crisis process of review and provision of feedback to
planning (Ritchie et al. 2011). Understanding inform future crisis management are not well C
potential barriers and constraints can help increase understood. Destination marketing organizations
future crisis planning and thus help organizations are vital to crisis management, because of their
withstand disruptions and/or recover quickly from role as knowledge brokers and recovery marketing
any possible adverse impacts. activities on behalf of the industry. Despite the
The majority of past studies on tourism crises importance of organizational learning and
have focused on response and recovery, with a ▶ knowledge captured from tourism crises, little
particular focus on communication and marketing focus has been given on reviewing crisis commu-
strategies. Effective communication has been iden- nication strategies. This reduces the ability to create
tified as a crucial factor. Receiving accurate and new knowledge to assist future crisis planning.
updated information within and beyond the organi- As the nature of crises (and disasters) affecting
zation is important. Communication with tourists, the industry has grown, tourism crisis manage-
especially those present at the time of crisis, is also ment research has increased since the 1990s. To
important. While the need for efficient strategies is date, research has tended to focus on the response
clear, research has yet to explore effective means of and recovery stage at the expense of the crisis
communicating vital information to tourists. planning and resolution stage. Due to the nature
Furthermore, strategies are needed with the of the industry comprising small and medium
▶ travel trade and mainstream media assisting to enterprises, there is a clear need for leadership
repair any tarnished image generated due to a from industry associations and destination man-
crisis. Restoring confidence is a first step before agement organizations to ensure effective crisis
recovery marketing can be undertaken. It should management plans are constantly evaluated.
adjust any misperceptions about the crisis and There are still a number of questions which
attract tourists back by targeting resilient seg- currently remain unresolved. These include the
ments using appropriate communications. How- following: How can the tourism ▶ industry
ever, research is not clear on when recovery increase its crisis planning activities and thus
marketing campaigns should start, what they build its resilience to crises? What are the most
should include, and how their effectiveness effective ways to communicate with consumers,
should be evaluated. Such information is vital tourists, and the travel trade during and after a
for the future support of recovery marketing cam- crisis? Finally, issues concerning the identifica-
paigns by government and industry. tion and development of positive outcomes also
need to be explored.
Research directions
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization,
▶ management, ▶ risk, ▶ terrorism.
Limited research has been undertaken on the res-
olution and feedback stage for tourism crisis man-
agement, despite its importance in developing
future plans. While a crisis can have a negative
References
▶ impact, the aftermath can present opportunities
for positive change. Funding from government Blackman, D., M. Kennedy, and B. Ritchie 2011 Knowl-
and/or industry may be available for infrastructure edge Management: The Missing Link in DMO Crisis
improvements. New products can be developed Management? Current Issues in Tourism 14:337-354.
202 Critical tourism studies
Ritchie, B. 2009 Crisis and Disaster Management for Tour- and economic dependency relations. Thus, the
ism. Clevedon: Channel View. underlying causes of inequity relating to unjust
Ritchie, B., G. Bentley, T. Krouth, and J. Wang 2011
Proactive Crisis Planning: Lessons for the Accommo- global systems, unfair international trade agree-
dation Industry. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality ments, the workings of transnational corporations,
and Tourism 11:367-386. and the neoliberal capitalist system have long
Wang, J., and B. Ritchie 2012 Understanding Accommo- been the subject of tourism enquiry (Cole and
dation Managers’ Crisis Planning Intention: An Appli-
cation of the Theory of Planned Behavior. Tourism Morgan 2010). Such work has gained traction
Management 33:1057-1067. with a proliferation of newer journals orientated
toward “theoretical and critical works in method-
ological issues in tourism studies” (Jamal and
Hollinshead 2000: 66). Rather than having a sin-
Critical tourism studies gle hegemonic center of research, tourism is
enacted in multiple versions through various prac-
Nigel Morgan1 and Annette Pritchard2 tices and performances across, and within differ-
1
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, ent knowledge communities (Ren et al. 2010) and
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK within critical approaches, “hopeful tourism” has
2
Welsh Centre for Tourism Research, Cardiff emerged as a distinctive knowledge network.
Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK
Hopeful tourism
“Critical tourism studies” is a term with no
accepted definition. Broadly, it encompasses a Acknowledging previous and parallel analyses of
range of perspectives and approaches committed injustice, hopeful tourism scholars seek to “make” a
to social, political, and cultural critique that regard difference as well as to “mark” the existence of such
tourism analysis as an ethical and political project inequity. It strongly connects with empowering and
dedicated to creating conditions of equality, ▶ sus- egalitarian values and embraces emergent perspec-
tainability, and human freedom. Critical tourism tives such as worldism. Its naming took inspiration
researchers strive for transformation of the way of from bell hooks’ 2003 book Teaching Community:
seeing, being, doing, and relating in tourism worlds A Pedagogy of Hope, which offers insights into
and for the creation of a more equal, sustainable how to create critical education arenas that disman-
planet through action-oriented, participant/ tle oppression across racial, ethnic, ▶ gender, class,
researcher-driven learnings and acts. Critical tour- and nation lines and work toward socially just com-
ism encompasses critical and interpretive scholar- munities (Pritchard et al. 2011). It has achieved a
ship and advocates critique, ▶ education, and degree of success in enrolling people, ideas, and
action for planetary justice and responsibility inscriptions as an unfolding perspective and a
(Pritchard et al. 2011). Critical discourse analysis, ▶ network which can trace its formalization to
qualitative methods, ▶ ethnography, race theory, 2004 and to the launch of the “Critical Tourism
media literacy, and standpoint epistemology, Studies” conference series. There is a sizable body
postcolonial critique, critically conscious language of work, which can be labeled as hopeful tourism
and literacy research, and critical policy analysis inquiry (Ateljevic et al. 2007, 2012; Pritchard
are a few of the approaches available within this et al. 2011; Ren et al. 2010).
broad perspective (Ateljevic et al. 2007, 2012). Hopeful tourism strives to disturb tourism’s
There has always been a stream of work in hegemonic, masculinist methodological founda-
tourism enquiry, which has engaged with critical tions. Its network seeks to reduce the isolation
theory. Critical tourism studies spring from an experienced by interpretive and critical
established line of analyses of the causes of researchers in a field where objectivity, generali-
inequality and injustice in tourism and how they zation, and distance have been the norm. It pre-
relate to wider international systems of political sents an unfolding vision for tourism research,
Croatia 203
one which is committed to co-transformative used to explore the social practice of tourism and
learning, social justice, and the universality of its research, an approach grounded in ▶ critical
human rights. It is bound by five key principles. studies has much to offer.
The first is that society is characterized by objective
structures of power that encompass states, govern- See also ▶ Feminism, ▶ knowledge, ▶ multidis-
ments, classes, and sets of ideologies and relations ciplinarity, ▶ power, ▶ race.
that privilege the few at the expense of the many. C
The second recognizes human agency in the mak-
ing of multiple worlds through multi- and trans-
subjectivities. The third is that language is central References
to meaning, while the fourth holds that consensus is
Ateljevic, I., N. Morgan, and A. Pritchard (eds.) 2007 The
discursively formed and that emancipation is pos-
Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Innovative Research
sible through research critiques, which address Methodologies. Oxford: Elsevier.
issues of ideology and power. Finally, social inter- Ateljevic, I., N. Morgan, and A. Pritchard (eds.) 2012 The
ests guide knowledge so that “truth” is regarded as Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Creating an Academy
of Hope. Oxford: Routledge.
a matter of social location, and knowledge is seen
Cole, S., and N. Morgan (eds.) 2010 Tourism and Inequal-
to be a product of specific social, cultural, and ity: Problems and Prospects. Oxford: CABI.
historical contexts. This is not to say that all knowl- hooks, b. 2003 Teaching Community: A Pedagogy of
edge is relative (and therefore dependent on the Hope. New York: Routledge.
Jamal, T., and K. Hollinshead 2000 Tourism and the For-
researcher’s theoretical perspective), but that all
bidden Zone: The Underserved Power of Qualitative
knowledge is in part true so that when people Research. Tourism Management 22:63-82.
define situations in particular ways, their defini- Pritchard, A., N. Morgan, and I. Ateljevic 2011 Hopeful
tions have real consequences for the development Tourism: A New Transformative Perspective. Annals
of Tourism Research 38:941-963.
of that situation (Pritchard et al. 2011).
Ren, C., A. Pritchard, and N. Morgan 2010 Constructing
Tourism Research: A Critical Enquiry. Annals of Tour-
Future research
A critical approach to tourism needs to advance its

study beyond questions of ▶ performance, Croatia
▶ management, and ▶ governance, to consider
reclaiming the world for the whole of humanity. Damir Krešić
Technological innovation and market solutions Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia
alone will not address the world’s growing envi-
ronmental challenge, nor will they alleviate the
increasing resource divide among and between its Croatia is located in southeastern ▶ Europe, on
populations. Tourism inquiry, also as a social the eastern coast of the Adriatic Sea (Figure 1),
practice, must be rethought from the standpoint with a total area of 54,470 mi2 and a population of
of those at the bottom of the global capitalist 4.3 million. It is divided into 21 counties with
hierarchy, if the intent is to prevail in meeting tourism being mostly concentrated in the 7 coastal
these twin challenges. Whether one subscribes to counties and in the capital city of Zagreb, while
models of eco-, community-based or ▶ pro-poor the inland area is still in development.
tourism, to the new sustainability or hopeful par- The origins of tourism ▶ development can be
adigms, or to some other models, critical tourism traced back to the end of the nineteenth century
studies underwritten by a social justice agenda can when the town of Opatija emerged as the first
advance a concerted critique and transformation destination in the country. Today tourism has an
of existing capitalist social relations. Certainly, enormous impact on Croatian economy. In 2013,
whatever theoretical and analytical models are its inbound tourism generated US$9.5 bn
204 Cross-cultural study
education institutions, complemented by lifelong

learning programs. In 2013, Croatian parliament
adopted a new tourism development strategy for
2014–2020 prepared by the Croatian Ministry of
Tourism in collaboration with the Institute for
Tourism. The document provides strategic guide-
lines for future development of Croatian tourism
with emphasis on improving the quality of accom-
modation facilities, education, and diversification
of tourism products. Major problems for Croatian
tourism that need to be addressed are high season-
ality (more than 75 % of tourist inflows is gener-
ated during the summer months), unfavorable
accommodation facilities dominated by
low-quality private providers, and limited tourist
activities at the destination level.
Croatia, Figure 1 Map of Croatia See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ Mediterranean,

▶ nautical tourism, ▶ sun, sand, sea and sex.
(Croatian National Bank 2014). The direct contri-
bution of tourism to GDP was 8.3 % (Gatti 2013),
while direct and indirect contribution of tourism References
to gross value added was 14.7 % (Šutalo
et al. 2011). Tourism generates around 7 % of Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa 2013 The Travel and Tourism
Competitiveness Report 2013. Geneva: World Eco-
total employment. Croatia has a relatively com-
nomic Forum.
petitive tourism ▶ industry, ranking 35th place Croatian National Bank 2014 Croatian National Bank Bul-
among 140 analyzed countries in 2013 (Blanke letin No. 204. Zagreb: Croatian National Bank.
and Chiesa 2013). Gatti, P. 2013 Tourism, Welfare and Income Distribution:
The Case of Croatia. Tourism 61:53-71.
With its long and indented coastline
Šutalo, I., N. Ivandić, and Z. Marušić 2011 Total Contri-
(3,900 miles and 1,246 islands), mild ▶ Mediterra- bution of Tourism to Croatian Economy: Input-Output
nean climate, and rich cultural heritage, Croatia is Model and Tourism Satellite Account. Ekonomski
well endowed with ▶ resources and attractions. Its Pregled 62:267-285.
most important tourism products are “sun, sand,
sea, and sex” and nautical and ▶ cultural tourism,
with business, health, and city break tourism
gaining prominence. Croatian tourism is dominated Cross-cultural study
by small and medium enterprises, with few major
hotel chains present. The country recorded 12.4 Carla A. Santos1 and Changsup Shim2
million arrivals and 64.8 million ▶ tourist nights 1
Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism,
in 2013. ▶ Inbound tourism accounted for around University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
88 % of tourists and 92 % of overnights in 2013. Champaign, USA
2
European Union countries are its major gener- Department of Tourism Management, Gachon
ating markets, producing more than 80 % of University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do, South
inbound tourism in 2013. Most important long- Korea
haul markets are the ▶ United States, ▶ Japan,
and ▶ Australia, but these constitute only 2.5 %
of the market share. Tourism ▶ education is Cross-cultural studies are largely rooted in the
implemented through secondary and higher epistemological assumption that sociocultural
Cross-cultural study 205
background influences beliefs, norms, values, Previous cross-cultural tourism studies can be
customs, and ideological perspectives; these all divided broadly into three types based on the
contribute to shaping or constructing behavior. selection of research subjects. The first, and most
From this perspective, culture has generally been common, compares multiple groups of tourists
understood to exert an underlying, causal, and from different countries or ethnic groups. For
standardizing influence over group members. example, Laing and Crouch (2005) analyzed the
Cross-cultural studies, often based on the assump- similarities and differences among tourists from C
tion that members of a given group necessarily the ▶ United States, the ▶ United Kingdom, and
share tendencies toward specific characteristic ▶ Australia in the context of frontier travel, argu-
behaviors, patterns, or traits, tend to conceptualize ing that cultural background serves a crucial role
culture as a variable and proceed to describe the in constructing ▶ tourist motivations. Such stud-
range and distribution of variations (Hofstede ies generally approach cultural values and norms
2001; Reisinger and Turner 2003). shared by a national or ethnic group as underlying
In utilizing a cross-cultural approach, and constant influences that collectively govern
researchers employ quantitative methods to stages of the experience, including expectations,
make statistical comparisons among different cul- motivations, intentions, and selection of, and sat-
tural groups, while they employ qualitative isfaction with, tourism products, destinations, and
methods, such as ethnography and grounded the- services.
ory, to analyze the cultural intricacies and dynam- The second type investigates groups of tourists
ics among their members. Quantitative methods from particular national or ethnic backgrounds.
have been largely favored by cross-cultural Although these studies also highlight the influ-
researchers seeking to identify tendencies that ence of cultural background on the experience,
occur in conjunction with cultural differences their focus is interpreting collective values of a
and to measure, simplify, and generalize the given group within the cultural context. For exam-
results. These methods, however, do not always ple, Watkins and Gnoth (2011) examined Japa-
account for the complexities inherent in cross- nese cultural influences on Japanese tourists in
cultural research, so researchers have increasingly ▶ New Zealand. Criticizing the domination of an
adopted qualitative methods so as to also address etic approach in cross-cultural tourism studies,
“questions of subjective experience and situa- they argue that an emic analysis of indigenous
tional meaning” (Davies et al. 2009: 6). The flex- meanings allows researchers to explore a
ibility, fluidity, and interpretation involved in non-Western cultural group’s value orientation
qualitative inquiry can be critical to revealing the within a Western value system.
dimensions, dynamics, and nuances of cross- The third type analyzes the relationship
cultural phenomena (Denzin and Lincoln 2008). between tourist and host community members.
For example, Uriely et al. (2009) studied the rela-
tionship between Israeli tourists and their Egyp-
Studies in tourism tian hosts in the northern region of the Sinai
Peninsula, focusing on “the bubble of serenity”
Cross-cultural studies highlight differences created by the encounter. Anchored in the
between host and guest population from different assumption that understanding cultural relation-
cultural groups, as well as how cultural ships in the context of tourism should go beyond
factors shape tourism-related decisions regarding analyzing characteristics in a vacuum, these stud-
where to ▶ travel, how to act at the destinations, ies not only identify cultural similarities and dif-
and the like. Such an approach is especially ferences between the host and guest population
meaningful, because identifying values and but also illuminate the dynamics of the interac-
preferences shared by different cultural groups is tions and relationships between them.
critical in tourism market ▶ segmentation and As such, cross-cultural tourism studies can
development. hardly be understood to constitute one particular
206 Cruise tourism
research technique; instead, it should be under- Denzin, N., and Y. Lincoln 2008 Introduction: The Disci-
stood as an epistemological and methodological pline and Practice of Qualitative Research. In Strategies
of Qualitative Inquiry, N. Denzin and Y. Lincoln, eds.,
approach that seeks to take into account the ongo- pp.1-44. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
ing production, negotiation, and modification of Hofstede, G. 2001 Cultural Consequences. Thousand
sociocultural situations in the context of tourism. Oaks: Sage.
Understood in this way, a cross-cultural approach Laing, J., and G. Crouch 2005 Extraordinary Journeys:
An Exploratory Cross-cultural Study of Tourists
can serve to guide all stages of research into on the Frontier. Journal of Vacation Marketing
tourism phenomena, replete as they are with inter- 11:209-223.
actions between different cultural groups. Reisinger, Y., and L. Turner 2003 Cross-Cultural Behavior
in Tourism: Concepts and Analysis. Oxford:
Butterworth Heinemann.
Uriely, N., D. Maoz, and A. Reichel 2009 Israeli Guests
Future directions and Egyptian Hosts in Sinai: A Bubble of Serenity.
Journal of Travel Research 47:508-522.
For the past several decades, cross-cultural studies Watkins, L., and J. Gnoth 2011 The Value Orientation
Approach to Understanding Culture. Annals of Tour-
have faced profound challenges as rapid globaliza- ism Research 38:1274-1299.
tion and technological advances have led to an ever
more interconnected world. Such worldwide struc-
tural changes have, at times, blurred cultural differ-
ences among national and ethnic groups and created
a global community characterized by diaspora and Cruise tourism
cosmopolitanism. In this regard, this research tech-
nique is being called upon to shift the understanding James F. Petrick and Angela Durko
of culture from a traditional, universal, and deter- Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism
ministic variable to a more open, fluid, and flexible Sciences, Texas A&M University, College
construct, reflecting the reality that various cultures Station, USA
are implicated in the process of globalization across
multiple local settings.
To understand the contemporary tourism mar-
ket, future cross-cultural studies need to stretch Cruise tourism takes place on a ship dedicated to
beyond the dualistic framework typical of tradi- ▶ leisure. Cruiseships are viewed as floating
tional tourism studies, which analyze tourist/host, resorts and often resemble entire cities at sea.
self/other, us/them dichotomies. This suggests These vessels typically transport guests to multi-
that future studies focus on the contemporary ple destinations (ports) and can either be a round
realities of engagement and interconnectedness trip (finish where they start) or a point-to-point
among cultural groups, rather than merely (one-way) voyage. “Cruises to nowhere” take
highlighting cultural differences. passengers on 1–3 day trips without any ports of
call and usually focus on gambling activities
while underway. Approximately one half of all
See also ▶ Comparative study, ▶ culture, ▶ eth- cruises are 6–8 days in length, one third are
nicity, ▶ qualitative research. 1–5 days, 16 % are 9–17 days, and approximately
1 % are 18 days or longer (CLIA 2012).
According to Cruise Market Watch (2013), the
majority of passengers worldwide are either
References North American (60.5 %) or European (27.0 %),
with an emerging Asian market (6.5 %). The
Davies, B., J. Larson, N. Contro, C. Reyes-Hailey,
typical cruiser is likely to be married, over
A. Ablin, C. Chesla, B. Sourkes, and H. Cohen 2009
Conducting a Qualitative Culture Study of Pediatric 40 years old, and have an annual income of over
Palliative Care. Qualitative Health Research 19:5-16. US$75,000.
Cruise tourism 207
Scope of the market (a tug boat) became the first practical steam-
driven vessel. Many believe that the first
Cruise is currently the fastest growing sector in pleasure cruise occurred in 1881 when the Oce-
tourism, with an estimated annual passenger anic Yachting Company purchased P&O’s
growth of 7.5 % since 1980 (CLIA 2013). This Ceylon to serve the European market. White
▶ trend shows no ▶ sign of slowing, with approx- Star Line infamously sailed the Titanic on her
imately 24 new ships providing almost 29,000 first and final voyage in 1912, while prohibition C
beds entering the market in 2013 and 2014 in the ▶ United States from 1920 to 1933 led
(CLIA 2013). Of the 11 ships introduced in to the popularity of “booze cruises” to ports of
2013, the Norwegian Breakaway is the largest call including the ▶ Bahamas, Bermuda, and
(3,969 passenger capacity), while Uniworld ▶ Cuba. The RMS Queen Mary was the
Boutique River Cruises’ River Orchid is the flagship of Cunard Line starting in 1936 and
smallest (60 passengers). By the end of 2013, was one of many glamorous ships that ran
283 vessels worldwide were estimated, with passengers between ▶ Europe and the ▶ United
a total capacity of 438,595 passengers States.
(a 3 % increase over 2012), carrying an estimated During World War II (1939), almost all plea-
20.9 million passengers (Cruise Market sure ships were converted to war carriers, with
Watch 2013). many of the great cruiseships being sunk both
According to Statista (2012), the cruise market during and after the war. Cruising continued post
accounted for approximately $29.3 billion in war, but not nearly at the same scale as prewar.
global revenue in 2011, with North American The onset of jet ▶ travel and the debut of the
cruises responsible for nearly 60 % of the revenue Boeing 707 in 1958 also deterred the industry’s
generated. A typical passenger spends $1,728 for success.
a cruise, with an average ticket price of $1,311 and It can be argued that modern-day cruising did
onboard spending of $417 (Cruise Market Watch not occur until 1966 when Ted Arison (who later
2013). Onboard spending on average includes started Carnival Cruise Line) and Kloster
casino/bar ($222), cruise line portion of shore Reederei (who subsequently introduced
excursions ($81), spa ($40), and other onboard Norwegian Caribbean Line) placed the Sunward
spending ($61). in ▶ service in the ▶ Caribbean. The
According to Cruise Market Watch (2013), the American television show “The Love Boat,”
worldwide market is dominated by two compa- which first aired in 1977, greatly increased
nies which control multiple lines. Carnival Cor- the demand for cruising and can be credited
poration owns the largest market share (48.4 %) with introducing the first mega ships in the
and includes Carnival Cruise Line (21.2 %), Costa Caribbean, including the transference of the SS
Cruises (7.7 %), Princess Cruises (6.1 %), AIDA France to the SS Norway by Norwegian Cruise
(4.6 %), Holland America Line (3.3 %), and Line in 1979 and the Sovereign of the Seas
others. Royal Caribbean Cruises owns the second in 1988.
largest (23.3 %) and operates Royal Caribbean Today’s cruiseships operate like towns
Cruise Line (16.4 %), Celebrity (4.4 %), etc. Other dedicated to leisure. They have multiple restau-
significant cruise lines include Norwegian Cruise rants, nightclubs, casinos, shops, and show
Line (7.6 %), MSC Cruises (7.0 %), and Disney lounges and include amenities such as ice rinks,
Cruises (2.5 %). spas, waterslides, climbing walls, ropes
courses, golf, and onboard surfing. The world’s
largest ships are currently Royal
History of cruising Caribbean’s Oasis and Allure of the Seas. Both
are 225,282 gross tons, 1,187 ft long, have 2,706
Motorized traveling on bodies of water can be staterooms, and have a maximum capacity of
dated back to 1801 when the Charlotte Dundas 6,296 guests.
208 Cuba
Current and emerging research

Cuba
Much research has examined cruise tourism from
a ▶ marketing perspective. Past studies have Judith Cukier
examined cruise passengers’ motivations and Geography and Environmental Management,
▶ constraints (Hung and Petrick 2011), ▶ loyalty University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
(Li and Petrick 2008), decisionmaking processes
(Petrick et al. 2007), and several psychological
constructs. ▶ Future research is needed to exam- The Republic of Cuba (population 11 million) is a
ine best ▶ management practices from both ▶ Caribbean country of 109,820 km2
human resources and operational perspectives. (42,426 mi2) comprised of the islands of Cuba
These studies should include, but not be limited (104,556 km2 or 40,369 mi2), de la Juventud,
to, desired amenities on ships, best pricing prac- and a number of small archipelagos (Figure 1).
tices, optimal hiring practices, ▶ crisis manage- Cuba dominated the Caribbean tourism indus-
ment strategies, and environmental impacts of try until the 1959 Revolution and the ensuing
cruising. Additionally, research is required to imposition of an American embargo. After 1989,
help determine the specific motivations and the government began redeveloping this industry,
desired amenities for the newly emerging Asian and by 1993, the number of arrivals had increased
cruising markets. This would have the advantage to 600,000 (Jayawardena 2003). By 2001, the
of linking up with theories generated from social inbound volume had increased to almost two mil-
scientific disciplines, including the well-known lion, placing Cuba only behind the ▶ Dominican
push-pull ▶ paradigm. Republic and Cancun in terms of Caribbean num-
bers. International tourists are primarily from
▶ Europe, ▶ Canada, South America, and
See also ▶ Economics, ▶ holiday, ▶ hospitality,
▶ Mexico, with the majority of tourism concen-
▶ island tourism, ▶ luxury tourism.
trated in Varadero, Havana, Cayo Coco,
Guardalavaca, and Santiago (Henthorne and
Miller 2003).
References Cuba offers tourists the longest coastline in the
Caribbean, four biosphere reserves, several
CLIA 2012 CLIA Passenger Carrying Report Summary: national parks, and a diverse culture. The country
4th Quarter 2011 <http://cruising.org/regulatory/clia- has a relatively good internal infrastructure, high
statistical-reports> (30 April 2014). levels of human capital, and a government com-
CLIA 2013 Cruise Lines International Association: 2013
North American Cruise Industry Update <www. mitted to investing resources in tourism. Educa-
cruising.org/sites/default/files/pressroom/CruiseIndustry tion is free in Cuba, and most universities offer
Update2013FINAL.pdf> (30 April 2014) degrees in tourism. However, in order to be
Cruise Market Watch 2013 Cruise Market Watch <www. allowed to study tourism, applicants are selected
cruisemarketwatch.com> (30 April 2014).
Hung, K., and J. Petrick 2011 Why Do You Cruise? by the government based on aptitude and other
Exploring Motivation to Cruising and its Influence tests. The Ministry of Tourism is largely respon-
on Cruising Intentions. Tourism Management sible for tourism in Cuba, but there is also a large
32:386-393. Cuban military involvement.
Li, X., and J. Petrick 2008 Examining the Antecedents of
Brand Loyalty from an Investment Model Perspective. Concern about the inequality between state
Journal of Travel Research 47:25-34. workers and the self-employed has led the
Petrick, J., R. Li, and S. Park 2007 Cruise Passengers’ Cuban state to place many restrictions on the
Decisionmaking Process. Journal of Travel and Tour- self-employed sector, including prohibiting the
ism Marketing 23:1-14.
Statista 2012 Statistics and Facts on the Cruise hiring of paid support staff, the use of
Industry <www.statista.com/topics/1004/cruise- middleperson to sell goods, and the purchasing
industry/#chapter1> (30 April 2014). of supplies at wholesale prices. In addition to
Culinary tourism 209
84 da 80 76
24 ori 24
f Fl
t r a its o
S
Gulf of
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HAVANA
THE
Matanzas
Pinar BAHAMAS
Santa
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Clara
22
Cienfuegos
NORTH ATLANTIC 22 C
Yu
cat
an OCEAN
Cha Nuevitas
nn el Camagüey
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Manzanillo Boyamo
20
Caribbean Sea Pico
Guantánamo
20
Turquino
Santiago U.S. Naval Base
Cayman de Cuba Guantanamo Bay
Islands
(U.K.)
0 50 100 km
0 50 100 ml 80 76 HAITI
Cuba, Figure 1 Map of Cuba
these barriers, high tax rates, the constant threat of Peters, P., and J. Scarpaci 1998 Cuba’s New Entrepreneurs:
government inspections and fines, lack of financ- Five Years of Small-scale Capitalism. Arlington:
Alexis de Tocqueville Institution.
ing, increasing competition, and difficulties find- Smith, B. 1999 The Self-Employed in Cuba: A Street Level
ing needed supplies are cited as challenges that View. Proceedings of the Association for the Study of
face self-employed workers (Peters and Scarpaci the Cuban Economy, pp.49-59. Coral Gables: ASCE.
1998; Smith 1999).
One of the biggest constraints on future tour-
ism development is the lack of shopping options.
Cuba has little in the way of ▶ souvenir shops, Culinary tourism
craft markets, and galleries, particularly when
compared to other Caribbean destinations. Other Suzanne de la Barre1 and Patrick Brouder2
1
investigation topics or issues include a lack of Department of Recreation and Tourism
customer service and managerial experience, the Management, Vancouver Island University,
absence of goods and services familiar to Western Nanaimo, BC, Canada
2
tourists (such as recognized restaurant chains), School of Tourism and Hospitality, University of
and of course the American embargo. Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ developing country,

▶ island tourism, ▶ sun, sand, sea and sex. Culinary tourism is food-motivated travel that
occurs in places not typically part of one’s every-
day encounters. It includes instances where con-
References sumption of particular food is the main
motivation, such as culinary festivals, as well as
Henthorne, T., and M. Miller 2003 Cuban Tourism in the ▶ travel where food is complementary to the main
Caribbean Context: A Regional Impact Assessment. motivation for travel. “Culinary” is derived from
the Latin culina, meaning kitchen, thus limiting
Jayawardena, C. 2003 Revolution to Revolution: Why is
Tourism Booming in Cuba? International Journal of the scope of “culinary tourism” to food-related
Contemporary Hospitality Management 15:52-58. activities. Culinary tourism is also referred to as
210 Culinary tourism
“food or gastronomy tourism” (OECD 2012). Experiences

Activities such as wine, beer, and tea and coffee
tourism are, along with culinary tourism, best Strengthened by an increased interest in the local
considered as subsets of food (and beverage) tour- and slow movements, culinary tourism offers the
ism (Hall and Sharples 2003: 10). chance to try something new or “exotic” in both
The growth in culinary tourism is closely asso- rural and urban settings. It has natural synergies
ciated with the rise in “▶ special interest tourism” with festivals and events where food is a primary
(Everett and Aitchison 2008) and draws on the resource for farmers’ markets, harvest festivals,
experiential dimensions that increasingly define wine/beer festivals, and more. However, culinary
consumer expectations. Food itself is a significant aspects are more commonly used as a support in
element of the experience economy (Pine and these settings, for instance, at music and heritage
Gilmore 2011) and, combined with rising festivals. Culinary attractions that are embedded
▶ mobility, has created demand for, and expan- in ethnic or cultural enclaves within major popu-
sion of, ▶ product served under the culinary tour- lation areas remain important. The latter include
ism banner. It is commonly agreed that this “street food” vendors around the world, districts
branding can provide a means to express designated as “Chinatown” in many cities, and the
▶ identity and ▶ culture (Everett and Aitchison hipster ▶ phenomenon of food truck clusters ini-
2008; Hall and Sharples 2003; Hjalager and tiated in Portland, the ▶ United States of America,
Richards 2002; Long 2004). Food can also be which has now spread to other major cities (e.g.,
viewed as artifact (Everett and Aitchison 2008), Vancouver, ▶ Canada).
which is both shaped by and a shaper of local “Destination restaurants,” such as NOMA in
folklore (Long 2004). Consequently, food can Copenhagen, ▶ Denmark, are also gaining popu-
form a significant part of cultural and ▶ heritage larity. Other emerging trends include “pop up
tourism. Similarly, the combination of culinary restaurants” driven by innovations combining
tourism experiences and storytelling represents a the experience economy with lifestyle entrepre-
growing trend where food is transformed neurship (OECD 2012). Other product develop-
from local ingredient to local insight, thus ment trends fuse the collecting of food
offering local knowledge on landscapes and ingredients, learning about their history or culture,
lifestyles. and participatory demonstrations on how to pre-
Culinary tourism is concerned with the desire pare them. There are significant moves to use food
to experience a particular food or ▶ region where story performances in the ▶ development of tour-
a specific food is produced (Hall and Sharples ism experiences (Long 2004).
2003). However, while food production geogra-
phies remain significant, culinary tourism also
benefits from ever-increasing ▶ tourist and food Impacts
mobility. The latter satisfies a worldwide desire
for exposure to foreign (exotic) foods even in Culinary tourism plays an important role in desti-
familiar locations. Thus, ethnic enclaves of nation development since “the very fact that food
major cities become destinations in their own is expressive of a region and its culture has meant
right, with culinary tourism among the primary that it can be used as a means of differentiation for
motives for visitation in, for instance, Brick Lane, a destination” (Hall and Sharples 2003: 6). In the
London, ▶ United Kingdom. More generally, it last decade, policymakers internationally have
has been observed that tensions between ▶ glob- embraced the culinary sector and culinary tourism
alization and localization produce greater varia- in particular.
tion, not less, across the gastronomic ▶ landscape Questions that tourism scholars and destination
(Hjalager and Richards 2002), which implies that developers will be required to address as culinary
culinary tourism offers become more diverse as tourism moves forward relate to food security,
globalization advances. ▶ climate change, labor, and the animal rights
Cultural conflict 211
movement (Harvard School of Public Health Food and the Foodservice Industry http://issuu.com/
2013). These issues of global importance will theculinaryinstituteofamerica/docs/menus_of_change_
2013_annual_report (29 December 2014).
undoubtedly continue to affect the development Hjalager, A., and G. Richards (eds.) 2002 Tourism and
of culinary tourism including the significant need Gastronomy. London: Routledge.
to identify challenges and benefits that destina- Long, L 2004 Culinary Tourism. Lexington: The Univer-
tions can expect to gain from utilizing it as a sity of Kentucky Press.
community, economic, rural, or urban develop-
OECD 2012 Food and the Tourism Experience: The
OECD-Korea Workshop. Paris: The Organization for
C
ment tool. For instance, climate change may Economic Co-operation and Development.
impact what can be grown in regions that have Pine, B., and J. Gilmore 2011 The Experience Economy.
branded themselves around certain crops, thereby Boston: Harvard Business School.
altering the significant features of a “terroir” and
creating new wine regions while decimating
others.
Similarly, the potential for agriculture in lower Cultural conflict
latitude ▶ Arctic regions caused by climate
change may compound the success already gained Magdalena Banaszkiewicz1 and
through the slow and local movements. Other Karolina Buczkowska2
1
questions of interest include the following: How Jagiellonian University, Cracow, Poland
2
will consumer ethics continue to shape food pro- Poznan University School of Physical Education,
duction and consumption patterns, and how will Poznan, Poland
this impact culinary tourism? The food industry
(and the food tourism sector) has been guilty of
poor labor practices, and tourism scholars must A cultural conflict is a dislike, hostility, or struggle
prioritize studies of the workers’ “experience.” between communities who have different philos-
Perhaps the central question to be asked is as ophies and ways of living, resulting in contradic-
follows: Can the tourism ▶ industry proactively tory aspirations and behaviors. The notion
contribute to solving the broader food-related originates from sociological conflict theories and
problems around the globe? anthropological concepts of intercultural
relations.
Intensive development of tourism as part of
See also ▶ Agritourism, ▶ coffee and tea tour- globalizing trends often leads to rapid changes in
ism, ▶ restaurant, ▶ slow tourism, ▶ wine local cultures of “exotic” territories. The negative
tourism. consequences of modernization contribute to the
intensification of conflicts caused by alternative
perceptions of the world determined by different
systems of cultural values and beliefs. Including
References axio-normative conditions, cultural conflicts are
often provoked by the socioeconomic situation in
Everett, S., and C. Aitchison 2008 The Role of Food
Tourism in Sustaining Regional Identity: A Case given communities.
Study of Cornwall, South West England. Journal of For a conflict to occur, there must be a direct
Sustainable Tourism 16:150-167. interaction between at least two different cultures.
Hall, C., and L. Sharples 2003 The Consumption of Expe-
In tourism this often occurs on the host-guest axis
riences or the Experience of Consumption? An Intro-
duction to the Tourism of Taste. In Food Tourism and may arise from tourists’ expectations towards
Around the World, C. Hall, L. Sharples, R. Mitchell, the product. They may be caused by differences
N. Macionis and B. Cambourne, eds., pp.1-24. Oxford: between tourists themselves (Reisinger and
Turner 2003) or associated with historical and
Harvard School of Public Health 2013 Menus of Change:
The Business of Healthy, Sustainable, Delicious Food geopolitical intercultural relations (Stein 2008).
Choices. 2013 Annual Report: Charting the Future of Furthermore, stereotypes, prejudice, and culture
212 Cultural tourism
shock are important factors which may lead References

to conflict (Hottola 2004). The sources of a
conflict are often difficult to determine, as it may Hottola, P. 2004 Culture Confusion: Intercultural Adapta-
tion in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 31:447-
be caused not so much by contradictory aspira-
466.
tions, as by the mere conviction about the Reisinger, I., and L. Turner 2003 Cross-cultural Behavior
contradiction. in Tourism: Concepts and Analysis. Oxford:
As a resolution, a mediator may play an impor- Butterworth-Heinemann.
Robinson, M., and P. Boniface 1999 Tourism and Cultural
tant role as an uninvolved person respected and
Conflicts. Wallingford: CABI.
trusted by parties in conflicts. This would lead to Stein, R. 2008 Itineraries in Conflict: Israelis, Palestinians
negotiations, avoidance of struggles, and search and the Political Lives of Tourism. Durham: Duke
for compromise through dialogue. The majority of University Press.
cultural conflicts are resolved in the company of
local authorities, community members,
non-governmental organizations, and ▶ tour
operators. Cultural tourism
Tourism research has led to a deeper reflection
on cultural contact and communication. Analyses Shinji Yamashita
of different types of cultural conflict have contrib- Department of Cultural Anthropology, The
uted to a deepened discussion on forms of preser- University of Tokyo, Meguro-ku, Tokyo, Japan
vation of traditional cultures and protection of
cultural heritage (Robinson and Boniface 1999).
Additionally cultural conflicts make one reflect Cultural tourism is a program in which tourists
on the limits of tourism ▶ development and raise appreciate tangible and intangible aspects of
ethical questions regarding traveling. Should the ▶ culture at a given ▶ destination, from ▶ archi-
cultural relativism existing in host-guest contacts tecture, visual arts, dance performances, festivals,
be kept? Can or should traditional cultures be cuisines, to ▶ history. In recent years, it “has
modernized through tourism development? Cul- become an umbrella term both to identify spe-
tural conflict prevention involves developing cially organized culture-based tourism experience
intercultural competences and tolerance of and to provide unity and add depth to a diverse
cultural Otherness, in both tourists (going beyond range of culture-related aspects of tourism more
ethnocentric thought patterns and colonialist generally” (Craik 1997: 118).
behaviors) and host communities (noticing the In discussing the relationship between tourism
positive aspects of tourism development together and culture, however, the former is often viewed
with an appreciation for their own cultural negatively as destroying local cultural
heritage). Future research on this topic includes ▶ resources through the process of commoditiza-
the role of the middleman in tourism, the tion (Greenwood 1989). As Greenwood himself
economic background of cultural conflicts, and admits, this view is not necessarily accurate, for
the systems of values within the tourists’ worlds. tourism is not the only factor affecting host soci-
Better understanding of these issues may eties. Industrialization, urbanization, and mass
contribute to avoiding cultural conflicts in ▶ media also have an ▶ impact. Furthermore, cul-
tourism. tural and economic realms are deeply
intermingled in the contemporary world. There-
fore, what is crucial is not whether tourism is
See also ▶ Change, sociocultural, ▶ cross- “good” or “bad,” but rather how host societies
cultural study, ▶ ethics, ▶ host and guest, make use of it to redefine their own cultural iden-
▶ multiculturalism. tities (Lanfant et al. 1995). Cultural tourism can
Cultural tourism 213
preserve dwindling remains of history and ▶ her- destination is listed as a world heritage site, the
itage. Heritage hotels are living examples, as are number of tourists is expected to increase, as is
handicrafts and souvenirs. The dynamics, income from tourism. However, the expected eco-
dilemmas, and ▶ future of cultural tourism are nomic gains do not necessarily benefit the local
illustrated with examples from Bali, ▶ Indonesia, community. The Old Town of Lijiang in Yunnan
and Lijiang of Yunnan Province, ▶ China. Province, China, was listed as a world heritage
site in 1997, due to the high quality and ▶ authen- C
ticity of its historic townscape. According to its
Cultural tourism in Bali tourism board, about one million tourists visited
the Old Town in 1996, before world heritage
Tourism in Bali dates back to the 1920s when it designation. This number soared to 4.3 million
was hailed as “the last paradise” by Western artists in 2007 and 16 million in 2012.
and scholars. Under this “tourist gaze,” Balinese However, the increase of tourism has polluted
traditional culture was re-created and reinvented the river water, which is essential to the lives of
for Western audiences (Yamashita 2003: 25–41). the local Naxi people. Traditional houses have
The current versions of kecak and barong dances, been transformed into ▶ souvenir shops, restau-
for example, are re-creations from the 1930s. rants or guesthouses. The local Naxi people have
After Indonesia’s independence, tourism was moved out of the Old Town, and the Han Chinese
seen as an important source of foreign currency from outside have moved in to run tourism-related
and Bali was designated as the most important businesses. As a result, it can be said that the Old
international destination of Indonesia under the Town of Lijiang exists only for the benefit of
first 5-year development plan in 1969. The Bali- tourists and the tourism ▶ industry.
nese provincial government also adopted a policy
to develop its tourism emphasizing culture. Since
then, tourism has become an inseparable part of Toward reflexive tourism
Bali’s growth and development, creating a “tour-
istic culture.” In the midst of the dilemma of tourism in Bali
However, in this process, culture has also were the bombing incidents of 2002 and 2005.
become an asset or form of cultural capital Interestingly, the bombings were interpreted by
owned, managed, and controlled by nonlocals Balinese as an expression of the anger of the
with money circulating beyond the reach of the gods, a consequence of bad karma (Hitchcock
host population. Even Hinduism, the cultural and Darma Putra 2005). Local people used these
foundation of Balinese identity, has been commer- incidents as an opportunity to return to their tra-
cialized by external capital in such a way as the ditional frame of reference: ▶ ritual. The slogan
Garuda Wisnu Kencana Cultural Park and the Bali Ajeg Bali (“taking hold of Bali firmly”) shows this
Nirwana Resort in Tanah Lot. Cultural tourism resolution. Globalism has come into tension with
was set up to allow local Balinese to take hold of this new politics of ▶ identity, to seek “Bali for the
their own culture, but now their culture is beyond Balinese,” a slogan which emerged in the late
their control. This is the dilemma Balinese cul- 1960s during the early stage of tourism develop-
tural tourism is facing today. ment. This is also the case with Lijiang. The
central questions are essentially political: who
will make use of the cultural heritage, and for
Cultural heritage of Lijiang whom, and with what purpose (Harrison and
Hitchcock 2005).
The UNESCO’s world heritage status has now Observing the evolution of such a process,
great significance for cultural tourism. When a “reflexive tourism” is a possible solution
214 Culture broker
(Yamashita 2010). ▶ Ecotourism, for example, change. Such a role requires effective communi-
may be regarded as a form of reflexive tourism, cation and translation skills, but it covers much
because it attempts to recover the ▶ destination more than being a mere language interpreter. Cul-
from environmental destruction caused by indus- ture brokers in tourism profit (most often econom-
trial modernity. The same can be said about culture. ically) by their mediation. They further the
The future of cultural tourism, therefore, should development of the business and/or influence the
also be viewed reflexively for the sustainable devel- ▶ tourist experience.
opment toward an alternative ▶ modernity. Anthropologists studying tourism traditionally
focus on the relations between hosts and guests. It
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ identity, ▶ impact, ▶ sus- took 20 years for Valene Smith’s seminal work,
tainable tourism, ▶ world heritage. Hosts and Guests, to include a chapter that explic-
itly dealt with culture brokers in its third edition.
The chapter defines them as “the mediator
[s] between hosts and guests, situated between
References the demand and the ▶ supply sides of tourism”
(Smith 2001: 276–277). Before this, only a hand-
Craik, J. 1997 The Culture of Tourism. In Touring Cul- ful of authors had drawn scholarly attention to this
tures: Transformations and Theory, C. Rojek and
J. Urry, eds., pp.113-136. London: Routledge.
intermediate category of tourism stakeholders.
Greenwood, D. 1989 Culture by the Pound: An Anthropo- Adams (1984) was a forerunner when writing
logical Perspective on Tourism as Cultural Commodi- about travel agents as “brokers in ethnicity”
tization. In Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of (who remain firmly lodged in the cultural values
Tourism (2nd Ed.), V. Smith, ed., pp.171-185. Philadel-
phia: The University of Pennsylvania Press.
and orientations of their own society). According
Harrison, D., and M. Hitchcock, eds. 2005 The Politics of to Crick, two features of tourism encounters par-
World Heritage: Negotiating Tourism and Conserva- ticularly lend themselves to brokering: they tend
tion. Clevedon: Channel View. to be superficial and transitory, and most relation-
Hitchcock, M., and N. Darma Putra 2005 The Bali Bomb-
ings: Tourism Crisis Management and Conflict Avoid-
ships between locals and tourists are decidedly
ance. Current Issues in Tourism 8:62-76. asymmetrical (1994: 162–163).
Lanfant, M. F., J. Allcock, and E. Bruner, eds. 1995 Inter- Nowadays, it is accepted that any analysis of
national Tourism: Identity and Change. London: Sage. host-guest relationships requires consideration of
Yamashita, S. 2003 Bali and Beyond: The Exploration of
the Anthropology of Tourism. Oxford: Berghahn.
the many mediating agents and organizations
Yamashita, S. 2010 A 20-20 Vision of Tourism Research in active in tourism: government officials, planners,
Bali: Towards Reflexive Tourism Studies. In Tourism travel agents, tour guides, and travel writers. Tour-
Research: A 20-20 Vision, D. Pearce and R. Butler, ism scholars argue for the need to consider the role
eds., pp.161-173. Oxford: Goodfellow.
of brokers as central to the development and pro-
motion of contemporary tourism (Salazar 2010).
The study of power in tourism demands increased
analytical attention to the role of brokers. They are
Culture broker not necessarily altruistic mediators by profession,
nor can they be expected to submit blindly to
Noel B. Salazar government or tour operators’ rules and regula-
Cultural Mobilities Research, University of tions. Not surprisingly, there are multiple
Leuven, Leuven, Belgium strains and conflicts in trying to combine and
reconcile the service-oriented with the more self-
oriented aspects of the role. From a tourist per-
Culture brokers are individuals straddling two spective, culture brokers may be perceived as
(or more) cultures with attributes of membership effective figures of mediation (often a hybrid).
in each. Their position ranges from reducing con- They are likely to be seen quite differently by
flict over interpreting culture to facilitating local people.
Culture shock 215
Either as innovative entrepreneurs or cultural Exacerbating factors include the distance between
mediators with specific skills (including bilingual- cultures, collectivist vs. individualist orientations,
ism or previous exposure to Other cultures), it is gendered roles, disrespect of the ▶ Other, unfa-
increasingly evident that brokers play a unique miliarity with social norms and the law, and sheer
role in tourism. Future research should pay atten- ignorance with a touch of neo-colonialism
tion to the increasing role of information and resulting in a negative experience. However, pos-
communication technologies in culture brokering itive outcomes as a consequence of culture shock C
and to broker dynamics in the context of emerging might include increased learning, challenging of
tourism markets. ethnocentrism, and enhancing self-efficacy.
A review of the literature on culture shock and
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ culture, ▶ employ- tourism reveals the paucity and narrowness of the
ment, ▶ power, ▶ soft power. definitions where the association is principally
seen in the tourist context marginalizing the
impact on other groups such as migrants, refu-
References gees, and sojourners (who stay between six
months and five years). While tourists experience
Adams, K. 1984 Come to Tana Toraja, “Land of the Heav- the shortest and shallowest forms of culture shock,
enly Kings”: Travel Agents as Brokers in Ethnicity.
for sojourners, the experience may be profound
Crick, M. 1994 Resplendent Sites, Discordant Voices: Sri and encompasses various stages: euphoria, disil-
Lankans and International Tourism. Langhorne: Harwood. lusionment, hostility, adaptation, and assimila-
Salazar, N. 2010 Envisioning Eden: Mobilizing Imagi- tion. This process is expressed as a W-curve
naries in Tourism and Beyond. Oxford: Berghahn.
where the experience is repeated with euphoria,
Smith, V. 2001 The Culture Brokers. In Hosts and Guests
Revisited: Tourism Issues of the 21st Century, V. Smith crisis, recovery, and adjustment on reentry to the
and M. Brent, eds., pp.275-282. Elmsford: Cognizant. culture of origin. This process has echoes of
Jafari’s tourist model, Doxey’s irridex, and
Milligan’s modification (Mathieson and Wall
1982).
Culture shock The lack of studies acknowledging increased
trans-global movements of people for economic
Pheroza Daruwalla and work purposes contributes to culture shock.
School of Business, University of Western Fly-in, fly-out workers like miners, aid workers,
Sydney, Richmond, NSW, Australia soldiers, non-governmental organizations staff,
expatriates and international students (Furnham
2010), and volunteer and study tour sojourners,
The concept of “culture shock” is attributed to the along with host populations, are all impacted by
renowned anthropologist Oberg (1960). It is culture shock.
described as the dissonance experienced when Studying and “culture learning” (Furnham and
faced with cultural immersion in societies or des- Bochner 1986), the use of culture brokers, educa-
tinations that are different from those to which tion, training, and relocation specialists, all reduce
people are accustomed. Oberg defines the four culture shock. Physical and psychological pre-
stages of culture shock as honeymoon, crisis, paredness for change mitigates culture shock,
recovery, and adjustment. Marwick (nd) charac- and a positive attitude and realistic expectations
terizes culture shock as being cognitive, behav- temper the experience. Corporations have stream-
ioral, phenomenological, and socio- lined these procedures providing training and
psychological. Physical reactions as well as the relocation specialists for their employees and fam-
characteristics of loss of identity, familiar cues, ilies, but for tourists, the reduction of culture
and incongruence in personal communication are shock is still dependent on their own initiative
features that are inherent in culture shock. and self-education.
216 Culture
Future research should examine the use of con- a “historically created system of explicit and
tact theory to mitigate culture shock in an increas- implicit designs for living, which tends to be
ingly trans-global world. Potential areas of study shared by all or specifically designated members
should incorporate preparedness to adapt and of a group at a specified point in time” (1945:
adopt different cultural nuances and norms to 97–98).
reduce cognitive dissonance in culture shock. Ritchie and Zins asserted that this definition
“focused on the explicit components of culture
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ cultural conflict, which are readily visible to the traveler” (1978:
▶ culture, ▶ culture broker. 254). Some scholars regard this definition as
overly broad and have expressed concern that
the perceived attractiveness of cultural elements
References of a region may differ between tourists and local
residents. Some years later, Goeldner and Ritchie
Furnham, A. 2010 Culture Shock: Literature Review: Per- provided a definition of culture in their influential
sonal Statement and Relevance for the South
tourism text as “the totality of socially transmitted
Pacific. Journal of Pacific Rim Psychology 4:87-94.
Furnham, A., and S. Bochner 1986 Culture Shock: Psy- behavior patterns, art, beliefs, institutions, and all
chological Reactions to Unfamiliar Environments. other products of human work and thought that
London: Methuen. are characteristic of the destination population”
Marwick, B. nd Culture Shock <www.uq.edu.au/
(2012: 482). This definition is similar to many
studentservices/sites/default/files/imported/cultureshock.
pdf> (23 April 2014). found in the anthropological literature.
Physical and Social Impacts. London: Longman.
Oberg, K. 1960 Culture Shock: Adjustment to
New Cultural Environments. Practical Anthropology
Culture as defined by anthropologists
7:177-182.
In 1871, Edward Burnett Tylor provided the first
modern definition of culture in its anthropological
sense as “that complex whole which includes
knowledge, belief, art, morals, law, custom, and
Culture any other capabilities and habits acquired by man
as a member of society.” Two parts of his defini-
Erwei Dong1 and Garry Chick2 tion appear in nearly all anthropological defini-
1
University of South Alabama, Alabama, USA tions formulated over the last 140 years. These are
2
Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, that individuals learn culture from others and that
USA culture is shared. The problem with definitions of
this sort, however, is that they are so vague that
any measurement of culture, based on them, is
As early as the 1970s, tourism researchers claimed impossible. Another problem is that many defini-
that culture is a determinant of the attractiveness tions, like Goeldner and Ritchie, include behavior
of a tourism ▶ destination (Ritchie and Zins and/or artifacts. This precludes culture as an
1978). Unfortunately, the definition of culture is explanation for distinctive behavior or artifacts,
controversial even in cultural anthropology, the since those are already part of its definition.
social science wherein it is the organizing con- To solve these problems, many anthropologists
cept. In an early attempt to explore the nature of have adopted a cognitive view of culture. For
culture and how it relates to tourism, Ritchie and example, Goodenough stated, “A society’s culture
Zins adopted an anthropological concept and consists of whatever it is one has to know or
applied it to tourism research. Among the many believe in order to operate in a manner acceptable
anthropological definitions available, they pre- to its members. Culture is not a material phenom-
ferred Kluckhohn and Kelly’s view of culture as enon; it does not consist of things, behavior, or
Culture 217
emotions. It is rather an organization of these ▶ travel agents, specialize in particular domains.

things. It is the form of things that people have With this understanding, Romney et al. (1986)
in mind, their models for perceiving, relating, and developed a theory of culture based on the con-
otherwise interpreting them” (1957: 167). cept of agreement, or consensus, among members
After Goodenough proposed his cognitive def- of cultural groups. These authors also developed a
inition of culture, others generalized what people method for determining whether observed varia-
know and believe as information. When regarded tion among informants in areas such as knowl- C
as information, culture can be created, transmitted, edge, beliefs, and values is cultural or
stored in a variety of ways, and even lost or idiosyncratic. Of interest is whether this is due to
destroyed. Therefore, culture is shared and socially the informants being from different cultures or
transmitted information of two general types. First, whether it simply reflects individual differences
cultural information may relate to the problems and in within-culture knowledge. Further, the proce-
processes of making a living, raising a family, and dure permits the determination of “cultural com-
dealing with others. This part of culture is largely petence.” In other words, if a group does possess a
utilitarian. Second, cultural information may deal distinct culture, how well does each individual in
with the production and expression of meaning in the group know it? Moreover, with respect to the
life through things such as religion, play, games, questions asked of informants in order to deter-
sport, ▶ leisure, and, of course, tourism. Anthro- mine whether knowledge is cultural or idiosyn-
pologists often refer to this as “expressive culture.” cratic, what are the “culturally correct” answers
Just as cultures themselves are not discrete but of a (Romney et al. 1986)? This method, to a signifi-
blend of one into another, utilitarian and expressive cant degree, solves the problem of measuring
aspects of culture are not separate and distinct and culture and, in turn, permits sharing both within
are instead merged and overlapped. A Ferrari and a and across cultures to be measured and compared
Ford, for example, can both provide ▶ transporta- with other variables.
tion while expressing very different meanings to Although cultural consensus analysis was
their owners and to others. developed in anthropology more than 25 years
Anthropologists have also come to view cul- ago, it has been used sparingly in tourism research.
tures not as more or less homogenous entities Gatewood and Cameron (2009) examined cultural
containing knowledge, beliefs, and values shared understandings of tourism on the islands of Turks
by distinctive groups of people but as a large and on the Caicos Islands in the ▶ Bahamas.
number of interconnected domains that can be Kerstetter et al. (2010) examined sense of place
further broken down into cultural models. For among highland Fijians whose culture was under
example, nearly all people have a model for order- the influence of nature-based tourism ▶ develop-
ing dinner at a ▶ restaurant. Typically, one ment. Ribeiro (2012) used cultural consensus anal-
expects to be waited on, served a drink while ysis in an examination of the degree to which the
examining the menu, ordering, receiving the behavior of spring break tourists in the United
meal, being asked if the meal is satisfactory, and States matched their cultural understanding of this
finally paying for the meal. However, there are phenomenon. Further, Bae (2013) used consensus
culturally determined aspects of dining as well, analysis to determine that college-age youths in
such as whether one’s cup of coffee is “bottom- South Korea exhibit a high level of agreement
less” or whether a tip is expected, both of which with regard to their experiences with Railo, a pop-
are common in the ▶ United States but less so or ular ▶ rail pass that provides individuals aged 25 or
nonexistent in many other areas of the world. younger with unlimited domestic travel for seven
While many aspects of culture are not shared consecutive days. She found little difference in
across cultures, knowledge of cultural domains cultural knowledge among informants based on
and models is commonly shared unevenly even gender, age, and years of experience with Railo.
among members of a particular culture, because Free listing is a data acquisition method com-
many people, such as physicians, cooks, or monly used in linguistics, cognitive psychology,
218 Culture
and cognitive anthropology and is extremely use- transmitted to others permits survival in the
ful for gathering items that populate cultural greatest range of environments of any plants or
domains which can be used in surveys, inter- animals. Seeing how others have adapted to their
views, and other methods. The resulting data can surroundings is part and parcel of tourism. More-
then be analyzed using consensus analysis and over, when regarded as information, culture can
other standard techniques. In free listing, infor- serve either as a dependent, descriptive or as an
mants are asked to list as many kinds of items in independent, explanatory variable. Therefore, tour-
particular domains they can recall, generally in ism scholars are to adopt a view of culture that
some relatively brief time period, such as 2 min. permits the concept to be operationalized and mea-
Domains may consist of natural things, such as sured using methods such as cultural consensus
birds or trees, but also can be purely cultural, such analysis. A cognitive definition of culture, such as
as things one might take on a camping trip or “information, learned from others, that individuals
things that come to mind when American under- use to guide their own behavior and understand the
graduate students hear the terms “spring break.” behavior of members of their social groups,” is
Using free listing, Ribeiro showed that students’ appropriate for tourism research.
cognitive representations “were consonant with Finally, as Ribeiro (2012) demonstrated, the
the ‘Spring Bacchanal’ stereotype of Spring behavior of both tourists and hosts may differ
Break but, paradoxically, were at odds with the from their respective cultures. Chick (1981) first
participants’ own Spring Break experiences” explored a mismatch between culture and behavior
(2012: 555). That is, students’ cognitive/cultural in a tourism-related setting. He found that members
understandings of the spring break phenomenon of an indigenous community in the highlands of
did not match their behavior. central ▶ Mexico had a strongly agreed-upon cul-
tural model of how village festivals, which
attracted tourists from both nearby towns and
Future directions return migrants from the United States, should be
sponsored. However, the behavior of community
As Ritchie and Zins (1978) indicated, culture is an members varied widely from that model. Such
essential concept for tourism research even though mismatches between culture and behavior have
its specifics have been neglected for decades. This attracted remarkably little interest from anthropol-
is demonstrated by the abundance of terms in the ogists and none from tourism researchers. Hence,
tourism literature, such as culture conflict, culture host and ▶ tourist cultures and how they relate to
shock, cultural broker, and ▶ cultural tourism, that the actual behaviors exhibited by hosts and guests
are either not accompanied by any definition of are completely unexplored. The anthropological
culture or by a vague and unmeasurable one. concept of culture and methods used to study it,
While tourists see the behavior and artifacts of such as traditional participant observation, as well
others when they visit cultural destinations, these as newer techniques including free listing and con-
are the manifestations of culture. This includes sensus analysis, can help tourism researchers
information, in the form of knowledge, beliefs, examine these issues.
skills, and values, that has been learned and shared,
albeit unevenly, by their hosts. Tourism studies, See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ anthropology,
based on this view of culture and using cultural ▶ behavior, ▶ ethnicity, ▶ identity.
consensus analysis, indicate the utility of the
method as well as the underlying view of culture
as learned and shared information. References
Culture is humanity’s great enabler. While
Bae, S. 2013 Rail-Ro, An Emerging Rail Travel Phenom-
humans lack great speed, strength, large teeth, enon: A Study of Domestic Tourism, Railroad, and
claws, or strong defenses like other animals, the Culture Among Youth in Korea. Doctoral Dissertation,
information created, stored, retrieved, and The Pennsylvania State University.
Cyprus 219
Chick, G. 1981 Concept and Behavior in a Tlaxcalan

Cargo System. Ethnology 20:217-228. Cyprus
Gatewood, J., and C. Cameron 2009 Belonger Perceptions
of Tourism and its Importance in the Turks and Caicos
Islands. Report to the Department of Sociology and Alexis Saveriades
Anthropology, Lehigh University www.lehigh.edu/ Department of Hotel and Tourism Management,
~jbg1/Perceptions-of-Tourism.pdf (1 December 2013). Cyprus University of Technology, Limassol,
Goeldner, C., and J. Ritchie 2012 Tourism: Principles,
Practices, Philosophies. Hoboken: Wiley. Cyprus C
Goodenough, W. 1957 Culture Anthropology and
Linguistics. In Report of the 7th Annual Round
Table Meeting on Linguistics and Language Study, Cyprus (Figure 1) is the third largest island in the
Monograph Series on Languages and Linguistics
9, P. Garvin, ed., pp.167-173. Washington DC: George- ▶ Mediterranean (after Sicily and Sardinia),
town University Press. 300 km north of ▶ Egypt, 90 km west of
Kerstetter, D., K. Bricker, and H. Li. 2010 Vanua and the ▶ Syria, and 60 km south of ▶ Turkey. The coun-
People of the Fijian Highlands: Understanding Sense of try is an independent sovereign republic (since
Place in the Context of Nature-based Tourism Devel-
opment. Tourism Analysis 15:31-44. 1960) with a presidential system of governance.
Kluckhohn, C., and W. Kelly 1945 The Concept of It is a full member of the European Union and part
Culture. In The Science of Man in the World Crisis, of the Eurozone. The island occupies an area of
R. Linton, ed., pp.78-105. New York: Columbia 9,251 km2 (3,572 mi2), of which 36.2 % has been
University Press.
Ribeiro, N. 2012 Using Concomitant Freelisting to Ana- under military occupation by Turkey since 1974.
lyze Perceptions of Tourism Experiences. Journal of Its 2012 population was estimated at 952,000
Travel Research 51:555-567. distributed among Greek (71.8 %) and
Ritchie, B., and M. Zins 1978 Culture as Determinant of Turkish Cypriots (9.5 %), plus foreign citizens
the Attractiveness of a Tourism Region. Annals of
Tourism Research 5:252-267. residing in Cyprus (18.7 %) (Republic of Cyprus
Romney, A., S. Weller, and W. Batchelder 1986 Culture as 2013a, b).
Consensus: A Theory of Culture and Informant Accu- The island’s economy is small, open, and
racy. American Anthropologist 88:313-338. dynamic, with the services sector constituting
32'30° 33'00° 33'30° 34'00° 34'30°

Rizokarpaso
35'30° Mediterranean Sea 35'30°
Kyrenia
UN buffer zone Turkish Cypriot-administered area

Morphou
NICOSIA
Strovolos Famagusta UN buffer zone
35'00° Polis Mount 35'00°

Olympus
Larnaca
Area controlled by Cyprus Government Dhekelia
(Greek Cypriot area) (U.K.)
Mediterranean Sea
Paphos
Vasilikos
Limassol
0 10 20 km
Akrotiri
0 10 20 mi
(U.K.)
32'30° 33'30° 34'00° 34'30°
Cyprus, Figure 1 Map of Cyprus

220 Czech Republic
about 82.3 % of gross value added in 2012, 6.8 % See also ▶ Island tourism, ▶ Mediterranean,
of which is attributed to tourism. In 2012, around ▶ planning, ▶ strategy.
9.5 % of the workforce was engaged in this indus-
try (Republic of Cyprus 2013c).
Tourism is primarily governed by the Cyprus References
Tourism Organization, a statutory body responsi-
ble for the promotion and marketing, as well as Republic of Cyprus 1960-2013 Annual Statistics on Tour-
ism Arrivals and on Revenue from Tourism. Statistical
the planning, regulation, and development of
Service of Cyprus. Nicosia: Government Publications.
tourism products. The organization liaises with Republic of Cyprus 2013a The Republic of Cyprus: An
the private and public stakeholders at regional Overview. Publication 277/2013. Nicosia: Press Infor-
and national levels. Its activities and actions mation Office.
Republic of Cyprus 2013b Cyprus at a Glance. Publication
emanate from its strategic plan, which expresses
186/2013. Nicosia: Press Information Office.
in a holistic manner the ▶ national tourism Republic of Cyprus 2013c National Accounts. Ministry of
policy. The current strategic planning Finance. Nicosia: Government Publications.
document covers the period 2011–2015 and was
revised in June 2013. This plan brings together the
tourism objectives under the broader national
priorities. Czech Republic
In 2013, Cyprus recorded 2.4 million arrivals.
Its major generating markets include the ▶ United Martin Šauer1 and Bohumil Frantál2
Kingdom (37 %), ▶ Russia (25.3 %), ▶ Sweden 1
Masaryk University, Brno, Czech Republic
(4.9 %), ▶ Greece (4.4 %), and ▶ Germany 2
Department of Environmental Geography,
(4.1 %). Revenues grew to US$2.58 billion Institute of Geonics, Czech Academy of Sciences,
(€2.08 billion), an 8 % increase in nominal terms Brno, Czech Republic
over 2012 (8.5 % increase when deflated to real
terms). The average length of ▶ tourist stay
reached 10.2 days, while the average per person The Czech Republic is a landlocked country in
expenditure reached $1,075.70 (or €866), a Central Europe (Figure 1), with total area of
10.8 % increase over 2012 (Republic of Cyprus
1960–2013). 16 0 30 60 km 18
14 52
Tourism and ▶ hospitality education is impor-
Elb e
0 30 60 mi
tant for the country, with public and private GERMANY

academic and other educational institutions POLAND
offering an array of courses, from technical skill
Decin Snêzka
training at vocational level to management Liberec
Ústi nad
courses at university level. The coming years Labem Hradec
El
Králové
PRAGUE
be
look positive with steady signs of growth in 50 50

arrivals and revenue. The enrichment of tourism Plzen IA Ostrava
M
E Olomouc Moravian
H
products is at forefront of the country’s agenda B
O Gate
MORAVIA
with major infrastructural development Ceské
Budejovice Brno
projects such as marinas and a casino resort
under construction. Furthermore, the opening up
SLOVAKIA
of new markets, the development of ▶ special Danube
interest tourism, bundled with the efforts 48 48

exerted in turning the island into an all-year- AUSTRIA
round ▶ destination, is in effect repositioning the HUNGARY
14 16 18
country as an upmarket destination on the global
tourism map. Czech Republic, Figure 1 Map of the Czech Republic
Czech Republic 221
78,867 km2 (30,450 mi2) and a population of 10.5 ▶ employment is 10.6 % (WTTC 2014). Com-
million. The country has one of the most devel- pared to 1993, in constant prices, the value of
oped, industrialized, and prosperous economies the tourism ▶ product increased 1.5-fold, making
among the postcommunist states of Eastern its growth rate in the Czech Republic higher than
Europe (US$27,200 of GDP per capita in 2012). that of the European Union in this period.
The socialist period (1948–1989) was charac- The Ministry for Regional Development is the
terized by dominance of social forms of tourism central state administration for tourism, responsi- C
concentrated in mountain areas and around water ble for coordination and setting guidelines. The
bodies. Political and economic changes after 1989 tourism department provides activities related to
have brought about the transformation of accom- the implementation of the State Tourism Policy
modation through privatization and of demand Strategy (2014–2020) and founded the
from the Eastern to Western countries. The total CzechTourism, a state contributory organization
▶ accommodation capacity (in collective estab- for promotion. An important role in tourism
lishments) has increased from 360,000 beds in ▶ development has been played by the EU Struc-
1987 to 500,000 in 2009 (Vystoupil et al. 2011). tural Funds. In the period 2007–2013, about $1.98
▶ Urban and ▶ cultural tourism represent 45 % billion was invested in tourism promotion from
of the total bed capacity, with Prague the capital public sources, particularly from the Regional
city being the most frequently visited ▶ destina- Operational Programs. As for the priorities of
tion and UNESCO monuments, historical towns, tourism policy, the most important research issues
castles, and chateaus being the main attractions. are destination governance as interorganizational
An important role is also played by ▶ spa tourism cooperation of tourism actors and the economic
which accounts for about 8 % of total bed capacity contributions of tourism at the regional level.
but generates 16 % of overnight stays. The
increasing popularity of Czech destinations
(especially Prague) is reflected in the gradual
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ spa tourism,
growth over the last decade of up to 13.6 million
▶ urban tourism.
guests and 39.6 million overnights recorded in
2012 (CZSO 2013). The share of foreign tourists
was 52 %, with ▶ Germany, ▶ Russia, ▶ Italy, the
▶ United States, the ▶ United Kingdom, and References
▶ Slovakia as its main source markets.
CZSO 2013 Tourism Satellite Account www.czso.cz/eng/
In 2011, tourism generated about 2.7 % of redakce.nsf/i/tourism_satellite_account (25 October).
GDP and employed 232,000 people (CZSO Vystoupil, J., M. Šauer, A. Holešinská, J. Kunc,
2013). While the ▶ performance has been grow- D. Seidenglanz, and P. Tonev 2011 Geografie
Cestovního Ruchu České Republiky. Plzeň: Aleš
ing, the importance of tourism to the GDP has in
Čeněk.
the long run been declining. Taking into account WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact
its indirect effects, the total volume is $17.4 bil- 2014 – Czech Republic. London: World Travel and
lion (8.4 % of GDP) and the share of Tourism Council.
D
Dark tourism Museum (the infamous Holocaust site in

▶ Poland).
Philip Stone
Institute for Dark Tourism Research, University
of Central Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire, UK A contested concept
Dark tourism is concerned with sightseer encoun-

The act of ▶ travel to places either of death or sites ters of spaces of death or calamity that have
associated with it, often referred to as “dark tour- perturbed the public consciousness, whereby actual
ism” or “thanatourism,” is an increasingly perva- and recreated places of the deceased, horror, atroc-
sive feature within the current tourism ity, or depravity are consumed through experi-
▶ landscape. While journeys or pilgrimages to ences. Yet, the production of these “deathscapes”
sites of death have chronological pedigree and in tourism and, consequently, the consumption of
have evolved through historic periods of Chris- recent or distant trauma within a safe and socially
tianity, antiquarianism, and romanticism (Seaton sanctioned ▶ environment raise fundamental ques-
2009), the contemporary nature of traveling to tions concerning the interrelationships among
sites of real or recreated death has captured aca- morality, mortality, and contemporary approaches
demic and ▶ media imaginations. to death, dying, and (re)presentation of the dead.
Therefore, the commodification of death for Even though an increasing number of scholastic
popular touristic consumption – whether in the spotlights are now being shown on dark tourism as
guise of certain memorials and museums, partic- a contemporary experience, the concept remains
ular attractions, special events and exhibitions, or contested (Hartmann 2013).
specific tours – has become a focus for the modern Problematic issues with the typological and
tourism economy. Diverse global examples of theoretical foundations of dark tourism raise com-
dark tourism include sites such as the London plex questions between “dark heritage” and both
Dungeon (a purpose-built attraction in the its representation and consumption. Furthermore,
▶ United Kingdom depicting death, disease, and dark tourism provokes challenging debate over
torture), the Body Worlds exhibition the relationships between “heritage that hurts”
(an anatomical touring exhibition employing and how contemporary society deals with its sig-
human cadavers and animal corpses), the Ground nificant ▶ Other dead. While dark tourism, in its
Zero (the site of the September 11 atrocity in New broadest sense, can be considered dialogic and
York), and Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and mediatory, its implications mediating death and

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
224 Dark tourism
the dead in modern society are fraught with com- upon the range and type of sites that may be
plexity (Stone 2012). included as dark tourism. However, while there
Dark tourism exposes particularities of people, is no universal typology of it, there has been an
place, and ▶ culture, where visiting sites of death increasing trend among scholars to use dark tour-
can reveal ontological anxieties about the past as ism as an academic lens to scrutinize broader
well as the ▶ future. It also symbolizes sites of sociocultural considerations, managerial and
dissonant heritage, sites of selective silences, sites political consequences, or ethical dilemmas. Ulti-
rendered political and ideological, sites power- mately, dark tourism is a complex, emotive,
fully intertwined with ▶ interpretation and mean- multidimensional, politically vulnerable, and
ing, and sites of the ▶ imaginary and the morally challenging phenomenon.
imagined. Therefore, analyzing dark tourism as a There are no simple definitions of dark tour-
concept and researching its mediating interrela- ism, no simple answers to many of the questions
tionships with the cultural condition of society are that surround it, and no quick solutions to the
important in contributing to understanding the numerous contestations inherent in the ▶ devel-
complex associations between (dark) ▶ heritage opment and ▶ management of its sites. Neverthe-
and the ▶ tourist experience. less, as a particular theme in tourism studies, it is
not only a fascinating subject in its own right,
but it also represents a powerful mechanism
An academic lens for exploring contemporary social life and
cultural practices. In short, the principal benefit
The practice of dark tourism has, to some extent, of studying dark tourism lies in what it reveals, or
domesticated death and exposes a contemporary may reveal, about the relationships between life
cultural institution that mediates between the ordi- and death, the living and the dead, and the insti-
nary Self and the significant Other dead. How- tutions and processes that mediate between life
ever, its scholarship is still very much in its and death at both the individual and societal
infancy. Indeed, the term as a codified research levels. Though the term implies a focus on death
area was brought to mainstream attention by John and dying, developing a critical interdisciplinary
Lennon and Malcom Foley in 2000 in their book understanding of the ▶ phenomenon may, ironi-
Dark Tourism: The Attraction of Death and Disas- cally, reveal more about life and one’s own
ter. In 2009, Richard Sharpley and Philip Stone lifeworlds.
published The Darker Side of Travel: The Theory
and Practice of Dark Tourism which drew See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ attraction, ▶ desti-
together conceptual themes and debates surround- nation, ▶ heritage.
ing dark tourism in broader interdisciplinary con-
texts. In 2013, Leanne White and Elspeth Frew
published Dark Tourism and Place Identity: Man-
aging and Interpreting Dark Places which References
focused on the intersections of tourism motiva-
tions, destination management, and place Hartmann, R. 2013 Dark Tourism, Thanatourism, and Dis-
interpretation. sonance in Heritage Tourism Management: New Direc-
The study of the commodification of death tions in Contemporary Tourism Research. Journal of
Heritage Tourism http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/
emerged from broader sociological, anthropolog- 1743873X.2013.807266.
ical, and museological discourses, as well as a Lennon, J., and M. Foley 2000 Dark Tourism: The Attrac-
collision of thanatological education and tourism tion of Death and Disaster. London: Continuum.
studies. Consequently, its scholarship is now Seaton, A. 2009 Thanatourism and its Discontents: An
Appraisal of a Decade’s Work with Some Future Issues
located within interdisciplinary social, cultural, and Directions. In The Sage Handbook of Tourism
historical, and political responses to death and Studies, T. Jamal and M. Robinson, eds., pp.521-542.
▶ disaster and has controversially elaborated London: Sage.
Data envelopment analysis 225
Sharpley, R., and P. Stone 2009 The Darker Side of Travel: banking, healthcare, agriculture, ▶ transportation,
The Theory and Practice of Dark Tourism. Bristol: ▶ education, and tourism (Liu et al. 2013).
Channel View.
Stone, P. 2012 Dark Tourism and Significant Other Death: Banker and Morey (1986) were the first to
Towards a Model of Mortality Mediation. Annals of apply the technique to the tourism and hospitality
Tourism Research 39:1565-1587. industry, specifically to the restaurant sector.
White, L., and E. Frew 2013 Dark Tourism and Place Since then, this technique has attracted consider-
Identity: Managing and Interpreting Dark Places.
Abingdon: Routledge. able ▶ attention from tourism researchers and has
also been used to analyze the efficiency of hotels,
travel agencies, tourism offices, tour operators, D
and even destinations. Issues studied through
this approach include measuring different types
Data envelopment analysis of efficiency, ranking decisionmaking units, iden-
tifying sources of inefficiency, exploring produc-
Sérgio P. Santos and Carla A. F. Amado tivity changes over time, evaluating the impact of
Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, different management styles and ownership on
Faro, Portugal performance, evaluating the effectiveness of pro-
grams and policies, and managing destinations.
Although its successful application can face
challenges, the research carried out in the last
Data envelopment analysis is a nonparametric three decades shows that this technique has strong
technique for measuring the relative efficiency of potential to contribute to performance improve-
multi-input and multi-output production units, ment not only in tourism but also in many other
usually called decisionmaking units. The effi- industries. For its potential to be fully utilized, it is
ciency measure originally proposed maximizes important, however, to move away from the
the ratio of the weighted sum of outputs over “black box” type of evaluation and implement
the weighted sum of inputs, subject to the formative evaluation exercises aimed at develop-
condition that the efficiency of each unit is ing a deep understanding of the structures and
smaller than or equal to 1. In order to identify processes associated with best practice.
the efficient decisionmaking units, the data envel-
opment analysis technique constructs a best prac-
tice frontier, to which each inefficient unit is See also ▶ Decisionmaking, ▶ management,
compared, allowing for the identification of suit- ▶ performance.
able learning peers as well as targets for perfor-
mance improvement. Notably, Cooper
et al. (2007) present a comprehensive review of References
this technique.
Since its advent in 1978 (Charnes et al. 1978), Banker, R., and R. Morey 1986 Efficiency Analysis for
Exogenously Fixed Inputs and Outputs. Operations
there has been an impressive growth in the field,
both in terms of methodological developments Charnes, A., W. Cooper, and E. Rhodes 1978 Measuring
and practical applications. On the methodological the Efficiency of Decision Making Units. European
side, some of the topics that have attracted most Journal of Operational Research 2:429-444.
Cook, W., and L. Seiford 2009 Data Envelopment Analysis
attention include the development of various
- Thirty Years On. European Journal of Operational
models for measuring efficiency, approaches for Research 192:1-17.
incorporating restrictions on multipliers, models Cooper, W., L. Seiford, and K. Tone 2007 Data
for examining the status of variables, and models Envelopment Analysis: A Comprehensive Text with
Models Applications and References. New York:
for evaluating data variations (Cook and Seiford
Springer.
2009). On the practical side, the technique has Liu, J., L. Lu, W. Lu, and B. Lin 2013 A Survey of DEA
been extensively applied in industries such as Applications.Omega 41:893-902.
226 Decisionmaking
vs. long holiday), the period of year (winter

Decisionmaking vs. summer holiday), and trip purposes
(▶ leisure, business, or visit friends and relatives).
Alain Decrop Because time and money resources are limited,
Department of Business Administration, consumers are urged to make trade-offs among
University of Namur, Namur, Belgium such modal alternatives.
Decisionmaking is central to human activities, Decisionmaking units and models

and the topic has been extensively explored and
discussed from a variety of disciplines, including Tourist decisionmaking is complex because it
economics, psychology, sociology, political sci- includes a large number of decisions and involves
ence, and law. The subject has also received con- a series of decisionmakers who do not always
siderable attention in marketing and tourism share the same preferences, values, and/or con-
research (Sirakaya and Woodside 2005). Tourism straints. Holiday and travel are thought to be joint
appears to be a particularly rich and complex field decisions that may be influenced by different
because it includes different levels of decisions members of the household. Four major types of
and a number of potential decisionmakers. decisionmaking units may be identified: singles,
A series of models have been developed to couples, families with children, and large
explain ▶ tourist decisionmaking. holidaying groups or parties of friends. The thrust
of extant research has focused on the family,
especially the wife/husband dyad and the
Decision levels parents/children relationship. A series of issues
are worthwhile when investigating group
Going on ▶ holiday involves a large number of decisionmaking: how plans/choices are made
decisions and subdecisions: where to go on holi- within the group, which role(s) each member of
day this year, how long to stay, which attractions the group plays, and how conflicts are solved.
to visit, and more. Three levels should be distin- In addition to studies on specific aspects of
guished in order to avoid confusion when analyz- tourist decisionmaking (motivation, information
ing tourist decisionmaking: the generic decision search, or satisfaction), general conceptualiza-
to go or not; modal decisions pertaining to the tions have been proposed in the literature.
mode or type of holiday; and specific holiday A distinction can be made among microeconomic,
decisions such as ▶ destination, accommodation, cognitive, and interpretive decisionmaking
or ▶ transportation. The first level involves models. Microeconomic studies use traditional
noncomparable choices, such as spending time demand theory in order to explain tourist
on a holiday or repairing the house, going on decisionmaking (Seddighi and Theocharous
holiday, or buying new furniture. In contrast, 2002). The rational holidaymaker tries to maxi-
each holiday item at the level of specific decisions mize the utility of his/her choices under budgetary
entails comparable alternatives, which may be constraint.
described and evaluated by the same set of attri- Cognitive models do not pay attention to the
butes. Decrop (2006) has listed 15 possible spe- price-demand relationship but to the mental pro-
cific decisions: accompaniment, activities, cesses that underlie the decisionmaking process.
attractions, budget, destination, length, lodging, Specifically, two types are identifiable. First,
meals, organization, period, purchases, route, hol- structural models focus on the relationships
iday style, ▶ tour, and transportation. between inputs (tourist and marketing variables)
The level of modal decisions involves the hol- and outputs (preferences, intentions, and choices).
iday mode(s) that will be chosen, which may Such relationships are mostly presented as an
depend upon the length of trip (short break evolution of destination alternatives in
Decision support system 227
consideration sets (Um and Crompton 1990; Problem solving and information search do not
Woodside and Lysonski 1989). The consideration appear to be as extensive as presented in the
set (or evoked set) comprises all the alternatives cognitive models. In contrast, emotional and
the holidaymaker is contemplating for his/her hol- affective factors play a major role in shaping
iday. It is part of the perceived opportunity set tourist choices. Future research on tourist
(awareness set), which includes all the alternatives decisionmaking should consider such factors to a
known to the holidaymaker. As the awareness set larger extent. Moreover, the hyperchoice
is not omniscient, it is only a part of the total confronting tourists in many situations is worth
opportunity set, which entails possible alterna- further investigation. D
tives. Choice then consists in an evaluation and
selection process where different alternatives in See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ motivation, ▶ model,
the consideration set are compared on an alterna- ▶ consumerism.
tive/attribute basis, according to compensatory or
non-compensatory heuristics.
The second type of cognitive model, process
models (Moutinho 1987; Van Raaij and Francken References
1984) do not pay as much attention to the struc-
tural relationships between input and output as to Decrop, A. 2006 Vacation Decision Making. Wallingford:
the underlying mental processes. The focus is not CABI.
on decision in itself but rather on the way con- Moutinho, L. 1987 Consumer Behavior in Tourism.
European Journal of Marketing 21(10):2-44.
sumers develop cognitive, affective, and conative Seddighi, H., and A. Theocharous 2002 A Model of
judgments before coming to a final decision. Most Tourism Destination Choice: A Theoretical and Empir-
process models are sequential and suggest an evo- ical Analysis. Tourism Management 23:475-487.
lution of plans and decisions through different Sirakaya, E., and A. Woodside 2005 Building and Testing
Theories of Decision making by Travelers. Tourism
stages. These typically are need recognition, Management 26:815-832.
information search, assessment of alternatives, Um, S., and J. Crompton 1990 Attitude Determinants in
choice, and post-choice evaluation. Tourism Destination Choice. Annals of Tourism
In contrast with microeconomic and cognitive Research 17:432-448.
van Raaij, W., and D. Francken 1984 Vacations Decisions,
models, interpretive frameworks are not Activities and Satisfaction. Annals of Tourism
concerned with how holidaymakers should make Research 11:101-112.
but on how they actually make such decisions. Woodside, A., and S. Lysonski 1989 A General Model of
Personal, social, and cultural contexts are taken Traveler Destination Choice. Journal of Travel
Research 27(1):8-14.
into account to present a more naturalistic and
experiential view of the consumer.
Decisionmaking is much more than a formalized
multistage process. This results in alternative sets
of propositions and frameworks of Decision support system
decisionmaking that include variables and
hypotheses (such as low involvement or passive Ulrike Gretzel
information search) that were not taken into UQ Business School, The University of
account in the conventional models. Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
Decrop (2006) suggests that tourist
decisionmaking is an ongoing opportunistic and
adaptive process, which often starts incidentally A decision support system is an interactive
and is seldom characterized by a fixed sequence or computer- or Web-based system that supports
a linear reduction of choice alternatives. Tourists’ individuals or groups of users in multifaceted,
lack of involvement and/or constraints result in unstructured decisionmaking activities. The
many changes and turnarounds in holiday plans. underlying premise is that human cognitive
228 Decolonization
abilities are limited and can lead to suboptimal information overload and augmenting their
decisions when the problem is too complex and/or experiences.
too much information is available. At its core,
such a system supports modeling decision prob- See also ▶ Decisionmaking, ▶ eCommerce,
lems and helps identify the best alternatives. ▶ eTourism, ▶ information technology.
The decision support system usually has three
components: a database management system that
collects and stores data; a model-based manage- References
ment system that transforms data into information
useful for decisionmaking; and a dialogue gener- Druzdel, M., and R. Flynn 2002 Decision Support Sys-
tems. In Encyclopedia of Library and Information Sci-
ation and management system which allows the
ence, A. Kent, ed., pp.120-133. New York: Marcel
user(s) to interact with the system, build models, Dekker.
and obtain recommendations (Druzdel and Flynn Fesenmaier, D., K. Wöber, and H. Werthner 2006 Destina-
2002). A powerful user interface allowing for tion Recommendation Systems: Behavioral Founda-
tions and Applications. Cambridge: CABI.
intuitive queries and sophisticated reporting is
Marakas, G. 2003 Decision Support Systems in the 21st
key to its success as the ultimate goal is seamless Century. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
integration into user tasks (Shim et al. 2002). Shim, J., M. Warkentin, J. Courtney, D. Power, R. Sharda,
Some applications specifically support group and C. Carlsson 2002 Past, Present, and Future of
Decision Support Technology. Decision Support Sys-
decisionmaking (Marakas 2003). Decision sup-
tems 33(2):111-126.
port systems were developed in the early 1970s Wöber, K. 2003 Information Supply in Tourism Manage-
and at the beginning applied only to organiza- ment by Marketing Decision Support Systems. Tour-
tional contexts to provide individual staff, man- ism Management 24:241-255.
agers, or teams with intelligent decision support.
One of the first organizational systems devel-
oped specifically for tourism was TourMIS
(Wöber 2003). This system was originally Decolonization
designed for the Austrian National Tourist Office
to optimize marketing decisions but has since Donna Chambers
evolved into a multiuser Web-based decision sup- Tourism, Hospitality and Events, University of
port platform featuring a variety of tourism- Sunderland, Sunderland, UK
related data. The more prominent types developed
for tourism are those that support the decisions of
consumers and are typically referred to as recom- Decolonization, broadly understood, is the pro-
mender systems (Fesenmaier et al. 2006). These cess by which the colonial powers in ▶ Europe
were initially applications used by eCommerce surrendered, voluntarily or by force, their
sites to suggest products but have since evolved overseas possessions in ▶ Africa, Asia, Latin
to include mobile applications that support America, the ▶ Caribbean, and the Pacific
decisionmaking while en route. (henceforth referred to collectively as the South).
Most recently the focus has been on develop- While it ended centuries of European control of
ing context-aware recommenders that create these territories, the process of decolonization
sophisticated models of the ▶ tourist’s surround- occurred within only a few decades after the end
ings and preferences before presenting decision of the Word War II. It is thus both a historical
alternatives. With the ever greater availability of moment and a juridical-political act. However,
data (big data) and increasing computational whereas colonial administrations generally
power, it can be expected that decision support disappeared and the majority of the South are
systems will continue to evolve and become indis- now politically independent states, the people of
pensable to tourism organizations in optimizing these territories are still subject to Western exploi-
decisions as well as to tourists in avoiding tation and domination (Grosfoguel 2007).
Decolonization 229
While there has been political decolonization, Colonized published in 1957, might be credited as
Western ways of knowing and being continue to being the fathers of decolonization as a political
be privileged over those of the South. This is termed concept. Other major politically oriented writers
“coloniality” and Grosfoguel argues that the decol- from the South such as Ngugi wa Thiong’o
onization of the world is a myth which “obscures the (Kenya) and George Lamming (Barbados) were
continuities between the colonial past and current also engaged in decolonial thinking. More recently,
global colonial/racial hierarchies and contributes to a principal theorist who is credited with developing
the invisibility of ‘coloniality’ today” (2007: 220). the concept of epistemological decolonization
In this context, decolonial thinking sees epistemo- through his thoughts on the “coloniality of power” D
logical decolonization as necessary and urgent. It is Peruvian sociologist Anibal Quijano (2007).
requires taking seriously the “epistemic perspec- The concept of decolonization bears a strong
tives/cosmologies/insights of critical thinkers from family resemblance to notions such as Orientalism
the Global South thinking from and with (Edward Said) and, by extension, postcolonialism.
subalternized racial/ethnic/sexual spaces and bod- However, decolonial theorists have criticized
ies” (Grosfoguel 2007: 212, emphasis in original). postcolonial theory for its heavy reliance on
In decolonial studies, it is important to take into poststructuralist and postmodernist approaches
account what Grosfoguel (2007) terms the “geopo- which are considered to privilege European
litical” and “body-political” location of the speaking thinkers such as Michel Foucault and Jacques Der-
subject. The former refers to the ▶ region and rida. Decolonial scholars believe that this privileg-
▶ culture from which an individual or group speaks ing of Western thinkers has not advanced the goal
and the latter means the ethnic, racial, ▶ gender, of subaltern scholarship and further has limited the
sexual, and embodied ▶ location of the speaking “radicality of their critique to eurocentricism”
subject. What is deemed as the “ego-politics of (Grosfoguel 2007: 212). Decolonization is envis-
Western knowledge,” by ignoring the geopolitical aged as a more radical project than postcolonialism,
and body-political location of the speaking subject, as the former seeks to change both the terms and the
thus “produce[s] a myth about a Truthful universal content of the conversation, to foster a different
knowledge.” This “God-eyed” view has enabled “epistemic grounding” rather than seeking transfor-
Western knowledge to be represented as the “only mation within the context of the existing dominant
one capable of achieving a universal consciousness eurocentric paradigms of poststructuralism and
[thus dismissing] non-Western knowledge as partic- postmodernism (Mignolo 2007).
ularistic” (Grosfoguel 2007: 213–214).
Decolonization in tourism studies

Brief history of decolonization
Decolonization has rarely been used in an episte-
Rothermund (2006) attributes the birth of the term mological sense in tourism studies. There are,
“decolonization” to the 1930s with the German econ- however, several publications on the related term
omist Moritz Julius Bonn. He witnessed the Great of postcolonialism (Hall and Tucker 2004). Such
Depression and the era of protectionism and became studies include discussions on tourism as a new
interested in the global economic developments agent of colonialism which exploits host commu-
which led to the demise of colonial empires. Bonn nities in the South culturally, socially, economi-
predicted that these would inevitably crumble as the cally, and environmentally. A critical research
epoch that facilitated their prosperity was coming to paradigm is also gaining currency in the tourism
an end (Rothermund 2006). Early key writers such as academy (Ateljevic et al. 2007) which seeks to
Franz Fanon (1925–1961), a native of Martinique reject the “Othering” of certain tourism knowl-
and author of the seminal text The Wretched of the edge, including those from the South, promulgat-
Earth published in 1961, and Albert Memmi, born in ing instead what is termed a “hopeful tourism”
Tunisia in 1920 and author of The Colonizer and the agenda.
230 Deficit
Some recognition of the need to explore indig- residents abroad exceed the ▶ international tour-
enous perspectives to give voice to the tradition- ism receipts from foreign tourists. In economic
ally “voiceless” in tourism is also evident, terms, international tourism receipts are classified
although many of these studies are written by as exports and international tourism expenditure
non-indigenous researchers about indigenous as imports.
tourism rather than by or with indigenous peoples In the seventeenth century, mercantilist
(Neilsen and Wilson 2012). However, the radical Thomas Mun (1664) was the first to recognize
agenda inherent in decolonial theorizing is of that “expenses of travailers” influence the “Bal-
great relevance for tourism studies in so far as ance.” Later economists were also concerned with
the colonizing project is still evident in the theory the ability and potential of international tourism to
and practice of tourism. A decolonial perspective generate foreign currency earnings. Since many
requires tourism scholars to reject Western ways countries face difficulties because of balance of
of thinking and knowing about tourism as payments deficit, international tourism receipts
representing the “God–eyed” view, thus enabling can help to alleviate such imbalances and contrib-
spaces to open up for other ways of thinking, ute to the financial resources needed for economic
speaking about, and doing tourism. and social development. For instance, less devel-
oped countries are expected to show a positive
See also ▶ Colonialism, ▶ critical tourism studies, travel balance as they are considered to possess
▶ epistemology, ▶ Eurocentrism, ▶ orientalism. greater tourism attractiveness due to lower levels
of industrialization and lower international travel
propensity due to lower national income per
References capita. On the contrary, more developed countries
are expected to show a negative balance as more
Ateljevic, I., A. Pritchard, and N. Morgan 2007 The Crit- of their residents travel abroad. By implication, on
ical Turn in Tourism Studies. Oxford: Elsevier. a global scale, a large, positive tourism balance
Grosfoguel, R. 2007 The Epistemic Decolonial Turn. Cul-
tural Studies 21:211-223.
tends to belong to less developed countries. For
Hall, C., and H. Tucker, eds. 2004 Tourism and example, in 2010, the ▶ United Kingdom had a
Postcolonialism: Contested Discourses, Identities and travel account deficit of US$18 billion, while
Representations. London: Routledge. ▶ Thailand showed a surplus of $15 billion
Mignolo, W. 2007 Delinking. Cultural Studies 21:449-514.
Neilsen, N., and E. Wilson 2012 From Invisible to Indig-
(Mihalic 2013; UNWTO 2013).
enous Drive: A Critical Typology of Research in Indig- A narrow concept of tourism balance only
enous Tourism. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism quantifies the final payments made by tourists
Management 19:67-75. and is thus relatively meaningless from the per-
Quijano, A. 2007 Coloniality and Modernity/Rationality.
Cultural Studies 21:168-178.
spective of national economic impacts.
Rothermund, D. 2006 The Routledge Companion to A “correct” tourism balance would contain all
Decolonization. London: Routledge. relevant transactions, such as foreign direct
investment in industry abroad or import of goods
and services needed by the domestic sector. That
is, the economy should include all impacted
Deficit industries and sectors beyond the actual industry
of consideration, which might affect its tourism
Tanja Mihalič balance and impact on a country’s deficit.
Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana, Tourism’s positive contribution may be
Ljubljana, Slovenia reduced by many factors. First, the positive inflow
of ▶ inbound tourism (exports) can be reduced on
the account of ▶ outbound tourism (imports) by a
Tourism deficit refers to the ▶ travel balance situ- country’s residents. Second, there are leakages of
ation in which expenditures arising from travels of expenditures from the national economy. Third,
Delphi technique 231
the ▶ demonstration effect additionally increases exact analyses due to limitations like unavailable
the import expenditures of a country. Fourth, the historical information or time series data. The
upward pressure of inbound tourism on the method involves gathering the opinions of a panel
exchange rate may cause adverse effects on the of anonymous experts through an iterative series of
▶ balance of payments. Because of a higher value questionnaires, with feedback on group responses
of the national currency due to increased foreign provided between rounds. Delphi studies generally
tourism demand, a country’s exports may involve between 10 and 75 experts and two to four
decrease, which offsets any positive balance of questionnaire rounds. The first round is often open
payments tourism effects (Dwyer et al. 2010). ended, and subsequent rounds more structured. D
Future research should address the impact of the Members comprising a Delphi panel can be
above factors on a country’s real tourism deficit or geographically dispersed. This is especially
▶ surplus. convenient for tourism-focused Delphi studies,
which commonly involve experts from numerous
See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ demonstra- countries. Panel members (e.g., academics,
tion effect, ▶ inbound tourism, ▶ leakage, eco- policymakers, and industry representatives) are
nomic, ▶ outbound tourism. normally chosen to represent different perspectives
or experiences. The researcher’s feedback between
rounds typically entails summary statistics that
References may be complemented by panel members’ ratio-
nales behind divergent opinions. Originally devel-
Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and W. Dwyer 2010 Tourism Eco- oped for forecasting, Delphi is now also used for
nomics and Policy. Bristol: Channel View.
decisionmaking and issue analysis. It was origi-
Mihalic, T. 2013 Economic Impacts of Tourism, Particu-
larly its Potential Contribution to Economic Develop- nally intended to result in group consensus,
ment. In Handbook of Tourism Economics. although it can also provide insights into
C. Tisdell, ed., pp.644-682. New Jersey: World contrasting viewpoints.
Scientific.
Delphi research has been conducted in myriad
Mun, T. 1664 England’s Treasure by Foreign Trade or the
Balance of our Foreign Trade is the Rule of our Trea- fields. The technique began attracting attention
sure. London: Kelley. from tourism researchers in the late 1970s, and a
UNWTO 2013 World Tourism Barometer: Statistical large international study of tourism futures
Annex (volume 11). Madrid: World Tourism
employing Delphi was conducted from the
Organization.
George Washington University in 1979. Although
still not common in tourism, its popularity has
grown, and the technique has been used to exam-
ine diverse tourism topics, such as predicting
Delphi technique developments in tourism products and assessing
potential social or environmental impacts.
Daniel A. Guttentag1 and Stephen L. J. Smith2 The iterative rounds and feedback defining the
1
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Delphi process permit panel members to shift their
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada opinions and influence each other’s views. The
2
School of Hospitality, Food, and Tourism panel’s anonymity promotes frank responses and
Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, eliminates undesirable group dynamics, such as
Canada peer pressure or domination by certain individ-
uals. Some research has found that the Delphi
technique leads to more accurate judgments than
The Delphi technique, named after the ancient other methods (Rowe and Wright 1999). It has
Greek oracle and conceived by the RAND Corpo- demonstrated success in forecasting technological
ration in the 1950s, is a method for exploring and scientific breakthroughs, but it has been less
complicated, uncertain topics unsuitable for more successful in forecasting marketing and social
232 Demand modeling
trends. The technique has also been criticized for Determinants of tourism demand
its lack of methodological rigor, and Delphi stud-
ies are unquestionably susceptible to problems Among the various disciplines, economics, particu-
such as panel attrition, poor panel selection, and larly the neoclassical consumer theory, contributes
biased question wording. Several tourism scholars the most in terms of providing rigorous theoretical
(Donohoe and Needham 2009; Garrod and Fyall support for tourism demand modeling. The con-
2005) have suggested best practice guidelines that sumer theory suggests that demand is a constrained
can assist researchers in their use of the Delphi maximization problem: tourists aim to maximize
technique for future tourism research. their utility (or satisfaction) subject to budget con-
straints (Stabler et al. 2010). Its key determinants
See also ▶ Forecasting, ▶ methodology, ▶ qual- include the price of the product under study, the
itative research, ▶ quantitative research, ▶ survey. prices of its substitutes, tourists’ income, marketing
expenditure, the preferences of tourists, and other
social, cultural, geographical, and political factors.
References Its literature falls into two broad categories: demand
for individual tourism products (e.g., accommoda-
Donohoe, H., and R. Needham 2009 Moving Best Practice tion) and aggregate demand for a destination.
Forward: Delphi Characteristics, Advantages, Potential
Taking aggregate tourism demand as an exam-
Problems, and Solutions. International Journal of Tour-
ism Research 11:415-437. ple, the demand function for destination i by tour-
Garrod, B., and A. Fyall 2005 Revisiting Delphi: The ists from origin j can be written as
Delphi Technique in Tourism Research. In Tourism
Research Methods: Integrating Theory with Practice,
Qij ¼ f Pi , Ps , Y j , Mij , eij (1)
B. Ritchie, P. Burns, and C. Palmer, eds., pp.85-98.
Cambridge: CABI.
Rowe, G., and G. Wright 1999 The Delphi Technique as a where Qij is the quantity of the tourism product
Forecasting Tool: Issues and Analysis. International demanded in destination i by tourists from country
Journal of Forecasting 15:353-375.
j; Pi is the price of tourism for destination i; Ps is
the price of tourism for substitute destinations; Yj
is the level of income in origin country j; Mij is the
marketing expenditure on tourism by destination
Demand modeling i in origin country j; and eij is the disturbance term
that captures the effects of all other factors.
Gang Li1 and Haiyan Song2 Tourism demand is generally measured by the
1
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, number of visits or by expenditure. In this case,
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK tourist income is generally included as a key
2
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, explanatory variable. For leisure tourism, per-
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, sonal disposable income is relevant, while for
Hong Kong, China business tourism, gross domestic product is a
more appropriate measure. There are two ele-
ments in the price of tourism: the cost of travel
Demand modeling research has a long history; the to the destination and the cost of living in the
earliest work can be traced back to the 1960s. It is destination. Data on actual travel cost are often
the study of consumers’ decisionmaking process unavailable. Its possible measure is the average
using statistical methods, and it provides a scien- economy class airfare between an origin
tific instrument used to gain a better understand- and a destination. The proxy for the cost of living
ing of the nature of tourists’ decisionmaking in a destination is usually its consumer price
processes. Tourism demand modeling is the foun- index. To take account of the substitution effect
dation on which related business decisions between outbound and domestic tourism, a rela-
ultimately rest. tive price variable is usually specified.
Demand modeling 233
Sometimes, it is adjusted by the relevant As far as the cross-price elasticity (a2) is

exchange rate of the destination-origin pair. Sim- concerned, a positive one indicates substitution
ilarly, the price of a substitute destination is also between the main and alternative destinations,
specified in a relative term adjusted by relevant while a negative relationship suggests that the
exchange rates. Marketing expenditure by the alternative destinations act as complements for
destination is expected to have a positive effect the main destination under study. Therefore, the
on the demand. In addition, tourist expectations cross-price elasticity provides useful information
and habit persistence are usually incorporated into to assist strategic decisionmaking in response to
a dynamic demand model through the use of a market competition. With regard to income elas- D
lagged dependent variable. Furthermore, dummy ticity (a3), a high income elasticity ða3 > 1Þ sug-
variables for the effects of major one-off events, gests that a rise in income in the source markets
such as the Olympic Games and “September 11”, will be accompanied by a more than proportionate
can be included in demand models (Dwyer increase in demand in the destination. Therefore,
et al. 2010; Song et al. 2009). destinations should pay particular attention to
forecasting the expected levels of future economic
activities in such markets.
Functional form and elasticity
The most commonly used functional form in Further developments

demand modeling is the power model. It can be
transformed into a linear relationship using loga- The advancement of modern econometric tech-
rithms, making the estimation of the model rela- niques is a main driver for the development of
tively easy. The log-transformed demand model is tourism demand analysis (Li et al. 2005; Song and
expressed as Li 2008). Various dynamic models, such as error
correction models, have been applied to capture
the dynamic features of tourism demand. The
log Qij ¼ a0 þ a1 log Pi þ a2 log Ps
more advanced time-varying parameter models
þ a3 log Y j þ a4 log Mij þ eij ; (2) are able to track the evolution of demand elastic-
ities over time. Moreover, the system-of-
where a 0, a 1,. . ., a 4 are the coefficients to be equations approach has a sound theoretical under-
estimated. A useful feature of Eq. 2 is that the pinning and is useful for studying the demand for
estimated coefficients are demand elasticities. multiple products within a demand system (Song
This measures the percentage impact on tourism et al. 2009). Further applications of these
demand resulting from a 1 % change in one of the advanced econometric models will lead to a better
independent variables while holding all other understanding of the dynamic nature of tourism
explanatory variables constant. Knowledge of demand.
various demand elasticities has important
managerial implications. For example, an See also ▶ Decisionmaking, ▶ econometrics,
own-price elasticity greater than 1 (in absolute ▶ economics, ▶ error correction model,
value, or ja1 j > 1) means that an increase in the ▶ forecasting.
price will lead to a more than proportionate fall in
quantity demanded and therefore to a loss in
total revenue. On the other hand, ja1 j < 1 suggests References
that an increase in the price will result in a rise
in total revenue. Therefore, identifying the Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and W. Dwyer 2010 Tourism Eco-
magnitude of the own-price elasticity can help nomics and Policy. Bristol: Channel View.
Li, G., H. Song, and S. Witt 2005 Recent Developments in
tourism businesses to adopt appropriate pricing Econometric Modeling and Forecasting. Journal of
strategies. Travel Research 44:82-99.
234 Demography
Song, H., and G. Li 2008 Tourism Demand Modeling and result in substantial expansions in ▶ international
Forecasting: A Review of Recent Research. Tourism tourism, and the aging population and an increas-
Song, H., S. Witt, and G. Li 2009 The Advanced Econo- ing concern for health are likely to drive a growth
metrics of Tourism Demand. London: Routledge. in demand for health and ▶ medical tourism prod-
Stabler, M., A. Papatheodorou, and M. Sinclair 2010 The ucts. As households and families become more
Economics of Tourism. Abingdon: Routledge. diverse (vertical family and singleton), tourism
▶ marketing, ▶ accommodation, and ▶ transpor-
tation will have to respond to this diversity
with flexible product designs and pricing
Demography policies. Urbanization and the stresses of modern
life will create a demand for rural and ▶ nature
Taehee Kim tourism experiences. As more and more
Hospitality and Tourism Management, Kyunghee families are scattered around the world, migration
University, Dongdaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea will give a strong boost to the visiting friends and
relatives travel market. Changing demographics
also lead to issues of labor market, including
Any kind of living populations can change aging potential workforce, lack of skilled
through factors such as birth (fertility), death workers, and growing competition for qualified
(mortality), and movement (▶ migration). workers. On the other hand, migration can make
Demography is the statistical study of human an important economic contribution to most
changes in numbers of these factors relevant to developed countries by providing labor for
population structure and trends in a community tourism-related industries (UNWTO 2010; Yeo-
over a period of ▶ time. Like all academic disci- man et al. 2010).
plines, there are several academic societies and As population structure and trends in world
professional journals solely dedicated to popula- ▶ travel market are continuously changing, it is
tion studies, as well as independent demography important for researchers to know how these
department. However, demography is highly changes will influence tourism and how this
interdisciplinary and has been allied closely with ▶ industry can adapt to such trends. More empir-
sociology, ▶ economics, geography, epidemiol- ical research is needed to identify the economic,
ogy, and ▶ history. Its introduction to or applica- social, and environmental impacts of demo-
tion in tourism studies has a relatively long graphic changes on future tourism.
history, because demographic change is one of
the most important trends that shape the ▶ future
of tourism (UNWTO 2010; Yeoman et al. 2010). See also ▶ Health tourism, ▶ medical tourism,
According to the official United Nations pop- ▶ nature tourism, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ senior
ulation estimates and projections (UN 2013), the tourism.
world population grew from 600 million in 1700
to 7.2 billion in mid-2013, and despite the decline
in the level of fertility, it is expected to reach 9.6
billion in 2050. Other key demographic issues References
include population aging due to increased longev-
UN 2013 World Population Prospects: The 2012 Revision.
ity, extended life expectancy, increased New York: United Nations Economic and Social
multigenerational and single households, urbani- Affairs.
zation, and migration (UN 2013; UNWTO 2010; UNWTO 2010 Demographic Change and Tourism.
Madrid: World Tourism Organization and European
Yeoman et al. 2010).
Travel Commission.
Demographic trends offer both opportunities Yeoman, I., C. Hsu, K. Smith, and S. Watson 2010 Tourism
and threats. An increasing world population will and Demography. Oxford: Goodfellow.
Demonstration effect 235
forms of behavior are imitated in one place but not

Demonstration effect in another also needs to be addressed. The levels
and types of change are likely to depend on the
David Fisher robustness and strength of cultural ▶ identity of
Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, the host community.
Lincoln University, Canterbury, New Zealand Similarly, the cultural gap between hosts and
guests, the type of ▶ tourist (Smith 1978), the
homogeneity of the host population, and the pro-
The demonstration effect is generally defined as portion of permanent residents (rather than D
changes to the behavior patterns of the hosts as a migrant workers) to tourists also affect the
consequence of observing the guests. It is an effect extent to which, and how, the demonstration effect
that has been accepted as being intuitively correct may occur. Some early arguments in support of
but with very little empirical evidence to the demonstration effect have since been
support it. Within ▶ economics, the demonstra- condemned as patronizing host populations
tion effect has been noted for some time. Adam because they assume that all local people will be
Smith and David Hume observed that, with affected by observing tourists. Another factor that
industrialization, it became more socially accept- may have an influence is the level of interaction
able to imitate those of a higher ▶ social class. between the ▶ host and guest populations. This
Duesenberry (1952) provided some empirical argument suggests that tourists in “enclave”
support for this view and probably coined the resorts are less likely to encourage the demonstra-
phrase “demonstration effect.” However, in eco- tion effect than “alternative” tourists who spend
nomics the imitative behavior was restricted to more ▶ time with members of the host and in less
consumption. formal settings.
In the latter part of the twentieth century, tour- Fisher (2004) argues that the ways in which the
ism scholars broadened the approach to include all demonstration effect occurs can be broken down
forms of ▶ acculturation. The demonstration into four forms. The first is exact imitation. This
effect has come to be defined as changes in behav- occurs when the behavior of one group copies
ior as a result of the cross-cultural interaction exactly what the other group are doing, for
between hosts and guests. While this is generally example, young people dancing to the Western
thought of as host populations copying some of music in Western-style nightclubs created for
the behavioral patterns of tourists, research has tourists. The second is deliberate inexact
indicated that it is possible for the latter to copy imitation. This is when it is not possible to exactly
the way that the hosts behave. copy the behavior being observed so an approxi-
mate imitation is developed, such as preparing
food using locally available ingredients.
Applications in tourism The third is accidental inexact imitation. This is
when the full extent of the behavior is either
For the demonstration effect to occur in tourism, not observed or not understood. The imitator
the behavior of hosts and guests has to be differ- believes that the behavior patterns have been
ent; behavioral patterns then have to be transferred copied but, for some reason, there is a difference.
from one group to another; and the imitated An example could be imitating clothing
behavior needs to be maintained. For a proper styles. The final form is social learning. In this
understanding of the effect, some consideration case, the imitator attempts to achieve the same end
needs to be made of what is being demonstrated, result as the demonstrator but creates different
to whom it is being demonstrated, how it is being means by which to do this. Developing a particu-
demonstrated, and at what pace the changes are lar skill is an example of this form of demonstra-
occurring (Bryden 1973). Additionally, why some tion effect.
236 Denmark
Implications for future studies of social change caused by tourism, of which

demonstration effect is one.
Because there are four forms of demonstration, it
is sometimes difficult to observe what is being See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ adaptation,
demonstrated. At the same time, there are a num- ▶ behavior, ▶ change, sociocultural,
ber of other acculturation models that may be ▶ commercialization.
followed. Imitators are likely to receive ideas
about ▶ Other cultures and the ways that those
cultures do things through the ▶ media, such as References
television and the cinema, other local people who
have traveled abroad, urban behavior patterns in Bryden, J. 1973 Tourism and Development: A Case Study
of the Commonwealth Caribbean. Cambridge:
the tourism areas within the same country, indus- Cambridge University Press.
trialization, and so on. Duesenberry, J. 1952 Income, Saving and the Theory of Con-
Despite the difficulties in accurately observing sumer Behavior. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
and extracting demonstration effect from other Fisher, D. 2004 The Demonstration Effect Revisited.
forms of acculturation, several scholars have Mathieson, A., and G. Wall 1982 Tourism: Economic,
argued for its existence. Many studies report that Physical, and Social Impacts. London: Longman.
tourism results in the commodification of ▶ hos- Smith, V. 1978 Introduction. In Hosts and Guests: The
pitality, changing social values, and altering pat- Anthropology of Tourism, V. Smith, ed., pp.1-14.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
terns of consumption. In developing countries,
these changes may be large, but it is also possible
for them to occur in developed countries.
For example, in countries such as ▶ Japan, Denmark
▶ Australia, and ▶ New Zealand, there is no
tradition of tipping for ▶ service. However, Lars Falk and Anders Justenlund
tourists who visit from countries where tipping is Hospitality and Experience Management,
the norm will tip even when it is not expected of University College of Northern Denmark,
them. There is some evidence to suggest that in Aalborg, Denmark
restaurants frequented by tourists, ▶ tipping is
coming to be expected from local residents in
non-tipping countries. In Pacific Island states tip- Denmark is situated in the northern part of
ping is challenging traditional notions of ▶ reci- ▶ Europe (Figure 1). It is a small country,
procity, which may cause more fundamental 43,098 km2 or 16,640 mi2, with 5.6 million inhab-
cultural change. itants and is surrounded by 7,314 km
While the demonstration effect is usually cited (4,544 miles) of coastline. Denmark is bordered
as a negative ▶ impact of tourism (Mathieson and by ▶ Germany and is a member of the European
Wall 1982), there are cases where it has been seen Union and Schengen Area (Statistics Denmark
to effect positive social change. Examples include 2014).
the promotion of indigenous people or ▶ gender The Danish tourism ▶ industry is organized
equality. If tourists show an interest in minority or under the Ministry of Business and Growth, the
disadvantaged groups within a society, some com- ▶ national tourism organization VisitDenmark,
mentators have argued that this will change the three theme-based national development organi-
perceptions of the majority in the host population zations, regional ▶ destination management orga-
toward these groups. However, it is extremely nizations, several local tourism authorities, and
difficult to precisely identify whether these other public organizations along with private
changes are a result of increased income from actors. Only the management organizations and
tourism or due to tourist behavior. There is still the local authorities work with destination devel-
an enormous scope for research into the processes opment and national marketing. VisitDenmark is
Dependency theory 237
The tourism workforce generally lacks ▶ train-

ing and ▶ education, partially because of a high
degree of ▶ seasonality. However, tertiary ▶ edu-
cation institutions offer various tourism and ▶ hos-
pitality programs, such as Bachelor degree in
International Hospitality Management at University
College of Northern Denmark and Master degree in
Tourism at Aalborg University (Euromonitor 2013).
Tourism does not receive much ▶ attention in D
the Danish political ▶ system, although the Dan-
ish Ministry of Business and Growth has devel-
oped a ▶ strategy to create new jobs and growth
within the tourism industry. Based on this strat-
egy, the Danish government has launched a reor-
ganization of the industry which should help the
industry to improve the level of service, quality,
digital structure, and cooperation among tourism
actors at all levels (EVM 2014).
Denmark, Figure 1 Map of Denmark
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ market, ▶ market-
only responsible for international promotion and ing, ▶ seasonality, ▶ strategy.
market planning (EVM 2014).
The main tourism ▶ product has always been
the long coastline with wide sandy beaches, which References
in summer months are favored by tourists primar-
ily from ▶ Norway, ▶ Sweden, and Germany. The Euromonitor 2013 Country Report: Travel and Tourism in
Denmark. London: Euromonitor www.euromonitor.com/
prevalent form of ▶ accommodation is summer
travel-and-tourism-in-denmark/report (12 February
houses spread along the coast. Furthermore, 2014).
Copenhagen has become one of the fastest grow- EVM 2014 Danish Ministry of Business and Growth,
ing tourism business and urban destinations in Denmark at Work. Copenhagen: EVM www.evm.dk/
english/publications/2014/20-01-14-summary-plan-
Europe. Denmark offers attractions such as Tivoli
for-growth-in-danish-tourism (24 August).
in Copenhagen, Legoland in Billund, and the old Statistics Denmark 2013 https://www.dst.dk/ (12 February
town of Skagen (Euromonitor 2013). 2014).
In 2013, tourism in Denmark accounted for UNWTO 2014 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World
77,500 jobs and 7.2 % of the GDP (WTTC
2014). The inbound expenditure is US$6.57 bil- Denmark. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
lion (UNWTO 2014) which corresponds to 3.6 %
of the total Danish export (WTTC 2014). The
largest ▶ tourist markets in Denmark are domestic
tourists (in 2012, 22.7 million bed-nights), Dependency theory
followed by Germany (12.9 million), Norway
(2.4 million), Sweden (1.8 million), the ▶ Neth- Samantha Chaperon
erlands (0.9 million), and the ▶ United Kingdom Business School, University of Greenwich,
(0.6 million). The total number of bed-nights in Greenwich, London, UK
2012 was 45 million. Further, the overall number
of bed-nights in Denmark increased by only 0.6 %
(Statistics Denmark 2014), while the average Sometimes referred to as underdevelopment the-
growth in Europe was 5 % (UNWTO 2014). ory, the dependency paradigm gained prominence
238 Dependency theory
in the 1960s as a critique of modernization theory. one of the dominant arguments in tourism
The latter posits that a country’s socioeconomic research. Many developing countries promote
development should follow an evolutionary path tourism in the hope of generating economic
from a traditional to a modern society, with a shift benefits, creating jobs, and improving the
from agriculture to industry, from rural to urban, quality of life, but there is debate as to whether
and with markets playing a central role. It argues tourism impacts are beneficial or detrimental and
that a country that maintains a traditional society whether they are developmental or anti-
is both an expression of underdevelopment and developmental.
the cause of it. Proponents of dependency theory In the literature, dependency theory is best
argue that it is not traditions and internal factors associated with Britton’s (1981, 1982) work.
that lead to underdevelopment, but instead it is Based on his research in ▶ Fiji, he elaborated on
external political, institutional, and economic how Third World destinations are exploited by
structures that keep developing countries in a metropolitan capitalist enterprises, which orga-
dependent position relative to developed nize and control tourism ▶ development in the
countries. former. He presented “an enclave model of tour-
This can be understood with reference to ism in a periphery economy” suggesting that
Frank’s (1967) theory of underdevelopment. He while this feeds the tourism setting, it is metropol-
described the global economic system as having itan enterprises that largely dictate the form and
two poles: a developed “metropolitan center” and characteristics of the tourist experience offered in
an underdeveloped “periphery.” Raw materials the ▶ destination, and that subsequently products
are exported from the periphery to the center, or services are also likely to be owned and pro-
where they become manufactured goods, and are vided by these firms. Britton asserted that, “the
exported back to the periphery. The periphery tourist industry, because of the predominance of
becomes dependent on the center to purchase its foreign ownership, imposes on peripheral destina-
raw materials and to supply manufactured goods tions a development mode which reinforces the
in return, resulting in a flow of capital from the characteristics of structural dependency on, and
periphery to the center. This is also known as vulnerability to, developed countries” (1981: 19).
leakage. According to dependency theory, this “Core-periphery” theory (closely associated
leakage creates economic development in the cen- with dependency theory) provides a geographical
ter while stunting it in the periphery (Lepp 2008). framework to understand the disparities in
Dependency theorists argue that it is capitalist ▶ power and development levels between and
societies that penetrate into precapitalist natural within countries and regions. The existence of
economies and appropriate their economic sur- core-periphery conflict is particularly true for
plus and that modernization is an ideology that is small island economies (Britton 1982). In relation
used to justify Western involvement and to tourism, core-periphery studies have mainly
dominance. focused on international contexts and have
neglected to consider the internally induced,
domestic core-periphery dynamics. In particular,
Internal core-periphery dynamics a lack of attention has been paid to these core-
periphery relations where uneven patterns of
Dependency theory is used to describe the rela- development emerge between dominant “metro-
tionship between the Western, ▶ tourist- politans” and their peripheral destinations. In his
generating “centers” (or cores) and the “periph- study of the “dominant” islands of ▶ Trinidad and
ery” destinations in the developing world. Tobago and the “subordinate” islands of ▶ Anti-
Theorists argue that the centers are home not gua and Barbuda, Weaver (1998) suggests that, in
only to the world’s tourists but also to the eco- the domestic context, tourism acts as a centrifugal
nomic, commercial, and political interests which force which both reflects and amplifies existing
control the industry. Dependency theory has been core-periphery relationships. The “dominant”
Desert tourism 239
islands have the power to facilitate or restrict See also ▶ Center-periphery, ▶ colonialism,
tourist arrivals and foreign investment and have ▶ development, ▶ enclave tourism, ▶ impact.
effective control over tourism policy and devel-
opment for the “subordinate” island.
References
Criticisms and future research
Britton, S. 1981 Tourism, Dependency and Development:
The arguments of dependency theory are convinc-
A Mode of Analysis. Occasional Paper No. 23. Can- D
berra: The Australian National University.
ing: tourism is an ▶ industry which can perpetuate Britton, S. 1982 The Political Economy of the Third World.
the dependency of developing countries. Instead Annals of Tourism Research 9:331-358.
of reducing the existing regional socioeconomic Chaperon, S., and B. Bramwell 2013 Dependency and
Agency in Peripheral Tourism Development. Annals
disparities within developing countries, depen- of Tourism Research 40:132-154.
dency theorists argue that tourism reinforces Frank, A. 1967 Capitalism and Underdevelopment in Latin
them through its “enclavic” structure. However, America. New York: Monthly Review Press.
simplistic applications of dependency theory, Lepp, A. 2008 Tourism and Dependency: An Analysis of
Bigodi Village, Uganda. Tourism Management
suggesting that tourism development inevitably 29:1206-1214.
entails exploitation of the periphery by the core, Scheyvens, R., and J. Momsen 2008 Tourism in Small
can be overly deterministic (Chaperon and Island States: From Vulnerability to Strengths. Journal
Bramwell 2013). Scholars have criticized depen- of Sustainable Tourism 16:491-510.
Weaver, D. 1998 Peripheries of the Periphery: Tourism in
dency theory for being pessimistic, highly Tobago and Barbuda. Annals of Tourism Research
abstract, and not giving due considerations to 25:292-313.
variations. For instance, dependency theory
tends to focus only on impacts of ▶ mass tourism
and does not acknowledge other types (such as
▶ budget tourism), which may contribute signifi-
cantly to local economies in developing countries. Desert tourism
It claims that most or all tourism accommodations
in developing countries are owned by companies Bruce Richard Prideaux1 and
in developed countries. But there are examples Louisa Yee-Sum Lee2
1
where ▶ accommodation is clearly in the hands School of Business and Law, Central
of local companies. In rare cases, foreign invest- Queensland University, Cairns, QA, Australia
2
ments have given fresh stimuli for indigenous School of Business, James Cook University,
development. Townsville, Australia
▶ Domestic tourism is a considerable factor in
some developing countries, yet this market tends
to be neglected. While narratives of vulnerability Deserts can be described as areas where rainfall is
and dependency may provide an important warn- low or in some cases largely absent. Cloudsley-
ing to the governments of small island states Thompson (1977) identified four desert catego-
which might see tourism as a solution to improv- ries: subtropical (Sahara), cool coastal deserts
ing their economies, they also provide a rather (Atacama), rain-shadow deserts (Mojave), and
biased picture of the possibilities of tourism devel- interior continental deserts (Great Australian). To
opment in these states (Scheyvens and Momsen these can be added cold deserts found in temperate
2008). The literature highlights issues and prob- zones in the rain shadows of high mountains
lems associated with tourism in developing coun- (Gobi).
tries; it is vital to now identify effective Deserts and arid areas occupy nearly one third
prescriptive strategies for securing greater benefits of the Earth’s surface and are usually portrayed in
from tourism. the literature and media as harsh forbidding
240 Destination benchmarking
places, remote from the mainstream of everyday issues related to sustainability, heritage, and the
life. Their often peripheral locations and fragile impact of periphery.
ecosystems add further impediments to their
development as destinations. Yet deserts hold a See also ▶ China, ▶ coffee and tea tourism,
fascination for those willing to visit them. Con- ▶ cultural tourism, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ heritage.
trary to the stereotype desert of endless and life-
less sand dunes, many are home to fascinating
ecosystems, unusual landscapes, and unique References
cultures.
Low rainfall (Osborne 2012) has stimulated the Cloudsley-Thompson, J. 1977 Man and the Biology of
Arid Zone. London: Edward Arnold.
evolution of some remarkable adaptations of
Osborne, P. 2012 Tropical Ecosystems and Ecological
desert flora and fauna. Plants (cacti) and animals Concepts. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
(camels) have developed unique strategies to con- UNESCO 2014 Silk Road Dialogue, Diversity and Devel-
trol the concentration of fluids in their bodies, opment. United Nations Educational, Scientific and
Cultural Organization https://en.unesco.org/silkroad/
enabling them to live for extended periods
silk-road-themes (10 April).
between rainfall. Human occupation of deserts, UNWTO, 2014, Silk Road Program. Madrid: World Tour-
while difficult and limited, has forced the devel- ism Organization http://silkroad.unwto.org/ (10 April).
opment of a range of strategies to deal with heat,
cold, and lack of water giving rise to unique desert
cultures. Trade has also stimulated human settle-
ment in deserts in the past with Timbuktu Destination benchmarking
(▶ Niger), Petra (Jordon), and the Silk Road
being well-known examples. Las Vegas Metin Kozak
(▶ United States) is a more recent example of a School of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
desert city attraction based on ▶ leisure activities. Dokuz Eylul University, Foça-İZMİR, Turkey
Unique landscapes, desert-inspired architecture,
heritage, culture, and desert ecosystems are the
major pull factors of desert destinations. The Webster’s Dictionary defines a benchmark as
The Silk Road, an ancient trade route “a standard by which something can be measured
connecting the oriental and the occidental, show- or judged” (Camp 1989:248). This is based on
cases how deserts can be developed as tourism Edwards Deming’s quality management theory
destinations. Acclaimed as the “greatest route in that aims to enhance quality and assure its sustain-
the history of mankind” (UNESCO 2014), the ability within the organization (Kozak 2002). In
Silk Road was first officially opened as a trade fact, benchmarking was first introduced in the
route to the West in 139 BC during ▶ China’s Han manufacturing industry. Soon after, its application
Dynasty. As a tourism ▶ attraction, the Silk was explored in a large number of industries rang-
Road features numerous sites that demonstrate ing from education, banking, and transport to
how art, religion, philosophy, technology, lan- logistics, food production, and tourism. As a per-
guages, science, and architecture were exchanged formance management and improvement tool,
among cities and regions through which the road benchmarking is defined in different ways,
ran and how early traders adapted to the desert although each aims to reach the goal of improved
environments that straddle the route (UNWTO performance of a production and consumption
2014). unit. What is especially significant in these defi-
As a tourism resource, deserts are a relatively nitions is that benchmarking studies are seen as a
under researched phenomenon. The Silk Road is continuous process, not a one-time or temporary
just one of numerous desert related themes that exercise.
require detailed research. Other themes might Destination benchmarking is a regular mea-
include transport, ▶ impact of climate change, surement of the performance of a ▶ destination
Destination benchmarking 241
(strengths and weaknesses) in itself and against Although the literature refers to the categoriza-
national/international quality grading systems. It tion of benchmarking under various titles, in par-
assesses both primary and secondary data for the allel to its definition, three main interrelated types
purpose of establishing priorities, setting targets, can be listed: internal, external, and generic
and gaining improvements in order to gain com- (Kozak and Baloglu 2010). The first type provides
petitive advantage (Kozak 2004). As in other an introductory stage to undertaking external and
studies, destination benchmarking pays attention generic benchmarking research. Its approach
primarily to continuous measurement and requires that each destination is treated individu-
improvement of all services and facilities contrib- ally. Self-generated data derived at this stage may D
uting to tourists’ cumulative experience in a des- be exchanged either with partner destination(s) or
tination. From a theoretical point of view, with international organizations. External
destination benchmarking is not different from benchmarking looks at the performance of best
other forms. Typically, destination benchmarking performing partners so as to take lessons for inter-
studies are more comprehensive and take more nal improvements. It includes choosing a partner
time than organizational studies. To some extent, destination, collecting data, examining gaps, and
a plethora of internal (destination-based) and taking actions. The generic type introduces
external factors ▶ impact the total performance existing or proposed quality grading and
of destinations. In some cases, it even includes eco-label systems by trying to find an appropriate
operations of organization benchmarking studies, response to how benchmarking, linked to external
such as hotels, restaurants, leisure and ▶ recrea- awards and grades, can offer advantages and bring
tion facilities, and itinerary facilities. about improvements in competitiveness for desti-
nations (Kozak and Nield 2004).
Rationale and types

The way forward
The value of destination benchmarking stems
from the idea that the experience is shaped Despite the growth of academic and applied liter-
through the provision of facilities and services ature, the latter’s tourism-based measures are
on vacations and its ultimate outcome forms the inadequate. Nonetheless, such endeavors should
center of how destinations are likely to compete be the first stage of any benchmarking study.
with each other (Kozak and Rimmington 1998). Developing and using measures help identify the
Tourists, as temporary guests, have no rights to current performance and monitor the direction of
vote for the future of destinations or their resi- changes over a period of time (Karlof and
dents, but they are seemingly keener to vote by Ostblom 1993).
choosing better-value destinations. Both qualitative (textual) and quantitative
Today’s tourists are more experienced and (metric) measures can be used by collecting data
knowledgeable about the world and change in via questionnaires, secondary sources, and obser-
their demand for consumption of products and vations (Kozak and Baloglu 2011). Qualitative
services available globally. Thus, destination measures are superior in revealing insights about
benchmarking aims to provide international des- destination performance in developing long-term
tinations with an opportunity to increase their values. However, qualitative measures alone are
economic prosperity, protect environmental not enough; rather, they are expected to contribute
resources, preserve cultural values, and increase to expanding zones of output measures, such as
residents’ quality of life on the supply side. On the gaining higher income levels. In this vein, quan-
demand side, benchmarking aims to maintain a titative measures seem to be more objective and
high level of ▶ tourist satisfaction and loyalty by more process oriented but relatively easier than
offering a high standard of facilities and services qualitative measures used in any kind of perfor-
to meet their informed expectations. mance measurement studies.
242 Destination branding
As the practical application of benchmarking is ▶ destination through positive image building. . .

limited due to differences on the demand and sup- a brand element comes in the form of a name,
ply sides, future research should focus on develop- term, logo, sign, design, symbol, slogan, package,
ing destination- and industry-specific measures on or a combination of these, of which the name is the
the demand side such as tourist satisfaction and first and foremost reference” (Cai 2002: 722).
spending index. On the supply side, attention Competitiveness and uniqueness are also consid-
should be paid to benchmarking the operations by ered in the definitions of destination branding,
creating destination-specific indicators of service which has became a distinct subject of scientific
quality such as space, cleanliness, and hospitality inquiry since 1998 when Juergen Gnoth organized
and to also benchmarking the ways of new product a special track on “Branding Tourism Destina-
development such as innovation and the creation tions” at the annual American Marketing Science
and reinforcement of brand images. Conference. In 1999, the Journal of Vacation
Marketing released a special issue on the theme,
See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ destina- although the papers were more about image than
tion competitiveness, ▶ destination lifecycle, branding. Morgan et al. (2002), in their edited
▶ management, ▶ marketing. book titled Destination Branding, brought
together case studies contributed by practitioners
and academics. No models and processes have
References emerged from their collection.
The first conceptual model of destination
Camp, R. 1989 Benchmarking: The Search for Industry branding appeared in a study on ▶ rural tourism
Best Practices That Leads to Superior Performance.
by Cai (2002). Drawing on Gartner’s (1993)
New York: ASQC Quality Press.
Karlof, B., and S. Ostblom 1993 Benchmarking: image framework, Cai’s study presents destina-
A Signpost Excellence in Quality and Productivity. tion branding as a broader concept than market-
West Sussex: Wiley. ing. The model “clearly highlights the difference
Kozak, M. 2002 Destination Benchmarking. Annals of
between the image formation process and
Kozak, M. 2004 Destination Benchmarking: Concepts, branding. . .” and “. . .recognizes that image for-
Practices and Operations. Oxon: CABI. mation goes well beyond the ▶ tourist-perceived
Kozak, M., and S. Baloglu 2011 Managing and Marketing approach to encompass the destination image, ‘as
Tourist Destinations: Strategies to Gain a Competitive
projected by the destination management organi-
Edge. New York: Routledge.
Kozak, M., and K. Nield 2004 The Role of Quality and zation’” (Konecnik and Go 2008: 180). Accepting
Eco-labelling Systems in Destination Benchmarking. this, other researchers introduced and applied the
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 12(2):138-148. concept of customer-based brand equity to evalu-
Kozak, M., and M. Rimmington 1998 Benchmarking:
ate a destination brand.
Destination Attractiveness and Small Hospitality Busi-
ness Performance. International Journal of Contempo-
rary Hospitality Management 10(5):74-78.
The state of the art
Academic inquiries have predominantly treated

Destination branding destination branding as a marketing phenomenon
that happens to involve tourists as customers in
Liping A. Cai the marketplace. The practice of it has been
Purdue Tourism and Hospitality Research Center, entrenched in deploying tactical marketing tools
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA such as attention-grabbing slogans. Emerging
academic efforts attempt to free branding research
and practice from the shackles of marketing dom-
Destination branding is to “select a consistent mix inated by the conventional approach of product,
of brand elements to identify and distinguish a price, place, and promotion. More recent
Destination branding 243
scholarly endeavors have been directed to desti- consider different stakeholders in the process of
nation brand personality and seek to apply cogni- branding and as such propose tourism branding as
tion and affection and other psychological a broader and more inclusive concept than that of
concepts in understanding tourists’ behavior destination branding. It informs tourism branding
toward a destination brand. “as a continuing process to create affective expe-
Recent literature has shown renewed attempts in riences through building and sustaining a consis-
conceptual development and theoretical innova- tent destination identity and image that
tion. Campelo et al. (2014) emphasized the signif- emotionally bonds with the host community and
icance of appreciating the sense of a place and resonates with tourists” (Cai et al. 2009: 9). D
positioning the inhabitants at the center of a strat- The global marketplace will continue to wit-
egy for effective place branding. Using hermeneu- ness fundamental shifts in tourist profiles and
tic phenomenological methodology, they identified increasing complexities of their pursued experi-
that the constructs of time, ancestry, landscape, and ences. The information and communication tech-
community are determinants for the sense of a nologies are rapidly affecting the ways in which
place. The advances in consumer behavior research the images and identities of touristic places are
are expected to expand the interdisciplinarity of projected, perceived, and influenced. The
destination branding and to enrich its study with interdependence between tourism and media
new concepts as well as the traditional constructs of takes on a new life in the sphere of social media.
loyalty, trust, involvement, and motivation. Consumer brand knowledge is equalized for des-
tinations, big or small, urban or rural. The grow-
ing connectedness between the origin and
Towards tourism branding destination of tourist movement, both physical
and virtual, is reframing tourism spaces where
Gnoth (2007) regards branding as offering values social and economic relationships are redefined.
for touristic consumption and defines a destination’s As tourism experience is increasingly
capital as consisting of the cultural, natural, and coproduced, “who brands what” will be an emer-
economic dimensions of its people. Explicit in this gent discourse that shapes and is shaped by the
understanding is the role of residents and their inter- convergence of such issues as development and
est in the process of branding their communities. sustainability, original vs. staged authenticity,
The importance of residents’ role in destination trust and loyalty, and corporate vs. community
success has long been recognized. Researchers governance. The rising of new consumer markets
have examined such issues as host and guest rela- and accelerated access to remote destinations will
tionship and residents’ attitudes and widely further stimulate the debate on these issues. The
accepted that tourism must have the support of the field of tourism branding is fertile and will chal-
host community. Although marketing consultants lenge and inspire innovative approaches to both
and advertising agencies are persistent in creating its research and practice.
brands for destinations in the absence of residents’
participation, scholarly works begin to emerge that See also ▶ Destination marketing organization,
examine such elements as equity and identity from ▶ image, ▶ marketing, ▶ rural tourism,
the perspectives of both local people and tourists. ▶ stakeholder.
The role of community stakeholders in desti-
nation branding is examined in Tourism Brand-
ing: Communities in Action (Cai et al. 2009). This
edited book adopts a global and multidisciplinary References
approach to bring the subject outside of the con-
Cai, L. 2002 Cooperative Branding for Rural Destinations.
ventional domains of marketing and destination. Annals of Tourism Research 29:720-742.
Through both theoretical development and case Cai, L., W. Gartner, and A. Munar (Eds.) 2009 Tourism
studies, researchers in this collection explicitly Branding: Communities in Action. London: Emerald.
244 Destination competitiveness
Campelo, A., R. Aitken, M. Thyne, and J. Gnoth 2014 the trade gains are not because a country is more
Sense of Place: The Importance for Destination Brand- creative or efficient in the production of a good
ing. Journal of Travel Research DOI:10.1177/
0047287513496474. but because of its relative lower cost. In the initial
Gartner, W. 1993 Image Formation Process. Journal of development of the international trade theory, the
Travel and Tourism Marketing 2:191-215. exogenous resources’ endowment was considered
Gnoth, J. 2007 The Structure of Destination Brands: the main determinant of the trade pattern. Later,
Leveraging Values. Tourism Analysis 12:345-358.
Konecnik, M., and F. Go 2008 Tourism Destination Brand some models, through a process of learning by
Identity: The Case of Slovenia. Journal of Brand Man- doing or technological innovation, explained how
agement 15:177-189. this initial advantage can lead to endogenous
Morgan, N., A. Pritchard, and R. Pride 2002 Destination growth. Michael Porter, building on the competi-
Branding: Creating the Unique Destination Proposi-
tion. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. tive advantage concept in the 1980s, asserted that
wealth can be determined by appropriate factor
allocations.
The evolution of the general competitiveness
concept is similar to the one of tourism competi-
Destination competitiveness tiveness. The initial models emphasized the dif-
ferences in the endowment of exogenous factors
Javier Rey-Maquieira and Vicente Ramos (natural, cultural, and capital resources) as key
Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic determinants of destination competitiveness.
Development, Universidad de Las Palmas de Later, other factors that explained the endogenous
Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain growth of destinations were added (human capi-
tal, knowledge, or technological innovations).
According to Porter, competitive advantage is a
A classical definition of destination competitive- destination’s ability to allocate its resources effec-
ness is understood on the basis of “its ability to tively over the long term, with planning and man-
increase tourism ▶ expenditure, to increasingly agement as key to maintaining sustainable
attract visitors while providing them with satis- competitiveness.
fying, memorable experiences, and to do so in a
profitable way, while enhancing the wellbeing of
▶ destination residents and preserving the natural Measuring competitiveness
capital of the destination for future generations”
(Ritchie and Crouch 2003: 2). Despite its accept- As competitiveness is a relative concept, the def-
ability in the literature, the definitional framework inition of destination competitiveness should be
still poses questions. Some deal with the general clarified in order to make reasonable comparisons.
discussion about competitiveness, whereas others This is particularly true when a destination does
relate to specifics in the tourism ▶ industry. not coincide with an administration unit, which is
due to multiplicity of actors and/or multiplicity of
perspectives (geographical vs. economic
Evolution of the concept vs. sociological or demand vs. supply).
In general, the definition of a destination is
The origin of the analysis of competitiveness related to four elements: geographical limitation,
begins with Adam Smith in The Wealth of Nations agglomeration of attractions and services, cooper-
in 1776. He argued that the division of labor and ation, and tourists. In connection to the latter, a
the specialization are the foundation to achieve particularity of tourism as compared with other
absolute advantage. He remarked on the impor- industries is that it is defined by the activities of
tance of the lower costs as a competitiveness tourists, the demand side. As such, tourists are
determinant. David Ricardo developed the theory closely involved in the definition of the destina-
of the comparative advantage. It emphasizes that tion (Candela and Figini 2012). This further
Destination competitiveness 245
explains why ▶ tourist satisfaction is one of the Michael Porter’s “diamond theory,” the drivers
most important destination competitiveness. of destination competitiveness are factor condi-
As an aphorism goes, “you cannot manage it, if tions, demand conditions, the context of firm strat-
you cannot measure it.” However, measuring des- egy and rivalry, and related/supporting industries.
tination competitiveness is far from being simple Government policies can influence all four parts.
(Dwyer and Kim 2003; Hong 2008). In fact, the The destination competitiveness policy should be
leading ▶ travel and tourism competitiveness based on a model of cooperation between the
index, developed by the World Economic Forum private and the public sectors. Competitiveness
(2007), has been criticized. The main weaknesses is a key issue for policymakers and business man- D
lie in the lack of suitability of the variables due to agers in tourism regions. By understanding and
important omissions; the unweighted variables monitoring competitiveness, a destination can
which imply that all are of equal importance; the develop strategic plans, which allow it to improve
lack of information about sample size, represen- the social prosperity while preserving its
tativeness, and suitability of executive opinion resources.
survey; and the problems with the comparability Recognizing the difficulties in anticipating
of 7-point scales between hard data and new lines of research, issues contributing to theo-
survey data. retical understanding of tourism competitiveness
In a recent research from OECD, Dupeyras and include operative models leading to clear policy
MacCallum (2013) consider four categories of recommendations, integration of destination and
indicators for measuring tourism competitiveness: business approaches for competitiveness, and/or
performance and impacts (product, revenues, the inclusion of new models of destination gover-
overnights, exports), the ability of a destination nance. Relating to monitoring competitiveness are
to deliver quality and competitive services issues such as access to new data to complement
(productivity, prices), the attractiveness of a des- quantitative exercises (prices, costs, productivity)
tination (natural and cultural resources), and pol- and the improvement of qualitative assessments
icy responses and economic opportunities (action of competitive factors.
plans). In most cases, one of the key problems for
measuring destination competitiveness is the lack
of data. This is aggravated by the lack of relation- See also ▶ Destination benchmarking, ▶ image,
ship between destinations and administrative ▶ marketing, ▶ planning.
units.
Monitoring competitiveness References
It is important to understand and measure destina- Candela, G., and P. Figini 2012 The Economics of Tourism
tion competitiveness because of the need for stra- Destinations. Frankfurt: Springer.
Dupeyras, A., and N. MacCallum 2013 Indicators for
tegic regional planning and management. Measuring Competitiveness in Tourism: A Guidance
Destination planning and management are two Document. Paris: OECD Publishing.
different levels in tourism policy. The former Dwyer, L., and C. Kim 2003 Destination Competitiveness:
refers to the macro-level decisions related to the Determinants and Indicators. Current Issues in Tourism
6:369-414.
type of destination desirable. The latter is a Hong, W. 2008 Competitiveness in the Tourism Sector:
microlevel management aimed at achieving the A Comprehensive Approach from Economic and Man-
objectives outlined in the destination plan. Both agement Points. Heidelberg: Springer.
levels are crucial to improve destination Ritchie, J., and G. Crouch 2003 The Competitive Destina-
tion: A Sustainable Tourism Perspective. Wallingford:
competitiveness. CABI.
The roots of tourism productivity lie in the World Economic Forum 2007 Travel and Tourism Com-
destination environment for competition. Using petitiveness Index. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
246 Destination lifecycle
Destination lifecycle
Daniela Fernanda Thiel-Ellul1 and Enrique

Navarro-Jurado2
1
School of Economics and Business, National
University of San Martín, San Martín, Buenos
Aires, Argentina
2
Department of Geography, Faculty of Tourism,
University of Málaga, Málaga, Spain
Tourism destinations are dynamic. The concept

“destination life cycle” is used to explain their
▶ development and the successive stages they go Destination lifecycle, Figure 1 Hypothetical evolution
through over time. In the nineteenth- and early of a tourism area (Source: Based on Figure 1 in Butler
(1980))
twentieth-century literature, it is possible to find
references that analyze the evolution of destina-
tions, although most are just descriptive or small number of tourists arrive, the residents are
reflecting specific case studies (Butler 2011). In aware of the economic contribution of tourism
the 1960s, Christaller (1963) identifies the typical and provide basic services), development (tourist
course of a destination’s development (discovery, arrivals as well as endogenous and mainly exog-
growth, and expansion), whose pattern is one of enous investment grow; physical transformations
continuous push to new regions on the periphery. of the destination are significant), consolidation
Since the 1970s, with the effect of ▶ mass tour- (tourist growth begins to stabilize and investments
ism, a larger number of researchers (Stanley Plog, start to decline), stagnation (tourist growth is
Raymond Noronha, Jean-Marie Miossec, Charles almost zero and some travel agents leave the des-
Stansfield, and Michel Chadefaud) have proposed tination), and, the most complex phase to define,
evolutionary models, where the concept repre- post-stagnation, which varies depending on the
sents one of the ultimate stages of destination previously taken actions. With decline, the num-
saturation and deterioration. In general, they ber of tourists decreases and the destination is not
base their contributions on the premise that all able to compete with new attractions; and with
destinations go through a series of cycles over rejuvenation, the destination reinvents itself by
the course of their lives. increasing the number of tourists with policies
and strategies aimed at recovering the magnetism.
Butler incorporates a key concept, carrying
Concept evolution capacity, stating that if the destination capacity is
exceeded, the outcome will be a subsequent loss
The ▶ model developed by Butler in 1980, known of competitiveness and declines in visitation,
as “Tourism Area Life Cycle,” is the most cited. investment, and development. Therefore, he
His ▶ theory takes the concept of product life maintains that suitable interventions are essential
cycle from ▶ marketing and applies its basic to prevent these excesses, but he also considers
S-shaped curve. Butler bases his model on the that the capacity of a destination has dynamic
growth in the number of tourists over time and limits. Thus, the capacity can be increased with
identifies six phases (Figure 1): exploration marketing, by developing new infrastructures, or
(arrival of the first batch of tourists at a ▶ desti- by renewing older products. Such an understand-
nation which has no specific ▶ infrastructure for ing of carrying capacity is based on a develop-
tourism), involvement (a regular, though still mental perspective.
Destination lifecycle 247
The simplicity of Butler’s life cycle model Alternative or complementary approaches are
reflects both its strength and weaknesses, and diverse. For example, Agarwal (2002) applies the
hence it has been open to criticism. The debates theory of productive restructuring so as to incor-
center around the unidirectional nature of the porate the interaction of internal and external
model, destinations considered as a single prod- forces in order to explain the causes and conse-
uct, little connection to external factors, its asso- quences of a destination’s decline. Ma and
ciation with the concept of carrying capacity, its Hassink (2013) apply theoretical models from
limited predictability, and, most of all, the use of a the evolutionary economic geography to analyze
single variable – number of tourists – and the a destination’s evolution. Moreover, Ivars D
acknowledgment of its continuous growth as a et al. (2013) propose a simultaneous analysis of
way of measuring competitiveness, which is approaches that reflect the influence of both
inconsistent with destination sustainability. global factors and local processes that affect
These issues have led several authors, Butler tourism and territory dynamics, so as to
included, to introduce changes, for example, in understand a destination’s life cycle. Therefore,
the original curve or the number of stages in the future challenges are centered on researching
life cycle model (Butler 2006, 2011). how destinations develop, taking into account
In terms of application, there are numerous their existing complex contexts and their global-
studies devoted to analyzing the life cycle model local interrelationships. The current focus is not
in many world destinations and tourist typologies. only on how destinations evolve throughout their
Even the effects of extraordinary events such as life cycles but also on the reasons of those
natural disasters, terrorism, or wars have also been changes.
analyzed (Butler 2006, 2011). While many
scholars take Butler’s model as a descriptive and
illustrative scheme to analyze the development
See also ▶ Carrying capacity, ▶ destination,
process, some others support the implementation
▶ development, ▶ mass tourism, ▶ sustainability.
of the model, and still others use it to determine its
own restrictions and to suggest new methodolog-
ical approaches. It should also be pointed out that
the model forms part of the theoretical notion of
References
many destinations’ plans and policies.
Agarwal, S. 2002 Restructuring Seaside Tourism:
The Resort Lifecycle. Annals of Tourism Research
Status and trends 29:5-55.
Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourism Area Cycle of
Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources.
Traditional theoretical models, which are both Canadian Geographer 24:5-12.
deterministic and linear (Butler’s included), can- Butler, R. 2006 The Tourism Area Life Cycle: Applications
not entirely explain the evolution of destinations and Modifications. Clevedon: Channel View.
Butler, R. 2011 Tourism Area Life Cycle: Contemporary
for several reasons. First, tourism is characterized
Tourism Reviews. Oxford: Goodfellow.
by a high level of dynamism, and destinations Christaller, W. 1963 Some Considerations of Tourism
have become more complex in their development. Location in Europe: The Peripheral
Furthermore, changes such as technological inno- Regions – Underdeveloped Countries – Recreation
Areas. Regional Science Association Papers
vations, new markets, and new behaviors are 12:95-105.
occurring at an increasing speed in tourism. More- Ivars, B., S. Rodríguez, and R. Vera 2013 The Evolution of
over, destinations are demonstrating that they can Mass Tourism Destinations: New Approaches beyond
adapt themselves and can even influence their Deterministic Models in Benidorm (Spain). Tourism
future evolution. Hence, new ways of analyzing
Ma, M., and R. Hassink 2013 An Evolutionary Perspective
the evolution of destinations and their life cycles on Tourism Area Development. Annals of Tourism
have emerged. Research 41:89-109.
248 Destination marketing organization
(Elliott 1997). Such organizations are usually set

Destination marketing organization up by the government as not-for-profit entities. Its
operating budget may also be provided by the
Tony Tse government, with the financial support of
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The tourism-related ▶ tax.
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Research has long acknowledged that destina-
China tions are among the most difficult products to
manage and market. A consistent finding is the
issue of collaboration and the need for those
Tourism espouses and encompasses experiencing within the destination to work together in solving
an ▶ attraction or a ▶ destination. Tourists may problems that are deemed too demanding to solve
choose a particular destination for a multitude of in isolation (Fyall and Leask 2006). Effort to
motives. Related activities, in one place or spread create successful destinations, acting as interme-
widely, could be located in a place, a village, a diary between tourism markets and destinations,
city, a country, or a ▶ region. As more and more is often a multifaceted and polemic task. Future
destinations choose to promote tourism and as research may include the investigation of collab-
more tourists look for information, destination oration in destination marketing, the role of gov-
marketing organizations become more important ernment in destination marketing, legal aspects of
and more organized. This mission refers to all the destination marketing, and its return on
planning and implementation to enhance tourism, investment.
including campaigns to drive business, informa-
tion services, facilitation of bookings, customer See also ▶ Destination, ▶ destination branding,
relationship management, and much more. It is ▶ image, ▶ marketing.
about the effort to get people to visit the destina-
tion (Morrison 2013).
While different stakeholders, such as hotels and References
attractions, may choose to promote their own ser-
Elliott, J. 1997 Tourism: Politics and Public Sector Man-
vices to tourists, it is believed that coordinated and agement. London: Routledge.
concerted efforts to promote a destination could Fyall, A., and A. Leask 2006 Destination Marketing:
benefit the entire ▶ industry. Such an approach is Future Issues - Strategic Challenges. Tourism and Hos-
undertaken by a destination marketing organiza- pitality Research 7:50-63.
Morrison, A. 2013 Marketing and Managing Tourism Des-
tion. Its activities include research, product devel- tinations. Oxon: Routledge.
opment, branding, advertising, ▶ public relations, Tasci, A., and W. Gartner 2009 A Practical Framework for
digital marketing, and tourist information service. Destination Branding. In Tourism Branding: Commu-
One of the core functions of a destination market- nities in Action, L. Cai, W. Gartner and A. Munar, eds.,
pp.149-158. Bingley: Emerald.
ing organization is the creation and ▶ management
of a strong and competitive brand. A successful des-
tination brand signals good value, quality, trust,
assurance, and ▶ anticipation to potential consumers. Destination website
It is a coordinated effort to project a simple, appeal-
ing, credible, and distinctive image in potential mar- Dan Wang
kets (Tasci and Gartner 2009). It is a common School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The
practice for a destination marketing organization to Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong,
take the lead and work closely with stakeholders China
(travel agents, hotels, airlines, and attractions) to
promote ▶ tourist flows to the destination.
Governments have become involved in tour- Destination websites refer to the official websites,
ism mainly because of its economic importance which are usually designed and maintained by
Destination 249
destination marketing organizations, for promot- is leading the research interest to an adaptation to
ing specific locations to potential tourists. Such the world of advanced mobile technology. Desti-
websites are operated at different geographic and nation marketing organizations need a better posi-
administrative levels, such as nations, states, and tioning of destination websites to provide
cities. For instance, in the ▶ United States, desti- stakeholders extra values and to be differentiated
nation websites are designed for states (e.g., from other commercial tourism business websites
visitcalifornia.com for California State), counties and social media outlets.
(e.g., orangetourism.org for the Orange County in
California State), and cities (e.g., sanfrancisco. See also ▶ Convention and visitor bureau, D
travel for San Francisco). ▶ destination marketing organization, ▶ internet,
A destination website provides an internet- ▶ marketing, ▶ social media.
based platform for mainly four functions, includ-
ing the provision of information for ▶ planning,
the advertising of products and services in the References
▶ destination, the sales of products (e.g., hotel
rooms) and meeting and convention spaces, and Gretzel, U., Y. Yuan, and D. Fesenmaier 2000 Preparing for
the New Economy: Advertising Strategies and Change
the branding of the destination with a variety of
in Destination Marketing Organizations. Journal of
stakeholders (Tang et al. 2012). The ▶ develop- Travel Research 39:146-156.
ment of destination websites has been associated Park, Y., and U. Gretzel 2007 Success Factors for Destina-
with the advent of the internet era since the late tion Marketing Websites: A Qualitative Meta-Analysis.
1990s and early 2000s (Gretzel et al. 2000). Due
Tang, L., S. Jang, and A. Morrison 2012 Dual-route Com-
to the ubiquitous application of the internet in munication of Destination Websites. Tourism Manage-
business and people’s daily life, these websites ment 33:38-49.
are becoming essential tools and platforms to pro-
mote products and services and to connect tourists
and local businesses.
In tourism studies, a stream of literature has Destination
been developed to focus on the design and evalu-
ation of the effectiveness of websites as destina- Adao Flores1 and Noel Scott2
1
tion marketing tools (Park and Gretzel 2007). One University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal
2
category of the studies is concerned with the eval- Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University,
uation of website designs, information contents, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
and usability. Another category of the studies
focuses on the actual use of such websites and
their influence on consumer beliefs and behaviors, From a geographic perspective, a destination is a
such as online activities, website revisiting, as particular place which a ▶ tourist plans to visit.
well as decisionmaking processes (Tang Typically, natural and human attractions play a
et al. 2012). major role in making the choice (Gunn 1988).
As such, destination websites act as informa- A destination is different from the tourist’s normal
tion brokers on the internet to connect tourists and environment. The term is used to describe loca-
destinations and are positioned as gates on the tions at a range of scales from an individual resort
internet for people to know about these places. to a city, to a country, or to even a continent.
Their evaluations and designs are of major A particular trip begins from an origin, through a
research interests, and the development of infor- transit region, to one or many destinations. It may
mation technology is driving their evolution. The be visited by tourists on a ▶ tour as a first stop-
arising of social media platforms and new busi- over, as a hub for excursions, or as an exit point
ness models is challenging the design of destina- from a country. Tourists may be first timers or
tion websites. The popularity of mobile platform repeat visitors of a destination. The dispersal of
250 Destination
tourists across destinations is important in deter- Destinations are often described by their main
mining their expenditure patterns. Stays may be attractions as “sun and sand,” cultural or historic,
restricted to an enclave resort area or ▶ travel adventure, city, or countryside. Increasingly, des-
around the core destination and beyond. The bor- tinations are developing more complex products
ders of a destination are often drawn based on and services that enhance their appeals or cater to
political boundaries but arguably are better for- new markets. Examples include tourism experi-
mulated from patterns of tourist behavior. ences related to health and medical services, con-
ferences, conventions and events, and education
or study opportunities. In addition, a destination
Perspectives and elements may feature products such as surfing, gastronomy,
skiing, golf, and the like. Transportation links are
Destinations are viewed from other disciplinary of importance in allowing tourists to access a
perspectives. For example, sociological studies destination. The historic growth of ▶ mass tour-
stress that tourists create a destination through ism to coastal destinations in England was based
their patterns of displacement and consumption on new railway construction, and travel to
of the place (Framke 2002). The economic per- ▶ Spain and ▶ Portugal was predicated on the
spective focuses on the creation of value for tour- development of commercial jet ▶ aviation.
ists and other stakeholders, implying the Low-cost airlines have shifted demand to destina-
coordination of destination supply chain pro- tions near secondary airports.
cesses (Manente and Furlan 1998). From a man- Several models have sought to describe the
agement point of view, a destination is “a physical characteristics, growth patterns, supply systems,
space in which a visitor spends at least one and demand for destinations, and their develop-
overnight. It includes tourism products such as ment or evolution has been a subject of much
support services and attractions, and tourism discussion. Destinations are considered to rise
resources within one day’s return travel time. It and fall in popularity over the longer term. Butler
has physical and administrative boundaries defin- (1980) considered a destination develops through
ing its management, and images and perceptions a number of stages to reach maturity and must
defining its market competitiveness. Local desti- ultimately face a choice between stagnation and
nations incorporate various stakeholders renewal. Later models suggest destinations adopt
often including a host community, and can nest evolutionary trajectories that are influenced by
and network to form larger destinations” complex or chaotic factors.
(UNWTO 2007:1).
From a management perspective, destinations
are distinguished from places as they contain Marketing and management
▶ accommodation, attractions, ▶ hospitality ser-
vices, shopping facilities, ▶ transportation ser- As destinations can geographically be remote
vices, and event facilities. This business cluster from an origin, tourists are considered to have
is organized around a set of tourism ▶ resources, only imperfect limited knowledge or image of
including the environmental, historical, and cul- them, formed through sources including
tural heritage and the ethnography and values of a uncontrolled social media (organic image) and
host community. A destination is linked to its paid-for marketing (induced image).
origin markets by a supply chain of wholesale or A destination’s image is considered an important
retail agents as well as through direct online book- contributor to its attraction. Developing a market-
ing systems. The distinct organization and authen- ing positioning and brand image is usually the role
ticity of these resources give identity to the of a ▶ destination marketing organization. Ideally,
destination and allow tourists to have different the brand of a destination is supported by the
experiences in different locations around the community and business stakeholders and also
world. provides a form of coordination among them.
Destination 251
The Gold Coast is an Australian beach and sun an important function of such organizations and
destination that is popular with families. It has a the basis for planning. In the ▶ United States,
number of other attractions such as themeparks such organizations are called convention and tour-
and shopping. It is positioned as a fun destination, ist bureaus and are primarily funded by the private
and its brand image is based on the idea that it is sector, while in Australia, they may be called local
“famous for fun.” While branding seeks to obtain or regional tourism organizations and receive par-
a price premium for a trip to a destination, it is also tial government funding. At an international level,
important to be affordable to the target market and organizations such as the World Tourism Organi-
to provide a choice of accommodation and other zation provide coordination among countries on D
facilities. issues such as training and improving destination
A tourist’s choice of a destination is affected, access through easier visa processes. The aim of
among other factors, by seasonal amount of rain these organizations is to improve destination com-
and sunshine, average temperature, and the timing petitiveness to sustain tourism development.
of events and festivals. Seasonality may have a In most destinations around the world, a desti-
significant ▶ impact on business owners and res- nation marketing or management organization is
idents with crowding during a peak in visitation embedded in a more or less hierarchical structure
and slow-down closure in the off season. From a (Beritelli et al. 2014). The local organizations are
business and employment perspective, it is better most often public-private partnerships in order to
to reduce such up and down variations over a year. encourage strong cooperation and mutual sharing
Demand can be described in geographic terms of benefits. Typically, they are coordinated by a
using core and periphery or gravity models and regional or state organization. In turn, there is
in psychological terms using push and pull fac- normally one national tourism organization that
tors. Tourists are attracted and spend most of their provides a point of communication, coordination,
time in the core, but may visit attractions in the and action for the whole industry in the country.
periphery. The distance to a destination is another Each of these organizations has roles that are
important factor affecting profitability, with sometimes overlapping, leading to issues of gov-
remote destinations generally less profitable. ernance and efficiency. For example, a national
Attractions or facilities located in peripheral tourism organization is responsible for the promo-
areas are considered to be disadvantaged in get- tion of a country overseas, but some larger desti-
ting the volume. Push factors refer to psycholog- nations within the country may also wish to
ical reasons for travel away from an origin, and promote their destination leading to potential con-
pull factors refer to the perceived attraction of a flicts in the image being promoted and the need
destination. A number of more complex destina- for marketing coordination. The identification and
tion choice models have been developed (Becken resolution of such organizational overlaps is an
and Gnoth 2004). important source of increased efficiency in the
Destinations primarily contain numerous small management of tourism within a country.
businesses leading to claims that the tourism
▶ industry is fragmented and disorganized. To
avoid this problem and to provide the coordina- Destination sustainability
tion needed, many larger or more developed des-
tinations appoint and fund an organization to be Increasingly, the effects of tourism on the fabric of
responsible for certain tasks. A destination mar- a destination give rise to multiple types of
keting organization has the role of marketing the impacts, including environmental, economic,
region, while a destination management organiza- social, and cultural, leading to concerns over
tion undertakes other functions such as planning how destinations can be more sustainable, and
or stimulation of innovation. It is common for a thus maintain their competitiveness. This chal-
destination to prepare a tourism plan to guide its lenge has received attention from anthropologists,
development. Collection of data about tourists is sociologists, and environmentalists, among
252 Developing country
others. The effect of exceeding certain limits, See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ destination
usually measured in numbers of tourists, is con- lifecycle, ▶ destination marketing organization,
sidered to lead to crowding and negative host- ▶ seasonality.
guest interactions. Similarly, exceeding environ-
mental limits may lead to unacceptable changes in
the natural setting of a destination. These impacts
demand more attention from communities and References
government when considering the long-term
capacity of the destination to survive and reinvent Becken, S., and J. Gnoth 2004 Tourist Consumption Sys-
tems Among Overseas Visitors: Reporting on Ameri-
itself, while contributing to the wellbeing of the can, German, and Australian Visitors to New Zealand.
host population. Tourism Management 25:375-385.
Thus, new forms of governance and manage- Beritelli, P., T. Bieger, and C. Laesser 2014 The New
ment of a destination are needed, such as net- Frontiers of Destination Management: Applying Vari-
able Geometry as a Function-based Approach. Journal
works, cluster development, or local supply of Travel Research 53:403-417.
systems approaches. Sustainable plans manage Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of
the “impacts of tourism on the destination’s Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources.
environment, economy, and community and Canadian Geographer 24:7-14.
Framke, W. 2002 The Destination as a Concept:
maintains and enhances the destination’s A Discussion of the Business-related Perspective Ver-
resources for the present and future needs of sus the Socio-cultural Approach in Tourism Theory.
both tourists and the communities that host Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
them” (UNWTO 2007:12). The effective sustain- 2(2):92-108.
Gunn, C. 1988 Tourism Planning. New York: Taylor and
able management of destinations is an active area Francis.
for research. Manente, M., and M. Furlan 1998 Quality in the Macro-
economic System of Toruism. The Tourist Review
53(2):17-28.
Prideaux, B. 1996 The Tourism Crime Cycle: A Beach
Further research Destination Case Study. In Tourism, Crime and Inter-
national Security Issues, A. Pizam and Y. Mansfeld,
Destination is a central concept in tourism. It has eds., pp.59-75. Chichester: Wiley.
been studied from a variety of perspectives, as is Ritchie, B., J. Crotts, A. Zehrer, and G. Volsky 2014
Understanding the Effects of a Tourism Crisis: The
often found in the study of a multidisciplinary Impact of the BP Oil Spill on Regional Lodging
phenomenon such as tourism. Destinations are in Demand. Journal of Travel Research 53:12-25.
essence a microcosm of the larger world and Scott, N., C. Cooper, and R. Baggio 2008 Destination
hence are subject to similar trends and issues. Networks: Four Australian Cases. Annals of Tourism
Research 35:169–188.
Therefore, the topics relating to its study are con- UNWTO, 2007, A Practical Guide to Tourism Destination
tinually changing. Recent issues of interest Management. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
include the effect of crisis and disaster on a desti-
nation (Ritchie et al. 2014) and conversely desti-
nation resilience. Increasingly, the concept of a
destination product sold to a marketplace is
being replaced by the idea of unusual experiences Developing country
sought by tourists. While studies of such destina-
tions as Antarctica, China, and Maldives are Marina Novelli
gaining popularity in academic circles, the subject School of Sport and Service Management,
in general is under-researched and hence under- University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK
developed (Prideaux 1996). It is even more so in
respect to cross-cultural studies of emerging des-
tinations and stakeholders network analysis (Scott The widespread view of tourism as a ▶ develop-
et al. 2008). ment tool in the developing world has received a
Developing country 253
wide range of coverage, both in the tourism and “to look only at purely economic considerations
the development studies literature. Many agree on means isolating tourism from its [real] develop-
the potential role of tourism as a vehicle for eco- ment context” (1988: 37), has evolved into a
nomic growth, job creation, and poverty allevia- wider literature, suggesting that “tourism for
tion. While this remains credible, there is an development” should encompass a far more com-
increasing interest in investigating the prehensive approach to include aspects such as
underutilized opportunities of tourism and the ▶ education, sanitation, public security, health,
arguments and paradoxes associated with its and environmental issues. Closer attention should
potential role in the developing world. Aspirations be paid to ▶ governance, cross-sector relations, D
about wealth creation, growth, and redistribution stakeholder collaboration, capacity building in
are faced with a number of bottlenecks hindering business development, and management practices
development. The complexities created by the and linkages.
copresence of “hosts” and “guests,” of different
wealth levels in the same physical places, make
tourism an epitome for the unequal relationship Development and poverty alleviation
between the developing world and the more afflu-
ent tourist-generating countries. Since the late 1990s, the importance of tourism for
Development is a highly contested term that is developing countries has led to the concept of
often equated with economic growth. The concept pro-poor tourism as a strategy to engage the
of development as “good change” (Chambers “poor,” to guarantee a more equal distribution of
1997: 1744) is reflected in the well-debated evo- the benefits resulting from tourism, and to allevi-
lution of the term. Donnellan described develop- ate poverty. In parallel with this, a growing num-
ment as a process of economic and social ber of studies on community-based tourism have
transformation, “a qualitative concept that entails highlighted implementation challenges associated
complex social, cultural and environmental with involving the poor, lack of local capacity, and
changes” (2005: 23), rather than solely economic controversial (mainly top-down and tokenistic)
growth and diversification of a country’s economy, development approaches. Debates on green tour-
which can be easily associated with the aspira- ism and ecotourism have since become equally
tional role of tourism in the development process. very popular, with the latter often controversially
Although this has been widely debated and asso- used as marketing rather than resource manage-
ciated with its ability to lead to increased ▶ foreign ment tools sometimes practiced on the same scale
exchange earnings and ▶ investment, job creation, as mass tourism.
infrastructure development, and potentially a Related to this argument, Holden et al. (2011:
▶ multiplier effect emerging from the industry’s 318) offer a historical overview on the evolution
linkages and networks, tourism has also often been of the literature on the relationships between tour-
criticized for leading to uneven power relation- ism and poverty, drawing on well-debated devel-
ships and leakages as well as “. . .foreign domina- opment principles, paradigm, and theories. Their
tion and dependency, socioeconomic and spatial work identifies four main historical phases evolv-
polarization, environmental destruction, cultural ing from the “1950s–1960s expectation that tour-
▶ alienation, and the loss of social control and ism could contribute to modernization, and
▶ identity among host communities” (Brohman benefits would trickle down to the poor”; to “the
1996: 48). These views have been giving way to 1970s top-down neo-liberal approaches to devel-
the critical debate around the need for tourism to opment, which did not result in the expected eco-
become more sustainable, through bottom-up nomic improvement and social benefits, but rather
▶ planning, participation, decentralization, and dependency, inefficiency and slower economic
long- rather than short-term engagements. growth. . .”; to the 1980s–1990s marked by the
De Kadt’s (1979) idea of tourism as passport to emergence of alternative development approaches
development, followed by Lea highlighting that based on an increased environmental awareness
254 Development
and a focus on local community participation in See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ green tourism, ▶ leak-
development; and to “the 2000s, promoting more age, economic, ▶ multiplier effect, ▶ pro-poor
directly development and poverty reduction,” tourism.
marked by the UN Millennium Development
Goals and UN Conference on Sustainable Devel-
opment (or the Rio+20 Agendas). References
Brohman, J. 1996 New Directions in Tourism for Third World

Development. Annals of Tourism Research 23:48-70.
Challenges and future directions Chambers, R. 1997 Editorial. Responsible Wellbeing:
A Personal Agenda for Development. World Develop-
The illusion of tourism as a panacea for the prob- ment 25:1743-1754.
lems of a number of developing countries has De Kadt, E. 1979 Tourism: Passport to Development?
London: Oxford University Press.
consequently been exposed. Several destinations
Donnellan, C. 2005 Responsible Tourism. Cambridge:
are now confronting the challenge of harnessing Independence.
local resources to build environmentally sustain- Holden, A., J. Sonne, and M. Novelli 2011 The Poor's
able and economically viable tourism. Although Interpretations of the Role of Tourism in Poverty
Reduction in Elmina, Ghana. Journal of Tourism Plan-
contemporary debates over its development have
ning and Development 8:317-334.
shifted from a focus on economic growth to sus- Lea, J. 1988 Tourism and Development in the Third World.
tainable development, this has often created London: Routledge.
definitional confusion, unrealistic expectations, Mitchell, J., and C. Ashley 2009 Value Chain Analysis and
Poverty Reduction at Scale. ODI Briefing Paper No. 49.
and inadequate guidance over practical imple-
London: Overseas Development Institute.
mentation. For example, tourism is listed as a
potential pathway to prosperity in over 80 % of
low-income countries’ poverty reduction
strategies. But there is evidence of a world map
dotted with well-intentioned community-based Development
tourism projects, delivering small benefits to few
people (Mitchell and Ashley 2009), and other Enrique Navarro-Jurado1 and Marta Gemma
seemingly ill-conceived short-lived initiatives, Nel-lo Andreu2
1
perpetuating the same Western agendas to little, Department of Geography, Faculty of Tourism,
no, or even worsening effects to the localities University of Málaga, Malaga, Spain
2
involved. Geography Department, Universitat Rovira i
The success of tourism in the developing world Virgili, Tarragona, Spain
requires a coherent sustainability-oriented ethos
in order to provide effective and lasting results.
To this end, future research should focus on the For over 50 years, there has been a growing focus
identification of optimization strategies for a bet- on the potential of tourism for development. Tour-
ter use of environmental, cultural, and human ism is considered as an important driver of growth
resources (i.e., conserving biodiversity, valuing for many areas seeking development, as it has
local customs, and promoting gender equality), a been for the now-developed countries of the
fairer distribution of socioeconomic benefits (i.e., ▶ Mediterranean and Pacific regions. For
facilitating capacity building, access to employ- instance, between 1950 and 2012, international
ment, and career progression opportunities), an ▶ tourist arrivals grew by 6.2 % annually and
improved experience for customers (i.e., improv- went from 25 million to 1.03 billion (UNWTO
ing service standards and performances), and an 2013). The 15 major destinations of 1950
adaptable destination’s approach to fast-changing accounted for 88 % of arrivals; in 2010 the per-
market trends (i.e., offering heterogeneous prod- centage dropped to 55 %, reflecting the spread of
ucts and tailored experiences). tourism to many developing countries and
Development 255
transitional economies (Southeast Asia, Central unequal economic growth, and to neoclassicism.
and Eastern Europe, and Latin America). Arrivals Its premise is that underdevelopment is not a stage
in developing countries accounted for 46 % of the that precedes development but the outcome of
global number in 2011. For a better understand- historical processes of domination that produce
ing, a distinction must be made between “devel- central, peripheral, and excluded spaces. It pro-
opment” in general terms and its tourism-specific poses internal industrialization, ▶ import substi-
context or how tourism contributes to tution, and protectionism as strategies. However,
development. the dependency paradigm does not explain the
success of the “Asian Tigers” (▶ Singapore, D
South Korea, etc.).
Defining development Neoliberalist theory emerged as a continuation
of orthodox neoclassical theory (1970s and
The concept of “development” alludes to the 1980s). This theory is underpinned by deregula-
action of extending or increasing. It is used in tion, retrenchment of the government, fiscal aus-
the social sciences to refer to progress in an eco- terity, privatization of public services, ▶ trade
nomic, social, political, and/or cultural sense. Tra- liberalization, competitive market and exports,
ditionally it is associated with economic growth, and opposing government intervention in the mar-
such as an increase in production outside with the kets. This paradigm has been criticized for creat-
natural processes of the biosphere and, in many ing more inequality, favoring only the ruling
cases, society. It is considered synonymous with classes of the underdeveloped countries and
progress. large corporations.
Development was first used in biology and Alternative development encompasses a set of
later applied to society in the late eighteenth cen- theories that advocate economic models centering
tury. It has evolved from a sector-specific term on people and the environment, with a focus on
from one discipline to an interdisciplinary and local involvement and “bottom-up” planning.
transdisciplinary notion. This evolution is based This paradigm revolves around basic needs
on changing contexts and circumstances, so there (food, housing, water, health, and education),
is not a single theory of development but a set of grassroots empowerment, ▶ gender, and sustain-
paradigms that contain various theories that able development. The UNDP Human Develop-
evolve over time and are guided by a specific ment Index emerged from this model. One of the
ideology (conservative, liberal, radical, etc.). most well-known concepts is “sustainable devel-
The components of development are natural opment,” which attempts to combine economic
resources, technological changes and innovation, growth, social equity, and environmental conser-
people and communities, and the state and local vation. But sustainable development has not been
authorities. The role played by the spatial scale is free from limitation, including the difficulty of
also important, distinguishing among global, measuring environmental impact, the absence of
regional, and local development. In this respect, clear limits to growth, and the lack of a
four major paradigms of development have been reconfiguration of the global capitalist economic
identified (Sharpley and Telfer 2004). system.
Modernization theory (1950s and 1960s) In this multiplicity of paradigms, the concept
derives from the Western idea of “progress,” of both development and underdevelopment must
assuming that economic growth is linear and be taken into account. Paradoxically there is no
achieved through industrialization and believing clear definition of underdevelopment
that all countries can become developed. This (or “developing”), because it depends on its jux-
paradigm is shared by Keynesians and taposition. Since 1980, the socioeconomic
neoclassicists. inequality has increased, both between the North
Dependency theory (1960s) is a reaction to the and South and among northern countries (Stiglitz
vicious circle of poverty, to underdevelopment as 2012).
256 Development
Tourism as an agent for development diversifier of sources of foreign currency revenue.

Development strategies were characterized by
Tourism contributes significantly to the econo- Fordist mass tourism models (Sharpley and Telfer
mies of developing countries, particularly in 2004), focusing on large-scale beach and sun
terms of foreign currency revenue, ▶ employ- tourism, with a high dependency on foreign
ment, and GDP. But the economic importance of investment, and concentrated in space with low
tourism varies greatly from country to country. levels of differentiation. They were models in
Small island states of the ▶ Caribbean, for which revenue amount was in the core, assuming
instance, are highly dependent on tourism (25 % that a trickle-down effect would take place and
of GDP), as are the ▶ Maldives (55 % of GDP), that the construction of tourism infrastructure
while larger countries with a more diversified would favor the transformation of the socioeco-
economy are less dependent (8 % in ▶ Mexico nomic conditions of the population.
and 5 % in ▶ Thailand). In the first decade of the In agreement with the cautionary platform,
twenty-first century, revenue from ▶ international after a decade of experiences, the first criticisms
tourism in developing countries increased by over emerged (Britton 1982; Kadt 1979), citing
14 % annually, double the total worldwide aver- uncontrolled growth, overexploitation of natural
age, withstanding the financial crisis better than and cultural resources, and the dependency that
other industries (UNWTO 2013). Tourism is the some tourism models give rise to. Others, how-
first or second source of foreign currency for 20 of ever, continued to see tourism as a solution to
the 48 least developed countries in the world. underdevelopment due to its ability to contribute
From a theoretical point of view, interest in to the modernization of economies (e.g., Richard
tourism as a driver for development has grown. Butler in 1980, Jean-Marie Miossec in 1976, and
Theories of development and tourism have been Stanley Plog in 1973). In the 1990s, there was an
put into practice along similar time lines since increase in new destinations, changes in demand,
World War II (Telfer and Sharpley 2008). Jafari applications of new technologies, and much more.
refers to four platforms to describe the evolution This transformation called for a tourism develop-
of tourism development in recent decades: “advo- ment model which is aware of environmental
cacy” (tourism seen as a positive tool for devel- impacts, seeks active participation of the local
opment), “cautionary” (tourism’s negative population, favors differentiated and flexible tour-
impacts began to emerge, giving rise to criticism), ism, reflects the theories of alternative and sus-
“adaptancy” (seeking alternative forms of tourism tainable development, and embraces the Agenda
to maximize benefits and minimize costs), and 21 (Rapley 2002) – all within the framework of
“knowledge-based” platform (to understand tour- post-Fordism. This has resulted in the emergence
ism as a complex phenomenon) (Hawkins and of newer forms of tourism (rural, ▶ ecotourism,
Mann 2007). Although there has been a historical ▶ community-based tourism, etc.). In the face of
progression, all four platforms coexist. the prevailing ▶ economics of two decades ago,
Advocating tourism as a ▶ strategy in devel- the new paradigm of human and sustainable
oping countries began in the 1960s and 1970s. development must be taken into account, favoring
Tourism was a quick stimulus of growth given studies on tourism and development which incor-
the comparative advantages (abundance of natural porate the UNDP Human Development Index,
resources and/or cheap labor). With growing for- such as those conducted in ▶ Morocco and the
eign debt and supported by institutions such as the ▶ Dominican Republic.
Organization for Economic Cooperation and In the Commission on Sustainable Develop-
Development, International Monetary Fund, and ment of the United Nations in 1999, the interest
World Bank, the role of tourism was reinforced. turned toward maximizing the potential of tour-
From 1960 to 1968, tourism exports in developing ism in order to eradicate poverty through the
countries increased by 11 %, while other indus- development of appropriate strategies. Within
tries grew by 7.8 %, which suggested tourism as a this context, the pro-poor tourism movement
Development 257
(Ashley 2002) emerged, following the Millen- However, institutions, academics, and organiza-
nium Development Goals in 2000 and the tions, after over 50 years, remain divided in rela-
UNWTO’s “Sustainable Tourism: Eliminating tion to whether tourism really brings economic
Poverty” program (UNWTO 2013). In this sce- benefits and development.
nario, 44 low-income countries included tourism This scenario raises questions about the rela-
as the main option in their poverty-reduction strat- tionship between tourism and development.
egies. These programs have proved controversial A different paradigm is proposed: post-
due to their welfare focus and lack of development development (Telfer and Sharpley 2008). It is
potential (Harrison 2008). important that studies continue to analyze the D
The twenty-first century has seen the emer- territorial, social, and economic conditions that
gence of a globalized scenario in a more complex favor development and their relationship to tour-
economic environment, changing the rules of the ism, the impact generated by development/under-
game (Ralston 2005), in which technology, com- development on socio-spatial organization, and
petitiveness, and innovation are key factors. Mul- the effects of the various development policies.
tinational companies are now the undisputed In the face of the evident socioeconomic inequal-
protagonists in the process, expanding geograph- ities and major ecological deterioration entailed in
ically, in many cases with considerable fiscal the current globalized economic model, the desir-
incentives. One example is the residential tourism able future is one of fairer development. A tourism
that has spread in Eastern ▶ Europe, ▶ Brazil, ▶ industry managed with more equitable objec-
▶ Mexico, and ▶ Panama, among others. tives and greater social justice could help to
There are still many conflicting positions. improve the lives of many people in poor
Some studies focus on the potential benefits of countries.
tourism in developing countries: economic
(GDP, ▶ foreign exchange, ▶ employment,
income, poverty reduction, infrastructure devel- See also ▶ Community development, ▶ depen-
opment), social/cultural (strengthening local cul- dency theory, ▶ economic development, ▶ glob-
ture, self-reliance, revitalization of crafts), alization, ▶ sustainable tourism.
environmental (sustainable development, envi-
ronmental management, protected areas), and
political (empowerment, self-reliance, image of
stability and security). However, despite the References
investment, the benefits of tourism cannot always
be easily demonstrated. In some cases, they have Ashley, C. 2002 Methodology for Pro-Poor Tourism
Case Studies. London: Overseas Development
been slow to arrive or have only benefited certain Institute.
groups, while the cost has been high: Britton, S. 1982 The Political Economy of Tourism in
overexploitation of resources, unskilled employ- the Third World. Annals of Tourism Research
ment, unequal distribution of revenue, real-estate 9:331–358.
Harrison, D. 2008 Pro-poor Tourism: A Critique. Third
speculation, dependence on countries of origin, World Quarterly 29:851-868.
high levels of revenue leakage, and sociocultural Hawkins, D., and S. Mann 2007 The World Bank’s Role in
conflicts. Tourism Development. Annals of Tourism Research
These and other factors demonstrate that using 34:348-363.
Kadt, E., ed. 1979 Tourism: Passport to Development?
tourism as a development tool is not always the New York: Oxford University Press.
best option and it does not necessarily entail Ralston, J. 2005 The Collapse of Globalism: And the
development (Telfer and Sharpley 2008). The Reinvention of the World. Camperwell: Viking.
challenge is now to define the factors that lead to Rapley, J. 2002 Understanding Development: Theory and
Practice in the Third World. London: Lynne Reiner.
development or inequality, to analyze the causes Sharpley, R., and D. Telfer 2004 Tourism and
in a specific region, and to contribute to the crea- Development: Concepts and Issues. London: Channel
tion of equitable development strategies. View.
258 Deviance
Stiglitz, J. 2012 The Price of Inequality: How Today’s transitioning between home and away and its
Divided Society Endangers Our Future. New York: behavioral effects. Another theoretical contribu-
Norton.
Telfer, D., and R. Sharpley 2008 Tourism and Develop- tion to the notion of tourism as a domain that
ment in the Developing World. London: Routledge. generates deviant behavior is derived from
UNWTO 2013 Program ST-EP. World Tourism Organiza- Goffman’s (1967) “fancy milling”, a term he
tion www.unwto.org/step/mechanisms/sp/ms.php coined to describe experiences gained by unre-
(19 July).
strained activities. He refers to various leisure-
related settings, such as dancing clubs, bars,
resorts, casinos, and amusement parks, as “action
spaces” where people are allowed and even
Deviance encouraged to experience what is denied to them
in everyday life. In a similar vein, Shields (1992)
Yaniv Belhassen suggests the term “liminal zone” to describe
Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, peripheral spaces where the social constraints of
Eilat Campus, Ben-Gurion University of the mainstream society are loosened.
Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel Much of the scholarship about deviance in
tourism has relied on labeling analysis as a socio-
logical lens. According to this approach, a certain
Deviance and tourism, while seemingly distinct behavior is regarded as deviant when mainstream
phenomena, have an important attribute in com- public opinion in a given society as, for example,
mon: Both involve departures from the behavioral reflected in ▶ media coverage regards it as such.
▶ constraints that characterize the daily routine of Tourism settings are often conceptualized in this
mainstream society. This is clearly seen in the context as unique domains where individuals can
behaviors displayed in the twilight zone of social engage in deviant activities without being labeled
legitimacy in tourism settings. Deviant tourists, as such due to the weakening of social controls
for example, are described in the literature in the away from the home community. But in recent
context of a variety of activities while traveling, years this approach has been challenged in light of
such as drug abuse, excessive drinking, unre- the increasing similarity between everyday life
strained gambling, and the consumption of com- and tourism (Uriely et al. 2011).
mercial sex. This behavior has also been described
among ▶ hospitality employees who may be
induced by the special characteristics of their See also ▶ Organizational culture, ▶ risk, ▶ sex
working environments to engage in deviant acts, tourism, ▶ tourist space.
including drug abuse, inappropriate sexual behav-
ior, and even criminal offenses such as petty theft
(Wood 1992). References
Deviant behaviors are usually analyzed as an
Goffman, E. 1967 Interaction Ritual: Essay on Face to Face
outcome of the unique characteristic of tourism as
Behavior. Garden City: Anchor.
a non-ordinary domain in which the norms and Shields, R. 1992 Places on the Margin: Alternative Geog-
values that govern daily life are suspended. raphies of Modernity. London: Sage.
Among the concepts associated with the theoreti- Turner, V., and E. Turner 1978 Image and Pilgrimage in
Christian Culture: Anthropological Perspectives. New
cal treatment of deviance in tourism is the notion York: Columbia University Press.
of liminality, which was coined and developed in Uriely, N., Y. Ram, and A. Malach-Pines 2011 Psychoan-
the anthropological study of behavioral transfor- alytic Sociology of Deviant Tourist Behavior. Annals
mation during tribal ceremonies and later of Tourism Research 38:1051-1069.
Wood, R. 1992 Deviants and Misfits: Hotel and
extended to tourism-related contexts (Turner and Catering Labor and the Marginal Worker Thesis. Inter-
Turner 1978). In the study of deviance, liminality national Journal of Hospitality Management 11:1979-
is frequently used to explore the process of 1982.
Disability 259
sense of belonging. Other common modes include

Diaspora following the transit routes of their ancestors’
journey or visiting unique vacation places popular
Wei-Jue Huang with members of their own diaspora.
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Among different groups, the experience of the
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Jewish and African diasporas has received more
China ▶ attention in research. For young Jews, this usu-
ally takes the form of educational group tours,
All tourism activities produced, consumed, and expe- supported by the Israeli government and Jewish D
rienced by diasporic communities can be considered communities around the world. For the African
“diaspora tourism” (Coles and Timothy 2004). Stem- diaspora, visiting the historic sites of slave trade
ming from the Greek words dia (through) and speiro allows them to make sense of the past and gain a
(to scatter), diaspora refers to the dispersion of an sense of ethnic pride. As this scope expands, studies
ethnonational group from their homeland. Histori- on diaspora tourism have also turned to the experi-
cally, the concept is closely associated with the ence of recent migration waves, such as Chinese
exile of Jews from the land of ▶ Israel. Contempo- and Vietnamese diasporas. In the past, diasporic
rary use has grown to include many populations who communities were sad, nostalgic, and alienated
settled outside their ancestral homeland, such as due to their forced displacement. As contemporary
immigrants, foreign workers, expatriates, refugees, migration tends to be voluntary, diaspora tourism
and other communities. As such, Cohen (1997) may become less emotional and more leisurely.
developed a conceptual typology of diasporas, Future research can move away from the “victim
including “victim diaspora” (such as Jewish), “impe- diaspora” ▶ tradition and examine the ▶ leisure and
rial diaspora” (British), “labor diaspora” (indentured family-oriented aspect of diaspora tourism.
Indians), “trade diaspora” (Chinese), and “cultural
diaspora” (the ▶ Caribbean). See also ▶ Expatriate, ▶ heritage, ▶ immigra-
Although the definition of diaspora covers a tion, ▶ mobility, ▶ pilgrimage tourism.
range of experiences, scholars have identified com-
mon characteristics of diasporic communities, References
including a history of dispersal, myths of the home-
land, ▶ alienation in the host country, desire for Cohen, R. 1997 Global Diasporas: An Introduction. Seat-
eventual return, ongoing support of the homeland, tle: University of Washington Press.
Coles, T., and D. Timothy (eds.) 2004 Tourism, Diasporas
and a collective ▶ identity defined by one’s rela- and Space. London: Routledge.
tionship with the homeland (Shuval 2000). It is Shuval, J. 2000 Diaspora Migration: Definitional Ambigu-
such relationship with the homeland that links ities and a Theoretical Paradigm. International Migra-
diaspora to tourism. To these people, “home” is tion 38(5):41-57.
not their current place of residence but their ances-
tral place of origin. Their desire to return is a strong
motivation, and tourism is one of the transnational Disability
activities that allow them to sustain their attach-
ment to their ancestral homeland. Daniel H. Olsen1 and Christine Lee2
1
In research, terms such as ancestral tourism, Department of Geography, Brigham Young
genealogical tourism, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, leg- University, Provo, UT, USA
acy tourism, roots tourism, and personal ▶ heri- 2
Federation Business School, Federation
tage tourism have also been used to describe University, Churchill, VIC, Australia
tourism experiences of diaspora groups. The
most notable form involves tourists traveling to
their ancestral homeland to visit relatives, learn An estimated one billion people worldwide live
more about their family history, and search for a with a disability. In recent decades, the United
260 Disaster
Nations and governments in over 100 countries a person’s bodily impairments (Rimmer
have developed protections for this population, et al. 2004). As such, current research explores
calling for the equalization of opportunities in all accessibility issues relating to the transportation
aspects of life, including ▶ leisure and ▶ travel. and accommodation sectors as well as destination
Notwithstanding these protections, the needs of management organizations to establish more
persons with disabilities are not being met to the inclusive policies and environments operated by
same degree or given the same priority as trained personnel (Nicolaisen et al. 2012).
nondisabled tourists. Much of the work has focused on people with
This occurs in part because some ▶ destination physical disabilities. More research is needed on
management organizations adopt the medical those with mental or emotional disabilities and
model or view which posits people with disabil- their caregivers.
ities have an “abnormal condition” that precludes
them from participating “normally” within society
and therefore need to be treated and/or cured in See also ▶ Accessibility, ▶ cognition, ▶ equity,
order for them to be normalized. The model has ▶ medical tourism, ▶ mobility.
been criticized for both its underlying normative
assumptions which create a normal/abnormal
“Othering” within society. The medicalization of References
disability has led in part to the rise of ▶ medical
tourism where people travel to countries that offer Darcy, S. 2003 Disability. In Encyclopedia of Leisure and
Outdoor Recreation, J. Jenkins and J. Pigram, eds.,
unproven yet potentially beneficial therapies, such pp.114-118. London: Routledge.
as stem cell treatments. However, some destina- Nicolaisen, J., B. Blichfeldt, and F. Sonnenschein 2012
tion management organizations may feel that Medical and Social Models of Disability: A Tourism
meeting the needs of this population through plan- Providers’ Perspective. World Leisure Journal 53:201-
214.
ning and programming is the purview of medical Rimmer, J., B. Riley, E. Wang, A. Rauworth, and
experts rather than tourism organizations (Darcy J. Jurkowski 2004 Physical Activity Participation
2003). among Persons with Disabilities: Barriers and
In recent years, a social model argues that those Facilitators. American Journal of Preventive Medicine
26:419-425.
with disabilities are marginalized from tourism
participation due to current (disabling) environ-
mental barriers and hostile attitudes. Proponents
of this model focus on “demedicalizing” disabil-
ity, arguing that disability is one dimension of Disaster
human diversity. They focus on political and pol-
icy efforts to create enabling environments and Anestis K. Fotiadis1 and Tzung-Cheng (T. C.)
change social attitudes toward people with dis- Huan2
1
abilities (Darcy 2003). Department of Entertainment Management,
Much of the tourism research on persons with I-Shou University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
2
disabilities has been from a demand perspective College of Management, National Chiayi
where researchers have identified a number of University, Chiayi, Taiwan
constraints or barriers related to their limited par-
ticipation rates. While the market is not homoge-
neous, there seems to be common barriers to Disaster can be defined as a serious disruption to
participation, which include lack of useable built the functioning of society, causing widespread
and natural environments, information regarding human, material, and environmental losses
accessibility, and availability of online informa- which exceed the ability of society to cope with
tion. In most cases, these barriers are related to the (UNISDR 2009). Based on the underlying causes,
disabling environment at destinations rather than disasters can be classified as natural, human, or
Discourse 261
technological. In such cases, tourists may visit an See also ▶ Crisis management, ▶ impact,
area to see the effects of a disaster as a matter of ▶ terrorism, ▶ planning, ▶ strategy.
curiosity. A famous destination, for instance, is
Pompeii in ▶ Italy, where tourists can see the
▶ impact of a volcano eruption which had on the References
environment and the ancient local society. Disas-
ters affect ▶ travel decision choices since a poten- Huan, T-C., J. Beaman, and K. Shelby 2004 No-escape
Natural Disaster: Mitigating Impacts on Tourism.
tial ▶ tourist will consider, among other factors,
health and personal safety, both during travel to a
Annals of Tourism Research 31:255-273. D
Hystad, P., and P. Keller 2008 Towards a Destination
▶ destination and on-site. Tourism Disaster Management Framework: Long-
Major disasters generally entail a change in the term Lessons from a Forest Fire Disaster. Tourism
image of a destination that can last for an extended
Ritchie, B. 2004 Chaos, Crisis, and Disaster: A Strategic
period of time or grow to be permanent (Hystad Approach to Crisis Management in the Tourism Indus-
and Keller 2008). A powerful earthquake of 7.6 try. Tourism Management 25:669-683.
magnitude in Taiwan in 1999 killed around 2,400 UNISDR 2009 Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction.
Geneva: United Nations International Strategy for
people, injured 11,000, created 100,000 homeless
Disaster Reduction.
people, and caused US$10 billion damage.
It destroyed and damaged infrastructure that served
residents and tourists, causing international arrivals
to decrease by 15 % (Huan et al. 2004).
Although disasters create negative impacts for Discourse
tourism, there appears to be minimal proactive
disaster planning within the industry, though it is Chin-Ee Ong
well established in urban planning. When a disas- Cultural Geography Chair Group, Wageningen
ter happens, it is normally accepted that anticipa- University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
tory businesses are in a better condition since they
can react better to an unexpected event. This is
very important, bearing in mind the significance Discourse and its mode of analysis can be grouped
of decisionmaking during the chaos of a disaster. into two main domains: the sociological and
Thus, a disaster management system is crucial. power-centered approach, and the textual and lin-
Research is emerging on disaster management guistic view. For the former, discourse is any “talk
plans and their importance for the tourism industry and text” that frames and shapes and/or is resul-
(Hystad and Keller 2008; Ritchie 2004). An effec- tant from human aspirations, intentions, reflec-
tive disaster management program has four distinct tions, and actions. Many scholars studying
phases: readiness, reduction, response, and recov- ▶ power-related issues in tourism build their
ery. An effective disaster management program theoretical foundations on Foucault’s (1973)
should carefully consider the potential impacts on notion of the performativity of discourses and
all the stakeholders involved throughout the Fairclough’s (1992) approach of “discourse as
planning, response, and recovery periods of the social practice.” Although there were notable
disaster. Bringing all these players together to early forays into the concept and its application
create a path for smooth collaboration is a key in understanding ▶ travel (MacCannell 1976), the
factor in disaster management, especially because Foucauldian strand of the concept gained popu-
of the potential for more climate change-related larity in studies through the publication of Urry’s
disasters. Future research is needed on optimizing (1990) The Tourist Gaze.
disaster management plans and forecasting models. In the textual and linguistic approach, ▶ lan-
Tourism researchers can focus on examining the guage and the ways in which speech and writing
limited positive outcomes of a disaster on a are articulated are the focus. From syntax to tense,
destination. this view advocates an examination of text and
262 Discriminant analysis
writing in brochures, magazines, websites, and References

blogs to look for the existence of various themes
and issues, such as gender relations and ▶ Orien- Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism:
A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Oxford: CABI.
talism/Occidentalism in the production, ▶ mar-
Fairclough, N. 1992 Discourse and Social Change.
keting and experience of tourism, or how actual Cambridge: Polity Press.
tourism reflects or correlates with linguistic prop- Foucault, M. 1973 The Birth of the Clinic: An Archaeol-
erties (Dann 1996). ogy of Medical Perception. New York: Vintage Books.
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the
Tourism researchers generally agree that
Leisure Class, New York: Schocken Books.
discourses are cultural products mediated by Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage.
social forces. They are interested not only in
what has been articulated but also what lies
in the shadows and what has been silenced. Such
an understanding opens up pathways for
Discriminant analysis
uncovering ▶ imperialism, ▶ gender and racial
Valeria Minghetti and Emilio Celotto
inequalities, and ▶ other forms of social stratifi-
International Centre of Studies on Tourism
cation and structures that exist in some early and
Economics, CISET – Ca’ Foscari University,
contemporary writings and marketing. While the
Oriago di Mira (Venice), Italy
concept of discourse was imported into tourism
studies, work on its discourses contributed to
the originating fields. In particular, Urry’s (1990) Discriminant analysis, also called “discriminant
work had uncovered the workings of discourse function analysis,” is a multivariate technique
within a tourism and travel setting. Such insights aimed at determining the affinity of a statistical
gathered from a mobile setting had led him to unit (the ▶ tourist) to one or more selected groups,
delineate a field of study characteristic of “the according to the value it takes on a number of
mobilities ▶ paradigm.” To date, ▶ work on tour- quantitative variables (age, country of origin,
ism discourses tends to reside in the realms of the length of stay, and the like). The main scope of
textual (content analyses of brochures) websites its application is to examine differences between
and blogs. Opportunities lie in furthering ethno- one or more predetermined groups of individuals
graphic engagements: of observing and recording with respect to several variables simultaneously
the production, consumption, or negotiations of and to predict the likelihood that a case belongs to
discourses, their articulations and implications a group. Since groups have been defined a priori,
among social actors/actants in the tourism world. according to a splitting criterion, this technique
This can include work on how tourist information can also be used to validate the results of a cluster
is assembled – which narratives are selected and analysis and to classify other individuals.
which are sidelined or suppressed, who does the In tourism research, this is one of the
selection, and how are such selection processes approaches commonly applied to market segmen-
enacted? It can also include closer observations tation. It has been used, for example, to understand
and analysis of the ways in which such discursive which groups of tourists have similar needs or
work is consumed, received, resisted, or ignored. intentions regarding a ▶ product or ▶ destination
Notably, do tourists actually read and follow bro- (Dolnicar and Kemp 2009), to predict consumers’
chures and ▶ tourist information, how are such cluster membership based on their attitude and
text and discourses processed, and what kinds of behavior (Yeung and Yee 2012), to identify which
consequences do such text-induced social pro- markets are of greatest economic return for desti-
cesses produce? nations (Vu and Turner 2008), or to determine
which variables influence the choice or perceived
image of a destination (Hassaker and Hallak 2013).
See also ▶ Gaze, ▶ image, ▶ language, Discriminant analysis works by creating one or
▶ media, ▶ power. more linear equations like regression to analyze
Distance decay 263
the relationship between a single categorical

dependent variable Y and a set of independent Distance decay
variables X (X1, X2,. . .Xn). The decision on
which group a case belongs to is based on the Libo Yan
estimate of a score calculated as a linear Macao University of Science and Technology,
function of X. After using an existing set of data Macao, China
to calculate the discriminant function and classify
cases, the membership of any new case can be The concept refers to the observed ▶ phenomenon
predicted. that the interaction in terms of ▶ supply and demand D
The process is quite sensitive to outliers, and between two places decreases with distance (Ewing
the size of the smallest group must be larger than 1974). The term is derived from geography and has
the number of predictor variables (at least five been used in studies in such areas as business
times). The major underlying assumptions of this (McKercher and Lew 2003), ▶ leisure, and tourism.
technique include independence of the observa- Its implication is twofold (Wall 2000): first, at des-
tions, multivariate normality of the independent tinations, ▶ tourist arrivals are more from nearby
variables, homoschedasticity, and presence of at areas than from distant ones, and second, for a
least two groups well defined and clearly differ- source market, tourists tend to visit more often the
entiated from one another. The digitization of sites in a relatively smaller geographical range than
tourism and the spread of Web 2.0 open up new those within a larger radius. These phenomena can
streams of research within which this approach be explained with the frictional effect of distance on
can be used, e.g., to differentiate the users’ profile travels (McKercher and Lew 2003).
of a tourism community or the browsers’ behavior In the process of leisure travel, decisionmaking
in a tourist portal. is a trade-off between costs and potential benefits
(Lee et al. 2012). If certain benefits can be attained
nearby, it would be uncommon for most people to
See also ▶ Cluster analysis, ▶ destination com- pursue the same in distant places. Long-haul tour-
petitiveness, ▶ segmentation. ists, in contrast to their short-haul counterparts, tend
to have different motivations (Lee et al. 2012).
Apart from distance, other factors like the temporal
aspect, economy, and ▶ culture also affect their
References decisions (McKercher 2008a). However, Smith’s
(1985) study finds that at the regional collective
Dolnicar, S., and B. Kemp 2009 Tourism Segmentation
level, the geographical variable plays a more impor-
by Consumer-based Variables. In Handbook of
Tourist Behaviour: Theory and Practice, M. Kozak tant role than the aggregate socioeconomic factors.
and A. Decrop, eds., pp.177-194. New York: The distance decay effect on ▶ travel is different
Routledge. from that on services and goods which tend to have
Hassaker, G., and R. Hallak 2013 Moderating Effects of
Tourists’ Novelty-seeking Tendencies on Destination
a peak very close to their origin; the peak of travel
Image, Visitor Satisfaction, and Short- and Long-Term occurs within a certain distance from a given source
Revisit Intentions. Journal of Travel Research market (McKercher and Lew 2003). This situation
52:600-613. is relevant to the definition of tourists – that people
Vu, J., and L. Turner 2008 Economic Significance of
have to leave their residential ▶ environment for a
Tourism: A Discriminant Analysis. In CAUTHE
2008: Tourism and Hospitality Research, Training and certain distance to be counted as such (Wall 2000).
Practice, S. Richardson, L. Friedline, A. Patiar and McKercher and Lew’s (2003) case study of Hong
M. Ternel, eds., pp.919-933. Gold Coast: Griffith Kong finds that the existence of effective tourism
University.
exclusion zones (which discloses the distribution of
Yeung, R., and W. Yee 2012 A Profile of the Mainland
Chinese Cross-border Shoppers: Cluster and Discrimi- supply is uneven) distorts the standard distance
nant Analysis. Tourism Management Perspectives decay curve. They also report that the exclusion
4:106-112. zones help to differentiate short- and long-haul
264 Distribution channel
travel behavior patterns. Different attractions have delivery of products and services specifically
different rates of decay (Yan 2011). Similarly, mar- related to tourism from suppliers to consumers
ket segments transform differently with distance (Buhalis and Laws 2001; Kracht and Wang
(McKercher 2008b). The above findings together 2010; Longhi 2009). Tourism distribution chan-
show that tourism studies enrich and supplement nels can be distinguished from the ones of tangible
the ▶ theory of distance decay. The concept is help- goods in that goods are conveyed to consumers
ful for studies focusing on the ▶ accessibility of whereas tourists, in most cases, are conveyed to
tourism ▶ resources and the ▶ mobility of tourists the products and/or services they purchase and
and has implications for destination marketing, consume (Buhalis and Laws 2001).
▶ tour operation, and tourism ▶ planning.
See also ▶ Accessibility, ▶ destination, ▶ grav- Evolution of distribution channels

ity model, ▶ market, ▶ mobility.
The information and communication technology
References has facilitated the evolution of tourism distribu-
tion channels. This evolution has involved the
Ewing, G. O. 1974 Gravity and linear regression models of introduction of additional layers and categories
spatial interaction: a cautionary note. Economic Geog- of emerging intermediaries, which has
raphy 83-88. transformed the structure of tourism distribution
Lee, H, B. Guillet, R. Law., and R. Leung 2012 Robustness
of distance decay for international pleasure travelers: A
channels into an increasingly complex one.
longitudinal approach. International Journal of Tourism A milestone in the evolution of the structure of
Research 14(5):409-420. tourism distribution channels occurred in 1993
McKercher, B. 2008a The implicit effect of distance on when the commercialization of the internet by
tourist behavior: A comparison of short and long haul
pleasure tourists to Hong Kong. Journal of Travel &
means of the World Wide Web began. In the
Tourism Marketing 25(3-4):367-381. same year, the web browser was made available
McKercher, B. 2008b Segment Transformation in Urban for the public to view World Wide Web contents,
Tourism. Tourism Management 29:1215-1225. thereby leading to online commercial activities. It
McKercher, B., and A. Lew 2003 Distance Decay and the
Impact of Effective Tourism Exclusion Zones on Inter-
was web technology that has facilitated commer-
national Travel Flows. Journal of Travel Research cial activities which have in turn transformed the
42(2):159-165. structure of tourism distribution channels.
Smith, S. 1985 US Vacation Travel Patterns: Correlates of Before the introduction of internet, tourism
Distance Decay and the Willingness to Travel. Leisure
Sciences 7(2):151-174.
distribution channels existed as a networked infor-
Wall, G. 2000 Distance Decay. In Encyclopedia of Tour- mation technology: the global distribution system
ism, J. Jafari, ed., p.155. London: Routledge. (GDS). The first GDS began as an American
Yan, L. 2011 Uneven Distance Decay: A Study of the Airlines computer reservation system known as
Tourism Market Segments of Hong Kong. International
Journal of Tourism Sciences 11(1):95-112.
the Semi-Automated Business Research Environ-
ment, which was initially developed to facilitate
the booking of American Airlines reservations.
Evolving from this system, the GDS consisted of
Distribution channel a data network which was completed in 1964.
Other GDSs eventually followed. The major
Youcheng Wang and John Kracht GDSs of today include Amadeus, Galileo, Aba-
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, cus, and Worldspan and have had an oligopolistic
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA influence on tourism distribution until the public
availability of the World Wide Web.
Prior to 1993, the categories of tourism distribu-
A tourism distribution channel is a network of tion intermediaries included retail travel agents, cor-
intermediaries that facilitates the sales and porate travel agents (also called “travel management
Distribution channel 265
companies”), tour operators, GDSs, incoming travel Instead, the owners of GDSs engaged in
agents, switches, destination marketing organiza- reintermediation by forming relationships with
tions, and suppliers (Kracht and Wang 2010). Tour online travel agents. As a result, online travel
operators serve as intermediaries between travelers agents served as intermediaries between con-
and suppliers by consolidating travel services into sumers, search engines, or travel agents on one
packages (Werthner and Klein 1999). GDSs are end and GDSs, switches, or suppliers on the other.
intermediaries between travel agents and suppliers. In 2000, an additional category of intermediaries
Incoming travel agents act as intermediaries offered yet another channel of tourism distribution.
between tour operators and suppliers (Buhalis and This category was that of meta-search engines, D
Laws 2001). Switches facilitate the linking of hotel which search the online travel agency websites, as
computer reservation systems to GDSs, thereby well as supplier websites. Meta-search engines can
performing an intermediating role between the act as intermediaries between consumers and online
two. Destination marketing organizations have travel agents or suppliers, depending on the search
served as intermediaries between consumers and results viewed by the consumers.
suppliers in their promotion of destinations.
Automated search engines that indexed the
titles and addresses of web pages were also intro- Current status and future directions
duced into the marketplace in 1993. As consumers
increasingly used the World Wide Web for The World Wide Web has made possible the simple
tourism-related purchases, search engines took and direct link of a consumer to the supplier and
on an increasingly significant role as intermedi- has also facilitated a multitude of other channel
aries in product distribution. configurations (Buhalis and O’Connor 2005). It is
Online travel agents added a new layer of inter- interesting that this web of channel networks is a
mediation to the tourism distribution channels in result of the complex web of internet networks. As
1995. Initially, online travel agents served as inter- the pendulum of influence swings back and forth,
mediaries between consumers or search engines on the participants struggle for relevance, sometimes
one end and switches or suppliers on the other. They competing and sometimes cooperating.
have the potential of disintermediating, or The resultant push and pull manifests itself
bypassing, traditional travel agents. While some with efforts at intermediation, disintermediation,
retail travel agents were disintermediated out of and reintermediation. Even when disintermedia-
the industry, others have adapted and stayed. Some tion has occurred, the entrance of new
retail agencies adapted by forging relationships with cybermediaries will result in more layers of tour-
host agencies. Such adaptation is a manifestation of ism intermediation since the debut of the Web
reintermediation, a reassertion of their role as inter- (Kracht and Wang 2010). The user-generated con-
mediaries. This process of reintermediation has also tent and various forms of social media platforms
resulted in an additional layer of intermediation, as have been adding more complexities to the
the host agencies can provide the smaller travel existing array of tourism distribution channels.
agencies with access to the GDSs. The host agencies
thereby serve as an additional category of interme-
See also ▶ Destination website, ▶ eTourism,
diaries. Some retail and corporate travel agencies
▶ global distribution system, ▶ information tech-
have adapted to the entrance of online travel agen-
nology, ▶ social media.
cies, becoming “web-able” by utilizing information
technology (Kracht and Wang 2010).
Some airlines have introduced online travel
References
agents as attempts to disintermediate GDSs; how-
ever, the introduction of additional online travel Buhalis, D., and E. Laws 2001 Tourism Distribution Chan-
agencies did not dislodge GDSs from their signif- nels: Practices, Issues and Transformations. London:
icant position as channels of tourism distribution. Continuum.
266 Djibouti
Buhalis, D., and P. O’Connor 2005 Information Commu- 43 Red Sea YEM.
42
nication Technology Revolutionizing Tourism. Tour- ERITREA
Ba
ism Recreation Research 30(3):7-16. of
b
M
Kracht, J., and Y. Wang 2010 Examining the Tourism an
da
b
Distribution Channels: Evolution and Transformation. Moussa
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Khor Angar
Ali
Longhi, C. 2009 Internet and Organization of the Industry ETHIOPIA
in Tourism: A Focus on the Distribution of Travel and Balho
Obock
12 12
Tourism Services. International Journal of Leisure and
Tourism Marketing 1(2):131-151. Gulf of
Tadjoura
Lac Aden
Werthner, H., and S. Klein 1999 Information Technology ‘Assal Golfe de
and Tourism – A Challenging Relationship. Vienna: Tadjoura DJIBOUTI
Springer. Yoboki
Ali ‘Sabieh
Abhé Dikhil
Bad
11 11
Djibouti 0 20 40 km SOMALIA
42 0 20 40 mi 43
Dominique Verdugo
Tourism and Protected Areas Specialist Group, Djibouti, Figure 1 Map of Djibouti
Sustainable Tourism Development, Bordeaux,
France Djibouti as a ▶ destination in their brochures.
Tourism generates today 4,500 direct jobs and
contributes for less than 3 % to the national GD-
Djibouti (area 23,200 km2 or 8,957 mi2) is strate- P. Potential for growth has been identified, and
gically situated between the Gulf of Aden and this industry can play a much more important role
▶ Eritrea, ▶ Somalia, and ▶ Ethiopia (Figure 1). in the national economy in the future. The Office
The population is 792,198 (2013), with two main National de Tourisme de Djibouti (the national
ethnic groups: the Somali 60 % and the Afar 35 %. tourist board) is administered by the Ministry of
The country has four languages: French and Ara- Tourism.
bic (official) as well as Somali and Afar. Djibouti The government’s recent efforts to promote
is a regional port and its economy revolves almost tourism include improvement of the highway net-
entirely around the shipping and refueling indus- work, preparation and implementation of a mar-
tries. Its transport facilities are used by several keting plan, raising awareness among the
landlocked African countries to fly in their goods population in order to improve the reception of
for reexport. This earns Djibouti much-needed tourists, introduction of a training program for
transit taxes and harbor fees. guides and managers of camps, and support to
Djibouti’s tourism ▶ resources include a private operators to enable them to offer services
unique geographical landscape, such as Lake and ▶ leisure facilities tailored to the needs of
Assal which is 155 m below sea level, the lowest target customers. Over the last 5 years, there has
point in ▶ Africa and the saltiest lake in the world. been an increasing international recognition of
There are a number of prehistoric rock engraving Djibouti as one of the world’s emerging destina-
sites and a rich traditional culture (Thierry 2008). tions for diving, fishing, and ▶ adventure tourism.
There were 30,000 international tourists in According to a World Bank study (Africatime
2005, of whom some 65 % were French. The 2013), Djibouti City could emerge as well as a
main ▶ tourist activities are scuba diving, fishing, strong business destination and as an important
trekking, discovering the nomadic world, bird stopover for cruisers and sailors passing through
watching, and sun, sea, and sand. French, Italian, to the ▶ Seychelles, ▶ Mauritius, ▶ Madagascar,
German, and Swiss ▶ tour operators feature Reunion, or Dubai.
Domestic tourism 267
The coastal ecosystems including coral reefs, found in countries with a long history of domestic
estuaries, and mangroves are showing significant tourism (Rogerson and Lisa 2005). On the con-
signs of degradation due to climate change and trary, mass domestic tourism has only recently
anthropogenic pressures (UNEP 2009). Impacts emerged due to increased disposable income,
of tourism ▶ development on those fragile eco- introduction of labor rights associated with ▶ lei-
systems and on communities should therefore be sure and ▶ vacation, governmental policy about
addressed at site and at policy level. the deregulation of internal movement, and so on
(Scheyvens 2007).
Tourism is essentially an ▶ activity engaged by D
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ business tourism, ▶ coastal
human beings. The minimum necessary features
tourism, ▶ nature tourism.
that need to exist for it to be said to have occurred
include the act of ▶ travel from one place to
another, a particular set of motives for engaging
References
in that travel, and the engagement in activities at
Africatime 2013 Djibouti Peaufine sa Stratégie Touristique
the ▶ destination. Concepts of space (travel away
http://fr.africatime.com/djibouti/articles/djibouti-peaufine- from home) and leisure (time spent away from
sa-strategie-touristique (22 February 2014). home) are of significance to all scholarly and
Thierry, C. 2008 Le Développement du Tourisme en practical definitions of tourism, including domes-
Milieu Agropastoral Transhumant en République de
Djibouti. Master de Géographie. Mémoire de
tic tourism, although its definition is by all means
Recherche. Besançon: UFR Sciences du Langage, de scarce. According to the World Tourism Organi-
l’Homme et de la Société de Besançon. zation, “domestic tourism comprises the activities
UNEP 2009 Djibouti: National Adaptation Program of of a resident ▶ visitor within the country of refer-
Action, Implementing NAPA Priority Interventions to
Build Resilience in the Most Vulnerable Coastal Zones,
ence (either as part of a domestic tourism trip or
GEF/LCDF. New York: United Nations Environment part of an ▶ outbound tourism trip)” and “a
Program. domestic ▶ tourist is any person residing in a
country who travels to a place within the country,
outside his or her usual ▶ environment for a
period not exceeding 12 months and whose main
purpose of visit is other than the exercise of an
Domestic tourism activity remunerated from within the place vis-
ited” (UNWTO 2012 no page).
Hyungsuk Choo
Tourism, Leisure, and Event Planning, School of
Human Movement, Sports, and Leisure Studies, Significance
Bowling Green, OH, USA
Tourism mainly explores on international move-
ment of inbound and outbound tourists, but
Domestic tourism can be described as tourism ▶ international tourism is only one part. Domestic
involving residents of one country traveling tourism generally makes up the vast majority of
within their own country. It does not involve the flows, even though it is more difficult to track of
crossing of international borders at entry points. this type than those of international tourism which
As early recorded ▶ history provides a glimpse requires the crossing of the international border.
into ancient tourism activities, domestic tourism is For this reason, domestic tourism throughout the
in fact the first form of tourism practiced. It has world is a predominant yet invisible portion of
been a well-established practice, happening in economic activities known as the tourism indus-
every country or region in the world. A strong tries. Hence, the domestic overnight leisure tour-
relationship among tourism and ▶ visiting friends ism market is a key segment in many countries.
and relatives and religious pilgrimage has been ▶ UNWTO estimated 83 % or four out of five
268 Domestic tourism
billion arrivals per year was domestic tourism In addition, domestic tourism was found to be a
(Rogerson and Lisa 2005). It also represents more practical way of achieving local ▶ economic
73 % of the total overnight stays, 74 % of total development than international tourism for some
arrivals, and 69 % of overnights at hotels. Yet, this countries. Using a ▶ case study of ▶ China, Xu
sector has been a largely under-focused area in (1998) demonstrated that domestic tourism can
some parts of the world, particularly in some result in more employment and income opportu-
developing countries. This could be partly due to nities, an expanded private sector, and increasing
the governmental emphasis placed on the ▶ for- social ▶ mobility. Furthermore, it is suggested
eign exchange earnings derived from international domestic tourism does not require extensive
tourism. In many parts of the world, international ▶ investment and change, as the international
tourists are deemed to be of significantly greater market could become a basic element for a
value, especially for soft currency destinations socially and economically sustainable regional
because they bring with them hard currency and development.
higher rates of spending. To draw experiences from a wide range of
Compared to international tourists, domestic countries, ▶ future research on domestic tourism
tourists are more knowledgeable about the desti- should cover economic, sociocultural, and envi-
nation, its culture and custom, its language and ronmental impacts; sustainability; destination
food, and other general features, so they are more development; and tourist behavior of this vast
demanding for the quality of products and ser- yet diverse segment. Moreover, the phenomena
vices (Pierret 2011). In addition, domestic desti- as well as the concept will need to receive more
nations are nearer, land transportation is more frequent recognition in tourism research and
frequently used, and the cost of trips is lower practice.
than international destinations. These characteris-
tics result in some commonality of domestic travel
See also ▶ International tourism, ▶ national
behavior, including more frequent visits, longer
tourism, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, ▶ visiting friend
stay, and more repeat visits notably with family
and relative.
members.
Impact References
Overall, there is increasing evidence of the several Pierret, F. 2011 Some Points on Domestic Tourism.
potential benefits of promoting domestic tourism. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Although not generating external earnings, it can Rogerson, C., and Z. Lisa 2005 “Sho’t Left”: Changing
Domestic Tourism in South Africa. Urban Forum
contribute significantly to local economic devel-
16(2-3): 88-111.
opment because domestic tourists typically pur- Scheyvens, R. 2007 Poor Cousins No More: Valuing the
chase more locally produced goods and services Development Potential of Domestic and Diaspora
than other tourists, thus supporting small-scale Tourism. Progress in Development Studies 7:307-25.
Sindiga, I. 1996 Domestic Tourism in Kenya. Annals of
enterprises and the informal sector (Telfer and
Wall 2000). While tourism is generally subject to Telfer, D., and G. Wall 2000 Strengthening Backward
a range of global influences and events that can Economic Linkages: Local Food Purchasing by Three
▶ impact on its ▶ sustainability, domestic tourism Indonesian Hotels. Tourism Geographies 2:421-447.
UNWTO 2012 Methodological Notes to the Tourism Sta-
is less sensitive to crises and less seasonal or
tistics Database. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
fragile to external conditions which could limit Xu, G. 1998 Domestic Tourism and its Economic Effect in
continuous tourism ▶ development (Sindiga Beidaihe: The Largest Seaside Resort of China. Pacific
1996). Tourism Review 2:43-52.
Dominica 269
The island, 29 miles (47 km) long and 18 miles

Dominica (29 km) wide, is characterized by rugged terrain.
Morne Diablotins (4,747 ft or 1,447 m) is the
Michael Scantlebury highest point along the country’s mountainous
Hospitality and Tourism Management, Grand central spine. The combination of its volcanic
Valley State University, Allendale, MI, USA soils, natural topography, and tropical climate
has resulted in lush forest which covers most of
the island. The “nature island” tourism tag is
The Commonwealth of Dominica (not to be con- rooted in the country’s environmental reality. D
fused with the Dominican Republic), is Dominica’s main attractions are hiking trails to
289 miles2 (751 km) in area and is located 15 its 12 major waterfalls (including Victoria Falls,
250 north and 61 210 west longitude, between the Boiling Lake) and its 11 mountain peaks,
French Departments of Martinique and Guade- viewing 172 types of birds and the over 1,000
loupe (Figure 1). The estimated population of flowering plants, national parks (Cabrits and
73,000 (CIA 2014) includes 3,000 descendants Morne Trois Pitons, a UNSECO world heritage
of the pre-Columbian Carib people, who reside site), and the Fort Shirley garrison. The island is
in the Kalinago Territory, a 3,700 acre reserve also a haven for whale watchers, dolphins, sea
established in 1903. turtles, divers, and also recreational fishers. The
Christopher Columbus spotted the island on country’s cultural diversity is reflected in its array
his second voyage in 1495, but the Spanish of musical festivals (Dominica Carnival,
never settled here. The French acquired it in Domfest, and the World Creole Music Festival)
1635 and developed it until it was ceded to the and cuisine.
British by the Treaty of Paris (1763). In 1978, the In 2012, 113,000 arrivals (42,000 by sea and
island became an independent member of the 71,000 by air), 192,000 cruise passengers, and
British Commonwealth. 3,400 yachting tourists were recorded. Based on
the 2013 GDP of US$495 million (CIA 2014), the
main economic activities are represented by ser-
Dominica Passage 61′20° 61′10°
vices (68.7 %), agriculture (15.7 %), and industry
NORTH
(15.6 %). Hotels and restaurants represent 2.9 %
ATLANTIC of GDP with tourism earnings representing 18 %
Portsmouth
OCEAN and accounting for approximately 30 % of foreign
Marigot exchange. Tourism, both direct and indirect,
15′30° 15′30° accounts for 29 % of the total employment
Morne Diablotins
(WTTC 2014).
The Discover Dominica Authority Act
Saint (2007) was established to promote and facilitate
Joseph
tourism ▶ development. The Dominica State Col-
Caribbean lege is the premiere institution offering two-year
15′20°
Sea La Plaine associate degrees in ▶ hospitality and tourism.
ROSEAU Boiling 15′20° Students can upgrade to the bachelor program in
Lake
an additional two years at the University of the
0 3 6 km
Berekua West Indies upon completion. Guided by the prin-
0 3 6 mi ciples of sustainability and community engage-
61′30° Martinique Passage 61′10° ment, ▶ future tourism development capitalizes
on the country’s natural and cultural heritage
Dominica, Figure 1 Map of Dominica (CHL 2013).
270 Dominican Republic
See also ▶ Cruise tourism, ▶ ecotourism, The Dominican Republic, with 48,730 km2
▶ island tourism, ▶ nature tourism, (18, 815 mi2), shares the island of Hispaniola
▶ sustainability. with the Republic of Haiti (Figure 1). One third
of its ten million population lives below the pov-
References erty line and unemployment rate averages 15 %.
The country ranks 86th in tourism competitive-
CHL 2013 Draft National Tourism Policy 2020. Roseau: ness; however, in relation to human, cultural, and
Commonwealth of Dominica Ministry of Tourism and
natural resources, it drops to the 108th/140 posi-
Legal Affairs.
CIA 2014 World Factbook – Dominica. Central Intelli- tion (WEF 2013). Once a sugarcane exporting
gence Agency www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- country, it has shifted its economy to services
world-factbook/geos/do.html (21 May). and tourism. Over the past three decades, its
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Domi-
GDP has grown on average by 6 % per year. In
nica. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
2013, tourism revenue was US$4.6 billion, con-
tributing to 15 % of its GDP, creating 583,000 jobs
(14 % of workforce), 33 % of exports, and 4.5 %
Dominican Republic
of investment (WTTC 2013).
The Dominican Republic relies primarily on
Alejandro Herrera1 and Shaney Peña Gomez2
1 all-inclusive tropical beach resorts. During the
Hispaniola Observatory for Sustainable Tourism,
past five decades, the country has built a well-
Santo Domingo, Dominican Republic
2 diversified ▶ inbound tourism market. Over half
Centro de Innovación Atabey, Santo Domingo,
of arrivals (52 %) come from the ▶ Americas
Dominican Republic
(35 % the ▶ United States, 3 % ▶ Canada, and
Dominican Republic, Figure 1 Map of the Dominican Republic

Drifter 271
14 % from the growing markets of Central and Bolaky, B. 2011 La competitividad del turismo en el
South America). European arrivals are declining Caribe. Revista Cepal No. 104 http://repositorio.cepal.
org/bitstream/handle/11362/11459/104055079_es.pdf?
but still represent 21 % of the total (BC 2013). sequence=1 (19 January 2015).
However, competition for the all-inclusive market WEF 2013 Travel and Tourism Competitiveness Report.
throughout the ▶ Caribbean has scarcely stimu- Geneva: World Economic Forum.
lated new complementary services (Bolaky 2011). WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impacts -
Dominican Republic. London: World Travel and Tour-
Tourism has grown on average at 8.6 % per year, ism Council.
topping the list of Caribbean destinations and
capturing 23 % (4.8 million) of the 21 million D
tourists to the region. The country leads the region
in infrastructure with 65,000 rooms and seven
international airports. Drifter
The government has invested in highway infra-
structure which now links the proximate destina- Scott A. Cohen
tions of Punta Cana, Samaná, and Puerto Plata to School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
the Colonial City in Santo Domingo, designated University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
by UNESCO as a world heritage site. It has also
expanded tax incentives to achieve its goal of
growing from 4.8 to 10 million tourists. The coun- The term “drifter” arises from the first sociologi-
try also seeks to make its tourism ▶ industry sus- cal typology of experiences, where ▶ tourist roles
tainable by favoring small-scale and are categorized on a continuum from “organized
entrepreneurship businesses. New opportunities mass tourist” to “individual mass tourist” to
will target segments for cultural, sports, and “explorer” to “drifter,” based on the combinations
▶ ecotourism, where the country has unique of ▶ novelty and familiarity typical to each role
assets and has delimited one quarter of its territory (Cohen 1972). As the least institutionalized role,
under environmental protection. Investments in wherein novelty and individualism are highest
tourism human resources are being considered, and familiarity mostly disappears, the drifter is
and the government is committed to annual defined as venturing “furthest away from the
investment of at least 4 % of its GDP in beaten track and from the accustomed way of
pre-university education. Innovative learning life of his country. . .The drifter has no fixed itin-
and training across schools of tourism at 17 uni- erary or timetable and no well-defined goals of
versities will help the industry reorient toward travel” (Cohen 1972: 168). Such tourists are con-
sustainable practices and a workforce that encour- ceived as generally being children of affluence on
ages entrepreneurship. For future research, essen- a prolonged break from middle-class responsibil-
tial issues to be tackled should include US ity; with its eventual growth in popularity and
openness to ▶ Cuba, the appreciable falling of historic association with the “counterculture,”
oil prices, and how international efforts to develop drifting helps to spawn a parallel yet separate
the Dominican-Haitian border could ▶ impact on industry to that of “ordinary mass tourism”
tourism in this country. (Cohen 1973:90).
As drifting moves from a marginal subculture
See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ community-based tour- to a more mainstream ▶ phenomenon, the notion
ism, ▶ entrepreneurship, ▶ sustainable tourism. is a key departure point in the ▶ development of
the literature on “▶ backpacker tourism,” which
brings together studies of drifting, wandering,
References tramping, the Grand Tour, and youth ▶ budget
tourism (Loker-Murphy and Pearce 1995). Cur-
BC 2013 Statistics of Tourism Sector. Santo Domingo: rent backpacker research recognizes, however,
Banco Central. that despite its popularization as a mainstream
272 Drifter
phenomenon, backpacking remains a multiface- reasons why people may have given up this form
ted practice, which includes sub-types. Cohen of ongoing tourism and how their present lives
(2004) more recently observes a dearth of research may consequently be re-characterized.
on “contemporary drifters,” who seek to set them-
selves apart from the wider cohort of backpackers,
just as backpackers often define themselves in See also ▶ Anti-tourism, ▶ backpacker, ▶ bud-
opposition to tourists. Contemporary drifters are get tourism, ▶ sociology, ▶ typology, tourist.
reconceptualized in recent literature as “▶ life-
style travelers’ (Cohen 2011), a terminology that
is less pejorative than “drifter,” since it focuses on References
how mobile lifestyles, such as ongoing
backpacking, are linked to the construction of Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour-
ism. Social Research 39:164-182.
self-identity. Cohen, E. 1973 Nomads from Affluence: Notes on the
As the notion of drifter and its recent redevel- Phenomenon of Drifter-Tourism. International Journal
opment in terms of lifestyle ▶ travel are based on of Comparative Sociology 14:89-103.
tourists from the European and Anglophone Cohen, E. 2004 Backpacking: Diversity and Change. In
The Global Nomad: Backpacker Travel in Theory and
world, future research is needed on understanding Practice, G. Richards and J. Wilson, eds., pp. 43-59.
the motivations, perceptions, and practices of this Clevedon: Channel View.
type of tourists among individuals from emerging Cohen, S. 2011 Lifestyle Travelers: Backpacking as a
countries. Additionally, there are no data on why Way of Life. Annals of Tourism Research
38:1535-1555.
people may eventually stop “drifting” and how, Loker-Murphy, L., and P. Pearce 1995 Young Budget
and if, they (re)establish a sense of attachment to Travelers: Backpackers in Australia. Annals of Tourism
place. Further research can thus explore the Research 22:819-843.
E
Ecology types. These can be further subdivided based on

how physical factors determine the occurrence of
Gyan Nyaupane plant and animal communities. Forests, grass-
School of Community Resources and lands, and deserts are some examples of terrestrial
Development, Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute ecosystems.
of Sustainability, Arizona State University, Within an ecosystem, several ecological pyra-
Phoenix, AZ, USA mids and food chains exist where one species
depends on others. For example, grass > deer >
tiger is a simple food chain where the grass, the
The term “ecology,” derived from two Greek primary producer, receives nutrients from soil and
words, oikos (house) and logos (study), was first water through photosynthesis, and then the energy
coined by the German biologist Ernst Haeckel in is transferred from the grass to a deer and the deer
1866 (Odum and Barrett 2004). The literal mean- to a tiger. When the tiger dies, it gets decomposed
ing of ecology is the study of house or the planet into the soil that provides nutrients to the grass. In
that includes every living organism and its habitat. this food chain, the deer is an herbivore, and the
More precisely, it is a scientific study of the inter- tiger, a top carnivore, is on the top level of the
relationships between living beings and their ecological pyramid.
nonliving environment. Ecology, which was Another food chain in the same ecosystem can
viewed as a subdiscipline of biology until the be grass > grasshopper > shrew > hawk. These
1970s, has since been recognized as a distinct food chains are not isolated, but they are rather
discipline concerned with the system – beyond interconnected. Therefore, ecological system
an individual plant or animal species. Ecological includes the complex interactions that are more
system, also known as ecosystem, includes both than the whole of the sum of the parts. Although
biotic, living organisms and abiotic components, human interactions with the ▶ environment is not
such as soil, air, and water. Ecosystem can be a new ▶ phenomenon, the importance of ecolog-
explored at various levels, including organism, ical studies increased, especially when people
population, community, ecosystem, and ▶ land- became more concerned about the environment,
scape. It deals with both structure and functioning including ▶ pollution, population growth, food,
of ecosystem. While the structural components energy consumption, biodiversity, and, more
include biotic and abiotic features, the ecosystem recently, global warming and ▶ climate change.
function includes the flow of energy, water, and Humans receive benefits from ecosystems in
nutrients in the ▶ system. Very broadly, ecosys- many ways, which are collectively known as eco-
tems can be divided into terrestrial and aquatic system services. These include provisioning such
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
274 Ecology
as food, water, fuel, fiber, biomechemicals, and disease, increased heart rate, and body tempera-
genetic resources; regulating such as the control ture caused by the tourists. Disturbance on these
of climate, erosion, disease, water purification, species can have severe negative impacts on the
and pollination; cultural services such as spiritual ecosystem. If the number of tigers declines, the
and religious, recreational and tourism, aesthetic, population of its prey species, such as deer, will
inspirational, educational, sense of place, and cul- increase and that will have more pressure on the
tural ▶ heritage; and supporting services that are vegetation. Impacts are even greater on ecologi-
needed to maintain other services such as soil cally sensitive areas and seasons, when animals
formation, nutrient cycling, and production of and plants have high vulnerability and low resil-
oxygen (UNEP 2005). Among them, cultural ser- iency. For example, junipers in the alpine ecosys-
vices, of which tourism is a part, are difficult to tem of the Mount Everest ▶ region have been
evaluate because they largely depend on how cleared to meet the needs of tourists for cooking
humans use or value the services. This makes and heating, which can have irreversible damages
the assessment of ecosystem as tourism to the ecosystem. The early research on the
▶ resources more complicated than other services impacts of tourism was focused on a particular
such as erosion control or production of timber. species and its habitat. Although there is an
increasing recognition of the importance of
▶ holistic approach of understanding ecosystem,
Impacts and evolution researchers are still focused on certain species,
which attract tourists to visit parks and protected
Natural and physical environments, such as areas. This approach ignores the impacts on other
mountains, coastlines, lakes, rivers, animals, and species which are less attractive to tourists but
their habitats, are important tourism attractions. ecologically important. Parks and protected areas
Like many other human activities, tourism con- represent only a small portion of ecosystem
tributes to the destruction of ecosystems, placing although most nature-based tourism activities
more pressure on the resources, such as water and take place in them. Many of these parks are
▶ energy. The application of ecological ▶ knowl- already overcrowded and are getting to a point
edge has been used in tourism through two broad of tourism oversaturation. As a result surrounding
areas. areas outside government-designated parks are
First are the impacts of tourism on natural experiencing spillover effects.
areas, particularly in the context of nature-based The second type of research deals with ▶ sus-
tourism in parks and protected areas. Some nota- tainability, which has much wider scope beyond
ble ecological impacts of tourism are alien seeds protected areas and wildlife. The orientation
carried by tourists, which can destroy the ecosys- appeared after the Brundtland Report, known as
tem, careless use of fire, illegal collection of Our Common Future (1987), and the recognition
endangered species of plants and animals for sou- of global warming and climate change as an
venirs, trampling and soil erosion, and chasing or anthropogenic issue. More recently, tourism
feeding animals and birds and their babies. There researchers have focused on sustainability-related
are even greater impacts caused by tourism ame- topics, including climate change, carbon foot-
nities, such as habitat fragmentation by roads and print, green ▶ marketing, green consumer, and
trails and the construction of resorts, marinas, and environmental behavior.
campsites close to ecologically sensitive areas
(Newsome et al. 2002).
Tourists are lured by charismatic megafauna, Ecological tourism
such as tigers, rhinos, elephants, and whales that
are ecologically dominant or keystone species. The concept of ecological tourism emerged with
Viewing and ▶ photography can have significant various names such as ▶ wildlife tourism,
behavioral and physiological impacts, including ▶ green tourism, nature-based tourism,
Ecology 275
▶ ecotourism, ▶ sustainable tourism, environ- Budowski (1976), there are three types of relation-
mental tourism, biotourism, ▶ wilderness tour- ships: conflict, coexistence, and symbiosis. Cater
ism, ▶ alternative tourism, appropriate tourism, (1994) proposes four possible links: win/win,
▶ responsible tourism, ethical tourism, win/lose, lose/win, and lose/lose. Salafsky and
non-consumptive wildlife tourism, environmen- Wollenberg (2000) develop a conceptual frame-
tally friendly tourism, and gentle tourism work comprising three scenarios: no linkage, indi-
(Nyaupane and Thapa 2004). Although some rect linkage, and direct linkage. Among these
authors used the term ecological tourism (Farrell models, the first scenarios – symbiosis, win/win,
and Runyan 1991), the term ecotourism has and direct linkage – are the ideal relationship
become more popular than others among scholars between ecology and tourism.
E
and practitioners. Ceballos-Lascurain first defined Traditionally, ecologists identify the local peo-
it as “tourism that involves traveling [to] relatively ple living around protected areas as the root cause
undisturbed or uncontaminated areas with the spe- of degradation of natural ecosystems. However,
cific objective of studying, admiring, and there is a growing acceptance among ecologists,
enjoying the scenery and its wild plants and ani- conservation biologists, social scientists,
mals, as well as any existing cultural manifesta- protected areas managers, and policymakers that
tions (both past and present) found in these areas” natural ecosystems cannot be protected if local
(1987: 25). needs and priorities are ignored. Many
The prefix “eco” is associated with ecology. community-based natural resource management
Since then, ecotourism has been considered as and integrated conservation and development pro-
an alternative approach to managing tourism grams have been implemented to achieve the dual
more responsibly. The term, ecotourism has been goals of improving the subsistence of the commu-
lately used very broadly and often times abused as nities living in and around protected areas and
a mere marketing ploy by the ▶ industry without ▶ conservation of natural ecosystems.
any responsibility, which urges the need for qual- In addition to tourism, outdoor recreation and
ity control mechanisms. There are two types of natural resource management researchers have
quality assurance tools – regulatory and focused their research on biophysical impacts of
voluntary – that have been used. Regulatory ▶ recreation on the natural environment. Related
mechanisms are mostly used by government research includes ▶ carrying capacity, crowding,
agencies, which are hard to enforce and tend to and conflicts. Various frameworks, including
be less effective. Voluntary initiatives, including limits of acceptable change, recreation opportu-
awards, codes of conduct, and ▶ certification, can nity spectrum, visitor impact management, visitor
be more effective to promote and educate. experience and resource protection, and more
recently tourism optimization management
model, have been developed to plan and manage
Conceptual framework visitor use of parks and protected areas. A large
number of studies on tourism and ecology have
Like ecology, tourism is a study of interactions also been reported in geography, anthropology,
between biotic and abiotic components. Tourism environmental ▶ management, natural resources,
is a form of human ▶ mobility where people and ▶ planning fields.
interact among themselves or with the natural
environment. Various forms of tourism either
take place in the natural environment or have Challenges and prospects
direct or indirect relationships with the ecosystem
of a ▶ destination. Although ecology and tourism are two distinct
Various conceptual frameworks have been disciplines, there is a need of strong linkages of
developed to examine the complex relationships both to provide quality experience to visitors
between ecology and tourism. According to while protecting the ecological integrity of the
276 eCommerce
attractions. If managed properly, ecosystems and References

tourism can have symbiotic relationships, as eco-
system provides attractions and tourism can sup- Budowski, G. 1976 Tourism and Environmental Conser-
vation: Conflict, Coexistence, or Symbiosis? Environ-
port conservation through advocacy, awareness,
mental Conservation 3:27-31.
and revenue generation. Ecologists admit that Cater, E. 1994 Introduction. In Ecotourism: A Sustainable
despite the importance of ecosystem for its eco- Option? E. Cater and G. Lowman, eds., pp.3-16. New
logical services, the importance of ecosystems is York: Wiley.
Ceballos-Lascurain, H. 1987 Tourism, Ecotourism, and
either poorly understood or their importance is
Protected Areas. Gland: IUCN.
realized only upon their loss (Daily et al 2000). Daily, G., T. Soderqvist, S. Aniyar, K. Arrow, P. Ehrlich,
Ecosystem-based tourism that relies heavily on et al 2000 The Value of Nature and the Nature of Value.
protected ecosystems provides direct values and Science 289:395-396.
Farrell, B., and D. Runyan 1991 Ecology and Tourism.
incentives for conservation. Ecosystem- and
tourism-related challenges are not isolated, but Newsome, D., A. Susan, and R. Dowling 2002 Natural
they are part of complex social-ecological prob- Area Tourism: Ecology, Impacts and Management.
lems that are beyond the scope of any single field Buffalo: Channel View.
Nyaupane, G., and B. Thapa 2004 Evaluation of Ecotour-
or discipline.
ism: A Comparative Assessment in the Annapurna
Tourism industry often has a myopic view of Conservation Area Project, Nepal. Journal of Ecotour-
ecosystem-based tourism as it often ignores the ism 3:20-45.
fact that tourism can destroy the resources/attrac- Odum, E., and G. Barrett 2004 Fundamentals of Ecology.
Belmont: Thomson Brooks/Cole.
tions on which the industry is based. Environmen-
Salafsky, N., and E. Wollenberg 2000 Linking Livelihoods
tal organizations and government agencies that and Conservation: A Conceptual Framework and Scale
are responsible for managing parks and public for Assessing the Integral of Human Needs and Biodi-
lands, on the other hand, tend to focus on curbing versity. World Development 28:1421-1438.
UNEP 2005 Ecosystem and Human Wellbeing:
visitors and their activities through quota or other
A Framework for Assessment. United Nation Environ-
forms of discouraging policies to minimize the mental Program, Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
impacts of tourism. After many decades of steep <www.maweb.org/en/Framework.aspx> (20 April
growth of visitors to parks and protected areas, a 2014).
reverse trend has already started within the last
10 years in the US national parks. The possible
reason could be the effects of technology on soci-
ety in general and on leisure life in particular. If eCommerce
this trend continues, ▶ future generations will
have less connection with and appreciation of Dimitrios Buhalis
the environment, and it may have a significant School of Tourism, Bournemouth University,
public backlash. Tourism has been one of the Poole, Dorset, UK
rationales for protecting natural areas, and the
future research on tourism and ecology should
focus on exploring how the relationships between Electronic commerce (eCommerce) can be
humans and nature can be strengthened through defined as the secure trading of information, prod-
tourism, understanding and promoting the bene- ucts, and services via computer networks and the
fits of ecosystem-based tourism activities to exchange of value online, as well as the support
human wellbeing, and fostering more interdisci- for business transactions over a digital infrastruc-
plinary, multidisciplinary, and transdisciplinary ture. eCommerce refers to electronic trading, both
research to understand the complex issues. from enterprises to consumers, and perhaps more
importantly between businesses. The latter’s
See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ ecotourism, transactions incorporate the trading and delivery
▶ nature tourism, ▶ protected area tourism. of commodities and services to consumers as well
Econometrics 277
as the entire support information and mechanisms relationships of organizations with their stake-
required for these transactions. This category also holders. eTourism determines the competitiveness
includes personal services, such as home banking, of an organization by taking advantage of intra-
stock trading, and investment advice. Although nets for reorganizing internal processes, extranets
these transactions have a higher profit margin, for developing transactions with trusted partners,
they tend to be time consuming, require a great and the internet for interacting with all its
amount of support, and may generate a relatively stakeholders.
low level of turnover. The eTourism concept covers all business
The enterprise-to-consumer transactions functions, including strategy, planning, and man-
include both trading between producers and inter- agement for all sectors of the industry, as well as
E
mediaries and also transactions among producers principals, intermediaries, and public sector orga-
toward the final manufacturing of a product. The nizations. The strategic dimension is gradually
internet is used to support the functions at each emerging in the literature, with information and
stage of the value chain before the final product or communication technology applications for
service reaches the consumer. Although these reengineering business processes, with
transactions have a lower profit margin, it is nor- eCommerce gradually becoming a part of core
mally the volume of trading and the relatively low business and mutually reinforcing all other
level of information and support required that channels.
make them profitable and desirable for organiza-
tions. The enterprise-to-consumer transactions are See also ▶ Global distribution system, ▶ infor-
in fact the fastest growing section of the internet mation technology, ▶ internet, ▶ social media.
and generate considerable amount of trade
(Turban and King 2012).
eCommerce can be divided into two main cat- References
egories: “direct eCommerce” where people pur-
chase information products (such as tickets, Buhalis, D. 2003 eTourism: Information Technology for
Strategic Tourism Management. Harlow: Pearson.
software, books, and music) online and “indirect
Turban, E., and D. King 2012 Electronic Commerce 2012:
eCommerce” which provides information to sup- Managerial and Social Networks Perspectives (7th ed.).
port transactions that take place offline (e.g., London: Prentice Hall.
advertising, contracting, settling). In tourism,
both direct and indirect eCommerce have been
increasing dramatically. The development of
social media promotes eCommerce. Many tourists Econometrics
are inspired by user-generated content and then
move to the website of organizations for purchas- Amparo Sancho Perez1 and Bernardi Cabrer
ing products (direct eCommerce) or purchasing Borras2
1
through intermediaries or other offline channels Instituto de Economía Internacional, University
(indirect eCommerce). of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
2
Buhalis (2003) defines that eTourism reflects Department of Applied Economics, University
the digitization of all processes and value chains of Valencia, Valencia, Spain
in tourism and ▶ hospitality businesses. At the
tactical level, it includes eCommerce and applies
information and communication technologies for The Econometric Society defines econometrics as
maximizing the efficiency and effectiveness of a unification of the theoretical- and empirical-
tourism organizations. At the strategic level, quantitative approach to economic problems
eTourism revolutionizes all business processes, (Fisher 1932). Tourism econometrics is the appli-
the entire value chain, as well as the strategic cation of econometric methods and techniques to
278 Economic development
studies of this industry. Through them, the causal microeconometrics, as well as through spending
relationships in this field can be quantified, pre- on tourism services using TOBIT models.
dictions can be made, and simulations of the tour- The concepts of ▶ sustainability and resilience
ism ▶ system can be carried out. were incorporated into tourism econometric stud-
Initially, studies focused on estimating ▶ tour- ies, and they were evaluated using cost-benefit
ist demand through behavioral equations among models. Currently, synthetic indicators are being
variables such as the number of tourists, revenues constructed for this purpose. Future studies can
generated, the GDP of the generating and the bring out the full potential of econometrics in
▶ destination countries, the currency exchange tourism studies.
rates, and the individuals’ income (Witt and Witt
1992). Subsequently, uniequational models were
extended to models with several behavioral equa- See also ▶ Demand modeling, ▶ economics,
tions, thus avoiding the bias of separately dealing ▶ forecasting, ▶ methodology.
with the variables and indicators that define tour-
ism systems. The latest developments in the study
of time-series analysis applied to tourism resulted References
in a significant improvement in the predictions of
variables and indicators (such as overnight stays Cacrolici, M., P. Nijkamp, and P. Rietveld 2008 Assess-
ment of Tourism Competiveness by Analyzing Desti-
in hotels, number of tourists, etc.). The develop- nation Efficiency. Tourism Economics 14:325-342.
ment of these techniques through the Fisher, R. 1932 Statistical Methods for Research Workers.
X11-ARIMA and STRETCH-SEATS approaches London: Oliver.
(Maravall and Gómez 1988) has improved the Maravall, A., and V. Gómez 1988 Automatic Modeling
Methods for Univariate Series. Banco de España-
treatment of ▶ seasonality, cycles, and calendar Servicio de Estudios, Doc.9808.
effects, which are very important in understanding Sancho, A., B. Cabrer, and M. Rico 2006 Technology
tourism reality in the short term. Externalities in the Tourism Industry. In Innovation
An in-depth analysis of tourism has been car- and Product Development in Tourism, E. Scmidt, ed.,
pp.39-54. Berlin: Verlag.
ried out through causal and non-causal economet- Witt, S., and C. Witt 1992 Forecasting Tourism Demand:
ric models. The efficiency study obtained from the A Review of Empirical Research. International Journal
data envelopment analysis methodology of Forecasting 11(3):36-41.
(Cacrolici et al. 2008) is the most relevant as the
▶ impact of tourism on the economy is carried out
first through the input-output models and subse-
quently through Tourism Satellite Accounts, Economic development
allowing the effects among different countries to
be compared using homogeneous content. Fang Meng
The importance that ▶ innovation plays in the School of Hotel, Restaurant and Tourism
tourism ▶ industry can be assessed through diffu- Management, University of South Carolina,
sion models (Sancho et al. 2006). From a territo- Columbia, SC, USA
rial point of view, the importance of innovation
diffusion through spatial autocorrelation can be
measured. It is also possible to quantify the effects Economic development is a broad concept with
of diffusion on productivity through the effects of no universally accepted definitions. It generally
spillovers. Further, the individual behavior of refers to the economic impacts of tourism on
tourist businesses can be studied by analyzing the host ▶ destination and ▶ region, while also
consumer utility and its formulation using taking into account the speed and extent of the
discrete choice models. In particular, tourists’ economic transformations associated with its
individual behavior can be studied through development.
Economic development 279
Economic impact economic ▶ impact at the destination level. Mul-

tiple measures are commonly applied in economic
Much ▶ work on tourism ▶ development focuses impact studies. The combination of direct, indi-
on the economic benefits to host destinations, rect, and induced spending generated by tourist
including increased income, taxes, ▶ employ- expenditure, often referred to as the multiplier
ment, and economic diversification and regenera- effect, is widely used. Input–output analysis is
tion. Tourism, as an economic ▶ activity, is being another predominant evaluation approach
used to help support or bolster an economy and (Fletcher 1989). Its basic objective is to trace or
regional development. ▶ Tourist spending is a describe how an industry’s product is distributed
prime source of foreign exchange earnings and throughout a region or economy. However, the
E
fiscal revenue for the host government. As a con- above conventional tools are criticized due to
sumption ▶ activity, tourism leads to the redistri- constraints in data availability and their counting
bution of national income between tourist- only the positive influences on economic activity
generating markets and receiving destinations. while ignoring the negative influences. The latter
Further, tourism contributes to diffusing tech- can be as large as or even larger than the former
nical ▶ knowledge, stimulating research and (Dwyer et al. 2004).
development, and accumulating human capital. An alternative approach is a ▶ social account-
Consequently, increased economic welfare is ing matrix to investigate the economic impact of
achieved, resulting in a more educated population tourism. This is particularly applicable in large
with less income inequalities and self-sustained regions and national economies. As a more thor-
growth. Therefore, tourism is considered as a ough method than input–output analysis, this
potential strategic factor for overall long-run eco- approach describes the structure of an economy
nomic growth, both in developing and developed linked to production, income distribution, and
countries. Tourism for the former, with scarce demand. It provides a concise framework of
economic options or opportunities, can ▶ play storing the data, allowing the calculation of
a vital role directly in the economic process regional economic multipliers, and estimating
(Sinclair and Stabler 2002). tourism impacts on production, income distribu-
In addition to positive economic contributions, tion, and demand (Wagner 1997). The ▶ comput-
undesirable impacts are also reported. For exam- able general equilibrium model is recommended
ple, criticism is often directed to low-paid, sea- as a comprehensive tool, used extensively to
sonal (nonpermanent) nature of tourism estimate economic impacts of tourism in a
employment. Such jobs pay low wages with variety of contexts. This method has been widely
long hours, often taken by students and retired applied in ▶ Australia, the ▶ United States, the
people who are not considered the real working UK, and ▶ Canada (Dwyer et al. 2004; Zhao
population. Inflation or deflation in tourist- et al. 1997).
generating and receiving countries can also take
place, resulting in increased prices in land, goods,
and services. Further, destinations may experi- Future research paths
ence unbalanced economic development when
heavily depending on tourism (Fleming and The relationships between tourism and economic
Toepper 1990). development are proposed and tested based on the
commonly used fundamental tourism-led
▶ growth hypothesis (Sinclair and Stabler 2002).
Measures of economic impact The dominant findings of the empirical tests
demonstrate that the relationship can be a unidi-
An important component in assessing the merits rectional causality from tourism to economic
of tourism on development is determining its growth (tourism-led economic development).
280 Economics
Bidirectional, reciprocal relationships between See also ▶ Computable general equilibrium

tourism and economic growth are also observed. model, ▶ economics, ▶ export, ▶ input-output
In other words, their growth has long-term equi- analysis, ▶ multiplier effect.
librium relationship and reinforces each other, so
tourism-led growth and growth-led tourism both
occur. Two streams of methods are often used to
analyze the relationship between tourism and eco- References
nomic growth. They are Granger causality test
with time series data and with cross section or Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and R. Spurr 2004 Evaluating Tour-
ism’s Economic Effects: New and Old Approaches.
panel data (Tugcu 2014). Tourism Management 25:307-317.
As sustainable development becomes a signif- Fleming, W. R., and L. Toepper 1990 Economic Impact
icant topic, tourism-led economic development is Studies: Relating the Positive and Negative Impacts to
increasingly evaluated with environmental impact Tourism Development. Journal of Travel Research
29:35-42.
factors (e.g., carbon dioxide emission). Dynamic Fletcher, J. 1989 Input–Output Analysis and Tourism
economic development of host countries is Impact Studies. Annals of Tourism Research 16:514-
another important issue, as solely or heavily 529.
tourism-oriented economic growth may hinder Holzner, M. 2011 Tourism and Economic Growth: The
Beach Disease? Tourism Management 32:922-933.
the long-term development of a country, a situa- Schubert, S., J. Brida, and W. Risso 2011 The Impacts of
tion known as the Dutch Disease (Holzner 2011). International Tourism Demand on Economic Growth of
However, this argument is debatable, as for small Small Economies Dependent on Tourism. Tourism
countries or island states that depend heavily on Management 32:377-385.
Sinclair, T., and M. Stabler 2002 The Economics of Tour-
▶ international tourism revenue, increased ism. London: Routledge.
growth of tourism demand may lead to transi- Tugcu, C. 2014 Tourism and Economic Growth Nexus
tional dynamics with gradually increasing eco- Revisited: A Panel Causality Analysis for the Case of
nomic growth and terms of trade (Schubert Mediterranean Region. Tourism Management 42:207-
212.
et al. 2011). Wagner, J. 1997 Estimating the Economic Impacts of
Studies on tourism-led economic development Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 24:592-608.
emphasize longitudinal data analysis to investi- Zhao, D., J. Yanagida, V. Chakravorty, and P. Leung 1997
gate long-term evaluations and the patterns of Estimating Economic Impacts from Tourism. Annals of
causal relationship between tourism and eco-
nomic growth of a ▶ region. The research scope
has included case studies of single countries or
island states, specific country groups, and geo-
graphic country groups. Recent investigations Economics
start to focus on a larger worldwide panel of
countries, with extended time series data Eugeni Aguiló-Pérez 1 and João Albino Matos da
(Holzner 2011). Silva2
1
With worldwide tourism growth in diverse Department of Applied Economics, Universitat
economies, ▶ future research should examine de les Illes Balears, Islas Baleares, Palma de
the relationship between tourism and economic Mallorca, Spain
2
development in various types of economies and Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve,
generate more accurate and comprehensive mea- Faro, Portugal
sures of economic impacts. Furthermore, increas-
ing attention should be paid to economic
sustainability of host countries by taking into The ▶ activity carried out by tourists is provided
account the environmental and sociocultural by a group of economic sectors and companies
impacts, as well as longitudinal analyses for that produce different goods and services. In par-
long-term evaluations. allel, tourism as a field of study is made up of
Economics 281
many disciplines that analyze it from their per- products and services produced in a destination, is
spectives. In fact, one should look at tourism as “a analyzed from the love of variety theorem and
challenging multi-sectoral industry and a truly the coordination theorem. As to the former, the
multidisciplinary field of study” (Jafari 2000: utility function of a tourist depends on a variety of
585). In general, economics is the study of con- products, including ▶ public goods, natural and
sumer behavior in respect to a good or ▶ service artificial ▶ resources. Consequently, a larger vari-
produced and sold in the market. The interaction ety of products facilitate an increase of the tourist
of the agents involved in this process is utility.
manifested in their strategic behavior. In relation to the coordination theorem, it arises
There is a whole tradition of research which from the need to coordinate in the destination
E
aims to analyze the extent to which tourism is a amalgam of goods and services available for tour-
scientific discipline or just a field of study. If the ists, which include public goods and infrastruc-
focus is on the economics of tourism, it seems that tures. In this sense, tourism in a destination is
the issue is simpler. In this context, tourism as an presented as a “permit.” While it could be
activity is based on the basic principles of eco- “issued” by a particular intermediary such as a
nomics. However, the content of tourism econom- tour operator, it could also be issued by the author-
ics is not included directly in the field of pure ity or even by the market. Hence, Candela and
economics but rather in applied economics. In Figini (2012) refer to an anti-common good that
this sense, it has to explain economic phenomena has property rights as opposed to the so-called
of real events that refer to everything that concerns common goods that do not have such property
the ▶ tourist trip and what takes place before and rights. Therefore, economics in general and
after it occurs. In addition, this object of study is applied economics in particular offer their own
characterized by the use of economic analysis methodologies. But the subject and the analytical
techniques, such as ▶ statistics and tools of tourism economics were established as a
▶ econometrics. specific field, due to the prominence of the prod-
One can reflect upon the connection among uct and destination, as well as the implementation
economics in general and applied economics and of the two theorems.
the economics of tourism in particular. More spe-
cifically, one must identify the characteristics of
tourism economics that can be differentiated from Applied and tourism economics
the field of study to which it belongs, that is,
ultimately applied economics. Candela and Figini There is consensus on what tourism economics
(2012) have analyzed this situation from two ele- should address. Its scope of study includes
ments that characterize the object of the econom- demand, modeling and influence on policies,
ics of tourism: tourism products and destinations. ▶ supply and markets, activity measurement and
Tourism ▶ product has frequently received the related impacts, and economic value of environ-
qualification of amalgam of different goods and mental assets. The literature includes a vast
services, identified and complementary (Vanhove amount of research on modeling and demand
2011). When purchased, they form an important forecasting. Researchers have been paying partic-
part of what has been called the tourist experience. ular attention to issues related to tourist choice and
In relation to the other elements, the product is microeconomic arguments and motives
mainly obtained in the ▶ destination through a (Papatheodorou 2006), model specification, data
diverse group of companies, public and private collection and types, functional forms, estimation
institutions. In economics, the subject is a unique methods, forecasting results, and assessment
company that produces a good or service that (Song and Turner 2006).
interacts with others of its own market to carry Although the field is both theoretically and
out strategic decisions. Candela and Figini (2012) empirically mature, there are still many issues on
point out that the tourism product, as a mix of tourism demand deserving further analysis. These
282 Economics
include empirical studies based on demand by Dwyer et al. (2010) recommend greater
characteristics ▶ theory in the modeling of spatial ▶ attention to the problem of concentration on
distribution of tourist choice through geographic the industry, particularly to issues involved in
information systems in order to better understand strategic coalition developed among tourism busi-
meaningful interrelations of touristic territorial nesses or price-fixing methods. In this case, the
units in the ▶ planning of tourism ▶ development authors believe ▶ strategy formulation would be
(Papatheodorou 2006), ▶ demand modeling and relevant to the improvement of a destination’s
▶ forecasting by means of recently developed competitiveness.
econometric techniques (Song and Turner 2006), The growing importance of tourism for
as well as the development of forecasting methods national and regional economies, as well as its
which integrate quantitative and qualitative perdue contribution to international trade dynamics,
spectives and dimensions (Dwyer et al. 2010; justifies the need to better understand the eco-
Song and Turner 2006). nomic significance of the industry. At the begin-
The analysis of tourism supply also presents ning of the 1990s, the creation of the Tourism
difficulties. Some of them are connected with the ▶ Satellite Account was decisive for advancing
definition of the industry itself; others are with the the measurement of tourism economic impacts
characteristics of the tourism product. Develop- and the multiplier effects. In 1994, ▶ Canada
ments in information and communication technol- was a pioneer in its application, and subsequently
ogies have been major drivers of change in many other countries developed their own
tourism supply in terms of ▶ marketing commu- account. This growing popularity followed the
nications, market dynamics, and distribution formal agreement made by and among Eurostat/
processes. OECD and the World Tourism Organization on its
Traditionally, research on supply-related issues conceptual structure.
has been surpassed by investigations focusing on The satellite account measures only tourism’s
the demand side. As mentioned earlier, this could direct contribution to the economy. In order to
be partially explained by the difficulties involving assess its total economic contribution, direct and
definitional consensus and agreement on the indirect, multi-sectorial models are required.
essence and characteristics of tourism products. Input-output models were the first attempt at
However, progress achieved in the conceptual studying tourism from a multi-sectorial perspec-
framework of tourism supply, as demonstrated in tive; however, these models propose restrictive
the International Recommendations for Tourism hypotheses, including prices and fixed coeffi-
Statistics (UNWTO 2010), helped mitigate some cients. To overcome such limitations, input-
of the issues by allowing identification, definition, output models gradually gave way to general bal-
and classification of products connected with ance models such as computable general equilib-
touristic ▶ expenditure and ▶ industry productive rium models. Currently, such models are at the
activities. forefront in the use of measurement tools of tour-
Economic research on tourism markets and ism economic impacts.
relationship dynamics among business organiza- Market failures are quite common in the inter-
tions is still an unexplored territory. Bull (2006) action of tourism and the ▶ environment (Tisdel
suggests some key areas for future investigations, 2005). One of the most frequent failures relates to
namely, specific problems concerned with market the fact that the majority of environmental assets
boundary definition, which are crucial for selec- display public features or non-rivalry consump-
tion of particular competition policies; internet tion and non-exclusivity. Destinations typically
use as a tool for product differentiation and con- require the availability of the public good. In this
sumer empowerment; and impacts on market context, the state is expected to intervene so that
structures and enterprise ▶ performance as a con- the asset can be made available to consumers.
sequence of organizational objectives ▶ other Most environmental goods and services are not
than profit maximization. traded in markets. So the monetary measurement
Economics 283
of impacts is a great challenge to economics between tourism and transport, and/or climate
scholars and in fact has been so for the past change.
50 years. Significant developments in this field From the perspective of disciplinary bound-
include the concept of environmental asset value aries, it seems that current discussion focuses on
and the creation of estimation methods. supporting ▶ multidisciplinarity in an attempt to
Recently, the focus of tourism economics has formulate a genuine ▶ theory or to admit that
been on the interaction among global environ- multidisciplinarity is necessary for at least certain
mental issues, with ▶ climate change termed as focused topics (Stabler et al. 2010). For instance,
the greatest market failure in the world. Research the growing complexity of tourism along with the
on the economic impacts of tourism is continu- presence of unforeseen crises, natural disasters or
E
ously evolving, and some of the major problems ▶ terrorism, is susceptible to analytic treatments
being addressed today are the impacts on interna- such as the ▶ chaos theory. At the same time, it
tional destinations and ▶ adaptation mechanisms could be noted that environmental problems could
to climate change. be better solved from a holistic perspective, by
expanding the elements of ecological or environ-
mental economics to include social, cultural, and
Prospects for future research political considerations.
The incorporation of new directions in the field of See also ▶ Computable general equilibrium
tourism economic research may occur in those model, ▶ demand modeling, ▶ multiplier effect,
areas in which it is observed that certain develop- ▶ Tourism Satellite Account.
ments or advances in economic analysis may be
applicable to tourism. However, the discussion
goes beyond this logical statement. Indeed, the
debate remains open on the need to develop a References
genuine theory that departs from recent trends to
study tourism from multidisciplinary Bull, A. 2006 Industrial Economics and Pricing Issues
perspectives. within Tourism Enterprises and Markets. In Interna-
Regarding the development of new topics in tional Handbook of Tourism Economics, L. Dwyer
and P. Forsyth, eds., pp.138-154. Cheltenham: Edward
the economics of tourism, Dwyer et al. (2010) Elgar.
allude to the need that in the variety of questions Candela, G., and P. Figini 2012 The Economics of Tourism
typical in this traditional field, future research Destinations. London: Springer.
endeavor should also include aspects so far less Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and W. Dwyer 2010 Tourism Eco-
or least addressed. For example, tourism demand Jafari, J. 2000 Encyclopedia of Tourism. London:
analysis has forgotten the treatment of wealth as Routledge.
an important variable. In a certain sense, income is Papatheodorou, A. 2006 Microfoundations of Tourist
not enough to interpret the behavior of demand Choice. In International Handbook of Tourism Eco-
nomics, L. Dwyer and P. Forsyth, eds., pp.73-88. Chel-
particularly in the ▶ time of global financial crisis. tenham: Edward Elgar.
In relation to the impacts of tourism and especially Song, H., and L. Turner 2006 Tourism Demand Forecast-
for those who are related to such impacts (as in the ing. In International Handbook of Tourism Economics,
instance of events), it would be desirable to inte- L. Dwyer and P. Forsyth, eds., pp.89-114. Cheltenham:
Edward Elgar.
grate computable general equilibrium modeling of Stabler, M., A. Papatheodorou, and M. Sinclair 2010 The
the economic character with the technique of Economics of Tourism. New York: Routledge.
▶ cost-benefit analysis, which also takes into Tisdel, C. 2005 Economics of Environmental Conserva-
account the social and environmental impacts. tion. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
UNWTO 2010 International Recommendations for Tour-
Thus, ▶ future tourism economic research could ism Statistics. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
look into issues such as the return to destination Vanhove, N. 2011 The Economics of Tourism Destination.
from provision of infrastructures, the linkages New York: Routledge.
284 Ecotourism
The global economic scale and social and envi-

Ecotourism ronmental outcomes of ecotourism are not known
accurately, because of uncertainties in definition,
Ralf Buckley data, and accounting. Outdoor tourism more
International Chair in Ecotourism Research, broadly has annual turnover around US$1 trillion
Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia (Buckley 2009). Under strict outcome-based def-
initions, however, only a small proportion of this
would qualify as ecotourism.
Ecotourism is a widely used concept, but with no
universally accepted definition. The most author-
itative framework is the Quebec Declaration from Ecotourism development
the 2002 United Nations World Summit on Eco-
tourism (UNWTO 2002). This recognizes it as a There are several global compilations of ecotour-
subsidiary of ▶ sustainable tourism, which relies ism case studies. These reveal regional geographic
on nature-based attractions; employs best practice differences both in terminologies used and in the
environmental management; contributes to con- types of enterprises established. In ▶ China, for
servation; involves local communities; offers example, definitions include a human-health com-
effective interpretation; and generally, though ponent, not generally included in other countries.
not exclusively, favors smaller scale operation. In North America, the term outfitter is widely used,
referring particularly to private concessionaires
operating on public parks or forests lands, while
Framing ecotourism only some would qualify as ecotourism operators.
The same applies for safari and game-lodge oper-
There are wide differences in the meanings attached ators in sub-Saharan Africa, and to a lesser extent
to the term ecotourism by different political or busi- in the Indian subcontinent. The term ecotourism in
ness interests. It is promoted globally by ▶ Australia, Asia, and South America is in wide-
nongovernment and multilateral organizations, spread use, without substitute terms.
including the United Nations, as a low-investment, Ecotourism seems to be most effective in coun-
low-impact sector that can combine conservation tries and circumstances where conservation
with social and economic development of depends heavily on local landholders and resident
impoverished communities. It is promoted by tour- communities, and it can create sufficient income to
ism associations and government portfolios in devel- trigger a change in land use or social behavior. The
oped countries, however, as a political mechanism most widespread approach involves private conser-
for preferential commercial access and new property vation reserves funded through tourism. Some of
development rights inside public protected areas. these make significant net contributions to conser-
Numerous related terms are also in use (Buckley vation of globally threatened species, by providing
2009). Outdoor or parks tourism refers to the set- funding to protected area management agencies
ting or place, nature based to the ▶ attraction, safari (Buckley 2011; Buckley et al. 2012). However,
or adventure to the ▶ activity, wildlife or bird this revenue comes with social, financial, and envi-
watching to specific subsectors, community to the ronmental costs, and for publicly managed lands
major stakeholders or enterprise owners, and con- the net outcome is difficult to quantify. The most
servation to the net outcome. There are also broader clear-cut benefits arise where there is a demonstra-
terms such as sustainable or ▶ responsible tourism, ble link, direct or indirect, whereby ecotourism
which are used principally in relation to social and enterprises support anti-poaching measures in pub-
environmental management, but are not defined lic protected areas (Buckley and Pabla 2012).
with any precision. Other terms such as ▶ green At the opposite extreme, there are enterprises
tourism or ▶ geotourism have not been taken up as which use the ecotourism name as a cover to kill
widely as ecotourism. endangered species for the illegal international
Ecuador 285
trade in animal parts. Greenwashing (self- Finally, there is increasing integration of eco-
promotion as ecotourism without meeting tourism activities and environmental management
▶ UNWTO or equivalent criteria) is also wide- into mainstream tourism at all scales. In June
spread. Ecocertification labels – claiming to dif- 2013, a well-known ecotourism lodge won the
ferentiate legitimate ecotourism from title of world’s best hotel, beating self-proclaimed
greenwash – are widespread but ineffective. 7-star establishments worldwide. This is a con-
Many countries have national ecotourism associ- vincing demonstration of integration. Future
ations, and there are international equivalents research in this field, therefore, will be most valu-
such as The International Ecotourism Society able if it examines ecotourism less as a small
(2013). These are commercial and nonprofit orga- alternative activity defined in terms of ethics and
E
nizations which promote their members’ interests more as a manifestation of environmental attrac-
politically. This may lead to lack of independence. tions, management, ▶ education, and outcomes in
the mainstream tourism ▶ industry.
Ecotourism trends See also ▶ Certification, ▶ community-based

tourism, ▶ conservation, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ sus-
Despite the many complexities as above, ecotour-
tainable tourism.
ism remains a valuable concept. The term con-
tinues to be used with increasing frequency in
both the academic literature and the mass media,
with the latter lagging the former by about a References
decade. There are substantial bodies of worldwide
research on social, economic, and environmental Buckley, R. 2009 Ecotourism: Principles and Practices.
dimensions of ecotourism, including ▶ econom- Wallingford: CAB International.
ics, ▶ interpretation, impacts, monitoring, ▶ man- Buckley, R. 2011 Tourism and Environment. Annual
Review of Environment and Resources 36:397-416.
agement, ▶ conservation, and community Buckley, R., G. Castley, F. Pegas, A. Mossaz, and
benefits (Buckley 2011; Weaver 2001). R. Steven 2012 A Population Accounting Approach
Early proponents put forward ecotourism as an to Assess Tourism Contributions to Conservation of
alternative to mass or mainstream tourism. Its IUCN-Redlisted Mammals. PLoS ONE 7(9):e44134.
Buckley, R., and H. Pabla 2012 Tourism Ban Won’t Help
enterprises, however, are subject to the same Indian Tigers. Nature 489:33.
social and commercial ▶ constraints as ▶ other The International Ecotourism Society 2013 The Interna-
forms of tourism. In practice, ecotourism has tional Ecotourism Society www.ecotourism.org.
become integrated into the overall continuum of UNWTO 2002 Quebec Declaration on Ecotourism www.
unwto.org/sdt/IYE/IYE/quebec/anglais/declaration.html
tourism attractions, activities, ▶ service quality, (Retrieved: 29 May 2013).
products, and price ranges. Three aspects exem- Weaver, D. 2001 Encyclopedia of Ecotourism. Walling-
plify this. First, there is continuing convergence in ford: CAB International.
the operational aspects of ecotourism on public,
private, and communal land tenures. Private con-
servation tourism operations, community ecotour-
ism ventures, and ▶ visitor management in public Ecuador
parks face similar issues and approach them in
increasingly similar ways. Some individual public Giuseppe Marzano
parks now receive over ten million visitors annu- Universidad de Las Américas, Quito, Ecuador
ally, far more than many ▶ urban tourism destina-
tions. Second, there is increasing integration in the
outdoor tourism sector, between products previ- Ecuador, surrounded by Columbia and Peru
ously differentiated as nature, eco-, or ▶ adven- (Figure 1), is Latin America’s ninth largest coun-
ture tourism. try (283,561 km2, including the Galapagos
286 Ecuador
Ecuador, Figure 1 Map of Ecuador

Education 287
Islands). It has two official languages (Spanish There are 34 undergraduate and two accredited
and Quichua) and a population of 14.9 million UNWTO TedQual graduate tourism programs in
(2011) with a rapidly growing middle class. Petro- the country. Undergraduate level training consists
leum accounts for over half of the export earnings. of vocational chefs and tour guide programs. As
In 2012, the country recorded 1,272,000 for research, extant consumer literature that opti-
arrivals. Tourism generated US$1.02 billion in mizes the branding and guides product develop-
revenue (1.2 % of GDP) and directly supported ment in the country is limited. Further research on
around 102,500 jobs. Major origin markets are travel motivations and experience development is
Colombia, Peru, Argentina, the United States, recommended.
and Spain. Domestic tourists spend on average
E
$31, while international tourists have an average See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ devel-
spending of $72 per night (Ministerio de Turismo opment, ▶ ecotourism.
2012).
The country can be categorized into coastal,
Andean, and Amazonian regions. The coastal References
region varies from a tropical rainforest in the
north to a mixed wet–dry monsoon for the rest Ministerio de Turismo 2012 La Experiencia Turística en el
Ecuador. Quito: Ministerio de Turismo.
of the region. The Andes region has many snow-
Reyes, M. 2010 Tourism Strategies for “Advantaging” the
capped volcanic mountains, dominated by Chim- Amazon Rainforest Region: The Ecuador Model.
borazo and Cotopaxi. Amazon rainforest is Worldwide Hospitality and Tourism Themes 2:163-
among the top five biodiversity hotspots of the 172.
Ruiz-Ballesteros, E. 2011 Social-Ecological Resilience
planet, as well as home to indigenous cultures
and Community-based Tourism: An Approach from
living in voluntary isolation. Agua Blanca Ecuador. Tourism Management 32:655-
The country’s major attractions are the 666.
Galapagos Islands (965 km off the Pacific coast)
and historic center of Quito. The islands became a
world heritage site in 1978, a biosphere reserve in
1984, and an official whale sanctuary in 1990. The Education
Galapagos Marine Reserve (created in 1998) also
became a world heritage site in 2001. John Tribe and David Airey
In 2011, Guayaquil airport was upgraded, and School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
a new airport (Quito) opened in 2013. The steady University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
increase in flights to the Galapagos Islands also
corresponded with a number of tourists from
around 2,000 in 1960 to over 170,000 in 2012. Like many tourism concepts, tourism education is
As a result, tourism revenues have been increasing largely an industry-specific example of a more
by (an average of) 14 % per annum. general ▶ phenomenon. In its widest context,
The government tourism development strategy education is generally positioned as being some-
is focused on ecotourism and community-based thing different to indoctrination, ▶ training, or
tourism projects (Ruiz-Ballesteros 2011). There is instruction. Rather, it is to do with the acquisition
conflict over the use of the Amazon Basin, how- of knowledge and skills and the development of
ever. One such dilemma is whether the Yasuni understanding. It is sometimes likened to a learn-
National Park should be used for oil exploration ing journey as a result of which the mind and the
(and extraction) or become an ecotourism desti- thinking capacity of the educated person have
nation (Reyes 2010). Today some ecotourism pro- been improved. For higher education, Barnett
jects located in the Amazon rainforest seek to (1990) argues that the term implies an ability to
achieve sustainability by educating industry acquire a deeper understanding of ▶ knowledge,
members, the community, and youth. to critique its validity, to engage in self-reflection
288 Education
on learning, to set personal learning agenda, and Council for England instigated a project to pro-
to engage in open dialogue. Applying these vide benchmarks of what a typical curriculum
criteria suggests the following definition: The crit- should look like in each subject, including tour-
ical and reflexive acquisition of knowledge, skills, ism, although this was provided for guidance
and understanding about tourism. rather than regulation.
Tourism is a relative newcomer to education, Two clear curriculum typologies emerge from
but has developed a distinct area of study over the the noted analyses. These are curricula for voca-
past 50 years (Airey 2008). Its growth was spurred tional or for liberal ends (Tribe 2000b). The for-
by vocational needs evolving from education for mer mainly aims to prepare students for
hotel management. The first dedicated programs employability and includes practical business
in tourism started in the 1970s at the postgraduate subjects such as ▶ marketing, destination
level, and undergraduate programs were intro- management, and professional placement
duced shortly after. Since then, there has been a (internship). The latter has broader aims. It is
steady increase in the numbers of students, insti- more of a holistic academic enquiry into tourism.
tutions, and tourism educators worldwide. During It implies consideration of truth and competing
this brief history, the curriculum has broadened analyses about tourism, critique and awareness of
beyond its initial vocational focus, and tourism the operation of ▶ power and ▶ ideology
has emerged as a broader subject for study (Ayikoru et al. 2009), and consideration of what
which is also offered at different levels of educa- constitutes “good” tourism.
tion. This development has led to questions of These two axes had come to represent some-
purpose and what to teach, the growth of what mutually exclusive conceptions of tourism
resources and infrastructure, and issues of quality education. However, the importance of balance
and future development. between these often-competing demands was
underlined by the development of the curriculum
ideal of philosophic practitioners for tourism
What to teach? (Tribe 2002). Additionally, capturing and
extending previous writing of Schön (1991), the
The question of what to teach is an initial and philosophic practitioner argued that the curricu-
essential philosophical question that needs to be lum should cover four quadrants of curriculum
addressed for tourism education. Answering this space that could be mapped between the twin
question offers a firm basis for selecting what axes of vocational/liberal and reflection/action.
should be in a curriculum. A curriculum is a Philosophic practitioners of tourism should be
selection from the canon of knowledge. The con- vocationally capable (vocational action) but also
cepts of curriculum space and force field (Tribe have well-developed skills of occupational reflec-
2000a) were developed to demonstrate that it is tion. When in work, they would be able to con-
contested and that its design is a social as well as stantly refine and revise their knowledge in the
an epistemological enterprise involving choice light of practice (akin to Schön’s professional
and opportunity cost. Curriculum space represents artistry). Here they would become self-improving
the whole universe of possible knowledge avail- managers.
able for inclusion in tourism education. The However, graduates also have a bigger role to
knowledge force field represents the forces that play in the development of tourism. They are in a
perform a selector role in curriculum design. unique position to ask questions about the kind of
These forces include academics, ▶ universities, tourism that is developing and the effects of power
▶ industry, governments, students, and other and ideology on such development and to formu-
stakeholders. Governments and education minis- late ideas about what is “good tourism.” Should
tries regulate the curriculum in some countries. this be profit maximizing? Lowest cost? Con-
For example, the Higher Education Funding sumer driven? Culturally sensitive? Fairly traded?
Education 289
Sustainable? Low carbon? These and similar and good practice in tourism education. These are
questions would arise from deep liberal reflection. Journal of Hospitality, Leisure, Sport and Tour-
But mere reflection does not change the world, ism Education; Journal of Teaching in Travel and
and this is where liberal action would play its Tourism (the official journal of the International
important role. Students need to be educated on Society of Travel and Tourism Educators); and
how to achieve change, perhaps by joining pres- Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Education
sure groups, challenging the status quo, linked to the Council on Hotel, Restaurant, and
campaigning, or some other form of activism. So Institutional Education.
the philosophic practitioner curriculum aims to Specific initiatives to support tourism educa-
develop both vocational competence and respon- tion include INNOTOUR, BEST Education
E
sibility for stewardship of the wider world of Network, and the Tourism Education Futures
tourism ▶ development. Initiative. INNOTOUR is a Web 2.0 platform for
While the major emphasis of tourism education education, research, and business development. It
has been on its delivery at university level, Cuffy provides an e-meeting place for educators, stu-
et al. (2012) provide an analysis of its prospects dents, and enterprises and also provides user-
for provision at all levels. This includes early created content such as video lectures. The
childhood, primary, secondary, tertiary, and adult BEST Education Network supports the develop-
education, as well as lifelong learning. Their anal- ment and dissemination of knowledge specifically
ysis offers aims and approaches as well as exam- for ▶ sustainable tourism. It holds annual think
ples of curriculum content at these different levels. tanks to develop a research agenda and curriculum
Similarly, although there has been a focus in the modules published as book chapters and on its
literature on tourism education in the developed Web platform. The early work of the Tourism
world, Lewis (2006) offers a useful example from Education Futures Initiative included the identifi-
the ▶ Caribbean, emphasizing the needs of tour- cation and promulgation of core values that
ism education to be sensitive to the context of its should be incorporated into tourism education.
place of delivery. These are stewardship, knowledge, ▶ profession-
alism, ▶ ethics, and mutual respect (Sheldon
et al. 2011). More recently it has widened its
Resources and infrastructure scope to include support for scholarship, teaching
and learning, social ▶ entrepreneurship, and edu-
A mark of the growing maturity of tourism education futures.
cation is the extent of its support infrastructure The once dearth of textbooks to support tour-
and richness of its resource base. In terms of ism education has been replaced by a plethora of
▶ infrastructure, ▶ Australia and the ▶ United such resources with almost every imaginable sub-
Kingdom offer good examples of associations ject covered from tea tourism to ▶ red tourism.
that are dedicated to the support and improvement Arthur Burkart and Slavoj Medlik produced an
of the subject. These are the Council for Austral- early text, Tourism: Past, Present and Future.
asian University Tourism and Hospitality Educa- Perhaps the most widely used basic undergraduate
tion and Association for Tourism in Higher textbooks are Tourism: Principles, Practices, Phi-
Education, respectively. Each of these lobbies on losophies by Charles Goeldner and Brent Ritchie
behalf of the subject area offers annual confer- and Tourism: Principles and Practice by John
ences, networking opportunities, publications, Fletcher, Alan Fyall, David Gilbert, and Stephen
and advice to external bodies. Additionally, the Wanhill. While each of these mainly depicts the
United Kingdom government developed a series vocational side, titles such as Kevin Hannam and
of funded networks to support subject areas which Dan Knox’s Understanding Tourism: A Critical
included provision for tourism. There are also Introduction and Kevin Meethan’s Tourism in
three journals dedicated to disseminating research Global Society: Place, Culture, Consumption
290 Education
represent a more critical and liberal view of the as practical usefulness. The fifth challenge is
subject. employability. Just what are graduates to do with
their tourism degrees? The sixth challenge is sen-
sitivity to context. Tourism education should
Quality and issues for the future match the needs of different global regions and
levels of education.
Quality in tourism education has been tackled But perhaps the final challenge remains to fully
variously by academics in the literature, by some develop philosophic practitioners in tourism. The
governments, by international bodies, and even 2008 financial crisis revealed the weakness of an
by national newspapers through publication of excessively narrow business education curricu-
subject league tables. Each of these uses varia- lum. There is a need for tourism graduates to be
tions on a common theme which include evalua- fully engaged with the big questions facing tour-
tion of curriculum, resources, progression, student ism (such as ▶ climate change, aesthetics, broad
satisfaction, enrolments, value added, entry sustainability, and ▶ equity) and to produce not
scores, degree classifications, and employment only great tourism products but also contribute to
prospects. For example, the World Tourism Orga- the development of “good” tourism.
nization runs a program called TedQual with a
view to evaluating and improving the quality of See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ epistemol-
tourism education through a system of institu- ogy, ▶ leadership, ▶ training, ▶ university.
tional accreditation. Similarly the International
Centre of Excellence in Tourism and Hospitality
Education is an independent international accred-
itation body. There are still critics of tourism edu- References
cation who bunch it with other subjects, such as
media and sports studies viewed by some as Airey, D. 2008 Tourism Education Life Begins at 40.
Téoros: Revue de Recherche en Tourisme 27:27-32.
Mickey Mouse degrees. But tourism education Airey, D., J. Tribe, P. Benckendorff, and H. Xiao. 2015
has reached a level of maturity so that it now The Managerial Gaze: The Long Tail of Tourism
competes well with other similar subjects at the Education and Research. Journal of Travel Research
best institutions in terms of quality. However, it is 54(2):139-151.
Ayikoru, M., J. Tribe, and D. Airey 2009 Reading Tourism
also evident that there is a long tail of provision at Education: Neoliberalism Unveiled. Annals of Tourism
lower levels of quality (Airey et al. 2015). Research 36:191-221.
What then are the important challenges and Barnett, R. 1990 The Idea of Higher Education.
issues for the ▶ future of tourism education? The Buckingham: Open University Press.
Cuffy, V., J. Tribe, and D. Airey 2012 Lifelong Learning
first is the consistency of quality in provision. for Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 39:1402-
Tourism is not well served by its long tail of 1424.
mediocrity, nor is it studied at Oxford, Cambridge, Lewis, A. 2006 Stakeholder Informed Tourism Education:
or Harvard. The second challenge is some degree Voices from the Caribbean. Journal of Hospitality, Lei-
sure, Sport and Tourism Education 5(2):14-24.
of public and government misunderstanding of Schön, D. 1991 The Reflective Practitioner. Aldershot:
the subject. Although tourism is a vital economic Arena.
sector and a significant social phenomenon, its Sheldon, P., D. Fesenmaier, and J. Tribe 2011 The Tourism
study is often confused with holidaymaking. Education Futures Initiative (TEFI): Activating Change
in Tourism Education. Journal of Teaching in Travel &
Third, tourism education could better reach out Tourism 11:2-23.
to its industry in the way that hospitality does in a Tribe, J. 2000a The National Curriculum for Tourism
much more successful way. It needs better aca- Higher Education. NLG Guideline 9:2-12.
demic/industry partnerships. A fourth challenge Tribe, J. 2000b Balancing the Vocational: The Theory and
Practice of Liberal Education in Tourism. Tourism and
lies in the knowledge that is the bedrock of the Hospitality Research 2:9-26.
curriculum. For higher education, at least this Tribe, J. 2002 The Philosophic Practitioner. Annals of
should be underpinned by strong theory as well Tourism Research 29:338-357.
Egypt 291
continents and two seas, it is bordered by the

Egypt ▶ Mediterranean Sea to the north, the Gaza Strip
and ▶ Israel to the northeast, the Gulf of Aqaba
Adla Ragab1 and Ahmad Muhammad Ragab2 and the Red Sea to the east, ▶ Sudan to the south,
1
Cairo University, Oula, Egypt and ▶ Libya to the west (Figure 1). Its economy,
2
Minia University, Minya, Egypt one of the most diverse in the ▶ Middle East, was
the 26th largest in the world in 2010 (CAPMAS
2013).
Arab Republic of Egypt is the 29th largest country Egypt is not only considered as one of the
in the world (1,002,450 km2 or 387,048 mi2) with oldest civilizations but also the cradle of tourism.
E
a population of 84.8 million in 2013. With a Seven thousand years ago, sea expeditions and
unique geostrategic location between three business and pleasure trips occurred. Indeed, the
Egypt, Figure 1 Map of Egypt

292 Egypt
world’s first recorded organized trip was from are more than 30 destinations forming the Egyp-
Egypt to the Land of Punt during the reign of tian tourism product portfolio, including sun and
King Khufu (twenty sixth century BC). For sea, ▶ culture, spa and wellness, religious
millennia, Egypt has been a destination for tour- (Jewish, Coptic, and Islamic), nature and wildlife
ists from all over the world. In large part, its fame (safari, bird watch, adventure), sports (diving,
is due to the Great Pyramids of Giza, the sole sand surf, golf, yachting), conferences and meet-
survivor of the seven wonders of the ancient ings, and Nile cruises.
world. The modern era of Egyptian tourism The Ministry of Tourism is the national body
began in 1869, when Thomas Cook organized a responsible for tourism policy. Its main activities
222-day ▶ tour, following the inauguration of the are carried out through two main arms: Tourism
Suez Canal (Wahab 1996). By the end of the Development Authority dealing with investment
1990s, Egypt had been transformed into a mass- issues and Egyptian Tourism Authority responsi-
tourism destination, offering sun, sand, and sea, as ble for ▶ marketing and promotion. To achieve its
well as its traditional culture tourism offering. goals, the ministry cooperates closely with the
Egyptian Tourism Federation which represents
the private sector in tourism. Its long-term
Significance of tourism strategies are to increase the capacity of the ▶ des-
tination to become globally competitive and to
Egypt, according to UNWTO (2013), is ranked boost its share in pushing forward the national
22nd in the world’s top destination list, 2nd in economy through attracting 25 million tourists
Middle East (22.2 % of total tourists), 1st in and raising the daily spending by 30 % by 2020.
North Africa (62.2 %), and 1st in ▶ Africa This ▶ strategy is aligned with UNWTO Millen-
(22.1 %). Tourism is one of the main drivers of nium Development Goals (OECD 2012).
its ▶ economic development. In 2010, tourism
contributed, directly and indirectly, about 11.6 %
of GDP, 40 % of Egypt’s total non-commodity Challenges and opportunities
exports, and 19.3 % of Egypt’s foreign currency
revenues and employed around 1.7 million people Tourism ▶ education in Egypt started in 1962.
(6.5 % of the total employment) or one in every Currently, there are seven government institutions
15 jobs (Egypt TSA-Unit 2011). and more than 25 private higher education insti-
Since 2000, ▶ inbound tourism has grown rap- tutes. At the pre-university level, there are more
idly, from 5.5 million to 14.7 million in 2010, than 40 ▶ hospitality and technical schools. Egypt
spending US$12.5 billion. Over 75 % of inbound has also created and implemented joint public-
tourists came from ▶ Europe (50 % from private training programs. The Ministry draws
▶ Russia, ▶ United Kingdom, ▶ Germany, up a three-pronged human development and train-
▶ Italy, and ▶ France). In the same year, domestic ing strategy including Tourism Workforce Skills
and ▶ outbound tourism expenditure amounted to Development Project, National Standard Skills
$3.1 billion and $2.9 billion, respectively. Since Project, and Fresh Graduates Training Program.
January 2011, Egypt has experienced profound Still there is room for further development of these
political changes resulting in a sharp drop in num- mechanisms.
ber of tourists, about 33 % below the previous The Ministry of Tourism’s ongoing thrusts are
year (Egypt TSA-Unit 2012). to establish a robust statistical system for tourism
In general, Egypt’s infrastructure and super- and to motivate the hotel sector to go green. In
structure are well-developed with 22 airports and 2008, the ministry established a specialized orga-
a large hotel capacity, which increased from nization to develop its Tourism Satellite
18,900 rooms in 1982 to 225,000 in 2010. There Accounts. In 2010, the Green Sharm Initiative
El Salvador 293
has been launched this was followed by

establishing the Green Tourism Unit in 2012 El Salvador
based on a ▶ holistic approach that focuses on
four key areas of greening, including reduced Lauren Duffy1 and Fidel Ernesto Zablah2
1
carbon emissions, sustainable water supply and Department of Parks, Recreation, and Tourism
conservation, effective waste management, and Management, Clemson University, Clemson,
healthy biodiversity. USA
2
Egypt has excellent prospects for further devel- Department of Business Administration,
opment of its ▶ international tourism markets Universidad Centroamericana José Simeón
interested in its unique cultural and heritage Cañas, San Salvador, El Salvador
E
attractions, coupled with a diversified range of
other complementary offerings. However, the
main challenge facing the country is its unstable Located in Central America (Figure 1), bordering
political situation. For further growth and the North Pacific Ocean, Guatemala, and Hondu-
▶ development of its tourism ▶ industry, Egypt ras, El Salvador is one of the smaller and more
needs to develop new tourism products and niche densely populated countries in the region, with an
markets; build new tourism clusters of untapped area of 21,041 km2 (8,124 mi2) and 6.3 million
resources; regulate its competitive tourism residents. In 2012, the country’s GDP was
▶ environment to stop internal price wars; US$23.86 billion with industrial processing, off-
develop emerging tourism markets, especially shore assembly exports, and agriculture as major
from ▶ Brazil, Russia, ▶ India, and ▶ China; economic sectors (World Bank 2012).
encourage mergers, consolidation, and alliances El Salvador is a country with a wealth of nat-
among businesses in the face of global ▶ tour ural resources, including nature reserves, national
operators that dominate the demand; liberalize parks, cloud forests, rain forests, volcanoes,
the ▶ aviation sector and encourage access by mountains, and diverse flora and fauna. It has a
low-cost carriers; and foster cooperation between tropical climate with an average temperature of
tourism academics and tourism business 25 C (77 F) and 307 km (190 mi) of coastline.
managers. Cultural resources include museums, war memo-
rials, art galleries, indigenous crafts, coffee plan-
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ desert tourism, tations, and gastronomical events. Its Ministry of
▶ green tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ Middle East. Tourism has established nine tourism routes and
has successfully attracted niche markets, includ-
ing coffee tourism, ▶ culinary tourism, and
References ▶ ecotourism.
In 2012, tourism had a total contribution of
CAPMAS 2013 Statistical Year Book of Egypt. Cairo:
Central Agency for Public Mobilization and Statistics. $1.9 billion (8 %) to the GDP and directly and
Egypt TSA-Unit 2011 Egypt Tourism Satellite Account indirectly supported 181,000 jobs, 7.1 % of the
Results for 2010. Cairo: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism. total employment (WTTC 2013). Likewise, there
Egypt TSA-Unit 2012 Egypt Tourism Satellite Account were 1.25 million arrivals in 2012, an increase of
Results for 2011. Cairo: Egyptian Ministry of Tourism.
OECD 2012 Tourism Trends and Policies 2012. Paris: 5.9 % from 2011 and 57.8 % from 2000 (UNWTO
Organization for Economic Cooperation and 2013). In 2012, the United States represented
Development. approximately 89 % of the market, followed by
UNWTO 2013 World Tourism Barometer, Vol. 9. Madrid: Canada (6.8 %) and Mexico (3.5 %). The current
Wahab, S. 1996 Tourism Development in Egypt: Compet- branding of the country is El Salvador
itive Strategies and Implications. Progress in Tourism Impresionante (Impressive El Salvador). It is pro-
and Hospitality Research 2:351-364. moted in the Americas as a single destination,
294 Elasticity, demand and supply
the role of heritage tourism as part of the post-civil

war peace efforts aiming to unify the country.
See also ▶ Coffee and tea tourism, ▶ culinary

tourism, ▶ ecotourism.
References
UNWTO, 2013, Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-

ism Organization.
World Bank 2012 World Development Indicators El Sal-
vador. Washington DC: World Bank.
World Economic Forum 2013 Travel and Tourism Com-
petitiveness Report: Reducing Barriers to Econonic
Growth and Job Creation, J. Blanke and T. Chiesa,
eds., p.18. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – El
Salvador. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
El Salvador, Figure 1 Map of El Salvador

Elasticity, demand and supply
while being promoted in Europe as a part of the Jaume Rosselló

regional destination under the “so small. . . so big” Departament d’Economia Aplicada, Universitat
campaign. de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
The Salvadoran Institute of Tourism and the
Salvadoran Tourism Corporation are notable
organizations working to increase tourism. How- In general terms, elasticity is the quantification
ever, according to the World Economic Forum of the relationship between two variables,
(2013), El Salvador ranks 23 out of the 27 coun- measuring the ratio of the percentage change in a
tries in the Americas in the tourism competitive- determining variable to the percentage change in
ness index that measures factors and policies the determined variable. Then, if it is assumed that
facilitating tourism ▶ development. The country’s a variable y is determined by the behavior of a
comparatively low levels of tourism development variable x, the elasticity (E) referred to a certain
relate to economic and political instability stem- change can be expressed analytically as
ming from a recent civil war (1979–1992), high
Dy
levels of economic inequality, and continued
y %Dy
issues of gang violence and crime. E y, x ¼ ¼ (1)
Dx %Dx
El Salvador is in need of more training pro-
grams to improve the tourism product. Currently, x
the Salvadoran Tourism Corporation offers spe-
If the elasticity is referred to a certain point,
cialized seminars, while the Central American
expression (1) can be redefined in terms of partial
Institute for Technology and the Salvadoran Insti-
derivates and becomes
tute of Vocational Training provide food and bev-
erage training. El Salvador is exploring strategies @y x
E y, x ¼ (2)
to change perceptions of ▶ tourist safety; increase @x y
wastewater, ▶ transportation, and tourist ▶ infra-
structure; reduce ▶ travel restrictions; and attract From expression (2) it should be highlighted
business markets. Future research could explore how in regression analyses, if variables are taken
Elasticity, demand and supply 295
in natural logarithms, estimated coefficients can implying that the bulk of international ▶ travel is
be interpreted directly as the elasticity between regarded as a luxury.
y and x (Rosselló 2012). In any case, an Price elasticity measures the percentage
elastic (inelastic) relationship is one where the change in tourism demand caused by a
determined variable responds a lot (little) to percent change in price (y = tourism demand
changes in the determining variable. The and x = price in expressions 1 and 2). Because
threshold for an elastic (inelastic) relationship is this elasticity is almost always negative (it is
placed at 1. Then, if Ey,x > 1 the relationship is expected that as price increases demand
elastic, if Ey,x < 1 the relationship is inelastic, and decreases and vice versa), it is usually expressed
if Ey,x = 1, the relationship is unit-elastic. How- in terms of absolute value since the negative
E
ever, for some variables the sign of the elasticity can be assumed. It should be noted how, in tour-
can also have a specific meaning. In tourism, the ism, price consists of numerous components
concept is frequently used in relation to demand (goods and services purchased in the ▶ destina-
and ▶ supply and their determinants. tion, cost of the ▶ transportation), and for this
reason it is not easy to talk about a unique
price elasticity of tourism demand. Lim (1999)
Demand elasticity found that from 419 estimations including
▶ travel and transportation costs in tourism
Tourism demand is influenced by different fac- demand models, 52 % reported significant nega-
tors. The quantification of the relationship tive elasticity, while from 623 estimations includ-
between demand and its determinants is often ing tourism price variables, 49 % found also
measured through the concept of elasticity. negative elasticity. The major reason given to
Empirical research shows how most popular explain the statistically insignificant results was
elasticities estimated in applied exercises have related to the multicollinearity between/among
been income and price elasticities (Song the transportation costs, tourism prices, and
et al. 2009). income variable.
Income elasticity measures the percentage With less empirical research (Crouch 1994),
change in demand caused by a percent change in cross price elasticity of demand measures the per-
consumers’ income (y = tourism demand and centage change in tourism demand caused by a
x = income in expressions 1 and 2). The income percent change in the price of another product or
elasticity of demand provides a means to destination (y = tourism demand and x = price
distinguishing between different types of tourism of another destination or product in expressions 1
services and/or destinations. Frequently, it is and 2). In this context, destinations can be com-
expected that tourism is a normal product, plementary (Ey,x < 0), substitute (Ey,x > 0), or
entailing a positive relationship between income unrelated (Ey,x = 0).
and demand (Ey,x > 0). Additionally, if it is elas-
tic, or in other words the increased demand on a
normal product exceeds the increase in real Supply elasticity
income (Ey,x > 1), the product is also termed a
luxury. In some cases, however, consumers may Tourism supply is influenced by different factors
buy less of a particular tourism ▶ product under a and the quantification of these relationships can
scenario of income increase (Ey,x < 0). This is also be measured through the concept of elasticity.
referred to as inferior products. Crouch (1992) In this context, price elasticity of supply measures
reviewed the applied literature analyzing the dis- responsiveness of the quantity supplied of ser-
tribution of the 777 usable income elasticity esti- vices to a change in its price (y = tourism supply
mates, finding that 5 % of the estimates have a and x = price of a tourism product in expres-
negative sign implying inferior destinations while sions 1 and 2). The distinction among elastic,
63 % of the estimates were income elastic inelastic, and unit-elastic mentioned above is
296 Elite tourism
also frequently applied to the concept of price

elasticity of supply. Elite tourism
Although in the empirical tourism demand lit-
erature it is recurrently assumed that the supply Arch G. Woodside
elasticity is infinite (Li et al. 2005), the theoretical Marketing Department, Boston College, Chestnut
argumentation propounds different determinants of Hill, USA
supply elasticity that are of special interests to the
tourism ▶ industry. Thus, the complexity of pro-
duction, time to respond, and the possibility to Elite tourism includes some combination of expe-
storage are expected to determine the value of the riences involving luxury, exclusivity, and person-
elasticity of supply. Therefore, when complex pro- alization. Most often it includes the combination
ductions require specialized equipment, skilled of two or all three indicators. The presence of each
labor, a large supplier network, and large research ingredient alone is an insufficient recipe for elite
and development costs, a lower value is expected. tourism, as most tourists with incomes above the
The more time a producer has to respond to price poverty level are able to splurge one or more times
changes, the more elastic the supply. A producer in their lives on a luxury trip. The “new rich”
who has a supply of goods or available storage reflect this proposition, having household
capacity can quickly increase supply to market; incomes of US$250,000 or more at some point
thus, it is expected to have a higher value. during their working lives, putting them in the top
Future research on elasticity should focus on find- 2 % of earners (Yen 2013).
ing and quantifying the different determinants of the Wiki.answers.com defines elite tourism as
price, income, and/or supply elasticities that, from a “tourism for the rich and/or famous guests.” How-
theoretical point of view, have been described. Thus, ever, the rich and famous alone are rarely suffi-
although it is expected that factors such as the specific cient. Sufficient but not necessary indicators
segment of tourism could explain differences in elas- include two or more of the following: money,
ticity estimations, more empirical work is required to fame, skills, and qualifications (Figure 1). The
get a deeper knowledge on the topic. three process ingredients in the middle of Figure 1
usually occur in combination: luxury, exclusive,
See also ▶ Demand modeling, ▶ economics, and personalized. However, no one ingredient
▶ forecasting, ▶ quantitative research, ▶ supply. alone is likely to be a sufficient or necessary
condition as an antecedent, process, or outcome
of elite tourism.
For the ▶ tourist, the outcome includes an
References archetype experience or fulfillment. An archetype
is an unconscious primary form, an original pat-
Crouch, G. 1992 Effect of Income and Price on Interna- tern or prototype in the human mind (Jung 1916/
tional Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 19:643- 1959; Wertime 2002). A tourist visiting a Tif-
664.
Crouch, G. 1994 The Study of International Tourism: fany’s or a Versace store with a resulting purchase
A Survey of Practice. Journal of Travel Research of a luxury product (or not) is an elite tourism
32(4):41-55. experience and fulfillment of a combination of
Li, G., H. Song, and S. Witt 2005 Recent Developments in two or more psychological archetypes – ruler
Econometric Modeling and Forecasting. Journal of
Travel Research 44:82-99. and siren, perhaps (Woodside et al. 2008). Elite
Lim, C. 1999 A Meta-Analytic Review of International Tour- tourism likely will have high and sustainable
ism Demand. Journal of Travel Research 37:273-284. growth due to the desire by many tourists for
Rosselló, J. 2012 Regression Analysis. In Handbook of one or more such experiences, the increasing
Research Methods in Tourism, L. Dwyer, A. Gill and
N. Seetaram, eds., pp.31-46. Cheltenman: Edward Elgar. numbers of near rich in ▶ China and Southeast
Song, H., S. Witt, and G. Li 2009 The Advanced Econo- Asia, the attraction to marketers of high profit
metrics of Tourism Demand. London: Routledge. margins in designing such experiences, and
Emic and etic 297
Antecedents Processes Outcomes
M=
S= E=
Money
Skills Explorer
L=
S•M Luxury S=
S•Q M•F Sage
L=
Lover
Q= L•E L•P S•E•L•B•R
F=
Qualifications S•M•Q Fame
S•M•F
E= L•P•E
P=
Exclusivity R=
M•Q
S•M•F•Q
P•E
Personalization
Ruler B=
Bragger
E
F•S
M•F•Q S•F•Q
F•Q
(Notes: Mid-level dot, “•” refers to the logical “AND” condition. For clarity, only 5 of 20+ relevant archetypes appear.)
Elite tourism, Figure 1 Elite tourism: antecedents, processes, and outcomes
information dissemination and ease of booking discipline of anthropology and its study of indig-
via the continuing stream of new and advanced enous people. Of particular interest to anthropol-
electronic applications. ogists are the past and present cultural spaces
individuals and groups live in and how they inter-
See also ▶ Demonstration effect, ▶ luxury tour- act in these settings through oral narratives,
ism, ▶ paradise, ▶ social class. stories, performances, rituals, and symbols. The
recognition of emic and etic approaches is evident
References in the work of researchers (Geertz 1973)
immersed in the interpretation of the cultures of
Jung, C. 1916/1959 The Archetypes and the Collective populations and places.
Unconscious. In Collective Works (Vol. 9, Part 1), Fieldworkers assuming the role of insiders are
H. Read, M. Fordham and G. Adler, eds., pp.3-41. considered to be emic – seeing the world through
Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Wertime, K. 2002 Building Brands and Believers: How to
the “eyes” of the researched, whereas those locat-
Connect with Consumers Using Archetypes. ing themselves as outsiders are etic in their epis-
Singapore: Wiley. temological view. However, the researcher’s
Woodside, A., S. Sood, and K. Miller 2008 When positioning is not as straightforward as it seems
Consumers and Brands Talk. Psychology and
Marketing 25(2):97-145.
for fieldworkers studying cultural groups similar
Yen, H. 2013 Rising Riches http://bigstory.ap.org/article/ to or different from theirs. This directs attention to
rising-riches-1-5-us-reaches-affluence-0 (2 June 2014). the extent to which valid (emic) or reliable (etic)
data have been collected. Headland et al. (1990)
discuss further, from a cultural anthropological
Emic and etic standpoint, the ▶ location of researchers as
insiders and/or outsiders in relation to the people
Nazia Ali and places they choose to study. Emic and etic are
Institute for Tourism Research, University of also methodological recognition of the “objec-
Bedfordshire, Luton, Bedfordshire, UK tive” (etic) and “subjective” (emic) dichotomy in
the research field. In particular, the emic/etic
debate has advanced qualitative practices and, in
The theoretical underpinnings of the distinction so doing, has been central to the conceptualization
between emic and etic can be traced back to the of researcher reflexivity.
298 Employment
Emic and etic standpoints are central to discus-

sions of critical “turns” in qualitative tourism Employment
studies (Ateljevic et al. 2012). This awakening is
informed by Denzin and Lincoln (2011) who Deniz Kucukusta
debate at length the paradigmatic shifts in quali- School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
tative inquiry. The application of their work is The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
reflected in Phillimore and Goodson (2004), the Hong Kong, China
“first” to draw together the philosophies, princi-
ples, and practices of ▶ qualitative research in
tourism. Theoretical, conceptual, and empirical Tourism is not only an integral part of ▶ economic
writings on the distinction between emic and etic development but also a potential tool for job cre-
in tourism studies additionally indicate that the ation for many economies in the world. The
dynamics of insider/outsider can be experienced ▶ industry is a fast-growing one that helps
at several moments in pre-, on, and post- enhance the nationwide economy for both devel-
fieldwork. oping and developed countries. According to ILO
Paying ▶ attention to the emic/etic divide in report (2010), ▶ international tourism has been
tourism studies is imperative in moving from pos- growing substantially and is expected to grow
itivistic to post-positivistic philosophies in quali- significantly in the coming decade. ▶ UNWTO
tative research in order to produce interpretive and is expecting the global tourism economy to pro-
reflexive ethnographic accounts of people and vide 296 million jobs by 2019. Despite global
places in cultural contexts. Moreover, the discus- economic and social crisis, employment contin-
sion of emic/etic, insiderness/outsiderness, and ued to increase (ILO 2010).
subjectivities/objectivities in the context of Based on ▶ development levels, countries’ uti-
researcher reflexivity cannot take place without lization of tourism varies. For example, developed
acknowledging the presence and dialectical influ- countries focus more on income generation attri-
ence of the researched in the social construction of butes of the industry, whereas developing coun-
knowledge. tries are more concentrated on the foreign
currency flow and job creation opportunities. For
an economy, tourism can attract foreign as well as
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ ethnography, domestic ▶ investment, all of which creates
▶ fieldwork, ▶ methodology, ▶ qualitative employment and generates income in the broader
research. economy. According to the Travel and Tourism
Competitiveness Report on reducing barriers to
economic growth and job creation (released in
the 2013 World Economic Forum), tourism
References
makes substantial economic contribution when
Ateljevic, I., N. Morgan, and A. Pritchard, eds. 2012 The compared to other industries.
Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Creating an Academy For a community, tourism generates business,
of Hope. London: Routledge. income, earnings, rates, and levies. It is a labor-
Denzin, N., and Y. Lincoln, eds. 2011 The Sage Handbook
intensive industry and this makes it a significant
of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Geertz, C. 1973 The Interpretation of Cultures. London: source of employment. The industry also requires
Fontana. skilled labor and allows quick entry to the work-
Headland, T., K. Pike, and M. Harris, eds. 1990 Emics and force by youth, women, and migrant workers
Etics: The Insider/Outside Debate. Newbury Park:
(ILO 2011). However, the sector is also facing
Sage.
Phillimore, J., and L.Goodson, eds. 2004 Qualitative problems such as seasonal employment, increas-
Research in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and ing rate of subcontracting and outsourcing (ILO
Methodologies. London: Routledge. 2010).
Employment 299
Characteristics of employment Talent shortage and turnover
Tourism might be attractive due to its relative ease With the ever-changing business environment and
of entrée. The industry comprises different continuously elevating demand for service quality,
occupations requiring different levels of skills. the industry has been always encountering the chal-
However, due to the emergence of better- lenge on inadequate talents, which cannot be
informed and sophisticated customers, expecta- sourced easily, while turnovers are high. Notably
tions from the industry changed to more efficient the industry has been poorly recognized as a source
and convenient service. Therefore, there is a of permanent employment, as it offers low salary,
growing need for talents, and more emphasis is long and fluctuating working hours, menial work,
E
placed on improvement activities in tourism and limited opportunities for career progression
organizations. (Barron 2008). Nonetheless, it remains to be one of
Tourism is also a dynamic industry because of the fastest and largest growing industries by account-
the fluctuations in customer demand and their ing for 10 % of the global employment. Conse-
changing needs and wants. The job mostly quently the demand for talents of all levels and
requires flexibility and creativeness to meet cus- segments is increasing exponentially (WTTC 2011).
tomers’ expectations. On the other hand, the The shortage and turnover problem of adequately
boundaries of work and leisure are generally trained and motivated talents has been confronted,
obscured due to long working hours. In general, from attracting, recruiting, and training to retaining
high level of interpersonal contact is involved in a sufficient manpower support. The challenge of tal-
majority of jobs (Riley and Ladkin 2002). ents’ turnover has been substantially recorded for
decades that it could be ranging from a typical 30 %
to 300 % annually (Barron 2008). The industry has
Talent and skills management been attributed to work-family conflicts and work-
life imbalance, resulting in poor working conditions,
The nature of the work is basically influenced by constant emotional instability, and eventually ser-
the characteristics of the industry itself, which vice failure (Cleveland et al. 2007).
ranges from the business size, ownership type, Future research can concentrate on some specific
the market it serves, and the impact of demand areas which constitute the basic problems in the labor
variations. Therefore, there have always been market today. In-depth studies can be conducted to
difficulties in attracting suitably motivated, understand the reasons of and suggest solutions to
properly trained, and competently qualified tal- decreasing labor shortage, particularly for lower-
ents that are able and also willing to deliver qual- level posts, from both the workers’ and employers’
ity service. perspectives. Retaining and increasing female work-
Such challenges of the supply and demand in force, women’s role in succession planning, and
the workforce in the industry have recently workplace diversity with different generations are
become sustainably concerned by tourism man- among the emerging areas for future studies.
agement and organizations that the comprehen-
sive process of managing talents is one of the See also ▶ Human resource management,
critical and valuable assets for pursuing success ▶ industry, ▶ work.
operationally and financially. To apply talent man-
agement in tourism, the challenge for the industry
is to evaluate the skills and competence that sup- References
port the organization’s operations, such as what
Barron, P. 2008 Education and Talent Management: Impli-
talents are being searched in the section and how
cations for the Hospitality Industry. International
the talents can be most effectively developed Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
across the tourism workforce (Baum 2008). 20:730-742.
300 Enclave tourism
Baum, T. 2008 Implications of Hospitality and Tourism owned by multinational businesses. In tourism
Labor Markets for Talent Management Strategies. research, the main perspective has been based on
International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management 20:720-729. the dependency theory. The seminal work by
Cleveland, J., J. O’Neill, J. Himelright, M. Harrison, Britton (1982) on an enclave model of the
A. Crouter, and R. Drago 2007 Work and Family Issues Third World tourism focused on the hierarchical
in the Hospitality Industry: Perspectives of Entrants, structure. The top of the model is controlled by
Managers, and Spouses. Journal of Hospitality and
Tourism Research 31:275-298. international tourism corporations and other orga-
ILO 2010 Developments and Challenges in the Hospitality nizations located in the metropolitan economies,
and Tourism Sector. Geneva: International Labor where their headquarters of corporations and asso-
Organization. ciated non-tourism companies and related actors
ILO 2011 Employment in the Tourism Industry to Grow
Significantly www.ilo.org/global/publications/magazi are situated.
nes-and-journals/world-of-work-magazine/articles/ Destination-based branch offices of the
WCMS_157893/lang–en/index.htm (22 January metropolitan businesses are located in the
2014). mid-level of the model. At the bottom are small
Riley, M., and A. Ladkin 2002 Tourism Employment:
Analysis and Planning. London: Channel View. businesses which are highly dependent upon the
WTTC 2011 Travel and Tourism 2011, World Tourism and chain of businesses and actors located in
Travel Council http://www.wttc.org/site_media/ the higher levels of the enclave model and the
uploads/downloads/traveltourism2011.pdf (3 February tourism production chain. Thus, the metropolitan
2014).
companies dominate major facets of the
industry and the links in the flow chain of capital,
management, goods, transportation, accommoda-
tion, and other services from tourist-generating
Enclave tourism regions into the peripheral enclave and their
local distribution inside the enclave (Carlisle and
Jarkko Saarinen Jones 2012).
Department of Geography, University of Oulu, Typically international all-inclusive resorts and
Oulu, Finland so-called package tours, where the offered prod-
ucts and services are included in one prepaid
price, are characterized by the elements of enclave
Enclave tourism refers to a form of development tourism. For example, the tourist-generating econ-
characterized by socio-spatial regulations of host- omies organize the package tours, including trans-
guest relations and related mobilities in tourism. portation, accommodation, and excursions, in a
Typically such developments contain all or a vast way that they have a capacity to control tourist
majority of facilities and services needed expenditures through the limit of their mobility, to
for tourists who have limited possibilities or the relative exclusion of the petty producers
desires to leave the enclave. Instead, they are and other local service providers (Britton 1982).
encouraged to stay and consume inside the Thus, the global tourism industry often
self-contained resort environment. At the same operates locally based on the involvement of mul-
time, the locals’ access to the enclavic space is tinational corporations and foreign direct invest-
often regulated explicitly or implicitly. The ments, leading to economic leakages and
enclave segregates tourists from the local commu- marginalization of hosts resulting in further
nity, a form of “neo-colonization” (Hall and enclavization in ▶ development (Mbaiwa 2005).
Tucker 2004). Therefore, enclavic all-inclusive resorts can turn
Tourism enclaves are rather common features out to be all exclusive for local communities in
in development and management situations dom- development. In future, prospective research
inated by external forces, actors, and power topics are related to the nature of host-guest
inequalities, especially in the peripheries and/or encounters and border making in the
developing countries. They are managed and enclavization process.
Energy 301
See also ▶ Center-periphery, ▶ dependency the- economies (Becken 2011). The second is energy
ory, ▶ host and guest, ▶ multinational firm, as a constraint of tourism. Facilities working on
▶ resort development. the extraction and processing of energy sources
(e.g., mines, refineries, power plants, and trans-
mission grids) significantly affect the character
References and functions of landscapes. Energy landscapes
are often perceived as visually or environmentally
Britton, S. 1982 The Political Economy of Tourism in the polluted, which may detract tourists from visiting
Third World. Annals of Tourism Research 9:331-338.
them. Recent studies focused on tourists’ percep-
Carlisle, S., and E. Jones 2012 The Beach Enclave:
tions of emerging renewable energy landscapes
A Landscape of Power. Tourism Management E
Perspectives 1:9-16. and impacts of specific energy facilities on their
Hall, M., and H. Tucker, eds. 2004 Tourism and ▶ destination choice and potential repeat visits
Postcolonialism: Contested Discourses, Identities and
(Frantál and Kunc 2011). The third is energy as
Representations. London: Routledge.
Mbaiwa, J. 2005 Enclave Tourism and its Socio-economic an ▶ attraction. In contrast to the previous point,
Impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Tourism energy objects may represent attractions for a
Management 26:157-172. specific ▶ tourist segment. Both the industrial
▶ heritage sites and modern operational facilities,
such as hydro- and nuclear power plants or wind
farms, can be considered the energy attractions
Energy (Frew 2008).
Tourism is considered to play a key role in
Bohumil Frantál tackling current energy challenges, including the
Department of Environmental Geography, reduction of carbon footprint, protection of local
Institute of Geonics, Czech Academy of Sciences, environments, cutting costs for businesses, and cre-
Brno, Czech Republic ating local economic opportunities (UNWTO
2012). Using renewable energy is then considered
a crucial way to increase the eco-efficiency of des-
In a general sense, energy is the capacity to be tinations and to achieve tourism ▶ sustainability.
active. Human activities are dependent on the use In this sense, exploring the tourists’ and oper-
of several forms and sources of energy. Tourism, ators’ motivations and barriers of adopting inno-
as one of the largest global industries, has become vative technologies and conducts to reduce the
a significant energy consumer and contributor to amount of natural sources and energy spent, and
carbon emissions and ▶ climate change. Apart wastes and pollutants discharged within the pro-
from global consequences (Gössling 2002), tour- duction and distribution of tourism services is to
ism as an energy consumer causes local environ- become one of the major challenges of ▶ future
mental impacts, such as deforestation or water tourism studies, respectively of ▶ sustainable
deficiency, which are critical especially for remote tourism ▶ development.
or island communities. On the other hand, tourism
is at the forefront of some of the most innovative See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ dark tourism,
clean energy solutions (UNWTO 2012). ▶ industrial tourism, ▶ low-carbon tourism.
The energy tourism nexus can be conceptual-
ized from at least three perspectives. The first is
energy as a driver of tourism. Energy in the form References
of basic infrastructure, electricity, and fuels con-
sumed for traveling, heating, cooling, and other Becken, S. 2011 Critical Review of Tourism and Oil.
services is the principal determinant of tourism.
Frantál, B., and J. Kunc 2011 Wind Turbines in Tourism
Its ▶ supply and price directly affect the ▶ devel- Landscapes: Czech Experience. Annals of Tourism
opment or stagnation of tourism and related Research 38:499-519.
302 Entrepreneurship
Frew, E. 2008 Industrial Tourism Theory and Implemented Mace offered the first entrepreneurship course at
Strategies. In Advances in Culture, Tourism and Hos- Harvard Business School in 1947. In 1948, the
pitality Research, Vol. 2, A. Woodside, ed., pp. 27-42.
Bingley: Emerald. first conference on small businesses was held in
Gössling, S. 2002 Global Environmental Consequences ▶ Switzerland. The International Council for
of Tourism. Global Environmental Change 12(4):283-302. Small Business was originated from a conference
UNWTO 2012 Tourism and Sustainable Energy: Powering at the University of Colorado in 1956. The popu-
Sustainable Development http://wtd.unwto.org/en/con
tent/tourism-sustainable-energy-powering-sustainable- lar entrepreneurship conference, The Babson
development (23 September 2013). Research Conference, first started in 1981. The
Entrepreneurship Division of the Academy of
Management achieved its full status in 1987.
Among its top periodicals, Journal of Small Busi-
Entrepreneurship ness Management was incepted in 1963 and
became the official publication of the Interna-
Zhaoping (George) Liu1 and Cathy A. Enz2 tional Council for Small Business in 1977. The
1
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice journal
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, obtained its current name in 1988, and the Journal
Hong Kong, China of Business Venturing had its inception in 1985.
2
School of Hotel Administration, Cornell Nonetheless, research has been done for years
University, Ithaca, USA in order to differentiate entrepreneurs from those
who do not start new businesses. The focus on
Entrepreneurship is a young field of study without trait, despite its inconclusiveness, provides some
a commonly accepted definition. Generally, the evidence to suggest that entrepreneurs have a
term denotes creation of new businesses. Shane higher need for achievement, a greater tendency
and Venkataraman describe it as “the scholarly to take risks, and a more internalized locus of
examination of how, by whom, and with what control. Another area is recognizing and creating
effects opportunities to create future goods and entrepreneurial opportunities. Sarasvathy
services are discovered, evaluated, and exploited” et al. (2003) summarize the views of recognition,
and “involves the study of sources of opportunities; discovery, and creation and outline the initial steps
the processes of discovery, evaluation, and exploi- for such undertakings. The survival and growth of
tation of opportunities; and the set of individuals new ventures is a prevalent theme; research indi-
who discover, evaluate, and exploit them”(2000: cates that founders, opportunities, and resources
218). According to Arnold Cooper, one of the are driving forces behind successful new ventures.
pioneers in this field, “Entrepreneurial ventures, Another theme explores capital and the financing
whether independent or within established corpo- of new ventures. A final focus investigates the
rations, might be viewed as experiments. They test impacts of entrepreneurship on economic growth
to determine the size of particular markets or and how governmental policies can assist entre-
whether particular technologies or ways of com- preneurial firms.
peting are promising” (2001 interview, no page).
Topics explored so far include characteristics of
entrepreneurs, opportunity recognition, venture Entrepreneurship studies in tourism
management, causes of new venture failure, and
development of business plans. Entrepreneurship is an underrepresented subject
in tourism. A review of published research in
seven top tourism journals between 1986 and
History and evolution 2006 revealed that only 2 % of articles relate to
entrepreneurship. Despite limited attention,
Cooper’s (2003) review of entrepreneurship stud- published studies often borrow basic concepts
ies identified several milestones. Notably, Myles and frameworks from the mainstream field.
Entrepreneurship 303
Of greatest interest to tourism researchers are topics should include how large firms can foster
small business studies, perhaps due to the wide- entrepreneurial spirits and conditions required for
spread nature of these enterprises in the industry. organizational structures, culture, and leadership
In an early textbook to address small business to enable corporate entrepreneurship. Another
development and management, Thomas (1998) topic that deserves attention is entrepreneurship
stated that over half of ▶ hospitality employees education. For example, Morrison et al. (1999)
work for firms with fewer than 50 people. Overall, describe the concepts, principles, and environ-
the research on small businesses in tourism covers ment associated with entrepreneurship and
topics such as government policies supporting address the practicalities involved in the creation
small business development, firms’ roles in job and management of new ventures. The School of
E
creation and regional ▶ economic development, Hotel Administration at Cornell University is
and their impacts on developing economies. among the pioneer institutions in hospitality
Recent research has begun to explore the role entrepreneurship, with an Institute for Hospitality
of entrepreneurship in tourism ▶ development. Entrepreneurship founded to support the school’s
Indeed, studies have examined the contribution curriculum. Despite the fact that many educa-
of entrepreneurial firms to the local economies tional institutions are offering entrepreneurship-
of destinations, highlighting the importance of related courses, the majority are ad hoc and
collaboration and networks. In particular, ▶ social not integrated into a comprehensive curriculum.
capital is of interest to the investigation of com- More effort is needed to study and develop
munity participation in ▶ destination/tourism entrepreneurship programs, pedagogies, and
development. Further, research suggests that systems to meet the growing needs of students
social capital is a key to understanding tourism and the tourism ▶ industry for new venture
business development in emerging regions. development.
See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ innova-

Future directions tion, ▶ strategy.
Social entrepreneurship, a process of creating

social value by innovative uses of resources, has
become a topic of substantial interest in main- References
stream entrepreneurship journals. Voluntourism,
defined as “utilizing discretionary time and Cooper, A. 2003 Entrepreneurship. In Handbook of Entre-
income to ▶ travel out of the sphere of regular preneurship Research, Z. Ács and D. Audretsch, eds.,
pp.21-34. Boston: Kluwer.
activity to assist others in need” (McGehee and Li, L. 2008 A Review of Entrepreneurship Research
Santos 2005: 760), has also begun to receive Published in the Hospitality and Tourism Management
academic attention as a topic of investigation. Journals. Tourism Management 29:1013-1022.
Previous studies have addressed topics such as McGehee, N., and C. Santos 2005 Social Change, Dis-
course and Volunteer Tourism. Annals of Tourism
the ▶ impact of voluntourism on the local com- Research 32:760-779.
munity and the attitudes of volunteers and resi- Morrison, A., M. Rimmington, and C. Williams 1999
dents towards voluntourism. Properly managed Entrepreneurship in the Hospitality, Tourism and Lei-
projects are both financially appealing and can sure Industries. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Sarasvathy, S., N. Dew, R. Velamuri, and S. Venkataraman
facilitate cross-cultural understanding. A viable 2003 Three Views of Entrepreneurial Opportunity. In
domain for future research is to develop new Handbook of Entrepreneurship Research, Z. Ács and
models and explanations for social entrepreneur- D. Audretsch, eds., pp.141-160. Boston: Kluwer.
ship based on empirical studies of social enter- Shane, S., and S. Venkataraman 2000 The Promise of
Entrepreneurship as a Field of Research. Academy of
prises in tourism. Management Review 25:217-226.
Li (2008) suggests scholars should pay greater Thomas, R. 1998 The Management of Small Tourism and
attention to corporate entrepreneurship. Future Hospitality Firms. London: Cassell.
304 Environment
characterized as conflict, coexistence, and symbi-

Environment osis in past and current studies (Budowski 1976).
The bulk of literature reflects the emphasis on
Sanjay Nepal conflict. Research on its impacts on the ecology,
Department of Geography and Environmental wildlife, and habitats (e.g., national parks and
Management, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, forests, mountains, coasts and islands, wetlands,
ON, Canada and deserts) has proliferated during the last three
decades. These studies have been site specific
(Nepal and Way 2007), species focused (such as
In tourism studies, “environment” has been polar bears and whale watching), or broad in
broadly defined to include encounters in diverse scope (like environmental change in specific eco-
ecosystems, habitats, sites (within habitats), and logical settings). The ecological ▶ impact studies,
species. Since tourism is mostly conceived as a often referred to as recreation ecology, have orig-
social science field, the term environment has inated from outdoor recreation and natural
been used in its broadest sense to include all resources management, much of which exists out-
aspects of human behaviors related to social, cul- side the domain of tourism social sciences. Stud-
tural, economic, and political practices. Indeed, ies documenting coexistence are very few. Good
environmental processes cannot be excluded examples of tourism-environment symbiosis are
from the broad arena within which interactions found in studies on ▶ ecotourism, ▶ sustainable
among diverse sets of human endeavors and tourism, parks, and ▶ community-based tourism.
values, such as environmental justice and ethics,
occur (Holden and Fennell 2013).
Environment is regarded as tourism’s resource Behavioral perspectives
base. But with touristic developments, strictly
natural settings gradually evolve into a hybrid of Studies on ▶ tourist behavior and environmental
▶ culture and natural environments, as is perceptions point to five key subject areas: level of
evidenced in highly developed commercial desti- awareness and attitude toward environmental con-
nations such as Niagara Falls or in less-intensively cerns, manifestations of environmental practices
developed ones throughout the world. In other at destinations and tourists’ reaction to such prac-
words, the spectrum of environment-culture tices, measures of tourists’ ▶ attitudes toward spe-
could range from primarily natural environment cific environmental concerns at the ▶ destination,
to one that is predominantly cultural. As such, it is concerns for environmental safety, and impacts on
often difficult to distinguish the cause-effect rela- indigenous resource management practices and
tionship arising within hybrid environments. environmental values (Butler and Hinch 2007).
Recent works on environmental perceptions are
indicative of increased emphasis on social con-
Ecological perspectives struction of nature (Demeritt 2002) and how it
relates to discourses about touristic space, place,
Four broad areas of tourism-environment have ▶ identity, and representation.
been explored to date: ecological impacts of A much more nuanced view of tourism-
▶ recreation and tourism, environmental percep- environment nexus, and one which goes beyond
tions and behavior of tourists, community engage- the traditional nature-culture dichotomy, has been
ment in environmental ▶ conservation, and discussed in studies on community engagement in
application of green practices in the ▶ industry. environmental conservation. It is in this aspect
In terms of impacts on the natural environment, that environment and culture are seen as two dis-
relationships between the two have been tinct but inseparable entities. Any discussion of
Environment 305
environmental challenges arising from, or with (public, private, community) have made signifi-
tourism, should consider locally embedded mean- cant efforts in improving their environmental
ings, expressions, identity, and belief systems. standards on energy efficiency, green architecture,
Whether it is indigenous peoples’ concerns about and recycling and waste management. However,
sacred natural landscapes, animals, and objects, these efforts are still minuscule compared to the
local displacement due to tourism-oriented size of the industry.
▶ development, or compromised local livelihood In particular, if current patterns of economic
due to restrictions on customary use of natural growth, boosted primarily by the emergence of the
▶ resources, community engagement is central to new middle class in the BRICS countries (▶ Brazil,
the long-term viability of tourism in culturally and ▶ Russia, ▶ India, ▶ China, ▶ South Africa), con-
E
environmentally sensitive locations. tinue, ▶ international tourism will soon double in its
Studies on community-based tourism have indi- size. It is imperative that higher standards of envi-
cated the importance of grassroots and participa- ronmental quality and adoption of green practices
tory approaches to planning and development and become a social and cultural norm within tourism.
listening to voices of those in the margins of society A new era of ecological ▶ economics which values
and politics (Campbell and Vainio-Mattila 2003). both market and nonmarket goods/services and
Environmental and social justice issues are main- internalizes environmental costs is critically needed
stream topics in geography, anthropology, sociol- as part of tourism’s ▶ corporate social responsibil-
ogy, and political science. But they have not been ity. In other words, environmentality should not
examined to their fullest potential in the context of merely remain an ideal, but must be incorporated
tourism. Concerns about ▶ sustainability and its in the imaginations and practices of individuals,
applications in studies on pro-poor, responsible, communities, corporations, and governments
volunteer, and ethical tourism signal to a promising when dealing with tourism.
era that puts environment and society front and
center on behalf of those directly affected by tour- See also ▶ Community development, ▶ ecol-
ism. They include ethnic communities, minority ogy, ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ resource,
populations, and displaced and socially marginal- ▶ sustainability.
ized groups. The extractive and exploitative prac-
tices of tourism on people, wildlife, and the
environment in many destinations around the References
world have brought to light the critical need for a
Budowski, G. 1976 Tourism and Environmental Conser-
socially just ▶ governance of environmental vation: Conflict, Coexistence, or Symbiosis? Environ-
resources that puts its focus on local stakeholders. mental Conservation 3(1):27-31.
Butler, R., and T. Hinch, eds. 2007 Tourism and Indigenous
Peoples. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Campbell, L., and A. Vainio-Mattila 2003 Participatory
Environmental practices and prospects Development and Community-based Conservation:
Opportunities Missed for Lessons Learned? Human
The debates around green practices in tourism are Ecology 31:417-437.
now more than two decades old. Sustainable tour- Demeritt, D. 2002 What Is the “Social Construction of
Nature”? A Typology and Sympathetic Critique. Pro-
ism, fuzzy in its definition and conceptual under- gress in Human Geography 26:767-790.
pinnings, remains an elusive goal. Concepts such Holden, A., and D. Fennell, eds. 2013 The Routledge
as ▶ ecotourism, alternative development, and Handbook of Tourism and the Environment. Oxon:
community-based tourism have been introduced Routledge.
Nepal, S., and P. Way 2007 Comparison of Vegetation
as conscious efforts in greening the industry, both Conditions along Two Backcountry Trails in Mount
environmentally and socially. Going beyond a Robson Provincial Park (Canada). Journal of Environ-
simple marketing gimmick, major partners mental Management 82:240-249.
306 Epistemology
ongoing debate about the creation and validation

Epistemology of tourism knowledge and connected this debate
to the divide between academic (world of thought)
Heather Mair and Pooneh Torabian and professional (world of practice) endeavors.
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, Tourism scholarship has grown dramatically,
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada partly as a result of efforts to appraise its episte-
mological underpinnings. Such appraisals have
enhanced the understanding of the complexity
Epistemology is the philosophical approach to the not just of tourism itself but of the philosophical
study of knowledge. It centers one’s focus on how choices scholars make at every step of their
the world is or can be known and is concerned research, whether or not they are aware of them
with what shapes the ability to understand and (Botterill 2003). Moreover, viewing tourism
explain the world the way it is known. Consider- knowledge as shaped by particular research para-
ations of epistemology are intertwined with the digms and communicated through particular dis-
notion of ontology (the philosophical approach to courses or discursive practices encourages a
the study of reality or what exists in the world). deliberate engagement with notions of subjectiv-
Recently, researchers have destabilized previ- ity and objectivity and provokes a discussion of
ously held assumptions that knowledge exists in the processes and trends influencing all aspects of
an innate or a priori form, which can be discov- knowledge production. It thereby generates a crit-
ered or uncovered with the right process of ical accounting of how certain kinds of knowledge
inquiry. Embedded within a broader philosophy products (e.g., models and theories) and method-
of science, scholars are beginning to reflect on ological approaches to producing it (e.g., qualita-
their assumptions about what can be known tive or quantitative analyses) have been validated
about the world, to assess how knowledge is cre- and others marginalized. For instance, Aitchison
ated and valued, and to address the implications of (1996) sought to draw attention not only to the
seeking to understand the world in a extent to which positivist and post-positivist
particular way. research paradigms were long dominant in tour-
ism (and ▶ leisure) studies, she evaluated the
ways in which these particular forms of inquiry
Epistemological matters in tourism continued to be legitimated by gatekeepers
(editors and reviewers of scholarly journals, mem-
While concerns about epistemology and ontology bers of professional organizations, and leaders in
have been deeply influential in the social sciences academic institutions). More recent works high-
for some time, their effect on the ▶ development light the impact of Westernized (or colonialist)
of tourism studies has been more recent and var- assumptions on the formation of knowledge
ied. Attempts to assess the development of the (Butler and Hinch 2007) and the critique of
field led to accounts of its disciplinary influences postpositivist dominance has gathered steam,
(Jafari and Ritchie 1981) and yet many scholars leading to the advancement of, for example, crit-
have remained unconcerned with questions of ical, interpretivist, and indigenous approaches to
how tourism ▶ knowledge was gathered, evalu- tourism research.
ated, and shared. Tribe (1997) argued for a broad-
based discussion of the epistemology of tourism
and the legitimation of its research by evaluating Future directions
the field based not on its disciplinary roots but on
its methods of inquiry. By distinguishing between Collectively, these efforts to assess what is known
“knowing that” about tourism (propositional in tourism (and why) provides opportunities for
knowledge) and “knowing how” (procedural seeking out alternative ways of knowing, for argu-
knowledge), he contributed to what is now an ing that there is no one truth about tourism, and for
Equatorial Guinea 307
seeing the implications of its development and Botterill, D. 2003 An Autoethnographic Narrative on
scholarship in a new light. However, as students Tourism Research Epistemologies. Loisiretsociété
26:97-110.
grapple with the impacts of these epistemological Hollinshead, K. 2010 Tourism Studies and Confined
upheavals, anticipating the future of the world of Understanding: The Call for a “New Sense”
tourism scholarship is difficult. Moreover, as Postdisciplinary Imaginary. Tourism Analysis
Belhassen and Caton (2009) argue, appreciating 15:499-512.
Jafari, J., and J. Ritchie 1981 Towards a Framework
the processes by which knowledge about tourism for Tourism Education. Annals of Tourism Research
is constructed not only broadens the understand- 8:13-33.
ing of those processes but leaves scholars and Tribe, J. 1997 The Indiscipline of Tourism. Annals of
practitioners less certain about how to evaluate Tourism Research 24:638-657.
E
the quality of knowledge. Indeed, each epistemo-
logical standpoint relies on markedly different
criteria for ensuring that the knowledge produced
is useful and valuable. Equatorial Guinea
Moreover, the field is in the midst of a growing
debate about the very nature of knowledge, which Christine Boven and Nicolai Scherle
invites critical reflections on its multidisciplinary, International Management for Service Industries,
interdisciplinary, and even postdisciplinary status BiTS – Business and Information Technology
(Hollinshead 2010). As a scholarly community, it School GmbH, Iserlohn, Germany
is important that researchers become aware of the
growing array of research epistemologies and
come to terms with their own subjective responses Equatorial Guinea is the 141st largest country in
to those approaches as they make choices about the world (28,051 km2; 10,830 mi2). Located in
their own programs. Despite these challenges, Central Africa, with a population of 736,000
deepening considerations of the way tourism (in 2012), the country has a mainland area border-
knowledge is created and shared makes room for ing Cameroon and ▶ Gabon, as well as two
heretofore relatively silenced approaches, many islands: Pagalu and Bioko (Figure 1). Etymolog-
of which foreground questions of values, ically, Guinea is most probably derived from
▶ power, and voice; all issues are central to a
progressive approach to tourism scholarship and 6 NIGERIA 8 10
development.
4 4
MALABO
Luba
CAMEROON
See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ fieldwork, ▶ knowl- Isla de Bioko
Pico Basile
edge, ▶ methodology, ▶ multidisciplinarity.

Bight of
Biafra Ntem
Gulf of
2 Bata Ebebiyin 2
Guinea
Mbini
References Islas de Elobey
Evinayong
SAO TOME Isla de Corisco
AND Corisco
Aitchison, C. 1996 Patriarchal Paradigms and the Politics PRINCIPE Bay
of Pedagogy: A Framework for a Feminist Analysis of
Equator
Leisure and Tourism Studies. World Leisure and Rec- 0 0
reation 38(4):38-40. SOUTH ATLANTIC

Cape GABON
Lopez
Belhassen, Y., and K. Caton 2009 Advancing Understand- OCEAN
ings: A Linguistic Approach to Tourism Epistemology.
Isla de 0 50 100 km
Annals of Tourism Research 36:335-352. Annobón 8 0 50 100 mi
Butler, R., and T. Hinch 2007 Tourism and Indigenous
Peoples: Issues and Implications. Oxford: Butterworth-
Heinemann. Equatorial Guinea, Figure 1 Map of Equatorial Guinea
308 Equity
aginaoui: a Berber word meaning “black” of ▶ ecotourism. In view of the described com-
(Intemann et al. 1999). plex political and socioeconomic challenges the
In 2012, GDP was at US$17.697 bn and due in country has to meet, one can assume that Equato-
the last few years to growth in the oil industry. The rial Guinea will remain a ▶ destination which
country is rich in natural resources and exports predominantly attracts niche or individual tourists
wood from tropical forests, coffee, and cocoa. for the foreseeable future.
Equatorial Guinea has various, partly untapped,
mineral resources, such as titanium, iron, manga- See also ▶ Africa, ▶ biological diversity, ▶ eco-
nese, uranium, and gold (African Economic Out- tourism, ▶ ethnocentrism, ▶ flora and fauna.
look 2013; Berié et al. 2013).
In Equatorial Guinea, which belonged to
▶ Spain until 1968, the complex economic and References
sociocultural challenges of a postcolonial African
state are reflected in a paradigmatic way. Eco- African Economic Outlook 2013 Equatorial Guinea
www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/central-
nomic crises, ethnic tensions, underdeveloped
africa/equatorial-guinea (14 May 2014).
infrastructure, political instability, and corruption Berié, E., R. Gwardys, and C. Löchel 2013 Der neue
are significant factors, with the latter resulting in Fischer Weltalmanach 2014: Zahlen, Daten, Fakten.
aid programs being frequently discontinued. To Frankfurt/Main: Fischer.
Intemann, G., A. Snoussi-Zehnter, M. Venhoff, and
make matters even more difficult, the ▶ power
D. Wiktorin 1999 Diercke L€anderlexikon. Braun-
elites exclusively benefit from increasing profits schweig: Westermann.
from oil production in the country (Liniger- Liniger-Goumaz, M. 1988 Small is not Always Beautiful:
Goumaz 1988). The Story of Equatorial Guinea. London: Hurst.
Despite Equatorial Guinea’s bio-geophysical
ism Organization.
scope and cultural potential, tourism is
undeveloped. This is manifested in both the
extremely modest touristic infrastructure and the
lack of current and reliable statistics (UNWTO
2013). Equity
Its prevailing vegetation is the wet tropical
rainforest, which has been preserved best in the Blanca A. Camargo1 and Tazim Jamal2
1
Monte Alen National Park and the Luba Crater International Tourism Program, Universidad de
Scientific Reserve. Both national parks are known Monterrey, San Pedro Garza García, Mexico
2
for their diversified flora and fauna. The latter is Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism
reflected in a comparatively large population of Sciences, Texas A&M University, College
primates. In 2012, the government initiated a cam- Station, Texas, USA
paign for the protection of the natural landscapes
which are endangered most of all by the wood
industry as well as increasing urbanization. Equity is a key principle of ▶ sustainable tourism
The most important pull factors for culturally that addresses fairness in access, use, and distri-
induced tourism, especially the controversially bution of goods and benefits from tourism
discussed ▶ ethnic tourism, are the tribes with ▶ development, to meet the needs of both current
their rich material and intangible culture. Of par- and future generations. Initiated by the United
ticular interest are the Fang, well-known for their Nations, the World Commission on Environment
picturesque wooden masks and exotic-looking and Development (commonly referred to as the
relic containers shaped like heads or figures Brundtland Commission), addressed the issue of
(Intemann et al. 1999). equity in its influential report on sustainable
Due to the great biodiversity of the country, the development, Our Common Future (WCED
government intends to focus on the development 1987). It entails not only inter- and intra-
Equity 309
generational equity in development but also forwarded principles related to “difference” and
equity between the North and the South. “recognition” as important considerations in any
Acknowledging historic inequalities in develop- distribution scheme.
ment and resource use between the Western world
and the lesser developed nations, the commission
called for the “poor to get the fair share of the Application
resources required to sustain growth” and their
effective participation in decisionmaking pro- Tourism research is slowly beginning to under-
cesses so they can enforce their common interest take empirical work on justice and equity issues in
(1987: 8,47). Following this, the notion of “sus- tourism development, particularly with respect to
E
tainable tourism” also advocates for equitable use diverse, low income, and minority groups.
and distribution of goods and benefits related to Existing studies have revolved around three
development among all ▶ stakeholder groups. main topics: perceived fairness in pricing, ser-
The concept of equity has been widely vices, and compensation practices of hotels, res-
discussed in ▶ political science and political phi- taurants, and airlines; labor equity (▶ gender and
losophy. Several principles and perspectives have pay); and to a lesser degree, distribution and
been raised in terms of resource allocation: access to tourism resources, in particular, park
“equality” (all persons receive equal share of ben- and recreation sites. The last group of studies
efits), “equity” (a person’s benefits are equal to shows that, in regards to tourism development
his/her contributions to society), or “needs” and related resources, vulnerable, low income,
(individuals who have the most needs ought to and minority groups tend to benefit the least
receive the most benefits). Among various dis- from tourism and accrue the most negative
courses of distributive justice is the notion of impacts (including lack of equitable access to
“justice as fairness”, forwarded by the political natural and cultural resources used in the devel-
philosopher John Rawls in A Theory of Justice opment of tourism). Furthermore, they tend to
(1971). Rawls argues for a distribution of social have far less, if any, representation in tourism
and economic resources based on a hypothetical decisionmaking. The growing area of ▶ pro-poor
original position of equality in which no one is tourism research is oriented towards distribution
advantaged or disadvantaged by the outcome of of benefits to the poor, but what constitutes “equi-
natural chance or the contingency of social cir- table” distribution is surprisingly unclear, both
cumstances. But the fact that an original position conceptually and empirically in tourism research.
of equality was almost impossible to achieve Despite it being a key principle of sustainable
made Rawls reformulate his principle to hold tourism, scholars have been timid in their efforts
that the distribution of benefits and/or social and to theorize equity in tourism development. Lee
economic inequalities were just “only if they and Jamal (2008) drew upon concepts from envi-
result in compensating benefits for everyone, and ronmental justice to apply to tourism. In her dis-
in particular for the least advantaged members of sertation on justice issues for the minority Mayan
society” (1971: 15). population in Cozumel (▶ Mexico), Camargo
The emphasis on equity and equality in (2013) used the term “ecocultural justice” to high-
distributive justice was later strongly criticized light the indivisible link between culture and
by justice scholars such as Iris Marion Young nature, bringing attention to intangible factors,
(1990) and Nancy Fraser (1995, 2000) who such as human–environment and other cultural
argued that such egalitarian concerns were not relationships (especially among poorly
only elitist and dominant but also tended to represented minority, ethnic, and indigenous
focus exclusively on the distribution of material groups). Jamal and Camargo (2013) propose a
goods and ▶ resources, ignoring intangible preliminary framework for a “Just Destination”,
aspects related to ▶ culture, self-respect, and and use “ecocultural equity” to refer to the equi-
voice in decisionmaking. These scholars table, fair distribution of goods, costs, and benefits
310 Eritrea
from tourism development, ▶ marketing, and pro- WCED 1987 Our Common Future: Report of World Com-
motion. Distributive justice here involves the dif- mission on Environment and Development. New York:
Oxford University Press.
ferent stakeholder groups at the ▶ destination, Young, I. 1990 Justice and the Politics of Difference.
using Rawlsian principles to emphasize paying Princeston, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
close ▶ attention to disadvantaged populations,
low income, diverse, and minority groups.
Future directions Eritrea

While studies are slowly emerging to address Babu P. George1 and Magnus Treiber2
1
issues of equity in tourism, much more needs to Department of Management, College of
be done to ensure that tourism development, Business and Entrepreneurship, Fort Hays State
▶ management, and marketing minimize its role University, Hays, KS, USA
2
in creating or exacerbating inequities. It is impor- Department of Anthropology, University of
tant to identify and critique economic, social, and Bayreuth, Bayreuth, Germany
environmental injustices, while directing greater
attention to matters of cultural equity, gender
equity, and access to tourism by people with dis- Eritrea is a small country at the shores of the Red
abilities. Theoretical perspectives from other dis- Sea (125,000 km2). Located in the Horn of Africa
ciplines and areas of studies, such as postcolonial with a population of less than 6.5 million (2014
studies, gender and (eco)feminism, ethics, and estimation), it is bordered by the ▶ Sudan, ▶ Ethi-
political philosophy can help enrich the knowl- opia, and ▶ Djibouti (Figure 1).
edge base and facilitate more critical lenses Eritrea’s potential attractions for tourism
through which to examine and alleviate past and include beach holidays at Gurgusum near
current inequities in the places and spaces of Massawa or at Assab, diving in the Red Sea,
tourism. hiking in the mountains, volcano safaris through
See also ▶ Ethics, ▶ impact, ▶ sustainability.

39 42
SAUDI
18
ARABIA 18
References SUDAN
Red
Nak’fa Sea
Camargo, B. 2013 Justice and Fairness in Tourism:
A Grounded Theory Study of Cultural Justice in DAHLAK
ARCHIPELAGO
Quintana Roo, Mexico. Unpublished Doctoral Disser- Keren
Ak’ordat Massawa
tation, Texas A&M University, USA.
Fraser, N. 1995 From Redistribution to Recognition? ASMARA
Mendefera 15
Dilemmas of Justice in a “Post-socialist” Age. New Badme Soira
Tio
YEMEN
Left Review 212:107-132. Kulul
Demarcation
DE DAN
Fraser, N. 2000 Rethinking Recognition. New Left Review Decision PR AK
Southern limit of the Line ES IL
3:107-120. former UN Temporary SI
ON
Jamal, T., and B. Camargo 2013 Sustainable Tourism, Security Zone
Assab
Justice and an Ethic of Care: Toward the Just Destina-
tion. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 22:11-30. Lake ETHIOPIA
Tana Doumera
Lee, S., and T. Jamal 2008 Environmental Justice and Island
12 12
Environmental Equity in Tourism: Missing Links to 0 50 100 km DJIBOUTI
39 0 50 100 mi 42
Sustainability. Journal of Ecotourism 7:44-67.
Rawls, J. 1971 A Theory of Justice. Cambridge: The
Belknap Press of Harvard University. Eritrea, Figure 1 Map of Eritrea
Error correction model 311
the Danakil Depression, ecological tourism to the See also ▶ Africa, ▶ cultural tourism, ▶ flora
precious fauna and flora in the Dahlak archipel- and fauna, ▶ visiting friend and relative,
ago, and the two nominal national parks, Gash- ▶ warfare tourism.
Setit in the western lowlands and Semenawi
Bahri, an evergreen cloud forest on the highlands’
scenic eastern escarpment. The country’s urban References
centers include historic cities rich in ▶ culture
that attest to an uneasy history of colonialism Arnone, A. 2011 Tourism and the Eritrean Diaspora.
Journal of Contemporary African Studies 29:441-454.
and liberation struggle (1961–1991).
Burns, P. 2000 Planning Tourism in a Reconstructing
While Asmara and Massawa offer several Economy: The Case of Eritrea. In The Political Econ- E
hotels of international standing, numerous omy of Tourism Development in Africa, P. Dieke, ed.,
guesthouses can also be found throughout the pp.98-112. Elmsford: Cognizant.
Denison, E., G. Ren, and N. Gebremedhin 2003 Asmara:
country. However, tourism ▶ infrastructure is
Africa’s Secret Modernist City. London: Merrell.
generally poor. Until the late 1990s, tourism Gebreyohanns, M. 2006 The State of Tourism in Eritrea:
▶ planning did not appear in the lexicon of public Tourism Development in the Dahlak Islands. MA
agencies (Burns 2000). Tourism ▶ development Thesis. Pretoria: University of Pretoria.
is not prioritized and lacks foreign ▶ investment,
though a 20-year plan has been announced
(Gebreyohanns 2006). Professional training is
limited to a hotel and tourism ▶ training center Error correction model
in Asmara.
Eritrea has not yet been able to fully leverage its Manuel Vanegas Sr1 and Jorge Ridderstaat2
1
potential despite the existence of varied natural and Department of Applied Economics, St. Paul,
cultural resources (Denison et al. 2003). Interna- University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, USA
2
tional sanctions, poor infrastructure, lack of trained Central Bank of Aruba, Oranjestad, Aruba
man power, perception of insecurity among
potential tourists, ineffective promotion, and
administrative restrictions are some of the Error correction modeling is a frequently applied
reasons that keep international tourists away. There- technique in tourism research, in part because of
fore, tourism is of minor importance within the the dynamic character of the ▶ phenomenon. The
country’s GDP. Reliable information is not ▶ model allows long-term elements of variables
available. One segment, however, that Eritrea can to be in line with equilibrium constraints, while
reliably trust is its ▶ diaspora; ▶ visiting friends short-term elements could have a dynamic condi-
and relatives, tourism has helped the country to tion (Engle and Granger 1987). It has been noted
build its current tourism infrastructure (Arnone that the sign of the error correction coefficient
2011). (or the speed of adjustment) is always negative,
While the traditional basis of Eritrean society providing corrective response to the deviation
has largely been transformed, the nation’s politi- from the long-term equilibrium.
cal practices remain rooted in culturally bound The model is popular and important for several
authoritarian values. Despite its lack of develop- reasons (Asteriou 2006). First, it is a convenient
ment, the country has one unique advantage over model that allows for correction of the disequilib-
many of its competitors: it is a newly independent rium of the previous period. Second, it resolves
nation, which has very little historical “baggage,” the problem of spurious regressions by employing
and consequently can start its developmental first difference formulations in the model. Third, it
efforts from a clean slate. In this context, tourism fits easily into the general-to-specific approach to
planners in Eritrea should examine successful econometric modeling, because it searches for the
models elsewhere and adapt them to suit the most parsimonious model that best fits the avail-
nuanced needs of the country. able data sets. Finally, the equilibrium error term
312 Escape
is stationary, meaning that there is some adjust- Pesaran, M., Y. Shin., and R. Smith 2001 Bound Testing
ment process that prevents the errors in the long- Approaches to the Analysis of Level Relationships.
Journal of Applied Econometrics 16:289-326.
run relationship to become larger and larger. Song, H., S. Witt., and G. Li 2009 The Advanced Econo-
Various procedures for estimating the error metrics of Tourism Demand. New York: Routledge.
correction model have been proposed (Song Vanegas, M. 2009 Tourism Demand Response by Resi-
et al. 2009). For example, the autoregressive dis- dents of Latin American Countries. International Jour-
nal of Tourism Research 11:17-29.
tributed lag modeling approach to ▶ co-
integration (Pesaran et al. 2001) has been applied
in several types of tourism studies, including tour-
ism ▶ demand modeling and ▶ forecasting and
assessment of relationships between tourism and Escape
other variables (economic growth). The estimates
would serve as guidance for successful tourism Philip L. Pearce
▶ planning, promotion, and ▶ management. College of Business Law and Governance, James
Policy makers and private investors in tourism Cook University, Townsville, Australia
should clearly understand the relevance of this
model as a sophisticated and costly procedure.
Otherwise, its value remains within the domains The concept that individuals on ▶ holiday are
of the researchers and scholars. As Vanegas motivated by a desire to escape is a central factor
(2009: 27) noted, however, with respect to model- in a suite of motivational explanations for tourism.
ing, it is important to remember that all models are It appears in a number of forms and disciplinary
appropriate; different models are simply appropri- formats. The sociologists Cohen and Taylor
ate for different things. In this regard, any (1976) locate escape for holidays in a broader set
dynamic tourism ▶ regression equation fitted to of what they label “escape attempts,” which they
aggregate time-series data is at best an approxi- define as purposeful pathways individuals choose
mation to the underlying structure within a narrow to free themselves from everyday roles and the
domain of movement in the set of independent pressures of life. In formulating notions of stress-
variables. ful cores and desirable peripheries, both the early
In this context, communication with the public geographers and sociologists implicitly built the
is a must. But most people are not professional idea of escape into their models of ▶ tourist move-
users of econometric information and, therefore, ments (Christaller 1963).
do not have clearly defined needs or demands Moreover, the anthropologists have considered
relating to the specific of the model. Future escape attempts with an approach to ▶ travel,
research should look at other means of communi- involving the symbolic crossing of thresholds
cation, in addition to the journal domain in dis- and moving into liminoid spaces (Turner and
seminating scientific or tourism research Turner 1978). In these spaces, there is some
information to the general public. escape from the rules and social regulations and
the opportunity, to some extent, to be not only
See also ▶ Co-integration, ▶ demand modeling, somewhere else but also someone else. The early
▶ econometrics, ▶ quantitative research. motivation theorists in tourism identified escape
as one of a set of motive items for holiday taking.
References More recently, Pearce (2011) has identified
escape, together with the relaxation and relation-
Asteriou, D. 2006 Applied Econometrics: A Modern ship needs, as a generic central core of a travel
Approach – Using eViews and Microfit. Basingstoke: career pattern model of tourist motivation. The
Palgrave Macmillan.
Engle, R., and C. Granger 1987 Co-Integration and Error
enthusiasm for using the term escape is further
Correction: Representation, Estimation, and Testing. reflected in the writing about travel behavior by
Econometrica 55:251-276. Bowen and Clarke (2009) and Molz (2012).
Escape 313
Defining characteristics The challenge from digital connectivity
In all approaches, escape is depicted as a push There is an important contemporary reevaluation

motive connoting some undesirable forces in of and challenge to the escape concept. The ability
everyday life and possibly a degree of alienation to maintain contact with individuals and organi-
from the home society. The concept thus sub- zations in one’s home world while traveling or on
sumes both the desire for novelty and change holiday demands a reevaluation of the continuing
and the temporary release of some ongoing applicability of the term. Pearce and Gretzel
stresses and anxieties. The format and style of (2012) refer to ongoing communication links
the escape is open-ended. For some, it may mean among tourists and their home community as dig-
E
luxurious resort-based consumerism in a physi- ital elasticity. They suggest that the earlier models
cally novel environment; for others, it can be of escape built on notions of crossing thresholds
camping in a local national park or natural setting and journeying to locations where communication
with minimal amenities. There is no necessary and contact with the home-based life was minimal
linkage in the escape concept to other tourism are no longer applicable. Instead the tourists’
notions, such as the desire for authenticity or experiences are relayed to those at home.
▶ slow tourism. Further, professional colleagues may require
In the lives of some tourists, the escape responses to urgent issues or even seek out opin-
episodes may become a routine in themselves ions on trivial matters. The contemporary assump-
with favorite holiday locations revisited on a tion that everyone is available all of the time is
regular basis. By way of contrast, novel short sometimes mocked, but the reality for many indi-
break holidays are often promoted using a viduals is that their escape attempts are known,
tagline emphasizing the spontaneity of the easy monitored, and not always respected. In this con-
escape. Senior ▶ recreation vehicle users in temporary digital elasticity, there may be an
some Western countries have extended the occasional opportunity to escape into a dead
duration of their holidays, often spending zone, one where there is no social media or inter-
months at a time in sunnier locations where net presence due to remoteness or induced by an
they escape the cold and possibly the humdrum organization blocking out communication signals.
life of their base community. The open-ended This represents more than switching off one’s
nature of the escape concept reduces its value in phone or computer, but instead involves a delib-
any tight predictive sense in terms of ▶ destina- erate choice to spend time away from the commu-
tion or activity choice, as its meaning has to be nication grid. Such dead zones may be
explored in an ideographic rather nomothetic appreciated as a new form of escape. The rise of
sense. a few specialist resorts and health centers offering
Thinking about a holiday based on escape from this new form of freedom from daily pressures and
difficult personal work or relationship circum- social attention is a small trend with possibly an
stances may be central to the anticipation expanding future.
phase of tourism. Dreaming about an escape The desire for escape has been conceived
attempt in the future, even the distant future, within a Western cultural context. The extent to
may be a part of the fantasy world of some which this theme applies cross-culturally is one
would-be tourists. In this kind of escape, the area for further and considerable research atten-
value to the individual may lie in the simple tion. Further, in line with the research on travel
possibility of contemplating, leaving the career patterns, the ways in which the motivation
stressful circumstances. In effect, this can be of escape changes across an individual’s travel
a recurring psychological benefit rather career are also worthy of attention. The possibility
than being dependent on the direct physical exists, but needs to be tested, that as travelers
escape process of experiencing the highs of travel become more experienced, escape plays a differ-
itself. ent role in their pattern of motives.
314 Estonia
See also ▶ Anticipation, ▶ experience, ▶ moti-

vation, ▶ phenomenology. Estonia
Rein Ahas
Department of Geography, University of Tartu,
References Tartu, Estonia
Bowen, D., and J. Clarke 2009 Contemporary Tourist

Behavior: Yourself and Others as Tourists. Walling-
ford: CABI.
Estonia is a country with an area of 45,227 km2
Christaller, W. 1963 Some Considerations of Tourism (17,462 mi2) and a population of 1.3 million. It is
Location in Europe: The Peripheral Regions. Regional located by the Baltic Sea, is rich in forests, and
Science Association Papers 12:95-105. borders ▶ Finland, ▶ Sweden, ▶ Russia, and
Cohen, S., and L. Taylor 1976 Escape Attempts.
Harmondsworth: Penguin.
▶ Latvia (Figure 1). Tourism plays an important
Molz, J. 2012 Travel Connections. London: Routledge. role in the Estonian economy, providing directly
Pearce, P. 2011 Tourist Behavior and the Contemporary 3 % of GDP while the overall ▶ impact of the
World. Bristol: Channel View. industry on national GDP reaches almost 9.5 %
Pearce, P., and U. Gretzel 2012 Dead Zone Tourism. Inter-
national Journal of Tourism Studies 12(2):1-20.
and 3.4 % of total employment. In 2012, 1.87
Turner, U., and E. Turner 1978 Image and Pilgrimage in million international tourists visited Estonia,
Christian Culture. New York: Columbia University staying 3.82 million nights, with a 0.966 million
Press. domestic tourists staying 1.72 million nights
22° 24° 26° 28° 30°
FINLAND
60° 60°
Gulf of Finland
Baltic
Sea Paldiski Muuga Kunda Narva
Tallinn Kohtla-
Järve
Paide
Haapsalu
Lake
Peipus RUSSIA
Saaremaa
Pärnu Tartu
island
Viljandi
Kuressaare Lake
Võrts- Pskov
58° järv 58°
it
tra
e S Gulf
Irb Valga
Suur
of Munamägi 0 25 50 75 km
Riga
LATVIA 0 25 50 mi
22° 24° 26° 28° 30°
Estonia, Figure 1 Map of Estonia

Ethics 315
(State Gazette 2013). In the same year, major mar- Jaakson, R. 1996 Tourism in Transition in Post-Soviet
kets were Finland (44 %), Russia (14 %), Germany Estonia. Annals of Tourism Research 23:617-634.
Saarinen, J., and T. Kask 2006 Transforming Tourism
(6 %), Latvia (5 %), and Sweden (4 %). Estonian Spaces in Changing Socio-Political Contexts: The
tourism is seasonal, with climax in July, but the Case of Parnu, Estonia, as a Tourist Destination. Tour-
off-season tourism is developing (Ahas et al. 2007). ism Geographies 10:452-473.
The first resorts appeared in Estonia in the first State Gazette 2013 The Estonian National Tourism Devel-
opment Plan for the Years 2014-2020 www.riigiteataja.
half of the nineteenth century with the establishment ee/aktilisa/3191/1201/3015/lisa.pdf (11 November).
of mud baths in the Baltic Sea town of Haapsalu, Worthington, B. 2003 Change in an Estonian Resort:
P€arnu, Kuressaare, and Narva-Jõesuu. Most of their Contrasting Development Contexts. Annals of Tourism
tourists arrived in nineteenth century from the cap- Research 30:369-385.
E
ital Tallinn, St. Petersburg, and Nordic countries
(Saarinen and Kask 2006). When Estonia gained
independence in 1918, resorts and beaches by the
Baltic Sea developed further and the governmental Ethics
tourism ▶ development started in the 1930s.
During the Soviet Union occupation from 1944 David Fennell
to 1991, the historical resorts by the Baltic Sea and Department of Tourism and Environment, Brock
the Old Town of Tallinn were important Soviet University, St. Catharines, Canada
tourism areas (Worthington 2003). Soviet Estonia
was militarized and mainly kept closed to interna-
tional tourists. The reopening of the seaway The history of ethics in tourism is relatively short.
between Helsinki and Tallinn in 1965 and the By the early 1990s, tourism scholars started turn-
regatta of the Moscow Olympic Games held in ing their attention, and this was mainly due to the
Tallinn in 1980 were significant steps in the devel- influence of two major events. The first was the
opment of tourism (Jaakson 1996). 1992 International Association of Scientific
Independence in 1991 caused an initial decline in Experts in Tourism Congress held in Paris. This
tourism, but ▶ tourist nights from Western countries conference proposed the creation of a commission
grew rapidly from 594,000 in 1994 to 3,823,000 to deal with ethical problems in tourism. The
nights in 2012. The main attraction is the Old Town second event was the 1992 Rio Earth Summit
of Tallinn which is visited by numerous cruiseships. (Agenda 21). Among other topics, it called upon
Tallinn is also a famous shopping, service, and businesses to adopt codes of ethics in their
“vodka tourism” center for Nordic countries practices.
(Worthington 2003). Other attractions include Saa- The earliest forays into tourism ethics research
remaa and Hiiumaa Islands, the University Town of were vital in surveying the theoretical landscape
Tartu, and communities of “Old Believers” by Lake of ethics. Scholars have discussed concepts such
Peipus. Tourism is taught at the University of Tartu, as reciprocal altruism as the root of good and bad
Tallinn University of Technology, Estonian Univer- relations between hosts and guests, as well as
sity of Life Sciences, and trade schools. Tourism is tourism issues tied to justice, deontology, the
managed by the Estonian Tourist Board. Golden Rule, human rights, environmental justice
and equity, and virtue ethics. Comprehensive
See also ▶ Forest tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ nature models were constructed for the purpose of better
tourism, ▶ resort development. understanding how existential, deontological, and
teleological perspectives could aid in ethical
decisionmaking. These works provided the back-
References drop for more intensive ventures into the subject.
Smith and Duffy (2003) and Fennell (2006) wrote
Ahas, R., A. Aasa, Ü. Mark, T. Pae, and T. Kull 2007 Seasonal
Tourism Spaces in Estonia: Case Study with Mobile Posi- the first large monographs on the topic of tourism
tioning Data. Tourism Management 28:898-910. ethics.
316 Ethics
The applied side of research is dominated by examined education for ethical action in tourism
studies on codes of ethics. General discussions on (Tribe 2002), work on virtue ethics and sustain-
the importance of codes in tourism were able pedagogy, the ethics of research itself, and
published, followed by more specific studies on even the organization of scholars in order to
targeted regions like Antarctica and the ▶ Arctic, advance tourism education. In this vein, the Tour-
as well as specific taxa like cetaceans. Beyond ism Education Futures Initiative focuses on how
codes of ethics, other applied fields have been education should adapt along the lines of steward-
useful in pushing the agenda forward. Holden ship, knowledge, professionalism, mutuality, and
(2003) argued that tourism is in need of a new ethics.
environmental ethic. Other scholars investigated
how corporate social responsibility could be used
to improve the practices of those working in the Unfolding inner layers
industry. Examples include work on ▶ aviation,
the hotel sector, and different destinations. A new area of research in tourism that is slowly
Business and marketing ethics have been used gathering momentum is animal ethics. For the first
consistently to discuss ethical issues relating to time, the investigation lens focused on the mil-
travel agents, competitive advantage, the supply lions of animals used in tourism: for sport, as
chain, performance of hotel managers, tourism workers, as captives, and in wildlife viewing.
entrepreneurs, and what passes as responsible There are a number of key theories that tourism
marketing. scholars can use to cast light on the rightness or
wrongness of these uses, including animal rights,
animal welfare, utilitarianism, ecofeminism,
Scope of tourism ethics ecocentrism, and contractarianaism (Fennell
2012). Any operation that compromises the health
An important area for ethics is in relation to tour- or wellbeing of animals used for human entertain-
ism types. ▶ Ecotourism took the early lead in this ment, including zoos, rodeos, aquaria, hunting,
respect, as researchers and practitioners argued fishing, and horse racing, remain open to debate.
that it ought to be more ethical than other types. Although ethics is regarded as a new platform
Scholars examined the ethics versus eco-sell in tourism (Macbeth 2005), its overall place and
aspects of green washing in ecotourism; they role continue to be modest at best. The reasons for
investigated its moral development and ▶ organi- this are not immediately evident. It may be that
zational culture, measured and compared its ethi- scholars trained in tourism have not had formal
cal nature with associated operations, and education in philosophy. It may also be that the
discussed how ecotourism advantages those in operations side of tourism prevails even among
power positions over others less fortunate on the scholars, and the industry is not going to invest in
basis of utilitarian theory. ethical action beyond what they view as appropri-
Other areas of emphasis include work on tour- ate best practice standards.
ism and lesser-developed countries, especially in Some scholars have argued that ethics in tour-
the context of disparities between those who do ism is rather like a wolf in sheep’s clothing, or that
and do not benefit from tourism. Related work ethical initiatives are really just an excuse to
includes ▶ social tourism (Higgins-Desbiolles behave in much the same way, but from a higher
2006), ▶ responsible tourism, fair trade tourism, moral platform. They believe that pleasure seek-
▶ pro-poor tourism, and poverty tourism. More ing is too regulated in the face of social and
recently, scholars have become interested in the environmental concerns. These challenges sug-
ethics of ▶ medical tourism, and ▶ sex tourism gest that the future of ethics in tourism is uncer-
has been a topic of debate since the 1990s. tain. However, there is a tremendous scope for
An area of research that is expanding is tourism research to take existing knowledge in new and
education and research ethics. Scholars have exciting directions.
Ethiopia 317
See also ▶ Corporate social responsibility,

▶ ecotourism, ▶ impact, ▶ pro-poor tourism,
▶ responsible tourism.
References
Fennell, D. 2012 Tourism and Animal Ethics. London:

Routledge.
Fennell, D. 2006 Tourism Ethics. Clevedon: Channel E
View.
Higgins-Desbiolles, F. 2006 More than an “Industry”: The
Forgotten Power of Tourism as a Social Force. Tourism
Holden, A. 2003 In Need of a New Environmental Ethic
for Tourism? Annals of Tourism Research 30:95-108.
Macbeth, J. 2005 Towards an Ethics Platform for Tourism.
Smith, M., and R. Duffy 2003 The Ethics of Tourism
Development. London: Routledge.
Ethiopia, Figure 1 Map of Ethiopia (Source: https://
Tribe, J. 2002 Education for Ethical Tourism Action. Jour-
nal of Sustainable Tourism 10:309-324.
geos/et.html)
2007 to $1.9 million in 2012, an increase of

152.9 %.
Ethiopia In 2012, tourism’s contribution to GDP and
▶ employment were 12.3 % and 10.6 % respec-
Tekle Shanka tively, and by 2023, tourism is forecast to contrib-
School of Marketing, Curtin Business School, ute 9.8 % to GDP and 8.5 % to employment
Curtin University, Perth, Australia (WTTC 2013). While the level of tourism
▶ industry is still at its infancy, there is significant
potential for further ▶ development. The country
Ethiopia, located on the Horn of Africa, is is endowed with rich cultural, historic, and natural
bounded by ▶ Djibouti, ▶ Somalia, ▶ Kenya, attractions, including seven attractions that have
▶ South Sudan, ▶ Sudan, and ▶ Eritrea been listed under the UNESCO ▶ world heritage
(Figure 1). It is the oldest independent country in sites. These are Axum’s Obelisks, monolithic
▶ Africa, covering an area of 1,127,127 km2 churches of Lalibela, the castles of Gondar, the
(435,186 mi2) and a population of 93,815,992 Omo Valley, Hadar (with its ▶ history dating back
million (2012 estimate). to 3.2 million years where the oldest human skel-
Ethiopia’s ▶ international tourism arrivals of eton “Lucy” was discovered), Tia’s curved stand-
468,000 in 2010 increased to 523,000 in 2011 ing stones, and the Simien National Park (World
(an increase of 11.7 %). Data for 2007–2011 Bank 2006).
showed a 13.5 % average annual growth over Tourism ▶ education and ▶ training in the
the years (UNWTO 2013). Arrivals from all country include the Catering and Tourism Train-
regions registered a healthy growth, with South ing Institute that offers students both diploma and
Asia outstripping arrivals from other regions over certificate programs, and Gondar and Debub Uni-
the 5-year period (albeit starting from a low base). versities which include a tourism or hotel man-
Receipts from international tourism also showed a agement program (World Bank 2006). The lack of
healthy growth rate from US$790 thousand in significant growth in tourism may be attributed to
318 Ethnic tourism
the low priority given to this industry in the past. with distinctive minority groups and the desire
However, the government, having realized its eco- of those groups to use aspects of their culture to
nomic, social, cultural, and political significance create economic opportunities. It provides the
in 2005, has created a new Ministry of Culture and chance for tourists to experience aspects of unique
Tourism, whose responsibility is to promote and cultures, landscapes, and ways of life. It has been
develop both domestic and international tourism widely adopted and promoted as a strategy for
in Ethiopia. economic development and cultural preservation
To this end, public and private partnerships in in many countries throughout the world, particu-
developing ▶ sustainable tourism policy that larly as many such minority groups are relatively
encourages multifaceted stakeholders as disadvantaged when compared to the majority
highlighted by the World Bank study are now population and their culture may be viewed as
under way. However, the necessity for a timely one of their strongest assets.
research into the ▶ performance of all sectors of
the tourism industry, which hitherto is lacking,
should be a priority for measuring the effective- Framing ethnic tourism
ness of its tourism ▶ marketing campaigns.
The literature offers numerous definitions of “eth-
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ Africa, ▶ cul- nic tourism.” Smith defined it as tourism
tural tourism, ▶ destination marketing organiza- “marketed to the public in terms of the ‘quaint’
tion, ▶ image. customs of indigenous and often exotic peoples”
(1977: 2). Van den Berghe (1992) described it as
the search for authentic encounters with other
References ethnicities, involving complex relations and a
division of labor among three groups: tourists,
UNWTO 2013 Fact Book: Ethiopia. Madrid: World Tour- tourees (natives who modify their behavior to
ism Organization www.eunwto.org/content/v486k6/?
meet tourism demands), and middlemen (brokers
k=%28Country%3a%28%22Ethiopia%22%29%29&
sort=Country&sortorder=asc (26 November). who mediate tourist-touree encounters). This is
World Bank 2006 Ethiopia. In Makeda’s Footsteps: exemplified by tourism in ▶ Panama by studying
Towards a Strategy for Pro-Poor Tourism the San Blas Indians and in ▶ India by observing
Development http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
the isolated hill tribes of Assam. Activities typi-
INTETHIOPIA/Resources/ET_Tourism_Strategy.pdf
(20 November 2013). cally include visiting ethnic villages, native
WTTC. 2013. Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact homes, and ethnic themeparks and involvement
2013: Ethiopia. London: World Travel and Tourism in ethnic events and festivals, eating local foods,
Council.
watching traditional dances and ceremonies, and
shopping for handicrafts and other souvenirs.
Most ethnic tourism studies concentrate on
visits to exotic and often peripheral destinations,
Ethnic tourism which involve performances that portray and rep-
resent selected aspects of small, often isolated,
Li Yang ethnic groups (Smith 1989). However, some
Department of Geography, Western Michigan scholars have suggested that ethnic tourism
University, Kalamazoo, USA should also include travel to explore ethnicity in
other locations, as in diaspora tourism or ▶ visit-
ing friends and relatives (King 1994). ▶ Travel for
Ethnic tourism is motivated by tourists’ search for the purpose of ethnic reunion is a substantial
exotic cultural experiences through interaction activity in the countries of North America and
Ethnic tourism 319
Australasia whose recent history has been built on enhanced standard of living. Beneficial sociocul-
migration, and it is also significant in other parts tural impacts on host communities have also been
of the world, including ▶ Africa, ▶ Europe, and widely reported, such as the restoration, preserva-
Asia. Also, growth in urban ethnic tourism has tion, and revitalization of ethnic attributes that
been focused on urban neighborhoods and ethnic were dying out or formerly seen as symbols of
enclaves in large multicultural cities where dis- backwardness, growing self-confidence among
tinctive Other cultures can be readily accessed young people, and an improved community
through ethnic restaurants and local festivals. image held by both residents and the majority
The terms “▶ aboriginal tourism” and “indig- population in which it is embedded. Thus, ethnic
enous tourism” are sometimes employed inter- tourism, done well, can strengthen ethnic identity
E
changeably with “ethnic tourism” to refer to through increasing pride in and respect for minor-
essentially the same phenomenon. However, ity culture.
aboriginal or indigenous tourism explicitly
involves indigenous people, whereas ethnic tour-
ism also includes visiting minority people and The future of ethnic tourism
associated attractions that are not necessarily
based on indigenous cultures. Ethnic tourism has been promoted as a develop-
ment strategy for poverty reduction in poor ethnic
regions, particularly those whose original
Impacts of ethnic tourism populations have suffered from the ravages of
colonialism, and this is likely to continue. How-
Ethnic tourism is a mixed blessing for host ever, the initiatives have often been stimulated by
populations because of its mixed positive and governments and external entrepreneurs with
negative consequences. Early studies often minimal consultation with the people whose cul-
portrayed it as a destructive force that undermines ture is being sold through tourism. The result is
traditional cultures and causes problems for host that key decisions and many of the benefits of
communities such as increased social tension, ethnic tourism do not accrue to the ethnic com-
sociocultural breakdown, and an erosion of iden- munities whose cultures are being celebrated.
tity and the sense of place (Smith 1977). This Thus, the most important challenge for the
occurs as a result of the commodification of cul- future is to develop forms of ethnic tourism that
ture and the modification and destruction of the are more inclusive, that respect traditional knowl-
meanings of cultural expressions (Cohen 1988). edge and ways of doing things, and that empower
Such commercial exploitation of culture has been minority people who, for generations, have often
widely criticized as resulting in the “bastardiza- been the casualties rather than the beneficiaries of
tion” and “pollution” of previously authentic cul- history.
tures for the purpose of touristic display (Wood There is substantial literature on economic,
1997). Some studies have reported the creation of social, cultural, and environmental dimensions
“phony folk cultures” to meet many tourists’ of such tourism (Smith 1989; Wood 1997).
desires for and satisfaction with superficial and While much is known about ethnic tourism, little
staged exposures to cultural Otherness (Smith effort has been made to link these insights to its
1977). planning, development, and management. Yang
On the other hand, ethnic tourism can also lead and Wall (2009) have undertaken such work in
to positive economic, cultural, and political ▶ China and have suggested that future research
effects (Smith 1989; Yang and Wall 2009), espe- will be most valuable if ethnic tourism studies are
cially economic impacts through creating employ- linked more closely with its planning research and
ment opportunities and incomes, leading to an practice.
320 Ethnicity
See also ▶ Aboriginal tourism, ▶ community- ethnic relations, both spatially and numerically,
based tourism, ▶ cultural tourism, involving hundreds of millions of people annually
▶ performance. worldwide. Even where the purpose of the trip is
not an ethnic encounter, such as in ▶ nature tour-
ism, contacts with foreign guides and natives are
References
inevitable. This may involve out-of-the-ordinary
Cohen, E. 1988. Authenticity and Commoditization in behavior, including conversing in a foreign
Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 15: 371-386. language.
King, B. 1994. What is Ethnic Tourism? An Australian Ethnic contact through tourism has a number
Perspective. Tourism Management 15: 173-176. of special features. It is one of the most peaceful
Smith, V. 1977. Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of
Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. forms of ethnic contacts, in part because tourists
Smith, V. 1989. Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of avoid violent places. Thus, peace is almost a pre-
Tourism, 2nd ed. Philadelphia: University of Pennsyl- condition of tourism. Yet, differences in wealth,
vania Press. language, behavior, and goals between tourists
Van den Berghe, P. 1992. Tourism and the Ethnic Division
of Labor. Annals of Tourism Research 19: 234-249. and residents might lead one to expect frequent
Wood, R. 1997. Tourism and the State. In Tourism, conflicts. However, violence between the host and
Ethnicity, and the State in Asian and Pacific guest population is strikingly rare, though annoy-
Societies, ed. M. Picard and R. Wood, 1-34. Honolulu: ance is common. Mutual accommodation of
University of Hawaii Press.
Yang, L., and G. Wall. 2009. Ethnic Tourism: behavior among total strangers is remarkably
A Framework and an Application. Tourism Manage- effective. Relentless pursuit of respective interests
ment 30: 559-570. prevails: material benefit for the native and plea-
surable curiosity for the ▶ tourist.
This is true in spite of features that would lead
Ethnicity one to expect much strain and conflict. What
could be a better recipe for mistrust, deceit, and
Pierre L. van den Berghe abuse than interaction between strikingly different
Department of Sociology, University of strangers who meet for a short time and are
Washington, Seattle, USA unlikely to meet again? To be sure, there is a lot
of “cheating” involved in tourism, notably
inflated prices, but petty deceit is good-humoredly
A key feature of tourism is the quest for experi- expected, and even built into the relationship. It
ences distinct from regular, daily life. This may be may even become part of the game (as in
combined with other activities (lunch, confer- bargaining) and does little to detract from the
ence), but it is still pursued in its own right as success of the interaction, even in the absence of
something intrinsically rewarding. Since tourism a specialized tourist police.
involves getting away from home, it can fre-
quently put one in contact with people ethnically
different in some degree. Even a short trip, such as Ethnic tourism
a drive to a Thai restaurant in Boston, ▶ United
States, means encounters with “exotic” waiters The nexus between tourism and ethnicity
and customers whose very presence validates the becomes especially dense in ▶ ethnic tourism
experience (MacCannell 1976; Smith 1989). (van den Berghe 1994; van den Berghe and
Keyes 1984). In this form of tourism, the encoun-
ter with the ethnic “Other” is not merely a side
Tourism and ethnic relations effect of some other search (such as collecting
butterflies or learning to scuba dive), but the
Tourism and ethnicity go hand in hand. Indeed, very purpose of the trip. The active search for
tourism is probably the most extensive form of “authentic” foreign cultures creates a complex
Ethnocentrism 321
system of interactions among tourists, natives, of historical sites with live actors (such as Wil-
and intermediaries. liamsburg in the United States).
The tourist seeks “real” cultural Otherness. The It is commonplace to accuse tourism of
native becomes a subject of observation who pro- destroying ethnic diversity and promoting bland cul-
vides the Otherness and, in the interaction process, tural homogenization. To be sure, tourism can be
becomes a “touree” who often modifies his or her destructive of both nature and culture. Tourists them-
behavior and dress style to create authenticity. The selves often detest other tourists and the touristy sites
touree is essentially on show: with or without con- their presence has created. Entire cities, like Bruges
sent, he or she is the spectacle. This form of (▶ Belgium) and Venice (▶ Italy), can become so
interethnic contact often escalates into demands saturated with tourism that they lose their realness
E
for payment for picture taking. From there, it is and mute into Disneylands. Sites are said to have a
but a short step to actively seeking to attract tourist tourist carrying capacity which must not be
attention by modifying one’s behavior and dressing exceeded. Yet, ethnic tourism also has a creative
the part. Clothing becomes costume. Natural aspect. Commercialization can promote cultural
behavior becomes stereotyped acting. diversity and even create entirely new cultural prod-
The entire tourist scene is catered to, facili- ucts which, in time, become accepted as authentic by
tated, and organized by a class of middlemen both tourists and natives. Future research on ethnic
who provide the services (transport, food, lodg- tourism can benefit from the blend of the researcher
ing), venues for encounters (escorted tours of as a participant observer with tourists who frequently
markets, social events), and even specially staged have time to spare for interviews.
shows of recreated or invented authenticity for
tourist consumption (voodoo rituals, hula dances, See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ authenticity,
folkloric ballets, and the like). ▶ cross-cultural study, ▶ ethnic tourism, ▶ Peru.
References
Staged authenticity
Cohen, E. 1988 Authenticity and Commoditization in
In this complex process of cultural performance Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 15:371-86.
and invention, entirely new cultural products may MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the
emerge, thereby obliterating the line between the Leisure Class. New York: Schocken.
Smith, V., ed. 1989 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of
authentic and the fake (Cohen 1988). A massive Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
example of this process is what happens annually van den Berghe, P. 1994 The Quest for the Other. Seattle:
in Cuzco, ▶ Peru, around the winter solstice (June University of Washington Press.
in the Southern Hemisphere). A complex blend of van den Berghe, P., and C. Keyes 1984 Introduction, Tour-
ism and Re-created Ethnicity. Annals of Tourism
Catholic processions and an Inca solstice ritual Research 11:343-51.
spectacularly staged in the massive ruins of a
fortress fill the city of Cuzco with tens of thou-
sands of tourists for much of June.
Practically every country engages in staged cul- Ethnocentrism
tural authenticity, often with government support.
This takes the form of “sound and light” shows in Vincent Platenkamp
archaeological sites; miniature maquettes of entire Centre for Cross Cultural Understanding, NHTV
countries, stressing regional variety; entirely recre- University of Applied Sciences, Breda,
ated, full-scale villages covering various styles of The Netherlands
traditional architecture; innumerable folkloric
shows covering a variety of ethnic styles of music
and dancing; revivals of moribund theatrical tradi- The original anthropological definition of ethno-
tions or sacred dances; and wholesale recreations centrism comes from Sumner: “the view that
322 Ethnography
one’s own group is the center of everything, and beings, cultures, ideas, politics, movies, songs. It
all others are scaled and rated with reference to it” rejoices in mongrelization and fears the absolut-
(1906: 13). Stereotyping implies an attempt to ism of the Pure. Mélange, hotchpotch, a bit of this
understand others, while ethnocentrism starts and a bit of that is how newness enters the world.
with feelings of superiority over others, who do It is the great possibility that mass ▶ migration
not know the right way of doing things according gives the world” (1991: 394). In prospect, the
to the higher standards. emergence of diverse tourism networks and the
Although incomplete, studies of the other cul- intermingling of various cultural elements in
tures can stimulate relativization of one’s own worldwide destinations are creating a need for
culture. The difficulty is to not abandon every more understanding of new possibilities of
claim of universality or normativity that goes postcolonial analyses with this leading concept
with such a relativist position. If each point of of cosmopolitan contamination, in which tourism
view is of equal value, relative to the group an is an area in society where this need is most
individual belongs to, in the name of what univer- vividly experienced.
sal principle can any form of ethnocentrism be
resisted? See also ▶ Decolonization, ▶ Eurocentrism,
Some positive associations have been attrib- ▶ nationalism, ▶ orientalism, ▶ stereotype.
uted to ethnocentrism. It stimulates a strong social
▶ identity and increases self-esteem, group ▶ loy-
alty, group survival, and the reduction of internal References
problems. Part of the ▶ culture consists of this
type of ▶ knowledge about other groups. It struc- Appiah, K. 2007 Cosmopolitanism. London: Penguin.
Hall, M., and H. Tucker, eds., 2004 Tourism and
tures one’s social life, although a relevant part of
Postcolonialism. London: Routledge.
this knowledge may be classified as ignorance. On Rushdie, S. 1991 Imaginary Homelands: Essays and Crit-
the negative side, it hinders groups to learn from icism, 1981-1991. London: Granta.
each other and it can feed fear, anger, and hatred Saïd, E. 1979 Orientalism: Western Conceptions of the
Orient. London: Penguin.
with damaging conflicts as a consequence.
Sumner, W. 1906 Folkways. New York: Ginn.
In tourism studies, ethnocentrism (and ▶ cos-
mopolitanism as its opposite) is a crucial concept.
For example, in a postcolonial context (Hall and
Tucker 2004), an assumed Western feeling of
superiority often dominates the scene in faraway, Ethnography
tropical destinations where local people are said to
be close to nature and do not speak English very Heidi Dahles
well (Said 1979). In order to struggle against this Department of International Business and Asian
Western ethnocentrism, ▶ community-based tour- Studies, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD,
ism should try to include the voices of the locals in Australia
a non-manipulative and nonhierarchical manner.
This is not meant to lead to “nativism,” according
to which locals are right because they are locals. It Ethnography refers to both the methodology of
only means that the previously excluded voices doing fieldwork and the ensuing product, namely,
are now included in the decisionmaking process. ethnographic writing. ▶ Fieldwork implies a
In this hybrid world beyond postcolonialism, long-term involvement with the people under
cosmopolitan contamination (Appiah 2007) could study, sharing their lives and conversing with
become an inspiring alternative. As Rushdie them in their own terms and in their own lan-
puts it, “it celebrates hybridity, impurity, guage. The aim of fieldwork is to gain an
intermingling, the transformation that comes of in-depth understanding of the ways in which peo-
new and unexpected combinations of human ple construct their world and give meaning to their
Ethnography 323
lives. The findings of fieldwork are compiled in a the 1960s. In the 1970s, there was increasing
book or monograph, which is called an “ethnog- recognition among scholars that tourist activity
raphy.” Such publications offer detailed descrip- had important cultural, social, and economic
tions of the specific area of study and convey a implications (Graburn 1983). The significance of
sense of “being there,” reflecting the polyphony of tourism as a key area for the understanding of
the people under study. social and cultural change worldwide was
convincingly illustrated by Hosts and Guests:
The Anthropology of Tourism, a collection of tour-
Traditions in ethnography ism ethnographies edited by Smith (1977).
Another important advocate of ethnography is
E
The tradition of doing fieldwork originated in the Annals of Tourism Research, the leading aca-
1920s with the anthropologist Bronislaw demic journal that has significantly contributed
Malinowski’s (1988–1942) research among to the acceptance of ethnographic research in
the Trobriand Islanders in the South this field.
Pacific. Malinowski established that an under- Ethnographers have typically been critical
standing of the world through the eyes of the toward tourism. Viewing it as an agent of change,
“natives” can only be gained through participating many ethnographers (claiming to voice the
in and observing the everyday lives of people in “natives’ point of view”) have disapproved of
their natural settings. Hence, “participant obser- tourism on account of its being the major cause
vation” is considered as the cornerstone of doing of perceived social problems (Nash and Smith
fieldwork. Participant observation draws on a mix 1991). MacCannell’s (1976) seminal work, The
of mainly qualitative research techniques such as Tourist: A New Theory of the Leisure Class, reads
structured and conversational interviews, ques- like a critique of tourism as a feature of modernity,
tionnaires, focus groups, photography and video lamenting the loss of cultural identity and the
documentation, and the collection of artifacts and authenticity of local culture.
analysis of written and digital sources. Much ethnographic writing focuses on hosts
In terms of data gathering, ethnography is and has contributed substantially to understanding
widely known and has become adjusted to the tourism’s impacts on local communities. Ethno-
foci of different academic disciplines. However, graphic data offer rich illustrations of its role in
“writing ethnography” remains largely confined changing particular local communities and
to the discipline of anthropology. Among transforming or reinforcing ethnic hierarchies
postmodern anthropologists, the writing has and power relations within and across nation
turned into a reflexive process in which ethnogra- states. Ethnographic writing, sensitive to the
phers critically assess their role in research and contextual and situational nature of locally
manuscripts become multi-vocal accounts generated findings, offers a comprehensive expla-
capturing the diversity of views of multiple nation of its development at large, by acknowl-
stakeholders. edging the diversity of perspectives on the merits
and shortcomings of tourism as an agent of
change. These specific attributes qualify
Ethnography in tourism studies ethnographic research as a relevant approach to
▶ community-based tourism, providing
In contrast to other areas of multidisciplinary in-depth data that can help establish appropriate
study, ethnography is well established among the planning and policies. Conversely, ethnographic
research methodologies in tourism studies where research shows how travel experiences impact
the technique is firmly rooted in the “▶ anthropol- on tourists’ perceptions of the destinations
ogy of tourism.” The first ethnographic work in visited. In marketing terms, these data relate to
the field of tourism is probably Nunez’s (1963) tourist satisfaction and the likelihood of return
study of weekend tourism in a Mexican village in visits.
324 eTourism
Future directions See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ autoethnography,

▶ fieldwork, ▶ methodology, ▶ visual
Increasingly, ethnographers engage in consulta- methodology.
tive roles within the tourism industry and govern-
ment bodies where ethnography is used to
underpin its planning. Ethnographic research has References
a role to play in identifying problems and propos-
ing alternatives in long-term tourism development Graburn, N. 1983 The Anthropology of Tourism. Annals of
plans. However, the full potential of ethnographic MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the
research methods for policymaking and planning Leisure Class. New York: Schocken.
has yet to be developed. Ethnography is particu- Nash, D., and V. Smith 1991 Anthropology and Tourism.
larly well equipped for coproducing knowledge Annals of Tourism Research 18:12-24.
Nunez, T. 1963 Tourism, Tradition and Acculturation:
with local stakeholders. Such knowledge is likely Weekendismo in a Mexican Village. Ethnology
to reveal underlying tensions and conflict that may 2:347-52.
affect tourism development and can help avoid Smith, V., ed. 1977 [1989] Hosts and Guests: The Anthro-
ill-conceived schemes. pology of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Penn-
sylvania Press.
A basic consideration is whether ethnography Urry, J. 2007 Mobilities. Cambridge: Polity Press.
(given its long-term empirical fieldwork and its
descriptive and detailed results) is suitable as a
research method for generating findings that may
be applied in ▶ planning and intervention strate-
gies. Tourism ethnographers requiring long-term eTourism
and unrestricted access to organizations and
receiving communities have to negotiate with Bing Pan
managers and executives in their capacity of gate- School of Business, College of Charleston,
keepers, benefactors, informants, employers, and Charleston, USA
critical audiences at the same time. With power
relations between managers and ethnographers
being rather unequal, the former may exert control Also known as travel technology or “eTravel,”
and censorship over the latter. Ethnographers may eTourism refers to a ▶ phenomenon and research
feel uncomfortable with the idea that their area in which the adoption of information and
research should be misused in providing strategies communication technology (ICT) by tourists and
of managerial control; they may prefer to pursue businesses transforms the processes and the value
their agenda of lending a voice to those who are chains in the ▶ industry. This development
silenced by hierarchy and ▶ power. changes the process within a business or organi-
In the era of globalization, as the interests of zation while reconfiguring the landscape of com-
ethnographers turn to new forms of mobility in merce (Buhalis 2003).
which transnational migration, social networking, As a service industry, tourism is specifically
business travel, and tourism merge and digitalize, influenced and transformed by the ICT develop-
conventional fieldwork will no longer be adequate. ment. Typically, its products are complex and
Fieldwork in transnational and virtual settings may intangible; its production and consumption are
require researchers to exchange their once territo- inseparable; its inventories of goods and services
rially bounded field site for a mobile and digital are perishable; and the consumption experience
approach (Urry 2007). New approaches such as varies depending on individual tourists at different
multisited fieldwork, virtual ethnography, auto- times. In addition, the industry is composite in
ethnography, and visual methodology contribute nature and requires great effort in coordinating
toward solving the challenge of geographic dis- different types of services and the delivery of rich
tances and multiple spaces to be covered. information in order to reduce uncertainty during
eTourism 325
service encounters. Its businesses need to act emerged: operational tools and systems used in
swiftly to sell unsold inventories to maximize rev- tourism, hospitality businesses, or organizations
enue and profit. As an information-intensive indus- to increase efficiency and competitiveness; con-
try, tourism requires the help of ICT, and the two sumer platforms adopted by tourists to search
influence each other. For example, tourism has information, plan their trips, make purchases,
become the number one eCommerce category and share experiences; and distribution and com-
with the largest number of transactions merce tools which offer channels and mediate the
(Harteveldt et al. 2009). transactions between tourists and businesses.
Operational technologies involve many sys-
tems. A property management system is used by
E
Development of eTourism the accommodation sector for reservations, book-
ings, point of sale, phone service, housekeeping,
The dynamic of eTourism is closely related to the and other services. It often interfaces with other
▶ development of ICT. In the past, airlines manu- systems such as a global distribution system,
ally managed reservations through a card system, customer relationship management, revenue man-
and hotels tracked inventories through colored agement, and human resources systems. Cur-
tapes posted on walls. As soon as the first electronic rently, the most popular property management
general purpose computer, ENIAC, appeared in system is Opera by MICROS-Fidelio (Nyheim
1946, airlines started the wave of adoption: Amer- et al. 2004). A restaurant management system is
ican Airlines installed the first automated booking used in food or drink enterprises, which
system in the same year. ▶ Other airlines and hotel offers customers and employees with transactions
chains started to adopt ICT to build computer res- and controls. It usually includes a point of sale,
ervation systems in the 1960s and 1970s. In the inventory and menu management, reservation
1980s, such airline and hotel systems started to and table management, and back-office function-
merge into global distribution systems, allowing ality. Customer relationship management refers
travel agencies to book multiple services. to an automated system and process. It focuses
During the 1990s, the wide adoption of the on managing customer interactions in order to
internet created new avenues of distribution and increase satisfaction and maximize profits. It
ways of reaching tourists directly, causing the could be a part of a property management
internet to start reconfiguring the structure of system or restaurant management system or a
tourism (Buhalis and Law 2008). In the early stand-alone one, such as Salesforce.com.
twenty-first century, social media and mobile A revenue management system helps managers
technologies dramatically changed the ways that with market segmentation, forecasting of cus-
consumers access information and conduct trans- tomer behavior, and formulating pricing
actions, thus changing the power structure and strategies for the purpose of maximizing revenue
balance between consumers and businesses. In and profit.
the early 2010s, the prospect of the application Consumer behavior evolves along with the
of tremendous amounts of online data has the adoption of new developments. Many studies
potential of transforming “big data” into knowl- have been conducted on online information search
edge, dramatically enhancing the tourist experi- through the internet and on various information
ence and providing a deeper understanding of needs. These studies reveal that online resources
tourist behavior and the structure of this industry. have replaced word-of-mouth as the top source
used for gathering tourism information. Some
focus on the information needs, sources, naviga-
Current technologies tional paths, and attitudinal changes of online
information search (Pan and Fesenmaier 2006).
Various typologies of technologies are employed Others study the usability and accessibility of
in eTourism. Consequently, three subareas have a tourism business or organization’s websites.
326 eTourism
The evaluation of their design has attracted many Computer reservation systems and global distri-
empirical studies (Law et al. 2010). bution systems are still widely used (Collins
In addition, tourists share experiences through et al. 2008). Online travel agencies are a type of
online platforms, and their perspectives have intermediary that emerged from the wide adoption
gained more trust than traditional marketing mes- of the internet. They offer a vast range of tourism
sages. For example, TripAdvisor.com created a services from airlines, hotels, car rentals, events,
shift of power between consumers and businesses. and activities. Tourists can also freely bundle dif-
As a result, the former are more informed and the ferent products together. Some were created by
latter are becoming more transparent (Litvin software companies. For example, Expedia.com
et al. 2008). However, the trust may vary was created by Microsoft Corporation and later
according to different social media platforms. As spun off as an independent company. Travelocity
a result, social media marketing has become an was an extension of Sabre, a global distribution
emerging area to deal with positive and negative system. Orbitz was started as a partnership among
reviews and to deliver marketing messages to multiple airlines in the United States in an effort to
attract more attention. gain an advantage over the newly appeared online
Furthermore, in 2009, more than 80 % of US travel agencies such as Expedia or Travelocity.
tourists will use a search engine while making One unique online travel agency is Priceline,
travel plans. Increasing visibility on search which specializes in a “name your own price”
engines includes two aspects. One, search engine system. In this system, tourists can specify the
optimization, refers to the practice of tweaking price of hotel rooms, airline seats, or other ser-
content on one’s website and conducting link vices they are looking for, along with the service
campaigns in order to reach the top positions in level and the approximate location. The matching
organic search results. Another aspect, paid adver- businesses then decide whether or not to accept
tising on search engines, refers to the practice of the offer. The tourists are not able to see the exact
paying for user clicks when a query is typed into a brand and location of the business until the trans-
search engine and an ad is displayed along with action is complete.
the search results. In 2013, the three major search Meta-search engines are aggregates of multiple
engines were Google, Bing, and Yahoo!, even online agencies and services, such as Kayak.com
though Yahoo! and Bing are both powered by and Bing.com/travel. For example, Kayak.com
Microsoft technology. Google and Microsoft allows the searching of hundreds of websites at
have similar but different algorithms for ranking once and, thus, offers more choices. Users are then
web pages and estimating advertising cost (Pan directed to the specific website they have selected
et al. 2011). to finish the transactions. As such, online com-
Lastly, the adoption of mobile technologies has merce and social media have facilitated the shar-
changed tourists’ experiences. With access to ing of tourism services and experiences, leading to
information virtually at any time and from any new business models involving peer-to-peer com-
place, tourists can make plans en route, purchase munication. Airbnb.com and Couchsurfing.com
products later in the planning stage, and ease the are two among many. They exemplify the mix of
uncertainty and cultural barriers associated with mediation and distribution systems with customer
tourism. Many mobile apps exist for tourists, involvement and co-creation.
including flight trackers, destination guides, apps The wide use of ICT by businesses and tourists
from online travel agencies, and attraction guides. generates a large amount of data from information
Mobile technologies and especially smart phones searches, transactions, and spatial movement.
are changing the tourist experience and the ways Today’s tourists will likely carry many technology
that firms communicate and do business with their gadgets and use them to interact with ICT
customers (Wang et al. 2012). resources. A tourist will generate and contribute
Distribution technologies have gone through a tremendous amount of data, including data
an evolution, but many systems coexist today. points in a website’s analytics data, a hotel mobile
eTourism 327
app’s log data, call center logs, the amount of Emerging eTourism technologies and systems
traffic at a destination, the sales records of tourism are always industry driven. In the future, this area
services, search engine query volumes, social will continue with its usual dynamics and para-
media mentions, location data from cell phones, digm shifts as new technologies are invented and
GPS and photos, etc. All of these are potential widely adopted by businesses and consumers.
indicators of a tourist’s likes and dislikes, motiva- However, many studies are post hoc in nature,
tions, planning behavior, and actual stay studying user adoption and behavior changes
experiences. after the fact. Innovative and predictive research
“Big data” in tourism and hospitality refers to is needed to focus on envisioning the future and
this deluge of data generated from ubiquitous directing adoptions by working with the industry
E
computing devices adopted and used by tourists to explore new frontiers. For example, research
and businesses. The data is getting too cumber- insights are needed on how different types of new
some and unstructured for traditional database technologies in the lab stage are relevant to the
systems to handle, and, thus, specialized software tourism industry, how to pick and choose different
is used to mine trends and correlations. The rich information systems, and how different online
data could provide a competitive advantage to any data and insights can be used to inform future
business that knows how to utilize it properly. For operational and marketing strategies.
example, recent studies have demonstrated the
efficacy of using search engine queries or a local
destination marketing organization’s web traffic
See also ▶ Information technology, ▶ airline,
data to forecast local hotels’ occupancy rates
▶ technology, ▶ internet.
(Pan et al. 2014). Many websites exist on mining
social media mentions for businesses and destina-
tions. However, this field of study is still a nascent
area. The combination of different data sources
References
will likely generate new insights and knowledge
and thus provide better experience for tourists and Buhalis, D. 2003 eTourism: Information Technology for
greater insights for businesses. Strategic Tourism Management. Gosport: Prentice
Hall.
Buhalis, D., and R. Law 2008 Progress in Information
Technology and Tourism Management: 20 Years On
Research areas and future challenges and 10 Years After the Internet—The State of eTourism
Research. Tourism Management 29:609-623.
In general, eTourism has matured into a well- Collins, G., C. Cobanoglu, and T. Malik 2008 Hospitality
Information Technology: Learning How to Use
established subdiscipline with a few specialized
it. Dubuque: Kendall.
organizations, journals, and conferences, as well Harteveldt, H., E. Stark, V. Sehgal, and K. van Geldern
as many research articles appearing regularly. Its 2009 US Online Leisure Travel Channel Share Fore-
organizations include Hospitality Financial and cast: Suppliers versus Intermediaries, 2008 to 2013.
Cambridge: Forrester Research.
Technology Professionals, the International Fed-
Law, R., S. Qi, and D. Buhalis 2010 Progress in Tourism
eration for Information Technologies in Travel Management: A Review of Website Evaluation
and Tourism, and the International Hospitality in Tourism Research. Tourism Management
Information Technology Association. Some have 31:297-313.
Litvin, S., R. Goldsmith, and B. Pan 2008 Electronic
associated conferences and journals, such as Word-of-Mouth in Hospitality and Tourism Manage-
HiTEC, the ENTER eTourism Conference, the ment. Tourism Management 29:458-468.
iHITA annual conference, the Journal of Informa- Nyheim, P., F. McFadden, and D. Connolly 2004 Technol-
tion Technology and Tourism, and the Journal of ogy Strategies for the Hospitality Industry. Upper Sad-
dle River: Prentice Hall.
Hospitality and Tourism Technology. eTourism
Pan, B., and D. Fesenmaier 2006 Online Information
has evolved and emerged as a major branch of Search: Vacation Planning Process. Annals of Tourism
mainstream tourism research. Research 33:809-832.
328 Eurocentrism
Pan, B., Y. Yang, and H. Song 2014 Predicting Hotel Demand in the Western Anglocentric epistemic research
Using Destination Marketing Organizations’ Web Traffic traditions” (Ren et al. 2010:887). The hegemony
Data. Journal of Travel Research 53:433-447.
Pan, B., Z. Xiang, D. Fesenmaier, and R. Law 2011 The of research from the “developed world” thus tends
Dynamics of Search Engine Marketing for Tourist Des- to perpetuate “Eurocentric” knowledge produc-
tinations. Journal of Travel Research 50:365-377. tion in tourism (Tribe et al. 2012). This whole
Wang, D., S. Park, and D. Fesenmaier 2012 The Role of can be best understood by referring to Edward
Smartphones in Mediating the Touristic Experience.
Journal of Travel Research 51:371-387. Said’s seminal work.
From a closer examination of this complex
landscape, it is apparent that equating globaliza-
tion with Americanization is too
simplistic. Instead of speaking of Americaniza-
Eurocentrism tion, it is worth noticing that for the people of
Irian Jaya, Indonesianization may be more worri-
Rami K. Isaac some than Americanization, as Japanization may
Academy for Tourism, NHTV Breda University be for Koreans, Indianization for Sri Lankans, and
of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands Russianization for the people of ▶ Armenia and
the Baltic Republics. In this complex landscape, a
recent phenomenon is termed hybriditization.
Eurocentrism is the practice of placing emphasis This concept refers to the intermingling of various
on European and, generally, Western concerns, cultural elements on a global scale. It implies that
culture, and values at the expense of others. Euro- Eurocentrism fades away to the background of
centrism often involves claiming cultures that worldwide cultural influences and that on a local
were not White or European as being inferior or scale, it becomes more relevant to focus on the
denying their existence at all. The term Eurocen- context of these various backgrounds. In tourism,
trism was coined during the period of decoloniza- a new promising area of research emerges in line
tion. Following World War II, the term was based with this focus. On the agenda of future tourism
on an earlier adjective, Europe-centric, which research, this subject deserves more attention.
came into use in the early twentieth century.
Since then, there has been a development in See also ▶ Culture, ▶ ethnocentrism, ▶ globali-
terminology, related to the shifting power in the zation, ▶ orientalism, ▶ sociology.
world from Europeanization to Americanization
and to globalization. Following the publication of
Edward Said’s Orientalism (1978) and the rise of References
post-colonialism theory (Childs and Williams
1997), some basic premises of Western scientific Childs, P., and R. Williams 1997 An Introduction to
Postcolonial Theory. New York: Prentice-Hall.
paradigms came under scrutiny. Tourism studies
Cohen, E., and S. Cohen 2015 Beyond Eurocentrism in
have been a latecomer to the Eurocentrism debate Tourism: A Paradigm Shift to Mobilities. Tourism Rec-
(Cohen and Cohen 2015) and became a major reation Research 40 (in press).
intellectual and political topic in the last of the Ren, C., A. Pritchard, and N. Morgan 2010 Constructing
Tourism Research: A Critical Inquiry. Annals of Tour-
twentieth century. The mentality that goes with it
has persisted in tourism. Xiao and Smith (2006) Saïd, E. 1978 Orientalism. London: Penguin Books.
note that academic communities in ▶ China have Tribe, J., H. Xiao, and D. Chambers 2012 The Reflexive
tended to uncritically accept the research on Journal: Inside the Black Box. Annals of Tourism
Research 39:7-35.
knowledge production in the West. Eurocentrism
Xiao, H., and S. Smith 2006 Towards a Paradigm Shift in
was also documented in the power relations of the Knowledge: Implications for Tourism Research in
tourism academia itself and still mostly “grounded China. China Tourism Research 39(3):1690-1693.
Europe 329
became increasingly popular. In particular, the

Europe ▶ Mediterranean coastal and Alpine regions
became popular destinations. Some 95 % of the
Cordula Wohlmuther1 and John Kester2 world’s 25 million international arrivals in the
1
Centre for Peace Research and Peace Education, 1950s were to Europe. With the emergence of
Adriatic University Klagenfurt, Klagenfurt, new destinations in other regions of the world,
Austria this share has been reduced over time from 83 %
2
UNWTO, Madrid, Spain in 1980 to 51 % in 2012. It is expected that this
share in European ▶ inbound tourism will
decrease further to 41 %, but it will remain the
E
The conventional geographical boundaries of largest single ▶ destination (UNWTO 2011).
Europe span from the Western peninsula of Eur-
asia to the Ural and Caucasus mountains
(Figure 1). ▶ UNWTO and other agencies also European tourism today
include the Russian Federation, the former Soviet
countries in Central Asia, ▶ Turkey, ▶ Cyprus, Europe today is the world’s number one interna-
and ▶ Israel. The surface area of this larger region tional destination, with the highest density and
stretches over some 28 million km2 (11 million diversity of attractions. Seven out of the ten most
mi2; 19 % of the world’s land mass), with a pop- popular destinations are in Europe (the ▶ United
ulation of 890 million or 13 % of that of the world. States, ▶ China, and ▶ Malaysia are the other
The level of tourism ▶ development differs sig- three). In 2013, 563 million international arrivals
nificantly within this region. out of 1.067 billion worldwide were to Europe,
29 million more than in 2012 (UNWTO 2014).
According to UNWTO data for 2012, interna-
European tourism history tional expenditure in European destinations
reached US$454 billion (€353 billion Euros) and
Modern tourism in Europe is considered to begin 86 % of international arrivals to European desti-
with the ▶ Grand Tour when, in the eighteenth nations came from within the region (UNWTO
and nineteenth centuries, members of the wealthy 2013). This is a higher proportion of intra-regional
upper classes traveled for educational purposes to tourism than for any other regions of the world,
destinations like ▶ Italy, ▶ Germany, and enhanced by the trend for affluent Europeans to
▶ France (Towner 1985). Vacations at the seaside, take many short international trips. The
lakes, and spas became popular among these clas- ▶ Americas is the most important source of
ses in the nineteenth century with places like interregional tourists for Europe and accounts for
Baden-Baden, Karlsbad, Vichy, or Cheltenham. 6 % of the total arrivals in Europe (followed by
Industrial developments and inventions like ▶ Asia and the Pacific with 5 % of the total).
steamboats and railways encouraged expansion Europe is also the world’s largest outbound mar-
of tourism, as did the first arranged tours by ket, generating over half of international traffic
Thomas Cook (Brendon 1990). worldwide, with some 540 million in 2012
Tourism as a mass ▶ phenomenon became (UNWTO 2013).
possible in the mid-twentieth century with
increasing prosperity and paid holidays for
workers. In the 1960s, commercial airlines and Structure and organization
▶ travel agencies enabled tourism to become a
reality for more and more people, and traveling Each European state has its own ▶ national tour-
to neighboring countries and even further away ism structure and policy. While relevant ministries
330 Europe
Europe, Figure 1 Map of Europe

Evaluation 331
are responsible for policy issues, national admin- tourism offers. This poses practical challenges
istrations are responsible for, inter alia, marketing and research opportunities for the European stake-
and product development. Several subregional holders in order to make tourism sustainable and
European bodies that have tourism in their responsible. It also will require permanent inno-
agendas also exist. The European Union, with vative solutions to keeping its attractiveness and
28 states, develops policies and activities that preserving its valuable assets.
aim to promote tourism so as to maintain Europe’s
standing as a leading destination and to maximize See also ▶ Destination, ▶ Grand Tour,
the industry’s contribution to growth and employ- ▶ inbound tourism, ▶ marketing, ▶ outbound
ment. In its law-making body, the European Par- tourism.
E
liament, the Committee on Transport and
Tourism, formulates transport legislation and pol-
icies for all the member states.
The Council of Europe, with 47 members, References
implements a long-term cultural routes program
with the aim of enhancing cultural heritage and at Brendon, P. 1990 Thomas Cook: 150 Years of Popular
Tourism. London: Secker.
the same time practicing the fundamental princi- Mihalič, T. 2005 Slovenia. In International Handbook of
ples of the council, like human rights and cultural Tourism Education, D. Airey and J. Tribe, eds., pp.241-
diversity. The European Travel Commission, with 256. London: Routledge.
33 member states, is responsible for the promotion Richards, G. 2006 Tourism Education in the New Europe.
In Tourism in the New Europe: Challenges and Oppor-
of the region as a single destination and research tunities, D. Hall, M. Smith and B. Marciszewska, eds.,
on various source markets. pp.52-65. Wallingford: CABI.
Other bodies created on geographical bases Towner, J. 1985 The Grand Tour: A Key Phase in the
among various European states for different pur- History of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
12:297-333.
poses often have tourism issues included, UNWTO 2011 Tourism towards 2030: Global Overview.
encompassing joint marketing initiatives. Such Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
bodies are the Vyšehrad Group with four Central UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights http://mkt.unwto.
European states, the Baltic Sea Council with org/publication/unwto-tourism-highlights-2013-edition
(4 March 2014).
11 states, the Organization of the Black Sea Eco- UNWTO 2014 Barometer. Issue January 2014 www.
nomic Cooperation also with 11 members, and the e-unwto.org/content/m504173245u297r4/fulltext?p=
Tourism Group of the Commonwealth of Inde- 6be895da7ff242019e9fb8f90b6fdf95&pi=0#section=
pendent States (former Soviet countries). 1183412&page=3&locus=19 (4 March).
The extent of tourism ▶ education provision
varies considerably from one country to another
and is influenced by historical factors and the
relative importance of the industry in the national Evaluation
economy (Richards 2006). In the European
Union, the Bologna process has brought new Manente Mara and Mingotto Erica
standards for the duration and architecture of edu- CISET, Ca’ Foscari University, Venice, Italy
cational degrees in the member states (Mihalič
2005), while the rest of Europe is still in the
process of developing relevant curricula. The Broadly speaking, evaluation is the systematic
European Union and other international projects production of information and the structured
assist Eastern European and Central Asian coun- determination and interpretation of a subject’s
tries in this field to a certain extent. significance, merit, and worth, with an improve-
Tourism in Europe will further progress not ment purpose. The need to support
only in terms of numbers of arrivals, expenditures, decisionmakers in strategic planning through
and earnings but also in terms of the diversity of more informed choices has encouraged the
332 Excursion
development of evaluation theory since the 1950s. planning, policymaking, and governance, includ-
Pioneer areas were healthcare, social and eco- ing management practices. It is particularly
nomic development, education, defense systems, important for public tourism bodies, for which
and international aid, where evaluation was driven program evaluation should become a strategic
by the purpose of holding public programs component of the decisionmaking process, deter-
accountable for both prudent use of resources mining priorities and controlling allocation of
and achievement of objectives, ensuring compet- public funds.
itiveness, quality, and equity in delivering ser-
vices. The great variety and complexity of See also ▶ Case study, ▶ causal model, ▶ cost-
programs – where program is broadly intended benefit analysis, ▶ data envelopment analysis,
as a set of activities aimed at achieving ▶ experimental research.
goals – have brought researchers to develop and
constantly innovate a range of different and valid
approaches, depending on the context References
(Stufflebeam 1999): cost-benefit analysis, experi-
mental design, multicriteria analysis, data envel- Frechtling, D. 1994 Assessing the Economic Impacts of
Travel and Tourism: Introduction to Travel Economic
opment analysis, case studies, causal logic
Impact Estimation. In Travel, Tourism and Hospitality
models, multivariate analysis, impact models, Research, J. Brent Ritchie and C. Goeldner, eds.,
and more. Every approach has its strengths and pp.359-365. New York: Wiley.
weaknesses and works differentially well, Manente, M. 1999 Regional and Inter-regional Economic
Impacts of Tourism Consumption: Methodology and
depending on the circumstances. It is then up to
the Case of Italy. Tourism Economics 5:425-436.
evaluators to decide when and how approaches OECD 2012 Evaluating Tourism Policies and
are best applied and to discern those which work Programmes. In OECD Tourism Trends and Policies.
the best under specific conditions. Paris: OECD Publishing.
Stufflebeam, D. 1999 Foundational Models for 21st Cen-
Program evaluation has been extended to tour-
tury Program Evaluation. The Evaluation Center Occa-
ism studies, where approaches conceived in other sional Papers Series. Kalamazoo: Western Michigan
fields have been adapted. Due to established expe- University.
rience in economic impact models, assessments of Zhang, H., N. Kulendran, and H. Song 2010 Measuring
Returns on Hong Kong’s Tourism Marketing Expendi-
the economic contribution of tourism have
ture. Tourism Economics 16:853-865.
become possible (Frechtling 1994; Manente
1999). However, the evaluation of program effec-
tiveness and efficiency has received limited atten-
tion, except for advertising activities. In this case,
several scholars have discussed the opportunity to Excursion
apply methodologies already adopted in other
fields or methods specifically developed for such Lionel Bécherel
evaluation purposes in conversion and International Tourism Consultancy Associates,
advertising-tracking studies for assessing the London, UK
effects of promotion campaigns on ▶ destination
image and on tourists’ decisions (OECD 2012;
Zhang et al. 2010). An “excursion” is by definition a short journey or
The limited consideration and use of evalua- trip, mostly for ▶ leisure purposes, but the term is
tion of effectiveness and efficiency represent a also used in other contexts. In military language, it
significant issue in tourism and an area for future describes a raid in enemy territory, and in physics
research. The complexity of tourism leads one to and medicine, it signifies the displacement of a
go beyond the assessment of advertising cam- body or a point from a mean position or neutral
paigns only. It is farsighted to pay greater attention value. The UN defines the “excursionist” as a
to the systematic evaluation of overall tourism same day ▶ visitor to a country staying less than
Exoticism 333
24 h on a trip that does not include an overnight See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ guided
stay (UN 2008). tour, ▶ motor coach tourism, ▶ visitor.
The expression is used by different sectors of
the industry to illustrate certain activities or to
qualify specific situations. ▶ Tour operators References
describe side trips added to their itineraries as
“excursions,” tour members may purchase Bah, A., and H. Goodwin 2003 Pro-Poor Tourism: Improv-
ing Access for the Informal Sector to Tourism in Gam-
“optional excursions” for an additional fee, and
bia (Working Paper No. 15). London: Overseas
the coach used during these trips is often referred Development Institute.
to as the “excursion coach.” Dale N., B. Ritchie, and B. Keating 2012 Understanding
Constraints and Their Impact on School Excursion
E
Excursions are important components of
Tourism. Tourism Analysis 17:805–812.
community-based and ▶ pro-poor tourism. Tour
Garcia Lucchetti, V., and X. Font 2013 Community-based
operators often employ local people on excursions Tourism: Critical Success Factors (ICRT Occasional
at a ▶ destination, for instance, as porters and Paper No. 27). Manchester: International Centre for
cooks (Garcia Lucchetti and Font 2013). Excur- Responsible Tourism.
UN 2008 International Recommendations for Tourism Sta-
sions offered directly to tourists and operated by
tistics. New York: United Nations.
local people are a vital link in the tourism value
chain with significant economic pro-poor
▶ impact (Bah and Goodwin 2003). “School
excursions” – day trips and overnight stays for
educational purposes – represent a substantial Exoticism
market. Their economic potential requires further
research (Dale et al. 2012). Liza Berdychevsky
In the ▶ airline and railway industries, Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism,
discounted fares with restrictions are generally College of Applied Health Sciences, University of
called “excursion fares.” The advance purchase Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL,
excursion fare requires the purchaser to reserve a USA
seat 14–21 days in advance and to stay a minimum
amount of time before the return trip, for
instance, 7 days or over a period that includes a Exoticism refers to the aestheticizing perception
Saturday night. The independent tour excursion of the ▶ Other, people-objects-places different
fare provides individual tourists with the from subjectively familiar reference systems,
benefits of a group travel fare but requires that at which renders them strange and, simultaneously,
least one additional component of a package domesticates them (Huggan 2001). The exotic
such as an overnight stay at a hotel or a day’s car Other in the parochial dichotomy of “us-here-
rental be included in the price of a flight or rail now” vs. “them-elsewhere-erstwhile” is often
journey. romanticized and/or demonized. Key reference
Areas for further research include the impact of points for discussions of diversity, difference,
excursions on the pro-poor tourism value chain, and Otherness appear in Segalen’s (1978/2002)
the economic potential of school excursions, and pioneering philosophical ▶ exploration of the
the effect of excursions during “staycations” in a concept of exoticism. His ▶ work laid the foun-
financial crisis. Future studies could also compare dations for the postcolonial critique of colonial
and contrast all-inclusive tour operators to those ▶ discourse. For Segalen, exoticism is a stance
selling optional excursions, examine the legal on the relationship with the self and the world,
framework governing the issuance of excursion dependent on space and ▶ time. It is the percep-
fares, and investigate the impact of increasing or tion of difference and the sensation of diversity,
decreasing the volume of excursion fares on an associated with ▶ novelty and worn out by routine
airline’s bottom line. (Segalen 1978/2002). Nevertheless, the
334 Expatriate
appreciation of people-objects-places as inher- in cultural perceptions and ▶ power relations will

ently exotic often contributes to ethnocentric ste- allow tourism scholars to clarify the discursive
reotypes, simplistic overgeneralizations, processes that (re)produce a subjectively relative,
asymmetry of power relationships, and superimposed symbolic distance and strangeness.
commodification.
Exoticism is an important ingredient for vari- See also ▶ Ethnocentrism, ▶ orientalism,
ous ▶ tourist experiences, linked to motifs of nos- ▶ Other, ▶ stereotype, ▶ stranger.
talgia, spirituality, and ▶ escape in postmodern
tourism (Huggan 2001). Tourism discourses with
References
an exoticist aesthetic, especially those concerning
the Third World, often revolve around notions of Bruner, E. 1991 Transformation of Self in Tourism. Annals
primitivism and noble savagery, difference and of Tourism Research 18:238-250.
remoteness, peaceful and happy poverty, purity Cohen, E. 1989 “Primitive and Remote”: Hill Tribe Trek-
and harmony, ▶ authenticity and naturalness, the king in Thailand. Annals of Tourism Research 16:30-61.
Huggan, G. 2001 The Postcolonial Exotic: Marketing the
living remnants of past cultures, and Otherness Margins. New York: Routledge.
uninfected by the evils of the outside world and Segalen, V. 1978/2002 Essay on Exoticism: An Aesthetics
frozen in a timeless present (Bruner 1991; Cohen of Diversity. Durham: Duke University Press.
1989). These discourses, however, often serve as
an essentializing, inferiorizing, and blinding veil
conducive to perceiving suffering as an exciting
and/or fearsome spectacle (Huggan 2001). Nev- Expatriate
ertheless, exotic imagery abounds in tourism
▶ marketing materials, which select arbitrary, Bente Haug
best-selling features to perpetuate preconceived Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
notions of out-of-the-ordinary experiences.
Accordingly, exoticism becomes a basic com-
modity and cultural difference becomes the mar- Expatriate tourism refers to nonnative individuals
ketplace currency of tourism (Huggan 2001). who, through the process of being a ▶ tourist,
While tourism may initiate the revival and eventually migrate to a new country (Haug
▶ recreation of ethnic ▶ identity, ofttimes the et al. 2007). The term “expatriate” has various
aftermath of touristic quests for the exotic is less connotations. Truly (2002), for example, focuses
than attractive. Therefore, peoples such as the on expatriates being forced to leave their home
Inupiaq of Alaska, the Aborigines of ▶ Australia, country (in Latin, ex-patria) because of personal,
and many of the Pueblo Indians of American cultural, or political reasons. Under this perspec-
Southwest have rejected or limited tourist curios- tive, ▶ migration is related to tourism ▶ mobility.
ity by forbidding entry or charging entry fees. One Hannam et al. (2014) argue for the importance of
of the problematic outcomes of tourism dis- examining the links among tourism, social mobil-
courses with an exoticist aesthetic is the ity, and expatriates. Others, by contrast, maintain
constructing of certain countries in Southeast that geopolitical issues form an important part of
Asia and the ▶ Caribbean as (s)exotic, a liminal migration and hence the politics of countries influ-
space where exotic and erotic come together to ence who and why people become expatriates.
produce narratives of desire to consume Othered However, if tourism is seen as the initial stage of
bodies (Huggan 2001). Eroticist subjugations in a process of migration ranging from a temporary
the context of ▶ sex tourism – as related to com- affiliation to a complete attachment to a place, the
modification, domination, oppression, and explanations for the final stage of migration are
exploitation – are the subject of feminist interro- more likely to be those of fantasy, mobility, and
gations in various fields. Further critical assess- displacement, rather than being obliged to leave a
ments and interrogations of exoticism and its role given country of origin.
Expatriate 335
Theory and application expatriate status varied essentially according to

the degree of temporality where the tourist
Gustafson’s (2002) study of Swedish seasonal encountered a change in duration from a transient
migrants to ▶ Spain indicated that the migrants to a permanent situation. By studying residential/
sought to construct a social space between them- seasonal tourists from ▶ Norway that stayed typ-
selves and tourists/tourism but also towards Span- ically from 6 months to 1 year away from home, it
ishness and norms of integration. ▶ Other studies was possible to better understand the transition
of expatriates, notably the early ▶ work of tour- from temporary tourist to expatriate. This study
ism scholars such as Nash (1970) and Cohen showed that the tourists adapted to their new
(1977), had one additional element in common: country by being temporary and thereby devel-
E
they both shared the formalist dichotomous oped a greater familiarity with their eventually
framework of familiarity and strangerhood as permanent place of residence. But related to the
developed initially by Simmel (1908). His idea of strangerhood (Simmel 1908), the residen-
“stranger” was a typical character who lived in a tial tourists represented a community in between
group, but did not socially belong to it. The familiarity and strangerhood by empowering a
stranger was extraneous to his group and self-identity that was neither based within their
maintained a distance from the other members of new place of residence nor in the society from
the group rather than exhibiting the intimacy of which they originated. This finding supported
propinquity. The mobility of the stranger derived Nash’s (1970) notion of a community in limbo,
from the tenuous link to his group of origin that caught in between an earthly and a paradisiacal
offered the freedom to leave the group at any time existence.
and transformed the stranger into a potential Furthermore, Haug et al. (2007) found that the
wanderer. Norwegians whom they studied lived their ordi-
Nash (1970) conducted an ethnographic study nary life in Spain in a Norwegian manner, includ-
of American expatriates in an anonymous Spanish ing watching Norwegian television, sending their
city relying on the notion of the stranger/ children to Norwegian schools, and supporting
strangerhood. He investigated the tourists’ famil- the established Norwegian infrastructure of med-
iarity towards their new home residence and found ical services, bookstores, and restaurants. They
that they did not relate or adjust socially to a Span- bought Norwegian food in the supermarkets and
ish way of life. However, the expatriates needed the celebrated their National Day with parades and
safety and protection along with the feeling of waving flags in the Spanish streets. The connec-
belonging to a group of equals, and the expatriate tions to Spanish society were mostly through
community played the same role for permanent tourism activities like going to the beach, visiting
tourists as the hotel did for temporary tourists festivals, and traveling to other places in Spain.
which catered for them with a common home They did not complete the full transition to a
base. Cohen (1977), on the other hand, arranged Spanish way of living, but instead constructed a
his expatriates along a continuum from various position lying somewhere in between the two
groups of employment and interest to permanent cultures. This technique gave them the freedom
tourists. His basic approach, like his other socio- of being away from home while still maintaining
logical analyses of the 1970s, was typological. the comfort zone security of living Norwegian
lives in Spain. Nash (1970), Cohen (1977),
Gustafson (2002), and Haug et al. (2007) support
Current and future research the notion of tourism as an important part of the
transition from tourist to seasonal migrant and
Haug et al. (2007) theorized the role of tourism by expatriate, but with the important understanding
looking at the relationship between visiting tour- of expatriates as being somehow caught in limbo
ists towards seasonal migration and finally between their ▶ culture of origin and their new
becoming an expatriate. Tourism, migration, and host culture.
336 Expenditure
The ▶ phenomenon of expatriate tourism workers and asset owners. Studies on tourism
needs further research especially towards a geo- expenditure and its role in generating economic
political understanding of tourism as a driving impacts date back to the 1930s (Ogilvie 1933).
force in constructing expatriates. Also needed is Recognizing the importance of this concept,
a focus on the expatriates themselves: who are ▶ UNWTO and the UN Statistics Division, in
they, where do they come from, and which coun- consultation with major multilateral organiza-
tries are preferred for setting up a new life? tions, have specified a definition of tourism
expenditure that governs its quantification at
See also ▶ Culture broker, ▶ migration, national levels and contributes to the measure-
▶ mobility, ▶ seasonality, ▶ stranger. ment of ▶ travel and passenger ▶ transportation
in the ▶ balance of payments accounts. This term
observes the principles of national income
accounting and of Tourism Satellite Accounts
References (Commission 2008; IMF 2009).
Specifically, tourism expenditure is defined as
Cohen, E. 1977 Expatriate Communities. Current Sociol- “the amount paid for the acquisition of consump-
ogy 24:5-129.
Gustafson, P. 2002 Tourism and Seasonal Retirement
tion goods and services, as well as valuables, for
Migration. Annals of Tourism Research 29:899-918. own use or to give away, for and during tourism
Hannam, K., G. Butler, and M. Cody 2014 Developments trips. It includes expenditures by visitors them-
and Key Issues in Tourism Mobilities. Annals of Tour- selves, as well as expenditures that are paid for or
Haug, B., G. Dann, and M. Mehmetoglu 2007 Little Nor-
reimbursed by others” (UN 2010: 31).
way in Spain. Annals of Tourism Research 34:202-222. Reflecting the forms of tourism defined by
Nash, D. 1970 A Community in Limbo: An Anthropolog- UNWTO and the UN Statistics Division, tourism
ical Study of an American Community Abroad. Bloom- expenditure can be grouped into three mutually
ington: Indiana University Press.
Simmel, G. 1908 Exkurs € uber den Fremden (Excursus on
exclusive and collectively exhaustive categories
the Stranger). In Soziologie, O. Rammstedt, ed., (UN 2010: 34): one, ▶ domestic tourism expen-
Vol.11, pp.764-771. Frankfurt: Suhrkamp. diture as the tourism expenditure of a resident
Truly, D. 2002 International Retirement Migration and tourist within his/her economy of reference; two,
Tourism along the Lake Chapala Riviera: Developing
a Matrix of Retirement Migration Behavior. Tourism
inbound tourism expenditure as the tourism
Geographies 4:261-281. expenditure of a nonresident tourist within the
economy of reference; and three, outbound tour-
ism expenditure as the tourism expenditure of a
resident tourist outside his/her economy of
reference.
Expenditure Tourism expenditure cannot be thoroughly
observed directly or completely compiled from
Douglas C. Frechtling administrative records as consumer spending on
International Institute of Tourism Studies, The groceries and healthcare can. Rather, a number of
George Washington University, Washington DC, methodologies have been employed to estimate
USA tourism expenditure over the past three decades.
These methods can be grouped into two major
categories (Frechtling 2006): one, probability
Tourism expenditure is central to the measure- sample surveys (of households in tourism-
ment and analysis of tourism economic activities. generating areas, of tourists in tourism-receiving
They affect global, national, and subnational areas, or of establishments serving tourists) and,
economies and contribute to the income and rev- two, models simulating tourism expenditure
enues of businesses, nonprofit organizations, and based on assumptions about spending behavior
government agencies, as well as individuals as and relationships, such as expenditure ratio
Experience 337
models, cost factor models, seasonal-difference through reflection, and re-consumption. Etymo-
models, and supply-side judgmental models. logically, the term experience is related to the
The choice among these models is governed by word experiment, or knowledge achieved through
the degree of validity required, level of reliability testing, implying that there is a qualitative gap
desired, and budgetary resources available. Future between what something is and what one makes
research issues include the use of mobile commu- of it. In other words, experiencing also involves a
nication devices to track tourist activities and test of the knowledge of what is being faced.
related purchases; accessing credit card transac- While there is only one word for the function of
tion databases to measure the origin, type, and experiencing in English, German, Chinese, and
location of tourist purchases; and verifying expen- other languages distinguish between experience
E
diture estimates through convergent validity. as a process and experience as an outcome.
Although their meanings may converge, the out-
See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ impact, come is an interpretation, and thus a reduction of
▶ Tourism Satellite Account, ▶ visitor, ▶ World sorts, of the process, its content, and functions.
Tourism Organization. A number of approaches to account for expe-
riences exist, ranging from positivist to construc-
tivist and phenomenological methods. In general,
References experiencing can be defined as the conflux of,
what is sensually received, how it is processed
Commission 2008 Commission of the European Commu- and how it is retained in the resulting experience
nities, International Monetary Fund, Organization for
(Gnoth and Mateucci 2014). Perception is the
Economic Co-operation and Development, United
Nations and World Bank System of National Accounts organization, identification, and interpretation of
2008. New York: United Nations. stimuli; perception thus necessitates processing an
Frechtling, D. 2006 An Assessment of Visitor Expenditure awareness one is aware of, while an experience can
Methods and Models. Journal of Travel Research
hold more than what is immediately perceived.
45:26-35.
IMF 2009 Balance of Payments and International Invest- In addition to any cognitive processes,
ment Position. Washington DC: International Monetary experiencing can capture information that is not
Fund. consciously perceived. It could be merely stereo-
Ogilvie, F. 1933 The Tourist Movement. London:
typed but is later remembered or visualized and
P. S. King.
UN 2010 International Recommendations for Tourism Sta- further processed. Experiencing thus relates
tistics 2008. New York: United Nations. closely to motivation as both develop dynamically
together and drive perception. Therefore, while
experiencing occurs in the world – and the world
is one whole as complexity theory stipulates – an
Experience experience itself can always capture only a part of
that world, due to humans’ limited capacity to
Juergen Gnoth receive and process information. Experiencing
Department of Marketing, University of Otago, involves the need to select and organize what is
Dunedin, New Zealand experienced into perceptions, as otherwise one
may either suffer the consequences from informa-
tion overload or it would render inability to
In behavioral terms, an experience is an outcome respond effectively and efficiently. However, by
of the processes involved in perceiving, that is, controlling internal and external needs, through
reacting to a stimulus by responding to selected relaxation, focusing, and the reduction of self-
features, and interpreting those features. The consciousness, experiencing as a function of
interpretation can then comprise meanings, under- being-in-the-world is optimized (Heidegger
standing, and feelings. An experience can then be 1927). Therefore, a tourist experience is condi-
forgotten or change over time with motivation, tioned by both ▶ destination (what is received)
338 Experience
and perceptual factors (how it is perceived), ▶ accommodation, ▶ hospitality, and attraction

including interest, motivational, and emotional providers) the opportunity to offer value proposi-
orientation, as well as sociocultural upbringing tions and to create new experiences. As such, the
and demographics. The “what” and “how” inter- experience offered is a proposition in the form of
act, highlighting a need for identifying what is tourism facilities, yet its value can only be
structure and what is agency in the emerging ascertained by tourists through their lived experi-
process of experiencing. ences. There is thus a qualitative gap between
what the service provides and what the tourist
experiences. The observed experience (stimulus
The need for experience plus response) comes closest to the scientific def-
inition of experience.
Historically, interest in processes and outcomes of
experiencing is based on its existential function
that permits human beings to learn, adapt, and Experience research
survive. The need to experience is supported by
interest, motivation, and drive, for which the brain The Cartesian tradition of the sciences views an
releases dopamine serving as a reward and giving experience as the repeatable and indubitable out-
the feeling of pleasure (Fennell 2009). Evolution, come that is achieved by the alignment of and
as well as historical developments from hunters/ interaction among determined sets of stimuli.
gatherers to urban societies, created an individu- Emphasizing the need for empirical investigation
alizing and differentiating trend in the focus of of phenomena under inspection, Rene Descartes’
experiencing, thus linking individualization to (1596–1650) and Francis Bacon’s (1561–1626)
the acquisition of knowledge. With an increase break with classical tradition inspired Auguste
in affluence, perceived security, and predictability Comte (1798–1857) to also demand the applica-
of life’s events, acquiring knowledge evolved tion of positivistic, empirical, and observation-
from instrumental to also include hedonic func- based research for the emerging social sciences
tions in which playfulness, spontaneity, and during the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.
arousal-seeking experiences have become ends Descartes’ distinction between the subject (the
in themselves. knower) and the object (the known) led to the
As a consumption experience, ▶ holiday tour- emergence of constructivism, and as a conse-
ism is a hedonic process, outcome, and consequence of accepting Saussure’s distinction
quence of leaving home for an extended period between signs and what they signify, diverging
of time (at least a day) and using discretionary views on what an experience actually represents
income in pursuit of freely chosen activities that could develop. They range from sociological, pos-
are not paid work. In particular, it begins with itivistic views to phenomenological views.
planning, envisioning, and fantasizing about a The positivist school of thought as influenced
sojourn away from home, the choice process, by Auguste Comte, Emile Durkheim
▶ travel, and return home, including physiologi- (1858–1917), and Talcott Parsons (1951) for soci-
cal consequences and memories. Holiday tourism ology holds that experiences are the consequence
allows individuals to experience and/or expand or the behavior that occur when tourists are
their familiar selves in often unfamiliar exposed to stimuli, such as travel brochures, idyl-
environments. lic, historic, or culturally meaningful locations. In
In economic terms, the tourism experience is a this school of thought, tourists react to experien-
▶ service cocreated by the ▶ tourist and the des- tial deficits by turning to the provision and con-
tination, including the industry and other stake- sumption of holidays, attractions, and destination
holders facilitating the sojourn. Tourists’ desire to facilities upon which a physiological equilibrium
travel and experience different environments is regained. It questions, however, whether tour-
gives facilitating tourism sectors (transport, ists truly search and can actually encounter
Experience 339
authentic experiences at destinations, as many experiences and expressions of satisfaction

tourism installations and sociocultural encounters (Gnoth 1997; Gnoth and Mateucci 2014).
are either staged or presented out of context. Social constructivists drive this notion of
The constructivist school of thought aside, seek- experiencing to the suggestion that the awareness
ing to understand the subjective construction of of what tourists become conscious of always
knowledge, Edmund Husserl’s (1859–1938) pos- relies on their knowledge which, in turn, is
itivist phenomenology informs studies into constructed by what, how, and where tourists
experiencing by seeking to philosophically have acquired their learning. Yet although this
extract the “lived experience” through reflective may signal the complete deconstruction of their
attentiveness and finding sets of ideal types and knowledge and hence the experience, those “tra-
E
essences. ditions” that Francis Bacon and Descartes broke
The sociological thought contrasts with the with when claiming the superiority of positivism
humanistic and interpretive schools of thought return through the backdoor, as it were. These
which frequently refer to tourists’ search for traditions (Adorno 1965) are often referred to as
authentic experiences. Whereas the humanistic metaphysics and are embedded in language used
school of thought finds the experience and conse- in the knowledge to differentiate experiencing.
quence of a gestalt as its focus, interpretivists As Wittgenstein (1986) details, words are not
deconstruct how tourists create the meaning of pictures but represent processes capturing experi-
their experiences as the result of subjective inter- ences. These are encoded with their situational
pretations and meaning-creating associations. and sociocultural context. When used, words rep-
These contrasting views highlight that experi- resent instructions for choices. Such choices
ences are mediated through the senses and that reduce the complexities of the self as well as the
the awareness of what the tourist has become objects of the thought or the person communi-
conscious of resembles Saussure’s chasm cated with (Luhmann 1995). In turn, language is
between a sign and possible interpretations of learned communicatively and represents cultural
what it signifies. This provokes the philosophical knowledge and context that connects its words to
question of whether what the tourist experiences sets of beliefs and worldviews. Therefore, experi-
is actually part of the object that is experienced or ences also exist among people as a body of accu-
whether it is part of the tourist’s (idiosyncratic) mulated and handed-down knowledge – hence
perception. Indeed, a third step is involved “traditions.” These, in turn, influence present
in-between the chasm, involving how or why experiencing. In this way, and when tourists seek
particular stimulus features are selected and then to experience the environments of other peoples
interpreted. authentically, experiencing their present often
Tourism researchers have discussed the notion involves “looking backwards” to what they
and existence of ▶ authenticity in experiencing as already know in order to understand what is in
well as studied experiences themselves (Wang front of them.
1999). Apart from the differentiation into objec- Such “retrospectively” oriented understanding
tive and subjective experiences (e.g., the temper- of what is in front of/in the presence of tourists
ature of the weather versus the experience of affects their being as the form of being-in-the-
beauty, friendliness, or authentic culture), studies world at any given moment. Their being, and
have sought to analyze the causes of experiences, hence experiencing, is not only determined by
as well as to understand the relationships with demographics and their sociocultural back-
other constructs, such as motivation or the satis- grounds but also their current moods and circum-
faction with experiences. It provoked further stances that may prevent them from experiencing
questions, including the relationships between their destination to its full potential, should that be
tourists’ intentions and the resulting experience, what they seek. If not, and even if considered as
and how being-in-the-world creates urges that just idle thought (James 1904), meant to wander
form motivations and expectations impacting or roam, experiencing is self-reflective and aimed
340 Experimental research
at consolidating or restoring tourists’ being become aware of their own activities at destina-
(▶ recreation). For tourists’ beings to completely tions. The challenge thereby is to make tourists
converge with their being-in-the-world, but also express themselves in such ways that researchers
to experience their destinations wholly, it would can get to a phenomenological understanding of
require them to free themselves from past “bag- their depths of subjective experiencing. It should
gage” and to become open to fully sense and be able to decide, for example, whether it goes
perceive all that the present offers. This form of beyond reexperiencing socially acquired sets of
experiencing or being represents the platform norms or whether and how it involves transforma-
from which new insights emerge, by which tour- tional growth and learning.
ists can expand their being-in-the-world and
evolve into “becoming.” An existentially authen- See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ leisure, ▶ phenome-
tic experience that promotes “becoming” or nology, ▶ recreation, ▶ sightseeing.
expanding tourist’s being-in-the-world involves
seeking to understand the Other as phenomena
References
within their own logic (Gnoth and Mateucci
2014). Also, the environmental conditions of Adorno, T. 1965 Metaphysics: Concept and Problems. In
experiencing should be regarded as further stim- Lecture Series, R. Tiedemann, ed., pp.138-139.
uli. They are often agents in the experience them- Stanford: Stanford University Press.
selves, merging with behaviorists’ stimulus- Apter, M. 1989 Reversal Theory: A New Approach to
Motivation, Emotion and Personality. Anuario de
response approaches. Psicologia 42(3):17- 29.
Fennell, D. 2009 The Nature of Pleasure in Pleasure
Travel. Tourism Recreation Research 34(2):126-134.
Future directions Gnoth, J., and X. Mateucci 2014 A Phenomenological Orga-
nization of the Tourism Literature. International Journal
of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research 8(1):3-21.
To understand experiencing better, tourism and Gnoth, J. 1997 Motivation and Expectation Formation.
▶ leisure scholars have long begun to analyze Annals of Tourism Research 24:283-304.
how tourists experience landscapes and individual Heidegger, M. 1927 Sein und Zeit [Being and Time],
J. Macquarrie and E. Robinson, trans. New York:
activities, including marathon-running, mountain- Harper and Row.
biking, or museum-visiting. Detailed interviews James, W. 1904 Does ‘Consciousness’ Exist? Journal of Phi-
of participants have created stratified distinctions, losophy, Psychology, and Scientific Methods 1:477-491.
such as casual leisure, hobby, and amateur expe- Luhmann, N. 1995 Social Systems. Stanford: Stanford
University Press.
riences. Qualities of experiencing have found fur- Parsons, T. 1951 The Social System. London: Routledge.
ther distinction by differentiating meta- Wang, N. 1999 Rethinking Authenticity in Tourism Expe-
motivational states whereby, for example, the rience. Annals of Tourism Research 26:349-70.
telic state signals serious, goal-oriented Wittgenstein, L. 1986 Philosophical Investigations.
Oxford: Blackwell.
experiencing that avoids arousal versus the
paratelic state (Apter 1989) that seeks arousal
and relates to a focused and absorbed way of
experiencing, often related to flow. Experimental research
With increasing individualization and the
growing interest in subjective experiencing, Stephanie Pougnet
research has begun to explore mindfulness, the Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO University
relationships to happiness, and other physiologi- of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland,
cal transformations. A primary focus is thereby Lausanne, Switzerland
the extent to which experiences can be
constructed by the tourism ▶ industry, on the
one hand, and how such structural manipulations From an epistemological perspective, scientific
affect tourists’ agency, including how tourists research may be defined along a continuum from
Experimental research 341
theoretical to experimental research. The former research due to the high level of control exerted
consists of fitting together visionary ideas over the variables. It entails a comparison between
representing many pieces of a puzzle in order to two groups, which are placed under the same
form a conceptual framework. The latter entails conditions (ceteris paribus). By random assign-
the objective observation of phenomena which ment, the researcher “equates the groups” on all
occur in a relatively controlled situation. Experi- known and unknown extraneous variables. The
mentation is a deductive approach to research. only systematic difference between groups must
be that one group will not get in contact with the
independent variable (the “control group”), while
Key features the other (the “experimental group”) will be tested
E
under the independent variable’s “main effect”
An experiment is a methodical procedure carried (Havitz and Sell 1991).
out to verify or refute the validity of a hypothesis, Researchers have conducted laboratory exper-
which is an expectation about how a particular iments to study the impact of communication
phenomenon occurs. Thus, the aim is notably to tools and channels on destination image, of ser-
study a cause to effect relationship by identifying, vice failure and recovery strategies on customer
isolating, manipulating, and controlling the par- loyalty, of different waiting strategies and queue
ticular conditions under which occurrences take types on customer satisfaction, and of cultural and
place. In an experimental design, the studied phe- gender differences on customer perception, for
nomenon is the dependent variable. instance. The ▶ impact of different variables on
The factors that may cause or explain the vari- food quality and food safety has also been widely
ance in the dependent variable are its independent studied. In a laboratory experiment setting, the
variables which are postulated, manipulated, and researcher enforces scientific control by testing a
controlled by the researcher. Any other extraneous hypothesis over a large number of repeated mea-
factors or confounding variables which might sures and iterations of the experiment in a highly
cause variation have to be neutralized. Both depen- controlled setting. However, a laboratory experi-
dent and independent variables need to be ment remains artificial, so its population and eco-
operationalized through specific indicators, so that logical validity may be low.
the variations can be observed and measured. It is Field experiments are often used in the social
also necessary to ensure the availability of partici- sciences. Their advantage is that their outcomes
pants and their representativity. When independent are observed in a natural context rather than in a
variables are already in place, and/or when com- contrived laboratory. Field experiments are seen
plete control over the conditions of the study is not as having relatively higher external validity than
deemed necessary, or anyhow not possible, then those conducted in laboratories. However, they
the research may be considered nonexperimental. suffer from the possibility of contamination,
Nonexperimental research would therefore include while experimental conditions can be controlled
field studies, case studies, as well as surveys and with more precision in a laboratory. The resulting
statistical modeling or correlational studies. data are thus more varied, with larger standard
deviation and less precision and accuracy, for
instance. Larger sample sizes need to be used in
Settings applied to tourism order to control the many variations and ambigu-
ities involved in human behavior. Therefore, field
Three experimental research settings might be experiments which are conducted in real-life situ-
considered: laboratory experiments (done in a ations are generally defined as “quasi-
controlled environment), field experiments (done experimental.” In such experiments, the aim is,
in real-life settings), and internet-based experi- for instance, to study the impact of different
ments. A laboratory experiment is commonly advertising tools, management methods, physical
thought of as the paragon of experimental designs, technological devices, or cultural
342 Exploration
dimensions on consumers’ behavior or the impact References

of teaching techniques on tourism students’ crea-
tivity or learning efficiency. In these settings, par- Baloglu, S., and L. Assante. 1999. A Content Analysis of
Subject Areas and Research Methods Used in Five
ticipants are usually separated into two or more
Hospitality Management Journals. Journal of Hospital-
groups: a “treatment” and a “control” group. Here ity and Tourism Research 23:53-70.
the researcher intervenes by introducing the inde- Dann, G., D. Nash, and P. Pearce. 1988. Methodology in
pendent variable into the treatment group. If the Tourism Research. Annals of Tourism Research 15:1-
28.
researcher is purposely involved in the field by
Finn, M., M. Elliott-White, and M. Walton. 2000. Tourism
participating and facilitating change into it, the and Leisure Research Methods. Pearson: London.
experimentation is named “action research” Havitz, M., and J. Sell. 1991. The Experimental Method
(Finn et al. 2000; Veal 2006). and Leisure/Recreation Research: Promoting a More
Active Role. Society and Leisure 14:47-68.
Over the past decade, web-based experimental
Veal, A. 2006. Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism:
settings have been widely utilized in psychology. A Practical Guide. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
The internet-based experimental setup has
become increasingly popular because large
amounts of data from a wide range of locations
and people can easily be collected. Nevertheless, Exploration
there is still some debate about whether internet-
based experimental conditions are as controlled as Xiangping Li
those in a laboratory. Tourism researchers using Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China
this experimental setting often study the impact of
communication and internet tools on destination
image or tourists’ behavior. Exploration is the act of searching for the purpose
of discovery. This act occurs throughout human
history, such as the Age of Exploration when
Prospective research directions Europeans explored ▶ Africa and America in the
fifteenth and sixteenth centuries and recent explo-
Nearly 30 years ago, Dann, Nash, and Pearce rations into outer space. Sir Francis Drake,
(1988) lamented the fact that laboratory and field Ferdinand Magellan, Christopher Columbus, and
experiments were rare in tourism research. One Zheng He were some of the greatest explorers in
decade later, experimental designs were still history. Explorers seek after the undiscovered and
among the least used (Baloglu and Assante along the way encounter the dangers of disease,
1999). Nowadays, statistical modeling and corre- equipment malfunctions, hostile natives, and even
lational studies applied on secondary data are still loss of lives. With explorations comes a greater
more utilized. However, the opportunities offered understanding of the world.
by internet-based experiments, as well as an To emulate explorers of the old days, modern
increased willingness among stakeholders to bet- man sees tourism as a way to explore the unknown
ter understand cause to effect relationships among and the real life of Others (MacCannell 1976).
tourism phenomena (such as the impact of com- Tourism is generally thought of as an ▶ activity
munication, marketing, and management methods in which individuals explore something new,
on tourists’ or employees’ perceptions, expecta- novel, or different, whether it is a cultural encoun-
tions, and behavior), may encourage more exper- ter, an engagement with nature, or a physical
imental research in the ▶ future. activity. However, not all tourists have the same
spirit as their ancestor explorers. ▶ Tourist typol-
See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ epistemologies have been developed to understand different
ogy, ▶ methodology, ▶ qualitative research, types of explorers on the basis of how adventur-
▶ quantitative research. ous they are. Gray (1970) proposed one of the
Export 343
earliest typologies to distinguish between sunlust MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the
and wanderlust tourists. While the former are Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.
Plog, S. 1974 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in
driven by the need for rest and relaxation, the Popularity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administra-
latter are motivated by the desire to explore dif- tion Quarterly 14(4):55-58.
ferent peoples and cultures.
Another well-known and still much quoted
typology was by Cohen (1972). Along the contin-
uum of strangeness versus familiarity, Cohen clas- Export
sified tourists into four groups: the organized mass
tourist, the individual mass tourist, the explorer, Justyna Majewska E
and the drifter. The first two are rather similar with Department of International Economics, Poznań
sunlust tourists, seeking a high degree of familiar- University of Economics and Business, Poznań,
ity and wanting little contact with the host culture. Poland
The third, although named “the explorer,” still
lacks the spirit of a true explorer. The explorers
arrange their own trips and try to get off the beaten In tourism, export refers to the revenue of the host
track, but still they look for the protection of their country received from the money spent by its
“environmental bubble,” such as comfortable international tourists. For a long time, gaining
accommodations and reliable transportation. The foreign currencies was considered to be the main
drifters, who resemble most the true explorers of advantage that countries need to finance necessary
previous years, attempt to avoid all contact with imports and for economic development (Vanhove
▶ other tourists and seek ▶ novelty at all costs, 2011). This liquidity position is determined by the
even when danger and risk are to be encountered. tourism ▶ balance of payments, which shows a
Allocentric tourists identified by Plog (1974) country’s related transactions in international
share similar traits with true explorers who trade flows. Exports or “invisible export” refers
actively seek out the exotic or untouched to those transactions resulting from a range of
destinations. goods and services due to ▶ inbound tourism.
To cater to tourists with adventurous spirit, Thus, these exports have direct visible impacts
different types of adventures such as dark and on the ▶ destination economy, creating employ-
ethno tourism are developed to encourage ment and development opportunities (UNWTO
explorers to step out of their comfort zone. The 2013).
most recent development is ▶ space tourism when Tourism export is affected by many factors,
almost all the planets of the universe have been including ▶ supply of goods and services, the
explored. ▶ Future research could focus on these exchange rate, the climate, and the economic con-
new forms of tourism to better understand what dition of the host country (Vanhove 2011), not to
experiences would satisfy tourists’ need for forget the recent slowdown of the world’s econ-
exploration. omy and global crises. There are spatial variations
in receipts. ▶ Europe earned the largest share
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ experience, (43 %) of the world’s international receipts,
▶ quest, ▶ space tourism, ▶ typology, tourist. reaching US$485 billion in 2012 (UNWTO
2013). Among the major receiving countries, the
▶ United States ranks first with $126 billion,
References followed by ▶ Spain, ▶ France, and ▶ China
(with $50 billion or more). The share of tourism
Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour- in the total exports of goods and services of the
ism. Social Research 39:164-182.
Gray, H. 1970 International Travel: International Trade. countries varies, ranging from more than 50 %
Lexington: DC Health. (the ▶ Maldives and the ▶ Bahamas) to 2–3 %
344 Export
(▶ Germany or China) (WTO 2013). In over by exporting”). The so-called “new” new trade
two-thirds of the European Union member states, theory and new economic geography, along with
the tourism receipts exceeded expenditures of agglomeration theory, are being considered par-
their ▶ outbound tourism (a positive net ▶ travel ticularly viable in explaining the tourism export
balance, ▶ surplus), in particular by a factor of flows.
more than two in ▶ Croatia, ▶ Malta, ▶ Greece,
Spain, and ▶ Portugal (Eurostat 2013), which
reflects the economic significance of tourism in See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ foreign
those countries. exchange, ▶ import, ▶ inbound tourism, ▶ out-
In terms of export as a part of international bound tourism.
trade, tourism is the world’s largest ▶ service
▶ industry, valued in 2012 at $1,075 billion
worldwide and growing by 4 % in real terms References
(UNWTO 2013). It ranks fifth or sixth in the
WTO’s international trade figures as a first service Eurostat 2013 European Commission Eurostat Statistics htt
p://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/portal/page/portal/statist
sector (Lew 2011). Since the volume of interna- ics (13 December).
tional trade and the productivity in services have Lew, A. 2011 Tourism’s Role in the Global Economy.
grown more rapidly than in manufacturing during Tourism Geographies 13:148-151.
the recent decades, there is a growing need for UNWTO 2013 UNWTO Tourism Highlights. Madrid:
investigations of the effects of tourism export on Vanhove, N. 2011 The Economics of Tourism Destina-
the flows of international trade (using gravity tions. London: Elsevier.
models among others) and on innovativeness WTO 2013 International Trade Statistics 2013. Geneva:
connected with it (due to the concept of “learning World Trade Organization.
F
Facilitation its costs and complexity. Visa requirements still

affect global tourism significantly. In 2013, desti-
Claire Liu nations around the world requested on average
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Faculty of 64 % of the world’s population to obtain a visa
Culture and Society, Auckland University of before initiating international journey (UNWTO
Technology, Auckland, New Zealand 2013a).
Notable progress towards visa facilitation has
been made over recent years. Between 2010 and
Facilitation refers to relaxation of ▶ visa require- 2012, 43 destinations significantly facilitated the
ments and simplification of the procedures for visa process for citizens of 20 or more countries,
issuing visas for ▶ international tourism. It is by changing their policies from “visa required” to
often associated with governmental formalities either “eVisa”, “visa on arrival”, or “no visa
in terms of border crossing. The development of required”. The most popular facilitation measure
policies and procedures for visa is closely linked was the introduction of “visa on arrival”
to the expansion of tourism. The quality, reliabil- (UNWTO 2013b). Improvements in the area of
ity, and functionality of visas have been evolved visa facilitation among the G20 economies
in the last six decades with the fast growth of include externalization of the visa application pro-
international tourism. Only 50 years ago, ▶ travel cess to reduce waiting time and increase capacity.
was heavily affected by customs regulations, cur- The five important areas of opportunity for
rency exchange limitations, and visa formalities. entry visa facilitations include improving the
Recent improvement in visa facilitation through delivery of information (such as the availability
multilateral agreements that mutually exempt all and reliability of the information); facilitating cur-
or certain categories of tourists from visa require- rent processes needed to obtain visas through
ments has contributed to a remarkable growth of better use of modern information technology by
global tourism. service providers and the consideration of visas on
Visa requirements are usually linked to internal arrival; differentiating treatment to facilitate travel
security and immigration control (Boswell 2000). by easing restrictions; establishing eVisa pro-
Visas are a political tool, devised to assist national grams for destinations without a widespread net-
governments to protect the security of their coun- work of embassies and consulates; and
tries and control tourism demand. Many countries establishing regional agreements which allow
use visas to limit the entry, duration of stay, or tourists from a third country to move freely
activities of tourists (UNWTO 2013a). However, between member countries (WTTC 2012). In gen-
visas can also act as a constraint for tourism due to eral, facilitation implies the importance of
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
346 Facility management
implementing practical measures that increase facilities and organizational assets to improve
▶ destination competitiveness and produce sus- their efficiency and to add to their performance
tainable development in the long run. Future and service value. The notion of facilities man-
research needs to explore the impact of visa liber- agement is well received in ▶ hospitality and
alization on migration flows and economic devel- tourism as it contributes to their business
opment for the countries and regions involved in ▶ performance.
the process of facilitation. In accordance to cultures, objectives, and con-
texts, facilities management has been adopted in
See also ▶ Inbound tourism, ▶ policy and different ways to improve organizational manage-
policymaking, ▶ rule and regulation, ▶ safety ment effectiveness. Typically, such facilities
and security, ▶ visa. encompass heating, ventilation, and
air-conditioning systems; fire prevention systems;
water systems; electrical systems; lighting sys-
References tems; telephone communication systems; and
buildings.
Boswell, R. 2000 The Management of the Tourism Sector. In tourism, facilities management can help a
London: Columbus.
firm create a unique marketing ▶ identity. For
UNWTO 2013a Tourism Visa Openness Report.
http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/ instance, a customer could recognize the differ-
docpdf/tourismvisaopennessreport23august20132.pdf ence between an upscale hotel and a budget hotel
(10 January 2014). in terms of the design and facilities management of
UNWTO 2013b Visa Facilitation: Stimulating Economic
both properties. As the mandate of an engineering
Growth and Development through Tourism. http://
dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/unwto_ department, such management activities include
visa_facilitation.pdf. (10 January 2014). repairing, maintenance, and replacement of build-
WTTC 2012 The Impact of Visa Facilitation on Job ing/equipment components. Maintaining the many
Creation in the G20 Economies. London: World Travel
and different primary systems of tourism facilities
and Tourism Council.
is one of the main tasks. This however could
ensure a good working environment for
employees and a comfortable and safe surrounding
for customers to stay in. Maintenance activities are
Facility management usually categorized into routine, scheduled pre-
ventive, and emergency maintenances (Stipanuk
Eric S. W. Chan 2002). Nowadays, many activities are handled by
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, the computerized building management system, a
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, managerial tool that helps facilities managers in
Hong Kong, China maintenance decisionmaking; replacement and
repairing of furniture, fixtures, and equipment;
and staffing through providing updated and accu-
The notion of “facilities management” was first rate information.
introduced in the ▶ United States in 1975. Due to global environmental problems, man-
Although it covers a broad range of facility ser- aging environmental programs has become
vices and management that contribute to the rela- important to facilities management. Engineers in
tive success or partial failure of an organization’s tourism businesses are usually involved in the
business, the term has been defined in different design and implementation of the programs in
ways. Nutt (2004) views it as the management of view of regulatory issues and economic and mar-
infrastructure resources and services to support ket factors. Therefore, environmental knowledge
and sustain the operational strategy of an organi- is essential to facilities management and repre-
zation over time. Okoroh et al. (2003) describe it sents a future challenge for tourism businesses
as the proactive management of constructed and practitioners.
Factor analysis 347
Despite its importance, facilities managers tra- analysis. The former is an exploratory method
ditionally focus more on practical issues such as used to identify complex interrelationships
customer relations and revenue management. In among items and group items that are part of the
much the same way as academics gain credibility, unified concepts (Ledesma and Valero-Mora
there has been considerable debate in the industry 2007). The latter is used to test the hypothesis
about whether facilities management could gain that the items are associated with specific factors.
the status of a discipline. Though it may take more Through a structural equation modeling approach,
time, it is imperative that academics and practi- confirmatory factor analysis can measure the load-
tioners change their mindsets towards facilities ings of observed variables on the latent factors, as
management. well as the correlations among the latent variables
(Polit and Beck 2012).
See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ energy, ▶ envi- The methods of factoring are varied according F
ronment, ▶ pollution, ▶ technology. to the purposes and nature of the study. There are
more than ten methods which are commonly used,
such as principal component analysis, canonical
References factor analysis, principal factor analysis, image
factoring, alpha factoring, and so on. In tourism
Nutt, B. 2004 Infrastructure and Facilities: Forging Align- research, principal component analysis is the most
ments between Supply and Demand. University Col-
widely used method for factor extraction, which is
lege London: Conference Proceeding of Future of
Property and Facility Management II. the first phase of an exploratory factor analysis
Okoroh, M., C. Jones, and B. IIozor 2003 Adding Value to (Polit and Beck 2012).
Constructed Facilities: Facilities Management Hospi- The factor model must then be rotated to make
tality Case Study. Journal of Performance of
the output more understandable for analysis.
Constructed Facilities 17(1):24-33.
Stipanuk, D. 2002 Hospitality Facilities Management and Varimax rotation is a method to maximize the
Design. Lansing: Educational Institute of American variance of the squared loadings of a factor on
Hotel and Lodging Association. the variables in a matrix to differentiate the orig-
inal variables from an extracted factor. Through
this method, each variable can be identified with a
single factor. There are other types of rotation,
Factor analysis such as quartimax rotation, which minimizes the
number of factors needed to explain each variable;
Han Shen equimax rotation, a compromise between varimax
Tourism Department, Fudan University, and quartimax rotation; direct oblimin rotation, a
Shanghai, China standard method when the factors are allowed to
be correlated; and promax rotation, a
non-orthogonal rotation method computationally
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to faster than the direct oblimin rotation (Wikipedia
examine the underlying constructs with the 2014).
responses on a number of observed, correlated Factor analysis originates in psychometrics. In
variables (DeCoster 1998). The unobserved latent tourism research, factor analysis is usually applied
variables are called factors, which are refined from in studies that examine the attitude and percep-
the observed variables. The joint variations of the tions of tourists, destination image, brand image
latter are disclosed through a factor analysis and characteristics, service quality, market seg-
approach, and those with interdependencies and mentation, tourist behavior, product categories,
similarities are concluded with the unobserved and positioning. There is also a tendency of
latent variables. using factor analysis to understand tourist behav-
There are two types of factor analyses: explor- ior, demand forecasting, and virtual tourism
atory factor analysis and confirmatory factor through the manipulation of the big data.
348 Family tourism
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ market, ▶ segmentation, first to recognize the importance of this market
▶ service quality. and set up holiday camps in the mid 1930s. This,
for many years, became the epitome of British
holidaymaking for underprivileged families
References (Southall 2010), which has continued as social
tourism in Europe. The family market is arguably
DeCoster, J. 1998 Overview of Factor Analysis www.stat- more important now than ever. Holidays are per-
help.com/notes.html (1 January 2014).
ceived as opportunities for togetherness that allow
Ledesma, R., and P. Valero-Mora 2007 Determining the
Number of Factors to Retain in EFA: An Easy-to-use bonding to ensure the happiness of the family
Computer Program for Carrying out Parallel Analysis. through doing fun activities. Yet, holidays are
Practical Assessment Research and Evaluation often the only time the whole family spends an
12(2):1–11.
extended period of time together (Sch€anzel
Polit, D., and C. Beck 2012 Nursing Research: Generating
and Assessing Evidence for Nursing Practice. Philadel- et al. 2012).
phia: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins. In terms of demographic trends, changing
Wikipedia 2014 Factor Analysis http://en.wikipedia.org/ structures in society result in complex family
wiki/Factor_analysis (1 January).
models due to decrease in fertility rates and
increase in single parent, divorce, and
re-partnering rates, mobility, diversity in sexual
orientation, and ethnic diversity. Other changes
Family tourism include increasing longevity leading to stronger
multigenerational ties and smaller families lead-
Heike Sch€anzel ing to stronger social networks outside the imme-
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland diate family. The industry may accommodate
University of Technology, Auckland, networks of loosely connected and geographically
New Zealand dispersed family members from different
marriages, partnerships, and generations, who
use holidays as a way to reconnect and add
Families with children represent a significant meaning to their lives. Intergenerational
proportion of the global population and an impor- reconnection holidays will become fundamental
tant market for tourism. Children and families to family life in the future (Butlins 2012). How-
form the closest and most important emotional ever, children cannot be considered as a homoge-
bond in humans. It is this relationship that drives nous group, and age can be a big differentiator as
demand. It is estimated that this segment accounts toddlers have very different requirements from
for about 30 % of leisure travel (Travelhorizons teenagers.
2009) and half of all visits to attractions in the The family and associated visiting friends and
United States. relatives are more resilient than other forms of
A family unit is generally considered to consist tourism, as people travel to reconnect. The search
of at least one adult and one child. Nonetheless the for “quality family time” in safe environments is
diverse combinations of parents, other adults, and the key to understanding this market which is
children that coexist within households may all be central to themeparks, camping, and resort devel-
defined as “families” (Carr 2011). There are four opment. Future research is needed to capture the
life-stage groups: pre-family/no family, family, increasingly diverse needs of families and espe-
third age (empty nest), and retirement. cially from emerging Asian and Latin American
In the United Kingdom, family holidays were markets. The important role that tourism can play
embedded in the working class culture in the early in creating family togetherness deserves special
1900s. Entrepreneur Billy Butlin was among the attention.
Fantasy 349
See also ▶ Diaspora, ▶ market, ▶ senior tour- participation in activities as constituting a sense
ism, ▶ visiting friend and relative, ▶ youth of escape from ordinary routine. Perhaps that is
tourism. why the industry tries to incorporate fantasies into
holidays (Dann 1976).
Destinations strive to create unique experi-
References ences intended to fulfill the tourist’s expectations
of fantasy. Marketing strategies promoting it
Butlins 2012 The Butlins Future Report <www.butlins. include dream vacations, honeymoon destina-
com/pdfs/future-report.pdf> (22 June 2014).
tions, tropical paradises, religious holidays, sport-
Carr, N. 2011 Children’s and Families’ Holiday Experi-
ences. London: Routledge. ing events, festivals, cruise vacations, back to
Sch€anzel, H., I. Yeoman, and E. Backer, eds. 2012 Family nature retreats, safaris, exotic destinations, and
Tourism: Multidisciplinary Perspectives. Bristol: ▶ sex tourism (Bandyopadhyay and Nascimento F
Channel View.
2010). Despite the different themes on offer, the
Southall, C. 2010 Family Tourism <www.insights.org.uk/
articleitem.aspx?title=Family+Tourism> (22 June common goal of providing the means to a unique
2014). and memorable experience can be viewed as sat-
Travelhorizons 2009 Leisure Travel Profiles July <www. isfying expectations, including fantasy.
ustravel.org/research/domestic-research/travelhorizons>
The entertainment sector contributes to fantasy
(25 June 2014).
in tourism through the media, novels, movies,
games, television dramas, and soap operas based
on events and/or fiction. Examples of movies
Fantasy relating to fantasy tourism include “The Lord of
the Rings,” “Titanic,” and “The Sound of Music,”
Po-Ju Chen while fairy tales come from Hans Christian
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, Andersen. There are also themeparks (such as
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA Walt Disney World), computer-based virtual real-
ity domain “games” (Second Life), and YouTube
videos portraying mini movies of destination
In tourism, fantasy may comprise the desires, imagery including fantasy (Williams and Hobson
dreams, and/or magical expectations that tourists 1995). There are many technology based
imagine. These can take place through various gamification applications. All of these contribute
stages of ▶ travel planning and at destinations to expectations of various types of fantasy.
where behavioral constraints are perceived as Culture can be instrumental in contributing to
less restrictive than everyday life back at home. tourism-related fantasy. The more exotic the des-
It is similar to fiction in that individuals achieve a tination, the more unique activities become. Rou-
sense of satisfaction resulting from combining tine experiences based on familiar realities and
imagination with actual experiences relating to a interactions are replaced with uncertain outcomes.
given event. These sequels can provide a sense of surreal expe-
During the pre-trip decisionmaking process, riences, which in turn underpin experiences of
tourists are receptive to ▶ destination imagery fantasy. Cultural attractions can contribute to
formed by personal experiences and influenced these outcomes that include festivals, local ways
by promotion and advertising. At this stage, indi- of living/nightlife, sacred places, gambling, exotic
viduals construct expectations with a certain cuisine, historical event reenactments, and land-
degree of potentially unrealistic fantasy by roman- marks (Light 2009).
ticizing novelty and thus heightening a sense of Research is required in order to assess the role
privilege or hedonism associated with the desti- of fantasy in tourism. Understanding the interre-
nation. Tourists perceive the freedom of lated constructs and processes of fantasy
350 Feasibility study
formation and reconfirmation during the travel different criteria to evaluate a project’s potential
planning process will contribute to greater knowl- and thus may advocate projects which are unlikely
edge of the tourist world away from home. to satisfy the other parties’ requirements. To min-
imize subjectivity, feasibility studies provide the
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization, information and analysis necessary for stake-
▶ image, ▶ imaginary, ▶ myth, ▶ virtual reality. holders to estimate a project’s overall financial,
operational, and strategic viability (Troy and
Beals 1982) and to simulate how the projected
References development will function during different sets
of economic and noneconomic assumptions.
Bandyopadhyay, R., and K. Nascimento 2010 “Where They are typically required by lenders, paid for
Fantasy Becomes Reality”: How Tourism Forces
by the prospective developer, and conducted by
Made Brazil a Sexual Playground. Journal of Sustain-
able Tourism 18:933-949. an independent consultant. Hotel franchisers and
Dann, G. 1976 The Holiday was Simply Fantastic. Revue management companies will often conduct or
de Tourisme 31(3):19-23. commission their own study for further
Light, D. 2009 Performing Transylvania: Tourism, Fantasy
verification.
and Play in a Liminal Place. Tourist Studies 9:240-258.
Williams, P., and J. Hobson 1995 Virtual Reality and While a standard has yet to be recognized or
Tourism: Fact or Fantasy? Tourism Management approved by any formal body, feasibility studies
16:423-427. usually require market analyses and pro forma
financial statements. The former determines the
demand for the prospective project and identifies
the product/services proposed, target markets, and
Feasibility study competition. The latter involves projecting poten-
tial income and helps determine development,
Demian Hodari financing, and operating costs, as well as expected
Ecole hôtelière de Lausanne, HES-SO University revenues. Hotel-specific studies include detailed
of Applied Sciences Western Switzerland, occupancy and rate projections, while tourism
Lausanne, Switzerland studies may include ecological and social ramifi-
cations. Such elements help the project’s potential
economic value and return on investment, thereby
Feasibility studies are a standard component in the assisting stakeholders in determining whether the
preplanning of hotel and tourism projects. They return on capital required is sufficient to realize
involve the collection and analysis of data the project’s development.
intended to provide stakeholders with objective Although ubiquitous, feasibility studies are
and independent perspectives on development often criticized for their inaccuracy in predicting
opportunities. Unlike appraisals and valuations the performance of prospective projects due to
which usually only estimate an existing property’s outdated structures, inaccurate data, and poor
market value, feasibility studies determine poten- methodologies. Scholars and industry profes-
tial profitability of a proposed project and present sionals have recommended numerous ways for
strategies to maximize its profitability. improvement over the past 30 years, yet feasibility
Feasibility studies are often a valuable tool due studies remain largely unchanged (Singh and
to the complex and expensive process of property Schmidgall 2010). Even though users are warned
development and the involvement of multiple against their predictive capabilities, inaccurate
stakeholders who often have unique and feasibility analyses are often blamed for over-
conflicting objectives (Currie et al. 2009). Inves- building and development failures in poor choices
tors, operators, government bodies, regulators, of site, brand, or design, which have plagued the
lenders, and consultants, for example, often use tourism industry.
Feminism 351
Further research on underlying reasons for the extends from the 1990s to the present, characteriz-
institutionalization of unreliable feasibility stud- ing the incorporation of such variables as class,
ies, and solutions for this, is necessary in order to ▶ race, and ▶ ethnicity into discourses that chal-
provide practitioners with a more useful tool. lenge the dominant white feminism and reject
Similarly, sophisticated analyses of variables that male-constructed binary oppositions.
are most likely to reduce their predictive power The early 1990s saw the burgeoning of the
would help improve their usefulness. application of feminist epistemology into tourism
research to challenge the white, male, Eurocentric
See also ▶ Development, ▶ forecasting, philosophical ▶ tradition and improve women’s
▶ investment, ▶ planning, ▶ stakeholder. experiences and conditions as tourists and tourism
workers. The major feminist paradigms that tour-
ism researchers draw on to examine ▶ gender- F
References oriented topics are feminist empiricism, standpoint
feminism, and poststructural feminism. By giving
Currie, R., S. Seaton, and F. Wesley 2009 Determining voice to traditionally muted women, feminist
Stakeholders for Feasibility Analysis. Annals of Tour-
empiricism seeks to expose and address sex segre-
Singh, A., and R. Schmidgall 2010 Methodological gation, gender inequality, discrimination, exploita-
Limitations and Proposal to Improve Lodging tion in ▶ tourist participation and ▶ service,
Feasibility Studies. Journal of Hospitality Financial ▶ employment patterns, and ▶ management struc-
tures. Concentrating on effect rather than cause, it
Troy, D., and P. Beals 1982 Hotel Feasibility Analysis.
Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration fails to question the underlying causal structures
Quarterly 23:59-64. and cultures (Aitchison 2005).
This failure is redressed by standpoint and
poststructural feminisms from their respective angles.
The former, by socially situating suppressed and
Feminism marginalized groups, including women of different
identities in the sector of tourism, investigates their
Aihua Zhang lived experiences, uncovers diverse types of oppres-
Department of History, The State University of sion, and produces new and more objective ▶ knowl-
New York at Stony Brook, NY, USA edge (Heimtun and Morgan 2012). The latter,
through an analysis of cultural discourses in
constructing and legitimatizing patriarchy and hege-
Feminism is an umbrella term for theories, philoso- mony, reveals the role of cultural workings in forming
phies, and movements that aim to defend women’s gender power relations with a view to deconstructing
interests and rights and promote their social, politi- the conventional phallocentric theories and ▶ lan-
cal, and economic equality to men. Its ▶ develop- guage in tourism studies (Fullagar 2002).
ment can be generalized as three waves, each with a New feminism-inspired perspectives continue
distinctive concentration. The first wave of femi- to contest gender-biased positivistic views in tour-
nism surged between the late nineteenth and early ism studies and interrogate the overgeneralization
twentieth centuries against the backdrop of urban of white women’s experience as that of all women.
industrialism and liberal politics. The goal was to ▶ Future research will focus on intersecting gender
create equal opportunities for women with a partic- with ▶ other analytical categories to reveal the
ular stress on suffrage. The second wave emerged in diversity of women’s lives in the tourism ▶ indus-
the 1960s and 1970s in the context of antiwar and try. How to apply the findings to practice in order to
civil rights movements, encompassing a wider bring out fruitful outcomes for the underrepre-
range of issues among which sexuality, family, and sented will still be an arduous task demanding the
reproduction were its central concerns. The third efforts from both scholars and practitioners.
352 Festival and event
See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ employ- within hotels, resorts, and other private and public
ment, ▶ gender, ▶ paradigm, ▶ power. facilities to work together. Types of events in this
category are meetings, incentives, conventions
(or conferences or congresses), and exhibitions,
References known as ▶ MICE. It is usual for destination
marketing organizations to engage in event-
Aitchison, C. 2005 Feminism and Gender Perspectives in tourism promotions and sales, often in conjunc-
Tourism Studies: The Social-Cultural Nexus of Critical
tion with a special purpose convention bureau.
and Cultural Theories. Tourist Studies 5:204-207.
Fullagar, S. 2002 Narratives of Travel: Desire and the Most of these business event activities occur at
Movement of Subjectivity. Leisure Studies 21:57-74. the city level. A more recent trend has been the
Heimtun, B., and N. Morgan 2012 Proposing Paradigm establishment of event development agencies
Peace: Mixed Methods in Feminist Tourism Research.
with mandates specific to developing event tour-
Tourist Studies 12:287-304.
ism, bidding, and sometimes creating their own
events. Convention tourism has been explored
and featured in various textbooks (Weber and
Chon 2002). A number of international profes-
Festival and event sional associations are connected to this sector,
notably Meeting Professionals International,
Don Getz while the Convention Industry Council acts as
Calgary, Alberta, Canada an umbrella organization.
The second sector of event tourism is sport
events. They are similarly dependent on
Event tourism is both a field of study and a glob- purpose-built facilities, with every city desiring
ally significant sector of the economy. It can be arenas and stadia capable of attracting events
defined and studied by reference to its supply side and tourists. Although there are numerous forms
(Getz 2012, 2013). Event tourism at a ▶ destina- of sports and competitions, there are important
tion level is the development and marketing of differences between periodic events that can be
planned events as ▶ tourist attractions, catalysts, permanent fixtures in one place and one-time
animators, image makers, and place marketers. events that are usually won through bidding.
This process includes bidding on, facilitating and Equally important are differences between spec-
creating events, and the management of portfolios tator events, often linked to professional sports,
of events as destination assets. For individual and participation events that attract participants
events, event tourism means taking a marketing and tourists with special interests, such as mara-
orientation to attract tourists, sometimes as an thon runners or mountain bikers. Theoretical and
additional segment and sometimes as the core applied aspects of sport-event tourism are covered
business. When tourists are the core business, in many books, including Olympic Tourism by
“destination events” are created. From the Weed (2008) and Sport Tourism Development by
demand side, event tourism refers to the propen- Hinch and Higham (2011).
sity of ▶ travel to attend events, both on the part of The third sector consists of entertainment. It is
dedicated event tourists who are motivated to mostly supplied by the private entities in the
travel for specific events and other tourists who form of concerts, shows, and other spectacles,
attend events while away from home (Getz 2012, but there is also a range of public and private
2013). facilities being utilized, such as theaters, arenas,
There are four main sectors of event tourism, and parks. Many entertainment events are
with each linked and often completely dependent arranged by venue managers and private impresa-
upon a range of venues. First, the business event rios, although a growing number, such as artistic
sector requires convention and exhibition centers, competitions and award shows, can be won
plus the myriad meeting and banqueting facilities through bidding.
Festival and event 353
Festivals and other cultural celebrations con- should embody valued traditions and become per-
stitute the fourth sector. Owing to the potential for manent institutions because they meet so many
threats to cultural authenticity, their exploitation community and tourism goals. Hallmark events
for tourism purposes is often controversial. They are iconic in that they hold symbolic value, but
are typically produced by not-for-profit organiza- many smaller and one-time events are also so in
tions or government agencies, frequently held in that they hold special meaning for interest groups
parks and on streets, with theaters, arts, and cul- and subcultures. Private companies and destina-
tural facilities as the built venues of choice. Picard tions are increasingly seeking to create or market
and Robinson (2006) and others explore relation- events with appeal to interest groups, and their
ships and issues involving festivals and tourism, symbolic value can be based on being the largest
while Richards and Palmer’s (2012) Eventful Cit- or most unique, or some intangible quality like
ies examines the diverse roles and impacts of reputation or association with a sponsor’s brand. F
cultural events in cities. The main roles events play in tourism, or their
Numerous private functions, ranging from functions from a policy and strategy perspective,
parties and weddings to reunions and corporate can be described as catalyst, image making, attrac-
retreats, can make use of any of the tion, and animator, and these are closely
abovementioned infrastructure. Those in facility connected to place marketing. All of these roles
management are almost automatically in the event are typically viewed primarily in terms of eco-
business, although not necessarily geared toward nomic benefits, and these extend beyond direct
tourists. The dependence on venues of all types is tourist spending to include contributions to
clear, but a major issue is the justification for urban development, renewal, and repositioning
public expenditure on facilities that exceed resi- strategies. Increasingly, events are also expected
dents’ needs or are specifically tailored for to contribute socially, culturally, and environmen-
tourists. tally, and not solely through the link to tourism.
Furthermore, cities and destinations, having real-
ized the potential of events across all these roles,
Event functions have increasingly marketed, bid on, and created
events within a managed portfolio. As cases
Many of the terms used in conjunction with events increase in size and scope, the complexity of the
pertain to their real or implicit roles and functions. task for strategists and evaluators is being magni-
“Mega event” could refer to size alone, as fied greatly. There is little evidence available
explained by Vanhove and Witt (1987), but in regarding long-term success and sustainability
common parlance, it usually means the biggest within event portfolios and populations.
of planned events. It conveys meanings related These roles of planned events can be seen as
to international scope, huge new infrastructure ontological positions. Each role is backed by a
costs, global media coverage, and numerous tour- considerable body of research, starting with the
ists. Indeed, “gigantism” is associated with mega appeal of events to attract tourists in the off-peak
events, and there are numerous critics of this and to foster positive destination images through
trend. Mega events can also be defined in a rela- co-branding (Ritchie and Beliveau 1974). Major
tive sense, referring to the biggest ones that a events are frequently employed as catalysts for
place or venue can accommodate, have the largest development, such as new infrastructure, and to
impacts, and attract the most attention. improve marketing, boost an area’s capacity to
“Hallmark event,” a term originally used by host future events, or enhance culture. Events
Ritchie and Beliveau (1974) in their seminal arti- are also vital in animating otherwise static attrac-
cle within the context of combating seasonality, tions, like zoos, and they are tools in the broader
has multiple meanings. Getz (2012) argued that process of place marketing. In general, event
the term should be reserved for permanent events tourism is increasingly becoming intertwined
that are co-branded with their destination; they with social, cultural, and urban policies, implying
354 Festival and event
more and more stakeholders and complex participation of many stakeholders and the active
interrelationships. support of residents.
While the supply-side approach starts with
available venues that must be filled, events that
Major forces, trends, and challenges have to be marketed, and those that can be won
through bidding, the demand-side approach starts
A number of major forces have combined to pro- with market intelligence and develops or markets
pel growth. As argued by Getz (2013), propelling events to meet the specific needs of target seg-
forces have been in the ascendency for some time, ments. As the number, size, and importance of
and growth is likely to continue. This can be events expand in cities and destinations, there
viewed as an aspect of globalization, not only in arises the necessity for taking a more integrated
terms of rising disposable incomes and the freer approach, as opposed to the usual, fragmented
movement of people, but also in terms of global structure in which different agencies produce,
branding and media coverage. Movement of peo- bid, and market events. As well, it is increasingly
ples (diaspora) acts to propel growth in event necessary to justify investments as public goods
numbers and diversity. Instrumentalism is on the that benefit all in society, to be fully accountable,
rise, linking planned events to more and more to manage events as a portfolio of valuable assets,
policy fields. and to stress long-term sustainability.
Planned events of all kinds are now viewed as Several event-tourism portfolio models and
legitimate tools, and this legitimation process will strategies have been examined by Getz (2013),
result in more events becoming permanent insti- including the key roles played by permanent hall-
tutions. As a consequence, there exist fierce com- mark events in contrast to the high costs and risks
petition, gigantism (of costs, infrastructure, media associated with bidding on one-time events.
coverage, and the impacts of events), and rising Beyond the complexity of managing portfolios is
professionalism with new careers specific to event the emerging issue of dealing with overlapping
tourism. New agencies and restructured destina- ones in which events constitute assets for eco-
tion management organizations are evident, with nomic, social, cultural, and environmental poli-
the mandate to bid on, create, and service events cies and industry strategies. Furthermore, cities
for tourism purposes. Convergence of the forms and countries that possess large populations of
and functions of events is evident in community events must start to monitor population dynamics
festivals, mega, and hallmark events; new combi- and sustainability. This represents a frontier for
nations are emerging to take advantage of the researchers and theory development.
▶ power of events that combine economic and As a field of study, event tourism requires
social exchange, possess high symbolic value, theory and concepts from a variety of foundation
and satisfy many personal and social needs. disciplines. Interdisciplinary theory development
Most existing event-tourism ▶ development has been minimal, and only the event-tourist
agencies and destination marketing organizations career trajectory (Getz and Andersson 2010) can
take a predominantly supply-side approach by be claimed as pertinent theory in development. It
selling venue space and existing events, develop- postulates cumulative changes in motivation and
ing the size and variety of the event sector through event-tourist behavior as one becomes increas-
assistance programs, and bidding on one-time ingly involved in a sport, hobby, artistic, or life-
events. The approach is often top-down and secre- style pursuit.
tive, considered to be a competitive business, and Theoretical development is required in the
seldom involves public input or full accountabil- areas of antecedents (preconditions to event tour-
ity. Therefore, a major challenge is to move event ism, including motivation), the experience (how
tourism toward a more open, sustainable, and the event-travel experience is unique), outcomes,
accountable system in which bottom-up planning and planning, management, and marketing. Little
and development occurs. This requires the is known of the long-term success or
Fieldwork 355
sustainability of various event-tourism organiza- component to generate ▶ knowledge (Hall

tions and strategies. The basic ontological foun- 2011a). Conceptual frameworks keep researchers
dations are well established, but the magnitude focused during fieldwork (Lew 2011). Fieldwork
and complexity of tourism and event have can have several meanings. First, it can refer to
expanded to the point where event, the latter, primary research that is conducted outside of the
needs to be recognized as a field of study with controlled setting (library or laboratory). Field
its own lines of theory development. methods are usually nonexperimental in approach
and employ qualitative or quantitative (or a mix of
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ destination branding, both) observational techniques. Second, it refers
▶ destination marketing organization, ▶ image, to the time in which data collection is undertaken
▶ Olympic tourism. in a field setting. Third, this approach has roots in
the concept of reflexivity and refers to the involve- F
ment of the researcher with the subject matter
References (McCall 2006).
Jennings (2012) argues that tourism
Getz, D. 2012 Event Studies: Theory, Research and Policy researchers regularly tend to put more emphasis
for Planned Events. Oxon: Routledge. on quantitative approaches when conducting
Getz, D. 2013 Event Tourism: Concepts, International
Case Studies, and Research. New York: Cognizant.
fieldwork. This research method highlights the
Getz, D., and T. Andersson 2010 The Event-tourist Career “who, what, when, and where” of the related
Trajectory: A Study of High-involvement Amateur phenomena. During recent decades, qualitative
Distance Runners. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality approaches to fieldwork and research are gaining
and Tourism 19:468-491.
Hinch, T., and J. Higham 2011 Sport Tourism Develop-
▶ attention and acceptance among tourism
ment. Clevedon: Channel View. scholars. This can be due to the ability of qualita-
Picard, D., and M. Robinson (eds.) 2006 Festivals, Tour- tive methods to provide in-depth knowledge
ism and Social Change: Remaking Worlds. Clevedon: regarding the “how and why” of tourism-related
Channel View.
Richards, G., and R. Palmer 2012 Eventful Cities: Cultural
phenomena.
Management and Urban Revitalization. Oxford: Hall (2011a) suggests that the spatialities of
Butterworth-Heinemann. fieldwork in tourism studies are not confined to
Ritchie, J., and D. Beliveau 1974 Hallmark Events: An ▶ time and ▶ location alone but are inseparably
Evaluation of a Strategic Response to Seasonality in the
Travel Market. Journal of Travel Research 13(2):14-20.
associated with political, social, ethical, and meth-
Vanhove, D., and S. Witt 1987 Report of the English- odological or theoretical spaces. He also notes that
speaking Group on the Conference Theme. Revue de reflecting on these spaces before entering the field
Tourisme 42(4):10-12. is vital for conducting successful fieldwork. This
Weber, K., and K. Chon (eds.) 2002 Convention Tourism:
International Research and Industry Perspectives. New
makes tourism researchers aware of the stances
York: Haworth. they might take in the field and prepares them for
Weed, M. 2008 Olympic Tourism. Oxford: Elsevier. the journey. In recent years, the ways scholars talk
about their research have changed. The so-called
“reflexive turn” encourages greater transparency
while paying close attention to the issue of ethics
Fieldwork when conducting research and gathering data.
▶ Power has a crucial role in influencing field-
Pooneh Torabian and Heather Mair work and communication of research which leads
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, to considering issues such as ▶ ethics and politics
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada in research methods and knowledge production
(Hall 2011b). Therefore, it is important for
researchers to pay close attention to self-
Fieldwork is an integral part of social science reflexivity as well as ethical and political concerns
research with the real world and a fundamental when conducting fieldwork.
356 Fiji
See also ▶ Epistemology, ▶ ethics, ▶ methodol- from Hawaii to ▶ New Zealand (Figure 1). The
ogy, ▶ qualitative research, ▶ quantitative country comprises an archipelago of more than
research. 332 islands, of which 110 are permanently
inhabited, and has a total land area of around
18,300 km2 (7,066 mi2). At the latest census, Fiji
References
had a population of 837,000 with 56.8 % being
Hall, M. 2011a Fieldwork in Tourism/Touring Fields: indigenous Fijian and a further 37.5 % being ethni-
Where Does Tourism End and Fieldwork Begin? In cally Indian (Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics 2007).
Fieldwork in Tourism: Methods, Issues and Reflec- International arrivals have been increasing
tions, M. Hall, ed., pp.7-18. New York: Routledge. annually on average by 4.7 % since the 1980s
Hall, M. 2011b Researching the Political in Tourism:
Where Knowledge Meets Power. In Fieldwork in Tour- and in 2011 reached 675,050. Fiji’s main source
ism: Methods, Issues and Reflections, M. Hall, ed., markets are its closest developed country neigh-
pp.39-54. New York: Routledge. bors, ▶ Australia and New Zealand. The Austra-
Jennings, G. 2012 Qualitative Research Methods. In Hand- lian market comprises over half of all tourists in
book of Research Methods in Tourism Studies: Quantita-
tive and Qualitative Approaches, L. Dwyer, A. Gill and 2011 (51 %), while New Zealand contributes a
N. Seetaram, eds., pp.309-324. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar. further 15 % and North America, Asia, and
Lew, A. 2011 Defining and Redefining Conceptual Frame- ▶ Europe contribute 10 %, 9 %, and 8 %, respec-
works for Social Science Field Research. In Fieldwork tively. Fiji is predominantly a ▶ destination that
in Tourism: Methods, Issues and Reflections,
M. Hall, ed., pp.19-34. New York: Routledge. provides sea, sun, and sand tourism. Three quar-
McCall, C. 2006 The Fieldwork Tradition. In The Sage ters (75 %) of tourists’ main purpose is
Handbook of Fieldwork, D. Hobbs and R. Wright, eds., holidaymaking, 6 % business, and 9 % visiting
pp.3-23. London: Sage. friends and relatives (Harrison and Pratt 2013).
One third of tourists have previously been to Fiji
(Fiji Ministry of Tourism 2009). The average
Fiji length of stay is 9.4 days.
The direct contribution of tourism to GDP in
Stephen Pratt 2012 was 13.0 %, and the total contribution
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, (including wider effects from ▶ investment, the
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, ▶ supply chain, and induced income) was 35.8 %
Hong Kong, China of GDP (WTTC 2013). In 2011, ▶ international
tourism receipts totaled US$717.4 million (FJ$
1,286.5 million). ▶ Travel and tourism in Fiji
Fiji is located in Oceania and is an island group in also generated 43,000 jobs directly in 2013
the South Pacific Ocean, about two thirds of the way (12.4 % of total ▶ employment).
Fiji, Figure 1 Map of Fiji (Source: Beautiful Pacific Holidays)

Film 357
Tourism growth in Fiji has continued despite the Lumière brothers had their first paying Parisian
political instability of the three military coups in audience for their film “Sortie des Usines Lumière
1987, 2000, and 2006. In the year following the à Lyon” (Workers Leaving the Lumière Factory in
first two coups, arrivals dropped 26 % and 28 %, Lyons), often identified as the debut of the public
respectively. However, due to price discounting and screening of films. As an art form covering the
increased ▶ marketing efforts by Tourism Fiji, as range from practical, environmental, pictorial,
well as those vacationing in Western Fiji, away dramatic, narrative to music, film has been devel-
from the political center, tourists continued to visit oped to be an economic commodity in contempo-
Fiji to enjoy its weather, tropical beaches, and warm rary society, the selling of a service that is
Pacific Island culture (Harrison and Pratt 2010). essentially psychological in nature (Monaco
Tourism and ▶ hospitality ▶ education and 2009).
▶ training in Fiji is delivered by several ▶ univer- Evolving with technical advances, film has F
sities and ▶ other training institutes, including the traveled through the silent era and the sound era,
University of the South Pacific, University of Fiji, as well as experiencing the periods of French
Fiji National University, and the Australia Pacific Impressionism, German Expressionism, and the
Technical College. The key issues for ▶ future New Wave and Realism and cultivating different
research on tourism in Fiji will continue to be areas like European art house cinema, Hollywood
the sociocultural impacts, the representation of cinema, etc. DVD and the internet have enhanced
▶ culture, as well as the challenges presented by its dissemination, while 3D and 4D movies
▶ climate change to tourism. increase a film’s popularity as the way of commu-
nication, entertainment, and mass media in the
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ cultural tour- twentieth and twenty-first centuries. Regardless
ism, ▶ ethnic tourism, ▶ island tourism, ▶ sus- of traditional film screening in the cinema or the
tainable tourism. rising microfilm based on the internet, its basic
role, which is the supplier of visual objects, has
References never changed. As a great source of information,
the cultural communication of film influences
Fiji Islands Bureau of Statistics 2007 Census of Population human society deeply and broadly. Therefore,
www.spc.int/prism/country/fj/stats/Social/popn_sum
film connects to other social sectors intimately,
mary.htm (9 September 2013).
Fiji Ministry of Tourism 2009 Fiji International Visitor one of which is tourism.
Survey Report. Suva: Ministry of Tourism.
Harrison, D., and S. Pratt 2010 Political Change and Tourism:
Coups in Fiji. In Tourism and Political Change, R. Butler
and W. Suntikul, eds., pp.160-174. Oxford: Goodfellows.
Cultivation of film tourism
Harrison, D., and S. Pratt 2013 Tourism in Pacific Island
Countries. In Contemporary Tourism Reviews, Back in 1936, the German philosopher Benjamin
C. Cooper, ed., pp.1-24. Oxford: Goodfellows. claimed in his essay “The Work of Art in the Age
of Mechanical Reproduction” that film made
Fiji www.wttc.org/site_media/uploads/downloads/
fiji2013.pdf (9 September). human beings “burst this prison-world asunder
by the dynamic of the tenth of a second” and “in
the midst of its far-flung ruins and debris,” people
Film “calmly and adventurously go traveling” (1968:
236). Tourism and film both appeal to the public
Xiaofei Hao as source materials for aesthetic appreciation, pro-
Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou, China viding distraction or challenge, evading or
embracing social reality, and comprehending the
needs of others (Hao and Ryan 2013). Indeed,
In the late 1880s, the invention of motion picture films provide the objects and subjects for the
cameras made filming possible. In 1895, the gaze of many people, while some films motivate
358 Film
travel to the locations where they were filmed. attracting about one in ten overseas tourists at
Thus, this potential effect of films has generated least, spending around US$ 3 billion a year. In
a special form of tourism, namely, film tourism or Asia, thanks to the widespread dissemination of
film-induced tourism (Beeton 2005; Connell Korean and Japanese TV drama, tourists from
2012). other Asian countries flood into the shooting loca-
Film tourism has been discussed continuously tions continuously. In 2013, the ▶ Singapore
by academics in the past two decades. Beeton Tourism Board launched its first microfilm in its
defines film-induced tourism as the “visitation to “New Discoveries” campaign that aimed to attract
sites where movies and TV programs have been Chinese tourists. These practices express a ten-
filmed” as well as “tours to production studios, dency that it is evolving into a multipath form of
including film-related themeparks” (2005: 11). communication, involving not only travelogues,
This type of tourism is based on the construction films that are based on novels, TV dramas, or
of images derived from the imaginaries or fasci- cartoons but also films shot by the destination
nation of cinema audiences who become tourists promotion agencies. Combining with the main
and the subsequent deliberate actions of ▶ desti- film product, there are also movie maps, film
nation management agencies. Films project an studios, and themeparks, as well as film festivals
identity for its location and describe space with around the world which connect tourism closely
its own narrative language. with film.
In order to meet tourists’ imaginaries, a ▶ des- The combination of film and tourism is well
tination marketing organization tries to promote reasoned and energetically resourced. However,
the image as the main attraction of the destination, the relationship between film and tourism does not
including the construction of some physical signs just depend on the realization that they both sup-
from this identity. Hence, tourists’ imaginaries, ply a mobile “gaze” (Urry 2002) and generate an
destination image, cultural authenticity, and local emotional attachment. From a philosophical view,
impacts are the key elements of film-induced tour- to observe Otherness elsewhere in order to estab-
ism. Enhancing the image, cultivating develop- lish their own identity is the common nature of
ment opportunities for local communities, film and tourism, which allow people to get away
increasing ▶ tourist arrivals, and accelerating the from daily life, so that their connection is more
development of attractions are the benefits gained cultural than economic in nature. Understanding
by locations. For tourists, films provide special film tourism from a sociocultural perspective is
empathetic experiences of destination wanderlust thus essential to its research. Beeton (2010) states
or, even more directly, trigger their motivations to that film tourism research has evolved from spec-
visit the film ▶ location. ulation to a combination of media studies and
social sciences and that its future studies should
go beyond the business and marketing domain
Film tourism practices toward multidisciplinary and postmodern
approaches and perspectives.
Films certainly influence and create perceptions of
a place and cultivate the desire for visitation. The See also ▶ Gaze, ▶ image, ▶ imaginary,
“Lord of the Rings” film trilogy, which was shot in ▶ media, ▶ motivation.
▶ New Zealand between 2001 and 2003, is fre-
quently mentioned as a famous film-induced tour-
ism. With the global popularity of “Bond” and
“Harry Potter,” the ▶ United Kingdom has uti- References
lized film tourism as a very important product
Beeton, S. 2005 Film-induced Tourism. Clevedon: Chan-
for destination promotion. More encouragingly, nel View.
the organization Film London claims that films Beeton, S. 2010 The Advance of Film Tourism. Tourism
depicting this country are responsible for and Hospitality Planning & Development 7(1):1-6.
Financial management 359
Benjamin, W. 1968 The Work of Art in the Age of Mechan- In return, by having operations in different coun-
ical Reproduction. In Illuminations, H. Arendt, ed., tries, firms can access multinational capital mar-
pp.211-244. London: Fontana.
Connell, J. 2012 Film Tourism: Evolution, Progress and kets to lower the costs of capital, shift profits to
Prospects. Tourism Management 33:1007–1029. lower taxes, and take advantage of international
Hao, X., & Ryan, C. 2013 Interpretation, film language and diversification.
tourist destinations: a case study of Hibiscus Town, Finance managers are involved in decisions
China. Annals of Tourism Research 42(4):334–358.
Monaco, J. 2009 How to Read a Film. New York: Oxford regarding which assets a firm should invest in
University Press. and how the funds for these investments should
Urry, J. 2002 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage. be raised. To finance investments, firms must
access capital markets, such as bond or stock
markets. From another perspective, finance man-
agers can be seen as liaisons between a firm’s F
Financial management operations and investors in financial markets
who hold the instruments issued by the firm.
SooCheong Shawn Jang Their main role is to follow the flow of cash that
Hospitality and Tourism Management, Purdue begins with investors and ultimately ends up
University, West Lafayette, USA returning to them. A funding stream starts with a
firm selling securities to raise capital. Next, the
capital is utilized to purchase business assets (the
Financial management is concerned with plan- initial business investment) for a firm’s opera-
ning, executing, and controlling financial activi- tions. If a firm does well, the assets will generate
ties and involves sourcing and using funds for cash inflows that more than repay the initial
business units. Effective financial management is investment. Then, they must decide whether the
realized through timely investments and is of crit- cash that was generated should be reinvested or
ical importance to the successful operation of any returned to the original investors. Thus, finance
business. Financial management is also closely managers are tasked with managing capital from
related to national and international economies. investors in order to maximize their wealth.
Specifically, analyzing macroeconomic informa- Finance managers usually undertake a variety
tion, such as interest rates, foreign exchange, of activities on a daily basis: estimating short-term
inflation, income growth, and unemployment and long-term capital needs, understanding
rates, leads to a better understanding of financial money and capital markets, choosing funding
and business markets. This information, in turn, sources (bonds or stocks) and seeking funds, man-
allows businesses to more effectively manage aging operating cash, making investment and cap-
their financial activities. ital budgeting decisions (purchasing real estate),
setting dividend policies, and managing financial
risk (interest rate, currency, and refinancing risks).
Research and practices Firms usually appoint a chief financial officer
to oversee the functions of both the treasurer
Similar to other industries, tourism and ▶ hospi- and controller. The controller is in charge of orga-
tality finance managers regularly make investing nizing and supervising the capital budgeting pro-
and financing decisions that significantly influ- cess, in addition to accounting, tax-related
ence business performance and risk management responsibilities, and preparing financial state-
(Jang et al. 2008). Recently, tourism and hospital- ments. In contrast, the treasurer is responsible for
ity firms have increasingly become international establishing policy, raising capital, and
businesses. Thus, they are exposed to even more maintaining relationships with financial institu-
financial risks, such as foreign exchange risk, tions. The chief financial officer usually reports
international differences in tax rates, and risks directly to the chief executive officer and the
from being involved in multiple money markets. board of directors.
360 Finland
Tourism and hospitality scholars conduct analyze the multinational nature of tourism and
research in order to understand finance markets in hospitality firms in connection with financial returns
relation to businesses in the industry and verify if and risks. Hence, financial management scholars
common financing and investing practices are can move to the next level by examining more sub-
appropriate and efficient. Major subjects in tourism jects for tourism and hospitality firms from a multi-
and hospitality studies include capital structure, national business perspective, such as the financial
risk management, financial performance, financing effects of internationalization, international diversi-
behaviors, firm valuation, bankruptcy, investment, fication, or global ▶ franchising of businesses.
merger and acquisitions, capital markets, and real
estate investment trusts (Jang and Park 2011). Due See also ▶ Cost-benefit analysis, ▶ economics,
to the capital-intensive nature of these businesses, ▶ management, ▶ revenue management.
scholars have focused on firms’ capital structures
(Tang and Jang 2007). Financial and business risks
have also been of great interest to academics due to
the high financial risks and volatile business envi- References
ronments associated with the industry (Jang
et al. 2011). Researchers have also been interested Hsu, L., and S. Jang 2009 Effects of Restaurant Franchis-
ing: Does an Optimal Franchise Proportion Exist?
in firm performance issues in relation to business International Journal of Hospitality Management
policies and strategies, such as growth and fran- 28:204-211.
chise strategies (Hsu and Jang 2009; Jang 2011). Jang, S. 2011 Growth-focused or Profit-focused Firms:
Transitions toward Profitable Growth. Tourism Man-
agement 32:667-674.
Jang, S., and K. Park 2011 Hospitality Finance Research
Directions for future studies during Recent Two Decades: Subjects, Methodologies,
and Citations. International Journal of Contemporary
Furthermore, scholars have recently started to pay Hospitality Management 23:479-497.
Jang, S., K. Park, and J. Lee 2011 Estimating Cash-flow-at-
attention to interdisciplinary research that applies risk: A Comparables Approach for Restaurant Firms.
finance concepts and tools to other management Cornell Hospitality Quarterly 52:232-240.
areas in tourism and hospitality (Jang et al. 2013). Jang, S., C. Tang, and M. Chen 2008 Financing Behaviors
Studies of the marketing-finance interface are a of Hotel Companies. International Journal of Hospital-
ity Management 27:478-87.
prime example of such interdisciplinary research Jang, S., C. Tang, K. Park, and L. Hsu 2013 The
and demonstrate how the effective application of Marketing-finance Interface: A New Direction for
finance concepts and tools generates a better under- Tourism and Hospitality Management. Tourism Eco-
standing of marketing outcomes. This research nomics 19:1197-1206.
Tang, C., and S. Jang 2007 Revisit to the Determinants of
direction suggests a new way of utilizing financial Capital Structure: A Comparison between Lodging
management in tourism and hospitality academia. Firms and Software Firms. International Journal of
It is also believed that interdisciplinary research Hospitality Management 26:175-187.
utilizing financial management may provide a solid
foundation for ▶ future tourism and hospitality
research. For example, financial management infor-
mation can be combined with human resources Finland
research in order to objectively evaluate the effects
of human resources strategies in tourism and hospi- Auvo Kostiainen
tality. Furthermore, operations management and Department of European and World History,
risk management are becoming increasingly impor- University of Turku, Turku, Finland
tant to this industry. If those management subjects
are combined with financial information, it will
provide more effective tools for scholars. In addi- Finland is a republic in Northern Europe,
tion, more research is needed to understand and 338,145 km2 (210,113 mi2) in area, located
Finland 361
between ▶ Sweden and ▶ Russia (Figure 1), with which started in the 1860s. Important attractions
a population of about 5.3 million (in 2013) and that became popular included the Imatra Water-
GDP of US$200.7 billion (2012). Tourism is falls, Finnish Lake District, and Lapland.
based mostly on natural and cultural appeals. Natural resources are the basis for new inno-
The birth of Finnish tourism ▶ industry was vative tourism products such as “silence of
greatly influenced by the railway construction nature” where tourists may stay at a cottage,
Finland, Figure 1 Map of Finland

362 Fishing tourism
enjoy a sauna, and explore the natural environ- See also ▶ Arctic tourism, ▶ cultural tourism,
ment. Adventure activities include traveling by ▶ experience, ▶ health tourism, ▶ nature tourism.
snowmobile, dog-sled safaris, and island and
lake tourism (Hall and Saarinen 2010; H€arkönen
2003). Popular adventure destinations References
include Santa Claus Land in Lapland and the
Moomin characters’ home island in Naantali. Cul- Hall, C., and J. Saarinen, eds. 2010 Tourism and Change in
Polar Regions: Climate, Environments and Experi-
tural traditions are emphasized in product design,
ences. London: Routledge.
music, and theater. At present, Helsinki, the cap- H€arkönen, T. ed. 2003 Proceedings of the International
ital city, is the main ▶ destination for ▶ urban Lake Tourism Conference (2-5 July). Savonlinna:
tourism. Savonlinna Institute of Regional Development and
Research.
Tourism has gained importance in recent
Turunen, H. 2009 The Internationalization of Location-
decades, contributing 2.8 % of GDP, and growth bound Service SMEs: Resources and Networks in
of 27 % between 2007 and 2011. In 2011, Finland Finnish Tourism Companies. Turku: Turku School of
had 7.3 million inbound tourists. Its most impor- Economics.
tant markets are Russia, Sweden, and ▶ Germany.
Most important destinations are ▶ Estonia,
▶ Spain, and Sweden. The balance of tourism
trade is negative. In 2007, total direct expenditure Fishing tourism
in Finland was $15.1 bn (€11 bn), 29 % of which
came from international tourists. Tourism Roselyne N. Okech
employed 130,000 people in 2011. In 2012, a Division of Social Science / Tourism Studies,
total of 635 international conferences were held Memorial University of Newfoundland, Corner
in Finland. There are 25,000 tourism enterprises Brook, NL, Canada
today, and more than 90 % of them have less than
ten employees.
In established regions, tourism is well orga- Fishing tourism can be defined as a set of activities
nized with developed infrastructure. Its carried out by professionals in order to differenti-
employees are educated at vocational schools, ate their incomes, promote and valorize their pro-
polytechnic institutions, and universities. The fession and sociocultural heritage, and enhance a
Finnish University Network for Tourism Studies sustainable use of marine ecosystems, by means
is coordinated at the University of Eastern Fin- of boarding non-crew individuals on fishing ves-
land, and one may undertake tourism research as a sels (MAREMED 2013).
major at the University of Lapland. Tourism activ- Fishing is broadly split into three categories:
ities are led by the national Finnish Tourist Board, game, coarse, and sea fishing. The first is fishing
under the Ministry of Employment and the Econ- for “game” species which include salmon, brown
omy. However, local and regional actors are also trout, sea trout, and rainbow trout. Anglers go
active in tourism coordination at the destination fishing for these species in streams, rivers, and
level, witnessing a growing industry. Finland lakes/reservoirs. The second is fishing for any
needs to reduce its tourism trade deficit with the freshwater species, other than salmon or trout.
help of traditions of nature and ▶ culture tourism. Coarse species include roach, perch, tench, carp,
Transit tourism by airlines to Asia is a fast grow- bream, rudd, pike, and chub. These are not kept
ing sector (Turunen 2009). Due to increase in for eating but are all returned. The third is fishing
international contacts, conferences, and projects, in or by the sea in the hope to catch species such as
research on tourism is in good progress. In partic- bass, pollack, mackerel, plaice, cod, and haddock
ular, multidisciplinary research on the interaction (Smith 2014).
of tourism with natural environment and Fishing has been an important aspect of mod-
wellbeing appears promising. ern lives. Its origins and pursuit have been much
Flora and fauna 363
less questioned, and there has been little contro- MAREMED 2013 Fishing Tourism and Priority Axis 4 of
versy surrounding its practice. Fishing is an essen- the EFF on Sustainable Development of Fisheries
Areas and Fisheries Local Action Groups www.
tial part of holidaymaking; many people maremed.eu (6 February 2014).
▶ holiday on the coast, on islands, or by the riv- Smith, T. 2014 Types of Fishing www.
erside so that they can take the pleasure of using contrysportssouthwest.co.uk (6 February).
fishing rods, hand lines, or crab baskets. The
emergence of a specific and targeted fishing tour-
ism sector was connected to a rise in mobility, an
increase of recreational fishers, and the emergence Flora and fauna
of its service providers (such as guides, boat
owners, landowners, and resort owners) who Gaunette Sinclair-Maragh1 and Dogan Gursoy2
1
take the advantage by offering special experi- School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, F
ences, locations, and species and constructing a College of Business and Management, University
price for it (Bauer and Herr 2004). of Technology, Kingston, Jamaica
The positive impacts of fishing tourism are the 2
School of Hospitality Business Management,
added value given to local employment, fishery Washington State University, Pullman, USA
products, and, in many cases, the traditional arti-
sanal engagements as well as the reduction of this
effort and thus a better conservation of fisheries This tourism market is interested in destinations
and marine resources (MAREMED 2013). How- featuring flora and fauna attractions, collectively
ever, the major challenge is the lack of available constituting the wildlife environment. Flora
statistics and a sound knowledge base on recrea- describes the many species of plants or vegetation,
tional fishing, coupled with low public awareness while fauna depicts animals, birds, invertebrates,
about the activity (Borch et al. 2008). and fish lives (Ryan and Huyton 2000). This seg-
The unstable structure of the industry makes it ment comprises tourists who want to connect with
challenging to decide on management systems to nature for psychological wellbeing, meaningful-
secure sustainability and to solve conflicts. Future ness, and vitality, in addition to education and
research can take many directions, for example, learning (Cervinka et al. 2013).
focusing on its relationship with other fishery Flora and fauna tourism is advantageous, as it
activities as well as an economic overview and can be indigenous, thus presenting endemic
impact of fishing tourism. It will also be important biodiversity and bestowing uniqueness to the
to understand the role of culture on recreational ▶ destination (Nyeki 1992). Research shows that
and sport fishing in various cultures and locations. the use of flora and fauna as a tourism product can
help in achieving environmental, economic, and
political sustainability (Salem et al. 2000). Some
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
destinations have recognized their importance for
▶ hunting tourism, ▶ sport tourism, ▶ sustainable
conservation and have created national parks,
tourism.
wildlife sanctuaries, protected areas, or reserves
for their upkeep. From an economic sustainability
standpoint, these nature-based resources attract a
References
large number of tourists (Meshram 2013) and
Bauer, J., and A. Herr 2004 Hunting and Fishing Tourism.
consequently create both direct and indirect
In Wildlife Tourism: Impacts, Management and employment for residents (Nyeki 1992). This pro-
Planning, pp. 57-77. CRC for Sustainable Tourism, vides economic benefits to both the country and
Gold Coast, Australia. local residents. Likewise, flora and fauna tourism
Borch, T., Ø. Aas and D. Policansky 2008 International
Fishing Tourism: Past, Present and Future. In Global
can diversify a destination’s offerings and make it
Challenges in Recreational Fisheries, Ø. Aas, ed., competitive. Political sustainability can be
pp. 268-291. Oxford: Blackwell. achieved by developing policies designed to
364 Forecasting
ensure the protection of the wildlife environment

from human interferences. Forecasting
However, it can be challenging to protect the
flora and fauna in a densely populated area Gang Li1 and Haiyan Song2
1
(Salem et al. 2000). There is an eminent conflict School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
between tourism and environment. The former is University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
2
considered a major contributor to the loss of School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
flora and fauna, especially from human actions The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
such as trampling, camping or caravaning, and Hong Kong, China
scuba diving. These activities disturb their eco-
logical balance. Other variables attributed to the
extinction of the flora and fauna, which subse- Forecasting is the process of predicting certain
quently ▶ impact this form of tourism, include future events or conditions by analyzing the avail-
climate change, deforestation, hunting and able information. Forecasting plays an important
poaching, pesticides, and mineral mining and role in tourism ▶ development, ▶ marketing, and
extraction. operations management. Its development in tour-
For a destination to realize the maximum ben- ism can be traced back to the 1960s. Over the past
efit of its flora and fauna attractions, it has to half century, various forecasting approaches and
protect them from human intervention. Addition- techniques have been developed and applied to
ally, these attractions have to be properly planned tourism demand analysis.
and managed to minimize the adverse impact of
tourism. Future research could examine how well
this is being accomplished in selected Classification of forecasting methods
destinations.
Depending on data availability, tourism forecast-
ing methods fall into two broad categories of
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ spe- quantitative and qualitative approaches. The for-
cial interest tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism, mer is normally adopted when sufficient quantifi-
▶ wildlife tourism. able information about the past is available and
objective numerical measurements are consistent
over the historical period. Mathematical and sta-
References tistical principles serve as the technical founda-
tions of quantitative forecasting. Qualitative
Cervinka, R., K. Roderer, and E. Hefler 2013 Are Nature
Lovers Happy? On Various Indicators of Wellbeing and approaches are appropriate if little or no quantita-
Connectedness with Nature. Journal of Health Psychol- tive information is available, but there is sufficient
ogy 17:379-388. non-numerical knowledge. Qualitative forecast-
Meshram, A. 2013 Need to Develop Vidarbha Tourism to ing relies on intuitive thinking, judgment, and
Boost Job Opportunities for Local Population. Indian
Streams Research Journal 3:1-7. the accumulated experience of experts, and is
Nyeki, D. 1992 Wildlife Conservation and Tourism in useful for medium- and long-term planning and
Kenya. Jacaranda Designs, Nairobi, Kenya <www. strategy development. Examples of qualitative
cabdirect.org> (27 December 2013). methods in tourism include the Delphi technique
Ryan, C., and J. Huyton 2000 Aboriginal Tourism:
A Linear Structural Relations Analysis of Domestic and scenario writing, while quantitative
and International Tourist Demand. International Jour- approaches are much more diverse and have dom-
nal of Tourism Research 2:15-29. inated research and practice in this area.
Salem, M., G. Lindsay, and C. Beveridge 2000 Ecotourism Quantitative forecasting can be further divided
to Protect the Reserve Mangrove Forest, the
Suburbans and its Flora and Fauna. Anatolia: An Inter- into causal and non-causal subcategories. The
national Journal of Tourism and Hospitality Research latter explains a variable with regard to its own
11:56-66. past and a random disturbance term. Since
Forecasting 365
non-causal time-series models only require histor- data, such as its distribution and probability. The
ical observations of a variable, they are less costly limitation of this forecasting is associated with its
in terms of data collection and model estimation. lack of theoretical underpinnings.
Time-series models have been widely used for
tourism forecasting in the past few decades and
are dominated by the use of the Box-Jenkins Evaluation of forecasting accuracy
approach (i.e., the autoregressive integrated mov-
ing average method). In addition, the naïve model Forecasting accuracy can be evaluated from two
is often used in tourism forecasting as a bench- perspectives: the magnitude of forecasting errors
mark. This simply states that future forecasts are and directional change or turning point errors. The
equal to the latest available value. One of the more former dominates tourism forecasting practice,
while the latter has important strategic implica-
recent methodological developments in time-series F
tourism forecasting is the structural time-series tions for businesses.
model, which decomposes an observed time series Among various measures of the magnitude of
into trend, seasonal, cyclical, and irregular compo- forecast errors, the mean absolute percentage error
nents, and is thus more informative about the (MAPE) and root mean square percentage error
underlying stochastic structure of the series. Empir- (RMSPE) are most commonly employed in tour-
ism forecasting.
n
ical evidence shows that this approach offers
X At Ft
enhanced ▶ performance in tourism forecasting. MAPE ¼ n 1
F 100, and
Causal forecasting methods assume a cause and t¼1 t
sffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ffi
X n
effect relationship within the model. In the tourism A t Ft 2
context, this mainly refers to econometric tech- RMSPE ¼ 1n 100 , where At
t¼1
Ft
niques. This involves the use of ▶ regression
is the actual value, Ft is the forecast value, and n is
models to estimate the quantitative relationships
the number of forecasts. To evaluate the accuracy
between tourism demand and its determinants,
of directional change forecasting, forecasters
such as ▶ tourist income, prices in a ▶ destination, often use the concept of “the percentage of direc-
prices in competing destinations, exchange rates, tions of movement forecast correctly” (Song
and ▶ travel costs. The ▶ future values of tourism et al. 2013: 295).
demand are then obtained by using the forecasts of Various factors affect the performance of a fore-
the determinants of tourism demand in conjunction casting model in terms of error magnitude. Based
with the estimated causal relationships (Witt and on empirical evidence, the key factors are model
Witt 1995). Econometric models can be used both specification, estimation method, forecasting hori-
for forecasting and for policy simulations and eval- zons, data-generating processes, and forecasting
uations. Advanced econometric techniques, such as accuracy evaluation measures. Although recent
error correction, time-varying parameter, and causal studies show that the more advanced techniques
structural models, have been applied in recent tour- tend to result in improved accuracy under certain
ism modeling and forecasting studies and demon- circumstances, there is no clear-cut evidence that
strate improved accuracy compared to traditional any one model consistently outperforms the others.
methods (Li et al. 2005; Song and Li 2008).
In addition to time-series and econometric
models, a few artificial intelligence techniques Further developments
have been used in more recent studies, most nota-
bly genetic algorithms, fuzzy logic, artificial neu- Previous tourism forecasting exercises focus
ral networks, and support vector machines. These overwhelmingly on point forecasts (in other
artificial intelligence techniques can be applied to words, a single value at each future point in
both causal and non-causal forecasting. Their time). In addition to this, it would also be useful
main advantage is that they do not require any to compute the associated prediction intervals
preliminary or additional information about the with a prescribed probability. From a statistical
366 Foreign exchange
perspective, interval forecasts take future uncer- country’s currency can be turned into another’s is
tainty into consideration and provide a more reli- the price of a unit in terms of the other currency in
able foundation for strategic decisionmaking. which the exchange takes place. The exchange
Since no single forecasting method can rate variations affect relative prices of goods and
outperform others on all occasions, some recent services in different countries and are therefore an
attempts have been made to combine the forecasts important factor in international trade, including
derived from different models with some positive inbound and ▶ outbound tourism (Archer 2000).
empirical results (Shen et al. 2011). Tourism stud- Since the exchange rates vary, they considerably
ies tend to treat qualitative and quantitative influence the ▶ tourist flows toward particular
approaches separately. Where both types of the countries. Favorable exchange rates between an
required information are available, their integra- original country’s currency and a destination’s
tion is likely to lead to more reliable prediction of currency, acting as they do as an immediate price
future trends. Such an attempt has been seen in the signal indicating the relative value of the offer, can
recent development of a web-based forecasting stimulate tourists to venture abroad, increase their
system for Hong Kong ▶ inbound tourism expenditure, and/or positively influence their
(www.tourismforecasting.net). length of stay.
In many developing countries, tourism is the
See also ▶ Demand modeling, ▶ econometrics, largest earner of foreign exchange, and thus its
▶ economics, ▶ error correction model. impact on international arrivals has attracted an
increased interest of scholars. Exchange rate is
considered as an important determinant of this
References
demand (Witt and Witt 1995), an important factor
Li, G., H. Song, and S. Witt 2005 Recent Development in affecting the competitiveness of a destination
Econometric Modeling and Forecasting. Journal of (Dwyer et al. 2000), and one of the five most
Travel Research 44:82-99. used independent variables in international
Shen, S., G. Li, and H. Song 2011 Combination Forecasts demand equations (Smeral 2003).
of International Tourism Demand. Annals of Tourism
Research 38:72-89. Recent studies have expanded from nominal
Song, H., and G. Li 2008 Tourism Demand Modelling and exchange rates (price of domestic currency in
Forecasting: A Review of Recent Research. Tourism terms of foreign currency), toward the real
Management 29:203-220. exchange rates (nominal rates adjusted for
Song, H., E. Smeral, G. Li, and J. Chen 2013 Tourism Fore-
casting Using Econometric Models. In European Tourism changes in the general level of prices of goods
Planning and Organisation Systems, Volume I, D. Buhalis and services between the origin country and des-
and C. Costa, eds., pp. 289-309. Bristol: Channel View. tination), and finally to foreign exchange risks for
Witt, S., and C. Witt 1995 Forecasting Tourism Demand: tourism-related firms (Lee and Jang 2011). Even
A Review of Empirical Research. International Journal
of Forecasting 11:447-475. domestic firms without foreign income are
involved in the risk of exchange rate movements
and need to calculate risks associated with such
Foreign exchange changes. This situation can significantly influence
their corporate cash flows (Lee and Jang 2011:
Nevenka Čavlek1 and Stephen Wanhill2 943). Since foreign exchange surpluses enable
1
Department of Tourism, Faculty of Economics countries to invest or purchase goods and services
and Business, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, in any part of the globe and are used as an indica-
Croatia tion of economic strength, future research in this
2
University of Limerick, Limerick, Ireland field should expand to policies which stimulate
foreign exchange earnings, international finance,
and measures to manage exchange rate volatility.
Foreign exchange relates to buying or selling cur- The latter is important for foreign direct invest-
rencies other than one’s own. The rate at which a ment in the sector, since volatility can adversely
Forest tourism 367
affect project returns. Where bank finance is ▶ attention focused on outdoor recreation within
required, firms protect themselves from fluctuat- forests and social science research was descrip-
ing currency by securing funds from countries tive, characterizing topics like site use, ▶ visitor
which generate their tourist trade. behavior, crowding, and implications of negative
impacts.
Geographically, the use and ▶ attraction of
See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ demand
European and US boreal and deciduous forest
modeling, ▶ destination competitiveness, ▶ inter-
areas received early attention. Eventually, interest
national tourism.
in fragile sites worldwide with high environmen-
tal values, like tropical forest biomes, gave rise to
ecotourism and issues of sustainability, and
References
important cultural, economic, and political dimen- F
Archer, S. 2000 Foreign Exchange. In Encyclopedia of
sions emerged. Today, the scenic beauty of all
Tourism, J. Jafari, ed., pp.235-237. London: Routledge. forest biomes is highly valued. The presence of
Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and P. Rao 2000 The Price Compet- unique ▶ flora and fauna makes specific sites ideal
itiveness of Travel and Tourism: A Comparison of for creating national parks and protected areas
19 Destinations. Tourism Management 21:9-22.
Lee, S., and S. Jang 2011 Foreign Exchange Exposure of
serving to conserve forest ecosystems while
US Tourism-related Firms. Tourism Management encouraging use.
32:934-948. Land-use policies drive research on opportu-
Smeral, E. 2003 Die Zukunft des internationalen nities for forest tourism. Site-specific landown-
Tourismus. Vienna: Wifo.
Witt, S., and C. Witt 1995 Forecasting Tourism Demand:
ership goals and ▶ management practices range
A Review of Empirical Research. International Journal from little to no ▶ development and result, for
of Forecasting 11:447-475. example, in a nonmotorized wilderness ▶ prod-
uct where nonconsumptive uses prevail. Alter-
nate products result in intensive forest
management that accommodates or adds value
Forest tourism to motorized outdoor recreational activities. This
absence or presence of ▶ landscape manipula-
Daniel L. Erkkila tion creates different opportunities for nature-
College of Food, Agricultural and Natural based activities, which range from the consump-
Resource Sciences, University of Minnesota, tive to nonconsumptive, passive or active, and
Grand Rapids, USA include, inter alia, the activities of ▶ camping,
biking, hiking, wildlife observation, nature
▶ photography, hunting, and berry picking
Forest tourism is broadly applied to describe a (Gossling and Hickler 2006). Developed road
variety of uses of forested landscapes as distinct systems may exist for forest ▶ exploration and
attractions or environments. It has evolved to for the enjoyment of off-road vehicle or snow-
encompass product concepts like ▶ ecotourism, mobile use on well-designed trail systems.
nature-based tourism, and outdoor ▶ recreation. Large forested regions may include multiple
Its unifying element is the recreational use of a ▶ destination communities that provide lodging
forest ▶ environment. and other goods and services to tourists.
With trees as the principal attribute, the world’s Forests with high aesthetic, environmental, or his-
forest biomes range from boreal (taiga) forests in torical values provide them with cultural,
the northern latitudes to temperate deciduous for- ecotourism, or spiritual tourism experiences and
ests in midlatitudes and to tropical rainforests in may be legally protected to maintain future values
equatorial regions and southern latitudes. These (Ceballos-Lascurain 1996; Font and Tribe 2000).
endowed forests attract millions of tourists and Conflicts in forested regions have typically posed
recreationists with varied interests. Early development against conservation interests and
368 France
landowner policies, with debates involving mar-

ket and nonmarket benefits and costs. ▶ Future
research should focus on ▶ sustainability of the
world’s forest biomes jeopardized by aggressive
land-use practices, like harvesting of rainforests.
Mitigation of negative ▶ climate change effects
reinforces the added importance of these regions
for carbon sequestration.
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ flora and fauna,

▶ nature tourism, ▶ recreation, ▶ wilderness
tourism.
References
Ceballos-Lascurain, H. 1996 Tourism, Ecotourism, and

Protected Areas: The State of Nature-based Tourism
around the World and Guidelines for its Development.
France, Figure 1 Map of France
Gland: IUCN.
Font, X., and J. Tribe, eds. 2000 Forest Tourism and
Recreation: Case Studies in Environmental Manage-
ment. New York: CABI.
to Northern Europe, America, and ▶ Africa but
Gossling, S., and T. Hickler 2006 Tourism and Forest
Ecosystems. In Tourism and Global Environmental also a wide variety of beaches and sea views onto
Change: Ecological, Social, Economic and Political the North Sea, the Atlantic Ocean, and the Medi-
Interrelationships, S. Gossling and M. Hall, eds., terranean Sea.
pp. 95-106. New York: Routledge.
France is the world’s most popular ▶ destina-
tion receiving 83 million inbound tourists annu-
ally (UNWTO 2014), ahead of the ▶ United
States (67 million) and ▶ Spain (57 million),
France attracted by its varied sceneries (landscapes,
mountains, and beaches), its rich cultural heritage
Philippe Jean-Pierre and David Perrain (historic monuments and museums), its famous
Centre d’Economie et Management de l’Ocean gastronomy, and its geographical position. France
Indien, St-Denis, Réunion, France welcomes more than 12 million Germans and
British tourists, ten million Belgians, and eight
million Italians. Tourists come also from the
France is the fifth largest economy in the world, United States (three million) and ▶ China (1.4
stretching 1,000 km (600 mi) from north to south million). Together they provide France with the
and from east to west. Its several overseas terri- third largest international receipts, after United
tories are located in all five oceans of the world. States and Spain in 2013.
France is the second largest country in ▶ Europe
after ▶ Russia. The country has a strategic geo-
graphical position in the middle of Western A pioneer in tourism history
Europe, sharing borders with six neighboring
countries and located at the heart of the European Tourism was born in the ▶ United Kingdom in the
Union, between the northern and southern Euro- eighteenth century during the industrial revolu-
pean countries (Figure 1). Furthermore, the tion. France, and especially the French Mediter-
French coastline provides not only access by sea ranean coast, quickly became an attraction for
France 369
British aristocrats on the ▶ Grand Tour. ▶ Tourist baccalaureates and 160 tourism master programs.
activities developed more intensively during the Nevertheless, many employees in traditional
reign of Napoleon III, with the emergence of catering and accommodation have no specific
coastal and ▶ beach tourism. Many seaside training. There is a need to rectify this situation
resorts, such as Deauville or Biarritz, were created and the French strategy contains significant
in the second half of the nineteenth century. Spa emphasis on improving training in order to
bathing also increased in popularity with French upgrade skills in this industry.
bourgeoisie, and ski resorts, such as Chamonix,
were built. During this period, tourism was a
luxury product. Remaining the leader
The face of tourism changed radically in the
first half of the twentieth century. Railways and France has always faced the competition for tour- F
highways linked cities to the main French seaside ists. For example, the first-rate southern French
and ski resorts. After 1936, social legislation pro- resorts on the Mediterranean coast have over time
vided guaranteed paid holidays and shorter work- seen competition from new destinations that
ing hours for employees. A post-World War II developed first in ▶ Italy and Spain, then in
global economic boom coupled with the popular- ▶ Greece and ▶ Turkey, and most recently in
ity of automobile ▶ travel and the onset of mass North Africa. However, today France’s leading
transport enabled development of ▶ mass tour- position in the field of tourism is threatened. The
ism. Air ▶ transportation was important for tour- number of international arrivals has increased less
ism ▶ development. All these changes enabled quickly in the last decade: 0.6 % annually on
France quickly to become a world leader in tour- average between 2000 and 2012, while between
ism and to turn it to an industry. 1990 and 2000 it grew an average of 3.9 %, and at
5.7 % annually during the 1980s. Development of
tourism in many new destination countries has
Key factor for the French economy intensified competition. These countries are grow-
ing their tourism numbers because they are closer
The French Tourism Satellite Account indicates to emerging markets and also may have lower
that internal tourism consumption provided 7.3 % costs. Thus, in 2012 China was ranked at the
of GDP in 2012 (DGCIS 2013). Almost one mil- third position in number of international inbound,
lion of full-time equivalent jobs, notably in tradi- while it was 18th in 1980. China is also the
tional catering and ▶ accommodation, were world’s largest outbound tourist market. This
created by 273,000 tourism-related businesses. trend will continue to grow. Between 2010 and
One third of these employees work in Paris and 2030, arrivals in emerging destinations are
its surrounding regions. Another one quarter is expected to increase at double the pace of that in
located in the Rhône-Alpes and Mediterranean advanced economies.
regions. Consumption by French tourists repre- In order to keep France’s ▶ leadership in tour-
sents around two thirds of internal tourism con- ism, French authorities and economic actors must
sumption and reflects the importance of holidays reinvigorate their offering. In this new situation,
and ▶ leisure in the French society (National process innovations become essential for survival
Tourism Board 2010). (Crouch and Ritchie 2003; OECD 2006). The
France has a well-developed education and restructuring of the industry has also become cru-
training infrastructure that meets the needs of the cial. The French government has developed a
industry. The tourism ▶ education system offers a participatory approach in order to identify new
wide variety of options from vocational training forms of governance to better involve stake-
(food service training) to higher education holders. The future of the destination requires
diploma, and master and doctorate degrees. improving the quality of the tourism offer to
There are more than 1,000 vocational enhance the attractiveness of France and to
370 Franchising
improve competitiveness. Thus, the French right to commercialize its brand name, business
administration has introduced a tourism policy in process/format, and products/services. This is in
favor of rehabilitation of tourist accommodation return for financial compensation known as the
and implementation of a proactive policy of franchising fees.
employment to fill 500,000 unfilled jobs in the There are primarily two types: product and
tourism ▶ industry. business format. The former focuses on the sales
France has also to think creatively and to inno- system of a product, in which a manufacturer
vate in order to rejuvenate itself at all levels. To authorizes retailers or dealers to be part of its
modernize its tourism offer, topics of future distribution. The latter is widely used in retail
research interest should not only include new and service industries with its focus on how the
technologies and new communications but also business is run. This type covers the entire spec-
in terms of tourist receptions (facilities, commu- trum which includes a franchisor’s products/ser-
nication) and cultural innovation. vices as well as its logo, trademarks, and operating
systems (Jones and Hill 2012). While the concept
See also ▶ Destination competitiveness, of franchising as a means of distributing products
▶ Europe, ▶ Grand Tour, ▶ history, ▶ Tourism began in the mid-1800s, the use of it as a modern
Satellite Account. business format in tourism and ▶ hospitality
began in the 1950s when the McDonald’s and
▶ Holiday Inn were recognized as the first
franchisors.
References Franchising brings distinct advantages to both
parties involved. For a franchisor, it is essentially
Crouch, I., and J. Ritchie 2003 The Competitive Destina- an inexpensive and profitable means of expan-
tion: A Sustainable Tourism Perspective. Cambridge:
CABI.
sion. Compared to other major modes such as
DGCIS 2013 Key Facts www.gouvernement.fr/ wholly owned, joint venture, and management
sites/default/files/fichiers/key-facts-tourism-2013.pdf contract, the model enables a franchisor to grow
(1 August 2014). its profit and brand in a relatively short time with
National Tourism Board 2010 Social and Economic
Weight of Tourism. Paris: Direction Générale de la
comparatively little risk. From a franchisee’s per-
Compétitivité, de l'Industrie et des Services. spective, a proven operating system, global/
OECD 2006 Innovation and Growth in Tourism, Paris: national/regional marketing, minimized risk of
Organization for Economic Cooperation and starting a business, and easier access to financing
Development.
UNWTO 2014 World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World
are among the most attractive benefits. Disadvan-
Tourism Organization. tages include loss of operation control and incon-
sistent quality among franchisors. Franchisees, on
the other hand, must comply with the standards
and restrictions imposed by the franchisor. Con-
siderable amount of franchising fees, the second
Franchising biggest expenses for many hotels, is another con-
cern (Martorell Cunill 2006).
Qu Xiao In an era of globalization, significant growth in
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, global brand awareness has been evident, and
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, franchising has become the most adopted expan-
Hong Kong, China sion and growth strategy. It adds a particular value
by enhancing the understandings of local culture
and business environment (Hoffman and Preble
Franchising is a prominent and successful form of 2004). In emerging countries, it is welcomed by
cooperation or partnership in which one company, the government as a strategy for growth, global
the franchisor, grants the other, the franchisee, the integration, and job creation. Altinay et al. (2013)
Frequent flyer program 371
report an increasing sophistication of franchise switching from one airline to another, lowering
structures and partner selection criteria. It is also cross elasticity of demand, and reducing incentive
noted that franchising is particularly popular for competitive price cutting (Hanlon 1996).
when a franchisor’s key competencies are repro- In a FFP, a passenger is issued a membership
ducible and the host country’s business environ- card, and each (eligible) ticket flown helps earn
ment is increasingly developed (Dev et al. 2002). mileages. The core is the accumulation of points
Future research should look at franchising in the or air miles, which is redeemable in the future.
emerging markets. The more a passenger flies with the same airline
(and its code-sharing partners), the more mileage
See also ▶ Globalization, ▶ hospitality, ▶ man- she earns. The points accrued depend upon dis-
agement, ▶ partnership, ▶ service quality. tance traveled, class of ticket, season of travel, and
the like. These accrued mileages are eligible for F
rewards in the form of free or discounted air
References tickets, upgrades, concessions, shopping dis-
counts, hotel stays, and extra free baggage allow-
Altinay, L., M. Brookes, and G. Aktas 2013 Selecting ance and may even entitle the holder to privileges
Franchise Partners: Tourism Franchisee Approaches,
such as free usage of dedicated airport lounges
Processes and Criteria. Tourism Management 37:176-
185. (Hanlon 1996). In more advanced forms, FFP
Dev, C., M. Erramilli, and S. Agarwal 2002 Brands across members may also receive points when going to
Borders: Determining Factors in Choosing Franchising a restaurant, using their credit card, renting a car,
or Management Contracts for Entering International
telephoning long distance, or staying in a hotel,
Markets. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly 43(6):91-104. with which the airline has business partnership
Hoffman, R., and J. Preble 2004 Global Franchising: Cur- agreements. Members with accrued points are
rent Status and Future Challenges. Journal of Service often given higher tier – gold, platinum, or
Marketing 18:101-113.
diamond – memberships, which entitle card-
Jones, G., and C. Hill 2012 Theory of Strategic Manage-
ment. Mason: Cengage Learning. holders to certain advantages every time they fly,
Martorell Cunill, O. 2006 The Growth Strategies of Hotel such as express check-in, access to a special
Chains. Binghamton: Haworth. lounge in the airport, priority booking, waiting
list priority, seat registration, meal preferences,
and a limousine service to and from the airport.
The FFPs were first introduced in the United
Frequent flyer program States in the 1980s by airlines operating on the
deregulated market. They have since spread to
Syed Ahmad Rizwan Europe, which was liberalized and made subject
Centre for Tourism Research and Development, to the competition rules of the EC Treaty in the
Tourism Recreation Research, Lucknow, 1980s and 1990s (Storm 1999). Globally, FFPs
Uttar Pradesh, India have moved beyond the basics and by now have
broadened participation from one airline to global
alliance of carriers (e.g., Oneworld, Star Alliance,
Frequent flyer program (FFP) is a marketing strat- SkyTeam) and even other industry sectors or busi-
egy introduced by the airlines for enhancing cus- nesses such as financial institutions, telecommu-
tomer loyalty. It has turned the basis of competition nication, and jewelers’ chains (Brancatelli 1996).
away from price and is defined as “a purchase Despite its marketing returns, the cost of
incentive plan that rewards the traveler. . . for redeeming FFP awards could exceed the value
repeat patronage of the services of a particular air they bring to the carrier. Future research should
carrier” (Tretheway 1989: 45). The effects of FFPs also look at increasing fuel cost, low-cost carriers,
are especially important on business routes, which and pressure on airlines to reduce emissions as
boost market power by increasing the cost of forces to reshape FFP in tourism.
372 Future
See also ▶ Air transport, ▶ airline, ▶ aviation, ▶ Middle East, while ▶ Europe and the
▶ loyalty, ▶ repeat tourism. ▶ Americas will lose share of the global tourism
market. Growth in demand and expenditures is
believed to continue, but this will depend on
References how technology is used to market tourism and
deliver its services, how its products are experi-
Brancatelli, J. 1996 More Bang for Frequent-flier Bucks. enced, and how emerging markets affect supply.
Fortune (September 30):278.
Hanlon, P. 1996 Global Airlines: Competition in a Trans-
national Industry. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Storm, S. 1999 Air Transport Policies and Frequent Flyer Future tourism experiences
Programs in the European Community. Bornholm: Unit
of Tourism Research, Research Centre.
Although technology will continue to change
Tretheway, M. 1989 Frequent Flyer Programs: Marketing
Bonanza or Anti-Competitive Tool? The 24th Annual tourism ▶ marketing, it will not replace the
Meeting of the Canadian Transportation Research human element in the delivery of services. Mar-
Forum. Halifax NS, Canada. keting has changed drastically as the internet and
other online technologies have advanced. Print
media will continue to decline in importance as
it is replaced by future innovations in electronic
Future media that appeal to new ▶ tourist generations
(Edgell and Swanson 2013). In general, future
Jason R. Swanson marketing initiatives will not only require engage-
Department of Retailing and Tourism ment with potential customers but must also
Management, University of Kentucky, Lexington, involve using personal data known about individ-
USA uals and their experiences. Advances in customer
research and data analysis will facilitate this pro-
cess. However, because of persistent research
The study of tourism futures uses theoretical challenges, ▶ destination marketing will lag
approaches and research methodologies such as behind ▶ hospitality businesses, such as hotels
prognosis, science fiction, scenario planning, or and rental car companies, in its ability to inti-
Delphi (Page et al. 2010; Swanson and Hosier mately know tourists. Technology (such as self-
2014) that enable prediction. Still, metrics are check-in kiosks in hotels, robotic food delivery
difficult to forecast because of potential short- systems in restaurants, or online ▶ travel booking
term shocks (major terrorism activity), indetermi- services) may become more commonplace, but it
nate permanent shifts (climate change), or antici- will not replace the desire for personal service
pated volatile fluctuations (oil prices), all of which provided by hotel front desk clerks, ▶ restaurant
affect tourism demand differently. waiters, or specialized travel agents. Destinations
The general increase in tourism demand since and businesses that differentiate themselves by
the turn of the century is expected to continue over competing on quality personalized customer ser-
the next 20–40 years. ▶ International tourism vice will be better positioned for success than
arrivals are estimated to increase at an average those that over-rely on technology instead of on
annual rate of 3.8 %, with expenditures by the human touch (Swanson and Hosier 2014).
4.4 %, over the coming decades (Yeoman 2012). The tourism products enjoyed by future tour-
Tourism expansion is anticipated because of ists will change. Two causes of this change will be
growing populations in emerging markets, globalization and expansion of the sharing econ-
advances in ▶ transportation technologies, more omy. First, the former will lead to further com-
personal wealth, and longer life spans for people moditization, with destinations that focus on
almost everywhere. The largest relative gains may differentiation gaining popularity. This demarca-
be realized by destinations in Asia-Pacific and the tion will occur through preservation of cultural
Future 373
and historical attractions. However, because of the Future opportunities

increased number of tourists, many major heritage
sites will likely be affected by overcrowding. New In light of increased demand, capacity restrictions,
products must be developed to meet the demand and new forms of competition, the key to success
from the increasing numbers of tourists seeking to for tourism businesses in the future will be to
avoid overcrowded sites (Watson 2010). New provide quality experiences by offering high-
experiences in the next 10–20 years may come quality facilities and services. Future tourists will
in the form of expanded visitation to extreme benefit from better service if suppliers respond to
environments such as deep ocean trenches or the market needs. Tomorrow’s tourists will also be
polar regions. Traveling to such destinations may faced with the need to plan further in advance,
prepare tourists and operators for destination more personalized yet potentially invasive mar-
development in outer space. keting schemes, and a more multicultural experi- F
Second, the sharing economy will threaten tra- ence regardless of destination.
ditional tourism operators. Peer-to-peer service These are operational opportunities for man-
companies, such as Uber, Lyft, and Airbnb, have agers to master and for researchers to explore.
changed how tourists shop and use services. In With the added influx of new tourists, the industry
short term, more people will stay in accommoda- may also be more heavily scrutinized for
tions purchased through Airbnb or similar ser- damage done to the cultural and natural
vices than through international hotel companies environments, which will lead to the call for
on a nightly basis. Threats from well-run sharing more regulation of its activities and thus the
economy companies could cause the demise of need for a better understanding of tourism-related
traditional companies with large capital invest- public policy.
ment requirements that do not focus on providing
excelled customer service.
Beyond considering how emerging markets are See also ▶ Delphi technique, ▶ demand model-
driving increases in tourism demand, it is also ing, ▶ forecasting, ▶ marketing, ▶ trend.
important to consider how new demand may
change supply. Emerging middle classes in densely
populated countries, such as ▶ Brazil, ▶ Russia,
▶ India, and ▶ China (BRIC), are altering the typ- References
ical US or EU tourist demographic. With a change
in tourist origin comes a change in the type of Edgell, D., and J. Swanson 2013 Tourism Policy and
Planning: Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow. New
businesses required. Limited-service, mid-scale York: Routledge.
hotel brands targeting BRIC countries, similar to Page, S., I. Yeoman, C. Greenwood, and J. Connell 2010
the upscale full-service hotel brands that currently Scenario Planning as a Tool to Understand Uncertainty
cater to tourists from these countries, may be devel- in Tourism: The Example of Transport and Tourism in
Scotland in 2025. Current Issues in Tourism 13:99-137.
oped throughout the world. These limited-service Swanson, J., and A. Hosier 2014 Tourism Sages Prognos-
international brands may extend into secondary ticate: The Next 40 Years Based on 1,100 Years of
markets throughout Europe and North America. Experience. Tourism Recreation Research 39(3):65-83.
This will create the need for more ethnic restau- Watson, R. 2010 Future Files: A Brief History of the Next
50 Years. London: Nicholas Brealey.
rants, multicultural entertainment options, and cul- Yeoman, I. 2012 2050-Tomorrow’s Tourism. Bristol:
turally aware service providers. Channel View.
G
Gabon distance from Libreville and, two, international

conservation programs and organizations have
Isabelle Cloquet since the 1990s largely contributed to the creation
IGEAT – Faculty of Science, Université Libre de of 13 national parks. Endemic and non-habituated
Bruxelles, Brussels, Belgium wildlife form the main tourism appeals for inter-
national tourists (Cloquet 2013). Primary markets
include ▶ France, the United Kingdom, the
Gabon is located in Middle ▶ Africa, bordered by United States, ▶ Spain, and ▶ Germany
▶ Equatorial Guinea, ▶ Cameroon, Congo, and (GEODE 2010).
▶ Sao Tome and Principe (Figure 1). Its area is The limited scale of the industry can be
267,667 km2 (103,347 mi2), about the size of the explained by policies adopted by the authorities
▶ United Kingdom, and its estimated population promoting ▶ alternative tourism, as well as by the
in 2010 was 1.5 million, spatially concentrated in significant constraints affecting tourism develop-
three major cities. Gabon has one of the highest ment. Despite their commitment, the public
GPD per capita in Africa (US$11,430). However, authorities have taken few measures to make the
its economy remains highly dependent on the oil tourism industry attractive to investors. Most local
sector, over 47 % GDP in 2011 (World Bank destinations remain poorly accessible due to the
2013), with tourism contributing 1.3 % in 2009 lack of a general infrastructure base (roads, elec-
(WTTC 2013). tricity, and water). Other constraints include a lack
Tourism remains small scale in Gabon. In of skilled manpower, the limited access to finance,
2009, the country recorded 186,000 international difficulties in offering good quality wildlife
arrivals (UNWTO 2012) and an estimated 14,300 sightings in the rainforest, and high prices com-
direct jobs (GEODE 2010). ▶ Tourist motivations pared to other African destinations (Cloquet
to visit Gabon are primarily business related, with 2013).
67 % at the gateway airport of Libreville in the Two governmental bodies are responsible for
same year. ▶ Leisure tourism only accounted for tourism planning: the Ministry of Tourism and
13 % (GEODE 2010). The supply of leisure tour- Park Gabon. Tourism vocational education
ism has developed according to two main dynam- focuses on ▶ outbound tourism and hospitality.
ics: one, foreigners residing in Gabon and the A master’s degree is offered by the Université
social elite have stimulated the development of a Omar Bongo. With the prospect of decreasing oil
tourism infrastructure on the coast, at a short reserves, the Gabonese authorities consider

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
376 Gambia
Gambia
Victor Teye
The School of Community Resources and
Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix,
USA
The Gambia is the smallest country on the African

continent, with a land area of 11,925 km2
(4,361 mi2) and a population of 1.7 million in
2010. Located in West Africa, the country
occupies a narrow strip of land along the Gambia
River and is bordered by ▶ Senegal to the north,
south, and east (Figure 1).
A former British colony, the Gambia became
independent in 1965. The beginning of the
Gabon, Figure 1 Map of Gabon country’s modern-day tourism ▶ industry can be
traced to the same year when 300 Swedish tourists
arrived by charter flight. International arrivals by
tourism as a tool to diversify the national econ- air mainly from ▶ Europe continued to
omy. However, tourism development raises criti- increase through the 1970s to 36,570 in 1979/
cal issues which need further consideration. Main 1980 (Dieke 1993). Due to the all-inclusive
tourism assets are located in isolated forest areas package nature of the Gambian tourism industry,
from which the highly urbanized workforce is economic leakage was high and the government
disconnected. Another issue is the extent to did not realize much of the economic, social,
which tourism can help the country meet post-oil and other benefits. In order to achieve economic
era economic challenges while contributing to diversification away from the traditional export
environmental conservation. of groundnuts, a Tourism Development
Area was established in 1970 (Dieke 1993). This
is a beachfront zone on the Atlantic Ocean
See also ▶ Expatriate, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ park
stretching one kilometer inland set aside exclu-
tourism, ▶ special interest tourism.
sively for tourism ▶ development. Referred to as
“The Smiling Coast of Africa,” the main attrac-
tions of the Gambia include the entire 80 km
References (50 miles) of sandy Atlantic coastline, tropical
climate, 40,000 ha of protected nature reserves
Cloquet, I. 2013 Looking into the Overlooked: Incoming
Tour Operators and Early Tourism Development in and national parks, more than 500 species of
Gabon. Current Issues in Tourism 16:647-663. exotic birds, wildlife (including baboons, croco-
GEODE 2010 Système de Statistiques du Tourisme: diles, and dolphins), as well as river and deep sea
Compte Satellite du Tourisme de la République
Gabonaise. Libreville: Unpublished workshop
fishing. The country also has diverse cultural
presentation. attractions, including festivals, arts, crafts, tradi-
UNWTO 2012 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- tional music, and a hospitable population. ▶ Dias-
ism Organization. pora tourism attracts African Americans to
World Bank 2013 Data. Indicators www.worldbank.org
Juffureh Village where Alex Haley traced his
(8 January 2014).
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2013. ancestors in the publication and TV series,
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. “Roots.”
Game theory 377
16 15 14
14 14
SENEGAL
NORTH
ATLANTIC
OCEAN Georgetown
Kerewan Farafenni G
am
BANJUL Mansa bi
Serekunda Gambia a
Konko
Basse Unnamed
Brikama Santa Su elevation
Gunjur
13 SENEGAL 13 G
0 20 40 km
16 15 0 20 40 mi 14
Gambia, Figure 1 Map of the Gambia
Agriculture accounts for about 30 % of GDP Dieke, P. 1993 Tourism and Development Policy in the
and employs about 70 % of the economically Gambia. Annals of Tourism Research 20:423-494.
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
active population. The service sector, however, ism Organization.
contributes about 58 % to GDP, of which tourism WTTC 2013 Gambia Travel and Tourism Economic
contributed 20.3 % in 2012 (WTTC 2013). The Impact 2013. London: World Travel and Tourism
country recorded 106,000 international arrivals in Council.
2011 (UNWTO 2013) with receipts at US$96
million in 2011 (UNWTO 2013), making tourism
the leading earner of foreign exchange. More
recent developments have further strengthened Game theory
the Gambian industry. On the legislative front,
the Gambian Tourism Authority was established James Brian Aday1 and Nicholas E. Johnston2
1
by an act of the National Assembly in 2001 as a Hospitality and Tourism Management, San
statutory body to develop, regulate, and promote Francisco State University, College of Business,
tourism. To further sustain the industry into the San Francisco, USA
2
future, a short-, medium-, and long-term tourism Texas Tech University, Lubbock, USA
plan for a 20-year period was developed in 2005
(African Development Bank 2006).
Game theory relies upon mathematical calcula-
tions and is used to predict an outcome based on
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ Africa, ▶ cul-
interactions among multiple parties. The theory is
tural tourism, ▶ diaspora, ▶ developing country.
reliant upon independent decisionmaking of indi-
viduals (Huang et al. 2010). It has been utilized in
numerous academic fields, including financial,
References pricing, advertising, and consumer behavior stud-
African Development Bank 2006 The Gambia Tourism
ies. Game theory is defined as “a mathematical
Development Master Plan. Banjul: Department of method of decisionmaking in which a competitive
State for Tourism and Culture. situation is analyzed to determine the optimal
378 Gaming tourism
course of action for an interested party” Buckley, R. 2013 Social-Benefit Certification as a Game.
(American Heritage Dictionary 2000). Tourism Management 37:203-209.
Huang, G., W. Chen, H. Song, and X. Zhang 2010 Game-
While more commonplace in other disciplines, Theoretic Study of the Dynamics of Tourism Supply
game theory’s usage in tourism research is limited. Chains for Package Holidays Under Quantity Compe-
According to Buckley (2013), its first application tition. Tourism Economics 16:197-216.
in tourism studies examined eco-conscious hotel Song, H., L., Dwyer, G. Li, and Z. Cao 2012 Tourism
Economics Research: A Review and Assessment.
strategies, published almost 20 years ago. Game Annals of Tourism Research 39:1653-1682.
theory has been used minimally to investigate hotel
pricing, tourism ▶ marketing, ▶ service quality,
themeparks, and investors and stakeholders related
to tourism operations (Buckley 2013). The theory
has also been applied to research focused on ▶ des- Gaming tourism
tination management and development.
More specifically, research has examined tour- Wesley S. Roehl
ists’ decisionmaking when visiting attractions School of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
within a geographic region. This approach of mea- Temple University, Philadelphia, USA
suring tourism, based on cost-benefit, has then led
to studies of bundling or packaging services and
the effects of price changes on an interdependent The Oxford English Dictionary defines gaming as
market (Huang et al. 2010). For example, a ▶ tour playing games for stakes. Early usage of the word
operator works within the confines of a destination was almost always pejorative, but today it is used
and is one component of the makeup of that par- in a more neutral fashion. Sometimes used as a
ticular city. Thus, game theory examines scenarios, synonym for gambling, gaming implies notions of
such as the effect on the tour operator if all hotels in skill and strategic management of gains and losses
the particular destination raise their prices. Addi- not present in gambling.
tionally, it can measure the benefit of partnerships
among firms in a destination and the effects of
packaging services, such as a tour operator History and availability
partnering with a hotel, and the impacts these bun-
dles have on other operators (Song et al. 2012). Gaming has long been part of human society.
Therefore, while game theory has been applied People play games of chance for intrinsic reasons
sparingly in tourism research, the implications (stimulation, risk-taking, achieving a sense of
from this theory appear beneficial to tourism aca- accomplishment) and for extrinsic reasons
demics and practitioners alike. Its utilization (seeking wealth, gaining status, creating a setting
allows future researchers to focus on the predict- for desired social outcomes). However, in many
ability of consumer behavior in real-world “what parts of the world, the ability to engage in gaming
if” scenarios, which will contribute to better was highly restricted with various levels of prohi-
understanding of ▶ tourist motivations when bition emerging in the nineteenth century. Since
making ▶ travel decisions. the 1970s, these restrictions have been relaxed in
many jurisdictions, leading to wider availability.
See also ▶ Consumerism, ▶ decisionmaking, This pattern of geographically restricted availabil-
▶ destination competitiveness, ▶ economics. ity made gaming an important part of the tourism
experience, attracting tourists from areas where it
is prohibited to areas where it is available.
References There are a number of ways to categorize gam-
ing. Games involving skill, such as poker, can be
American Heritage Dictionary 2000 Game Theory. Bos- contrasted to games of pure chance, such as
ton: Houghton Mifflin. playing the lottery. Another framework
Gaming tourism 379
distinguishes among types of gaming such as lot- rush, competition, self-definition, and commun-
tery, pari-mutuel wagering, card rooms, casinos, ing with others, provided a robust alternative to
games used by charitable organization to raise traditional ways of thinking about gaming behav-
funds, and gaming on the internet based on admin- iors that concentrated on economic, symbolic, or
istration, as well as the games offered, and how hedonic motives.
the revenue is used. Gaming destinations can be Scholars interested in the impacts of gaming on
categorized based on the ratio of local residents to tourism have studied gaming destinations. The
tourists that they serve. work of Perdue et al. (1999) is a theoretical frame-
The two largest revenue gaming destinations work that integrated casino impacts into the
are Las Vegas and Macao. Other noteworthy des- broader literature of sudden economic develop-
tinations include Atlantic City and Reno in the ment in rural resource-dependent communities.
United States, Singapore, and Monte Carlo in Similarly, Lee and Back (2006) illustrated how
the Principality of Monaco. The wave of legaliza- social exchange theory accounted for patterns of
tion that began in the 1970s has resulted in gaming support and opposition in a casino community. G
becoming part of the attraction mix in many addi- Their longitudinal study showed how paths
tional jurisdictions worldwide. between outcomes (positive and negative) and
Gaming is consumed by local residents and support (pro and con) strengthened and then sta-
tourists alike. There is no single type of gaming bilized over time. Managerial studies have looked
tourists. For some, gaming may be the primary at performance and strategy issues. Lucas and
reason to visit the destination; for others, it is a Roehl (2002) modeled the performance of slot
complementary activity. machines in a casino as a function of their location
on the casino floor and machine characteristics.
O’Donnell et al. (2012) identified scale economies
Key streams of gaming research in the Atlantic City casino industry and
highlighted their strategic implications.
Research has focused on public health issues,
motives for recreational gaming, impacts associ-
ated with the legalization, and managerial aspects Directions for future research
of gaming. The majority of research treats gaming
as a public health issue and explores the preva- Until recently, legalization often resulted in higher
lence and consequences of disordered gambling than anticipated performance since demand
behavior. In a meta-analysis of 116 prevalence exceeded supply. However, widespread legaliza-
studies, the pathological lifetime rate tion may bring demand and supply into equilib-
was identified to be 1.6 % (Shaffer et al. 1999). rium. Thus, competition is one of the critical
Additionally, another 3.8 % of the population issues facing gaming. Internet gaming will com-
displayed subclinical evidence of at-risk gambling plicate the competitive environment. Mere avail-
behaviors. Prevalence rates were higher among ability will no longer be a driver of success for
adolescents and young adults and had increased those destinations offering gaming. Understand-
over the 20 years prior to the study. ing the experiential nature of gaming (Cotte 1997)
Platz and Millar (2001) examine recreational and learning how to create desired experiences
and problem gambling in a sample of college-age will become critical to success. Tourism
adults. They show that the desired outcomes asso- researchers are well positioned to contribute to
ciated with recreational gaming are similar to that this literature.
of other recreational experiences. Similarly, Cotte Positive relationships among availability of,
(1997) explored gaming as experiential consump- attitude toward, and participation in gaming have
tion. She showed that a typology that been noted. This increased supply also carries
encompassed outcomes, such as learning, cogni- with it the potential to bring problem behaviors
tive and emotional self-classification, seeking a to the forefront. Since participation increases with
380 Gaze
availability, higher rates of disordered outcomes at. Originally framed by Michel Foucault’s notion
may result. If this occurs, there may be calls for a of ▶ discourse, the prison and the medical gaze, it
new round of prohibition. Thus, responsible gam- is now concentrated on tourist systems, institu-
ing may become the cornerstone of making it tions, and ▶ visitor economy. Subsequently, “gaz-
sustainable. ing” came to encompass the ideas of
interpretivism, thereby prompting theorists to
See also ▶ Casino tourism, ▶ impact, ▶ leisure. also examine ▶ host and guest behaviors.
Urry (1990) was the first to maintain that there
were systematic ways of “seeing” destinations,
which had roots in Western ocularcentric prac-
References tices, essential to debates that enveloped
▶ modernity. His division of the gaze into roman-
Cotte, J. 1997 Chances, Trances, and Lots of Slots: Gam- tic, individual and solitary, and mass or budget
bling Motives and Consumption Experiences. Journal
of Leisure Research 29:380-406.
further refined the focus of rituals and processes of
Lee, C., and K. Back 2006 Examining Structural Relation- modernization. The acknowledgement of the role
ships among Perceived Impact, Benefit, and Support of visual ▶ culture in the construction of tourist
for Casino Development Based on 4 Year Longitudinal experience and tourism as an organized system of
Data. Tourism Management 27:466-480.
Lucas, A., and W. Roehl 2002 Influences on Video Poker
leisure was also examined by Seaton (1998). He
Machine Performance: Measuring the Effect of Floor saw in the picturesque the predecessor of the
Location. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing “tourist gaze” that idealized nature and Otherness
12(4):75-92. (peasantry, noble savagery). Further, MacCannell
O’Donnell, J., S. Lee, and W. Roehl 2012 Do Economies of
Scale Exist in the Atlantic City Casino Industry? Inter-
(1976) argued that mediated versions of locations
national Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Manage- generated “markers” of places in the form of
ment 24:62-80. images, and Dann (1996) examined the
Perdue, R., P. Long, and Y. Kang 1999 Boomtown Tourism corresponding linguistic properties of tourism.
and Resident Quality of Life: The Marketing of Gam-
ing to Host Community Residents. Journal of Business
The current ▶ attention on gazing rather than
Research 44(3):165-177. performing has been the subject of criticism from
Platz, L., and M. Millar 2001 Gambling in the Context of various constituencies, including postcolonial and
Other Recreation Activity: A Quantitative Comparison feminist studies. In a subsequent article, Dean
of Casual and Pathological Student Gamblers. Journal
of Leisure Research 33:383-395.
MacCannell speaks of a “second gaze” enabling
Shaffer, H., M. Hall, and J. Vander Bilt 1999 Estimating the virtual and actual tourists to enjoy their encounter
Prevalence of Disordered Gambling Behavior in the with new places and cultures in ways different
United States and Canada: A Research Synthesis. from those suggested by tourism marketers. The
American Journal of Public Health 89:1369-1376.
idea that localities are always implicated in the
complex encounters and negotiations with their
guests informs Maoz’s (2006) concept of the
“mutual gaze.” For Maoz, the local gaze “is
Gaze based on a more complex, two-sided picture,
where both the ▶ tourist and local gazes exist,
Rodanthi Tzanelli affecting and feeding each other”(2006: 222).
School of Sociology and Social Policy, Faculty of Such criticisms are taken on board in Urry’s latest
Education, Social Sciences and Law, University revision of his original thesis in The Tourist Gaze
of Leeds, West Yorkshire, UK 3.0 (co-authored with Jonas Larsen).
Therefore, the emphasis on gazing has
influenced two decades of ethnographic and the-
The term “gaze” refers to the discourses and prac- oretical research into global tourism. It has
tices of seeing in tourism contexts as well as to enriched conceptions of the “tourist system” and
ways of knowing what is being looked fed into new subfields such as those of ▶ media
Gender 381
(especially ▶ film or cinematic) tourism, whereas desires, traditions, and perceptions, all of which
it has also partially formed the basis for the new are gendered (Kinnaird and Hall 1994; Pritchard
tourism mobilities ▶ paradigm. et al. 2007).
See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ imperialism, ▶ lan-

guage, ▶ media, ▶ system. Scoping gender research
Gender research is a term covering a range of

References inquiry, including women’s and feminist studies,
men and masculinities, queer studies, and equality
Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism. Wallingford: research. It also focuses on how gender intersects
CAB International.
and collides conceptually and physically with
Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books. other human status categories, such as ethnicity,
Maoz, D. 2006 The Mutual Gaze. Annals of Tourism sexuality, disability, race, and social class. This G
Research 33:221-39. calls for investigation of the ways in which com-
Seaton, A. 1998 The History of Tourism in Scotland:
plex social and cultural processes define gender
Approaches, Sources and Issues. In Tourism in
Scotland, R. MacLellan and R. Smith, eds., and its relations (Oakley 2000). This relates both
pp.209-39. London: International Thompson Business to the asymmetric distribution of power between
Press. men and women and to the usage of symbolic
Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage.
images that relate gender to categories to which
it has no evident connection, such as nature and
culture. The purpose is to reveal how the percep-
tion of gender influences power and hierarchies in
Gender society.
Working across disciplines and fields, covering
Annette Pritchard1 and Nigel Morgan2 on a range of social and cultural phenomena,
1
Welsh Centre for Tourism Research, Cardiff researchers broadly focus on current and historical
Metropolitan University, Cardiff, UK inequalities and barriers in social structures and
2
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, organizations (in relation to pay, promotion,
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK childcare/the care economy and mobility, health
and sexual harassment, etc.) and symbolic and
cultural conditions (the production of gender and
Gender research in tourism is concerned with gendered structures in institutional settings and in
issues of equality, ▶ power, and construction of cultural formations like globalization). Such gen-
▶ knowledge in society as it relates to the study der inquiry includes comparative and transna-
and practice of tourism. Gender is understood as a tional study, as well as context- and culture-
▶ system of culturally constructed identities that specific investigations (Enloe 1989).
combine to form systems of meaning expressed as
ideologies of masculinity and femininity that
engage with socially structured interactions of The development of gender tourism
▶ work, pleasure, sexuality, and power (Byrne- research
Swain and Henshall 2002). All tourism-related
activities and processes are constructed out of Tourism as a field of study has been slow to
gendered societies, so the relations between and embrace gender analyses by comparison with
among tourism producers and consumers are gen- other disciplines and subject fields, largely
dered through the impact of social practices, because its knowledge has been framed by mas-
power, and control. Tourism revolves around culinist and positivist industry-focused preroga-
social interaction and articulations of motivations, tives (Pritchard et al. 2007). The relationship
382 Gender
between tourism and gender received concerted male dominated. Furthermore, this practice gen-
attention only in the mid-1990s, when notable erates considerable unpaid work for women in
works such as Kinnaird and Hall (1994) began family tourism businesses so that they subsidize
to build the research community. Since then, tour- the industry and receive little in return. This is a
ism gender scholarship has developed consider- troubling picture for a gender analysis; tourism
ably in quantity and quality. Swain (2005) can empower women but it can also be seriously
comments that this perspective has evolved from exploitative and some of its most precarious
its original pre-1990s “add women and shake” working environments reveal an underbelly of
approaches into today’s subfield which encom- prostitution, human trafficking, and harassment
passes a wide diversity of studies based on femi- (Pritchard 2014).
nist theory set out in a growing international
literature.
Four main areas of scholarship can be identi- Future research
fied within what Kinnaird and Hall (1994) term
the gender-aware framework. The first is gen- Much remains to be done to enhance the multiple
dered consumption and the ways in which understandings of the relationships between gen-
women’s and men’s travel differs qualitatively der and tourism, particularly concerning employ-
and involves different expectations and needs. ment and empowerment, sexualized tourism
The second area is the gendered impact of tourism environments, and sexual harassment. Insufficient
in host communities, recognizing that the attention has been paid to issues of women’s
guest modifies local cultural practice in ways empowerment, with tourism and masculinities
that affect men and women differently. This remaining seriously under-explored. Connecting
encompasses a distinctive focus on the potential these areas are gendered power relations and the
tourism holds for women’s activism and precariousness of many women’s lives world-
leadership in community and political life and wide. Feminist scholars’ commitment to social
for their entrepreneurship, particularly in rural critique and their recognition of multiple realities,
areas. The third research theme explores gendered truths, and knowledge offer much to enquiry in
employment and sexist work practices. This general and to securing gender justice in tourism
includes studies of the gender pay gap, vertical worlds in particular.
and horizontal gender segregation, abusive
employment practices, sexual harassment, and
gendered tourism marketing and representation. See also ▶ Feminism, ▶ knowledge, ▶ power
Lastly, there is a sizable literature on the relation- ▶ race, ▶ sex tourism.
ships between tourism and the global sex trade
(Pritchard 2014).
A mixed picture for women emerges in tourism
gender research. Tourism provides employment References
and entrepreneurial opportunities for women;
Byrne-Swain, M., and J. Henshall (eds.) 2002 Gender/
they are almost twice as likely to be employers Tourism/Fun(?). New York: Cognizant.
in the industry as in other sectors. It also offers an Enloe, C. 1989 Bananas, Beaches and Bases: Making
avenue for their activism and leadership in com- Feminist Sense of International Politics. London:
Pandora.
munity and political life. However, tourism Kinnaird, V., and D. Hall (eds.) 1994 Tourism: A Gender
cements women’s economic and sexual exploita- Analysis. Chichester: Wiley.
tion through abusive employment practices that Oakley, A. 2000 Experiments in Knowing: Gender and
increase the vulnerability of the most at risk, par- Method in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Polity.
Pritchard, A. 2014 Gender and Feminist Perspectives in
ticularly young, ethnic minority, and migrant
Tourism Research. In The Wiley-Blackwell Compan-
workers. The gender pay gap is evident across ion to Tourism, A. Lew, C. Hall and A. Williams, eds.,
all occupations and their senior levels remain forthcoming. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Geographical information system 383
Pritchard, A., N. Morgan, I. Ateljevic, and C. Harris (eds.) both in the number of arrivals and in the volume of
2007 Tourism and Gender: Embodiment, Sensuality revenue generated by its sectors. As a spatial
and Experience. Oxford: CABI.
Swain, M. 2005 Las dimensiones de género en la phenomenon, tourism planning requires “much
investigación sobre turismo: Temas globales, spatial data collecting and processing, as all loca-
perspectivas locales. Política y Sociedad 42:25-37. tions and their interrelations should be defined and
analyzed within a spatial context” (Boers and
Cottrell 2005:152).
GIS has been used in tourism since the early
Geographical information system 1990s (Farsari and Prastacos 2008) for the evalu-
ation and planning of different aspects of natural
Helena Cláudia da Cruz Albuquerque1, and cultural resources, facilities, activities, and
Filomena Maria Cardoso Pedrosa Martins1 and services, among others. Mcadam presents some
Luís Manuel Tomás Galiza Cardoso2 benefits of using GIS in tourism development pro-
1
Department of Environment and Planning, jects in terms of its added value to decisionmaking G
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal “through data analysis, modeling and forecasting”
2
University of Aveiro, Aveiro, Portugal (1999, p. 77). To help understanding its benefits,
Bahaire and Elliott-White (1999) present the func-
tional capabilities of GIS related to tourism as
Geographical information systems (GIS) have follows (Table 1).
been defined by different authors, some before the As can be seen, GISs are tools that can be used
1970s, when GIS started to expand. A common for a multitude of functions that are extremely
definition is “a powerful set of tools for storing and important in tourism management and planning.
retrieving at will, transforming and displaying spa-
tial data from the real world for a particular set of
Geographical information system,
purposes” (Burrough 1986:6). In this way, GIS can
Table 1 Application of GIS in/to tourism
be considered as a powerful tool for the manage-
Functional Questions addressed by Applications
ment and decisionmaking process in tourism.
capabilities GIS in/to tourism
GIS has the ability to represent, store, manage,
Data entry, Location What is Tourism
analyze, update, and visualize spatial and regular storage, and at? resources
data in an integrated environment. These tools oper- manipulation inventories
ate on two data elements (Bahaire and Elliott-White Map Condition Where is Identifying
1999): geographical or spatial data (locational production it? most suitable
locations for
aspects) and attribute data (statistical and development
non-locational data associated with a spatial entity). Database Trend What has Measuring
As powerful tools, they combine a geographical integration changed? tourism impacts
analysis with an attribute analysis, providing a bet- and
ter interpretation of the data. Research fields (such management
as geography, urban development and planning, Data queries Routing Which is Visitor
and searches the best management/
environmental studies, business, and tourism) have route? flows
been benefiting from the use of GIS for some years Spatial Pattern What is Analyzing
(Bahaire and Elliott-White 1999; Brown and Weber analysis the relationships
2013; Farsari and Prastacos 2008; Mcadam 1999). pattern? associated with
resources use
Spatial Modeling What Assessing
modeling if. . .? potential
Tourism and GIS decision impacts of
support tourism
Tourism is one of the most emblematic industries development
in the global economy, showing a trend of growth Source: Bahaire and Elliott-White (1999:161)
384 Geography
It is possible to make touristic resources invento- References

ries, to relate resources with each other, to identify
the best places for new destinations, to evaluate Bahaire, T., and M. Elliott-White 1999 The Application of
Geographical Information Systems in Sustainable
tourism impacts in the environment, as well as to
Tourism Planning. Journal of Sustainable Tourism
manage visitors in a ▶ destination. Therefore, the 7:159-174.
use of GIS allows the pursuit of two objectives: Boers, M., and S. Cottrell 2005 Sustainable Tourism Infra-
providing tools capable of aiding tourism-related structure Planning: A GIS based Approach. In Proceed-
ings of the 2005 Northeastern Recreation Research
decisionmaking and enabling potential tourists to
Symposium, J. Peden, and R. Schuster, eds., no page.
get an overview, in geographical context, of Newtown Square: US Forest Service.
resources diversity, products, and services that Brown, G., and D. Weber 2013 Using Public Participation
can be discovered when visiting destinations. GIS on the Geoweb to Monitor Tourism Development
Preferences. Journal of Sustainable Tourism
In recent years, studies and works about the
21:192-211.
application of GIS to tourism are increasing. Buhalis, D., and R. Law 2008 Progress in Information
Boers and Cottrell (2005) have presented a study Technology and Tourism Management: 20 Years on
with the objective of integrating sustainability and 10 Years after the Internet: The State of eTourism
criteria in tourism planning using GIS. Brown
Burrough, P. 1986 Principles of Geographic Information
and Weber have used GIS “as a method for iden- Systems for Land Resource Assessment. Monographs
tifying and monitoring regional tourism develop- on Soil and Resources Survey No. 12. New York:
ment preferences using an internet public Oxford Science.
Farsari, Y., and P. Prastacos 2008 GIS Applications in the
participation geographic information system”
Planning and Management of Tourism. In
(2013:192). A Companion to Tourism, A. Lew, M. Hall, and
A. Williams, eds., pp.596-607. Malden: Blackwell.
Mcadam, D. 1999 The Value and Scope of Geographical
Information Systems in Tourism Management. Journal
Emerging research of Sustainable Tourism 7:77-92.
Notably, the use of web-based GIS in tourism has

emerged as a new area of research. Despite the
internet being considered as “one of the most
influential technologies that have changed trav- Geography
eler’s behavior” (Buhalis and Law 2008:611)
and tourism as one of the economic activities Geoffrey Wall
that has most use of internet, literature concerning Department of Geography, University of
the analysis and evaluation of web-based GIS use Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
and interest in tourism information is still scarce.
As a prospect, in an era where sustainability is
considered as a top priority in tourism develop- In a very general sense, geographers study the
ment, GIS and web-based GIS could serve as earth as the home of human beings. As such,
effective tools in the determination of how, tourism has been one of their legitimate concerns
when, and where tourism development should for almost a century. There has always been a
go in such a way that natural and cultural close relationship among tourism, exploration,
resources are protected. In addition, it facilitates and geography, as well as the description of
effective public participation by involving local other people and their cultures, the lands
communities and visitors in the tourism planning inhabited, and the resources used. Early academic
process (Brown and Weber 2013). tourism papers, predominantly of a descriptive
nature, date to the 1930s.
See also ▶ Decisionmaking, ▶ eTourism, Geographical research on tourism was
▶ marketing, ▶ resource, ▶ sustainability. spearheaded in ▶ Europe, although American
Geography 385
geographers, often working in government agen- visited. Collectively, tourism development causes
cies, played a prominent role in the evaluation of changes in them, creating new and distinctively
the perception, use, and management of wilder- touristic landscapes and modifying the lives of
ness areas. At the time, the focus was on permanent residents. Thus, many geographers
▶ recreation, illustrating the rather different have explored the economic, environmental, and
trajectories of tourism research of geographers social impacts of tourism, particularly in destina-
based in Europe and North America and the some- tion areas, as well as its role in development.
what artificial distinctions among research on A community-based approach to tourism devel-
▶ leisure, recreation, and tourism that scarcely opment, which can perhaps be seen as a practical
existed among tourism geographers but had been reflection of this research emphasis, received early
slow to vanish elsewhere. Literature on Europe prominent articulation in geographical circles.
and North America dominated the early research. Spatial analysts examine the distribution of
However, today the work has become truly inter- touristic phenomena, often resulting in the creation
national with few locations, regardless of latitude of maps made at a wide variety of scales, from G
and altitude, being devoid of tourism and at least global to local. Furthermore, the flows of people,
some recognition in the literature. money, goods, and information that occur between
places of origin and destinations have received
considerable attention, as have the powerful rela-
Geographical approaches tionships that underpin such interactions, leading
to concerns regarding appropriate styles of devel-
Geographical studies have often been divided into opment, colonial and postcolonial relationships,
two main groupings, human and physical, as well and globalization. This is an approach that also
as a third if research techniques are considered to has strong conceptual relationships with studies
be a distinctive aspect of geography. Although of migration, and it is congruent with and under-
now somewhat dated, it is still useful to draw pins the emphasis on mobility of many kinds now
upon Pattison’s (1964) fourfold division of geo- attracting the attention of social scientists.
graphical approaches into human-environment The concentration of tourists and the facilities
interaction, spatial analysis, regional synthesis, that are required to meet their needs and desires
and physical processes to guide a discussion of results in the creation of places with distinctive
the contribution of geographers to tourism characteristics amenable to investigation through
research. regional synthesis. Geographers adopting this
Tourists are drawn to and interact with special approach attempt to delimit areas with common
places, whether they are coasts, mountains, cities, human or physical characteristics, such as a similar
and rural or remote locations. Thus, there are landscape or a comparable dependence on tourism,
numerous studies of destination areas of many and to understand the relationships that exist in
types, and geographers have been in the forefront particular places between tourism and other activi-
of research on resort morphology, which exam- ties, such as agriculture, forestry, or urbanization.
ines the forms and functions of resorts, While many studies have been undertaken of the
▶ ecotourism, heritage, ▶ urban tourism, and cot- attributes of such places, as in explorations of resort
tage tourism in both the developed and develop- morphology mentioned above, the significance of
ing world. They have explored the images that are such a perspective has yet to reach many geography
held of such places and how they have been cre- textbooks that still manage to discuss areas such as
ated, as well as the implications of these images the Alps and the ▶ Mediterranean, whose land-
for planning and marketing. The link between scapes and economies are influenced markedly by
destinations and tourists is a two-way process. tourism, without mentioning its importance or
The latter gains their experiences in such places, influences. This partially reflects the marginaliza-
while they have consequences for the places tion of tourism in many geography programs and an
386 Geography
underutilized opportunity to demonstrate the “cultural turn,” calls for reflexivity in research, rec-
importance of tourism in its own right as well as ognition that information is “embodied” (or the
its role as a major agent of global change. body influences the mind), creative economies,
Finally, the exploration of physical processes and so on.
underpins the examination of the environmental
impacts of tourism. Geographers have played
leadings roles in investigating the implications of Organizations and applications
tourism for air and water quality, soils, vegetation,
and wildlife, as well as the management implica- Over the years, a variety of studies have been
tions of such studies, particularly in parks and published that provide overviews of tourism
protected areas. In consequence, they have also research undertaken by geographers. Their con-
been among the leaders in the early discussions of tents reveal the changing emphases in tourism
carrying capacity and more recent concerns with scholarship (Gill 2012; Mitchell and Murphy
sustainable forms of development. Changing 1991; Nepal 2009). At the same time, works
scale from an early emphasis on trails and camp- such as Butler’s (1980) paper on cycles and
grounds in protected areas to global issues, geog- Mathieson and Wall’s (1982) book on impacts
raphers have also drawn attention to the links are among the most-cited documents of their
between tourism and climate change, where the types in the literature, in part reflecting a relatively
former is now viewed as being a substantial gen- early commitment of geographers to examine
erator of greenhouse gases, particularly in the tourism, as well as the endurance of their insights.
travel phase, as well as a sector (or an industry to Smith (2010) has edited a book that presents the
many) that will be impacted by and will need to life histories and discusses the academic contribu-
adapt to changes in climate and the policies intro- tions of a number of leading tourism researchers
duced to address this problem. Tourists consume who are geographers.
large amounts of energy and water and generate Historically, geographers were very influential
substantial amounts of wastes, making willing- in the establishment of professional planning as
ness to adopt environmentally friendly practices both an academic field and an applied public
and the factors that promote or impede this of process. Along with training that usually includes
increasing concern. international perspectives, an introduction to both
Methodologically, geographers have embraced natural and social sciences, and an appreciation of
the full gamut of research techniques used in the a wide range of research methods, their back-
social sciences, including both quantitative and grounds have often enabled them to become
qualitative methods, as well as some procedures involved in practical tourism planning initiatives,
employed in the sciences, particularly in the mea- as government employees, consultants, or aca-
surement of environmental impacts. Geographers demic advisors. On the other hand, they have
introduced the use of geographical information sys- tended to emphasize broad issues and the links
tem (GIS) and, to a lesser extent, remote sensing to between tourism and other phenomena, such as
the tourism research community. GIS uses com- ▶ transportation or environmental quality, rather
puter technology to analyze, manage, and display than aspects of hospitality where their contribu-
large amounts of information, often in cartographic tions have been more limited.
and other visual forms, as is required in many Many national and international organizations
reservation and other information-intensive tourism include sections or working groups that specialize
situations employed in tourist interpretation and in tourism. An example of the former is the Inter-
marketing. Remote sensing uses images taken by national Geographical Union Study Group on the
satellites to monitor changes on the earth and Geography of Sustainable Tourism, Development
the resulting data are manipulated using GIS. Geog- and Protection of Cultural and Natural Heritage;
raphers have also been part of other recent trends in and examples of the latter are the ▶ Recreation,
the humanities and social sciences, such as the Tourism, and Sport Specialty Group of the
Georgia 387
Association of American Geographers and the and concentrated in a limited number of depart-
Parks, Recreation, and Tourism Study Group of ments. However, it will encompass both pure and
the Canadian Association of Geographers. Many applied perspectives and continue to address
university geography departments offer courses issues of environmental quality and sustainability.
on tourism and encourage students to specialize GIS will receive widespread application both
in it in their undergraduate and graduate degrees; within and outside the discipline and geographical
thus many dissertations are written by geogra- expertise will be sought in practical planning sit-
phers on tourism. uations where tourism is frequently an important,
but not the only, agent of change.
Status and trends

See also ▶ Carrying capacity, ▶ climate change,
Today, geography is a highly pluralistic discipline ▶ development, ▶ geographical information sys-
with no dominant perspectives or philosophical tem, ▶ planning. G
approaches. Geographers have tended to be eclectic
in their research and teaching, leading to charges
that the discipline as a whole and its tourism
scholars especially lack focus. More positively,
References
geographers have long been willing to borrow con-
Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourism Area Cycle of
cepts and ideas from elsewhere so that the borders Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources.
between geography and other disciplines are indis- Canadian Geographer 24(1):5-12.
tinct. This is apparent in the compendium of studies Gill, A. 2012 Travelling Down the Road to Postdisci-
plinarity? Reflections of a Tourism Geographer. Cana-
compiled by geographers Lew et al. (2004) which is
dian Geographer 56(1):3-17.
a good place to acquire a thorough introduction to Hall, M., and S. Page 2006 The Geography of Tourism and
research on tourism by geographers, albeit framed Recreation. London: Routledge.
in a broader context, for tourism geographers have Lew, A., M. Hall, and A. Williams 2004 A Companion to
Tourism. Malden MA: Blackwell.
always reached beyond their field for novel con-
cepts and insights. Tourism Geographies is a well- Physical and Social Impacts. Harlow: Longman.
respected journal that focuses on tourism research Mitchell, L., and P. Murphy 1991 Geography and Tourism:
reflecting geographical perspectives. Geographers Annals of Tourism Research 18:57-70.
Nepal, S. 2009 Traditions and Trends: A Review of Geo-
have examined many aspects of tourism and have
graphical Scholarship in Tourism. Tourism Geogra-
become skilled at synthesizing the numerous causal phies 11:2-22.
factors that must be taken into account in order to Pattison, W. 1964 The Four Traditions of Geography. Jour-
understand complex tourism phenomena. Neverthe- nal of Geography 63:211-216.
Smith, S. 2010 The Discovery of Tourism. Bingley, UK:
less, the literature has an underlying unity when
Emerald.
viewed from a spatial perspective and provides a Williams, S. 2002 Tourism Geography. London:
base for the construction of the geography of tour- Routledge.
ism. In fact, a number of introductory texts are
available that address this topic (Hall and Page
2006; Williams 2002).
Looking ahead, it is likely that tourism will be Georgia
introduced as a topic in many university courses in
human geography, resources management, and Beka Jakeli
development, with some geography departments UNWTO, Madrid, Spain
providing the opportunity to specialize in tourism,
often in collaboration with offerings in other
departments. Geographical research will likely Georgia, with a population of 3,729.5 million, is
be the main focus of a small number of individuals situated at the crossroads of Europe and Asia and
388 Georgia
Georgia, Figure 1 Map of Georgia
occupies 69,700 km2 (26,911 mi2) between the In 2014, there were 2.2 million international
Black and Caspian Seas. It borders ▶ Turkey, tourists recorded, an increase of 7.4 % compared
Russian Federation, ▶ Armenia, and ▶ Azerbai- to 2013. Arrivals in that year generated US$1.72
jan (Figure 1). billion in receipts representing 21.9 % growth
The country’s geographic position reflects its compared to the previous year (UNWTO 2015).
diverse culture and architectural heritage, with a Tourism generated 89,500 jobs directly in 2013,
number of distinctive attractions. It is one of the and it is expected to account for 108,000 jobs by
oldest Christian countries, with Ushguli village in 2024 (WTTC 2014).
Svaneti region at 2,300 m as the highest inhabited Tourism is one of the major drivers for socio-
settlement in ▶ Europe. The country is also home economic development. During the past few years,
to the oldest links to modern man found outside a range of activities have been undertaken by the
▶ Africa (remains of a 1.8 million year hominid); government to foster sustainable tourism develop-
evidence of viniculture stretches back over ment. These include visa facilitation, improvement
8,000 years. Many believe that it is the birthplace in airline accessibility and capacity by increasing
of wine and an ancient alphabet. Georgia has one direct scheduled flights from Europe and Asia as
of the fascinating cuisines in the world, and many well as attracting low-cost carriers, public invest-
tourists visit the country to experience its gastron- ment in the development of hard infrastructure by
omy and wine as well as the ▶ lifestyle. developing regional airports, primary and second-
Georgia has 103 resorts and over 2,400 mineral ary roads, tourism ▶ education and training by
springs. Its capital Tbilisi was chosen because of creating vocational training centers throughout the
its natural hot sulfur baths found in the heart of the country, the positioning and branding of the coun-
city. There are more than 40 protected areas. The try as an attractive destination worldwide, promo-
country’s major products are ▶ culture, adventure tion of Georgia at various international travel trade
and ▶ ecotourism, sun and beach, mountain and fairs, organization of press and familiarization trips
ski, ▶ MICE, rural, and ▶ medical tourism. for international travel media and professionals,
Geotourism 389
development of information technologies, shorten- facilities to enable tourists to acquire knowledge

ing seasonality at coastal and mountain destina- and understanding of the geology and geomor-
tions by developing new products and hosting phology of a site beyond the level of mere esthetic
local and international cultural and sporting events, appreciation (Hose 1995). Inherent in this
and enhancement of public-private partnerships approach is that geotourism is a vehicle to foster
through incentives for the private sector, such as geoconservation and an understanding of geolog-
no value-added tax for incoming tour operators ical heritage.
(UNWTO 2014). The ▶ national tourism adminis- Newsome and Dowling (2010) later defined
tration, in cooperation with the World Bank, is geotourism as a form of tourism that specifically
actively working on the tourism development strat- focuses on geology and landscape. Unlike ▶ eco-
egy, finalized in 2015. tourism, which by definition can only take place in
natural areas, they argued that geotourism can
See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ employment, occur in either natural or human modified envi-
▶ innovation, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ spa tourism. ronments. It is viewed as promoting tourism to G
geological sites, the conservation of geological
diversity, and an understanding of earth sciences
References through appreciation and learning. This is
achieved through independent visits to geological
UNWTO 2014 Working Together in Europe: A Shared features, use of geological trails and viewpoints,
Leadership. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
guided tours, geo-activities, and patronage of
UNWTO 2015 World Tourism Barometer, volume 13.
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. geo-site ▶ visitor centers.
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Georgia.
Geographical tourism
While geotourism (essentially geological tourism)

Geotourism was being characterized in the ▶ United Kingdom
and ▶ Australia by scholars in the 1990s and
Ross Dowling 2000s, in the ▶ United States the National Geo-
School of Business and Law, Edith Cowan graphic Society was promoting a geographic view
University, Joondalup, Australia of geotourism that embraced a broader remit and
included a range of niche forms of tourism, such
as ▶ cultural tourism and ecotourism. Geotourism
▶ Travel to areas of outstanding natural land- is defined as “tourism that sustains or enhances the
scapes or unique landforms is not new. However, geographical character of a place – its environ-
the concept of geotourism has only occurred in ment, culture, aesthetics, heritage, and the
relatively recent times, and it has been defined by wellbeing of its residents” (National Geographic
two different standpoints as either “geological” or 2005: no page). Here the term environment was
“geographical” tourism. The former has been taken to include geology, although this was not
characterized by geologists and the latter by the explicitly stated.
National Geographic Society, leading to a confu- Under the auspices of UNESCO, an Interna-
sion surrounding the definition of geotourism. tional Congress of Geotourism held in ▶ Portugal
in 2011, recognized the need to clarify the concept
of geotourism. It adopted the geographic version
Geological tourism of the definition, but for the first time included in it
the term geology. A declaration released at the end
Geotourism is geology-based and was first of the conference stated that “geotourism should
defined as the provision of interpretive and service be defined as tourism which sustains and
390 Geotourism
enhances the identity of a territory, taking into about the abiotic elements of geology and climate
consideration its geology, environment, culture, first, as these determine the biotic elements of
aesthetics, heritage, and the wellbeing of its resi- animals and plants which live there. By extension,
dents” (European Geoparks Network 2011: no the combination of these two components of the
page). In this definition, geological tourism is environment determines the cultural landscape of
viewed as one of a multiple elements of how people have lived in the area in the past, as
geotourism. well as how they live there today.
This is the essence of geotourism which starts
with the understanding of geology interpreted
Towards a universal definition through its components of form (landforms and
landscape), process (how the landforms originated),
The major difference between the geological and and ▶ time (when and how long these processes
geographical versions of the definition is that the occurred). This constitutes the basis of a more holis-
former focuses on geotourism as a “form” or type tic understanding of the environment and its com-
of tourism, whereas the latter views geotourism as ponent parts and thus provides the resident and
an “approach” to tourism, somewhat akin to ▶ sus- ▶ tourist population with a greater connection to
tainable tourism. Neither view is mutually exclu- the environment in which they live or are visiting.
sive as geotourism (from a geological perspective) Thus, geotourism is sustainable tourism with a
naturally encompasses the geotourism principles as primary focus on experiencing the earth’s geologi-
espoused by National Geographic. This is in cal features in a way that fosters environmental and
exactly the same way that ecotourism not only cultural understanding, appreciation, and conserva-
incorporates sustainable tourism principles, but in tion and is locally beneficial. It is about creating a
fact should be a best practice exemplar of it. In geotourism product that embeds geoconservation,
essence the National Geographic view of communicates and promotes geological heritage,
geotourism seems to simply be the application of and helps build sustainable communities through
sustainable tourism principles combined with the appropriate economic benefits.
element of an area’s “sense of place.” The best way Geotourism may be further described as hav-
forward is to view geotourism both as a form of ing a number of essential characteristics. It com-
tourism and an approach to it but one that firmly prises a number of interrelated components all of
ties itself first to the geologic nature of an area’s which should be present for authentic geotourism
“sense of place.” to occur. Three principles are fundamental to
Thus, applying these factors to a unified defini- geotourism: that it is geologically based (based
tion, geotourism is defined here as “tourism which on the earth’s geoheritage), sustainable
focuses on an area’s geology and landscape as the (economically viable, community enhancing,
basis of fostering sustainable tourism develop- and fostering geoconservation), and educative
ment.” Such tourism development generates bene- (achieved through geo-interpretation).
fits for conservation, communities, and the
economy. Essential to its development is the under- See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ interpretation,
standing of the identity or character of a region or ▶ sustainable tourism.
territory. To achieve this, geotourism is viewed as
being based on the idea that the environment is
made up of abiotic, biotic, and cultural components References
(Dowling 2013). This approach comprises the abi-
otic elements of geology and climate, the biotic Dowling, R. 2013 Global Geotourism – An Emerging
elements of animals (fauna) and plants (flora), Form of Sustainable Tourism. Czech Journal of Tour-
ism 2(2):59-79.
and cultural or human components, both past and European Geoparks Network 2011 Arouca Declaration on
present. Geotourism argues that to fully understand Geotourism. www.europeangeoparks.org/?p=223
and appreciate the environment, one must know (6 November 2014).
Germany 391
Hose, T. 1995 Selling the Story of Britain’s Stone. Envi- travel restrictions. East Germany (German Dem-
ronmental Interpretation 10(2):16-17. ocratic Republic) adopted Soviet-mastered com-
National Geographic 2005 Geotourism Charter www.
nationalgeographic.com/travel/sustainable/pdf/geo munism and a centralized command economy.
tourism_charter_template.pdf (6 November 2014). East Germans were not allowed to travel to other
Newsome, D., and R. Dowling (eds.) 2010 Geotourism: countries except to those of the Eastern
The Tourism of Geology and Landscape. Oxford: Bloc. Visits from East to West were impossible
Goodfellow.
and from West to East limited and heavily
restricted. Nevertheless, after the end of World
War II, ▶ outbound tourism has experienced a
steady increase until today.
Germany In 2013, 54.8 million Germans traveled over-
seas, spending around US$69.3 billion (€64.9
Martina M€ uller1, Markus Schuckert2 and billion); this corresponds to a frequency of 1.3
Walter Freyer3 journeys per year (DRV 2014). Germany was G
1
Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK leading the outbound statistics until 2014,
2
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The outnumbered by Chinese for the first time.
Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong, Germany ranks seventh in terms of international
China arrivals, with 31.5 million tourists in 2013, eighth
3
Technical University Dresden, Dresden, in terms of international receipts amounting to
Germany $41.2 billion, and third in terms of tourism
▶ expenditure with $85.9 billion (UNWTO
2014). This equates to a spending of $1,063 per
The Federal Republic of Germany is located in capita. Today, the industry generates about 10 %
central-western Europe, has an area of of the GNP including indirect and induced
357,022 km2 (137,847 mi2), and is the 17th largest effects (DRV 2014; GNTB 2014). In 2013, there
European country by area and the 63rd largest in were 4.9 million related jobs in Germany equiva-
the world. Since its reunification in 1990, it has lent to 12 % of the workforce; 2.9 million jobs
the largest population in ▶ Europe with 81.8 mil- (7 %) are directly attributable to tourism (GNTB
lion. With the 17th highest GDP per capita, its 2014).
economy is Europe’s largest, ranked globally
number five in purchasing power parity. German
is the official language (Figure 1). Structure and operation
Modern tourism can be traced back to the begin-

Significance of tourism ning of the nineteenth century to the first German
seaside resorts in the North and Baltic Sea, as well
At the beginning of the twentieth century, tourism as to spa and mountain resorts. The first local
was only for the privileged few. But after World tourism boards were established around 1900,
War I, the first official holiday regulation was while commercial aviation took off in the 1920s
implemented. Between 1933 and 1945, the ruling (Pompl 2007). Today, the country maintains a
national socialist party organized packaged well-developed infrastructure comprising govern-
▶ mass tourism to the Alps and seaside resorts. ment agencies, associations, industry advocacy
However, the outbreak of World War II groups, and destination marketing and manage-
(1939–1945) halted tourism activities (Freyer ment organizations (Freyer and Pompl 2008). The
2015). From 1945 to 1990, Germany was divided, official body for tourism ▶ marketing is the non-
and West Germany (Federal Republic of Ger- profit organization Deutsche Zentrale f€ur
many) adopted a democratic style of government Tourismus e.V (German National Tourist Board).
with a prospering free market economy and no The related association for the travel industry is
392 Germany
Germany, Figure 1 Map of Germany
the Deutscher ReiseVerband. Germany has no Germany’s tourism products are mainly related
minister for tourism nor representation at senior to cities, shopping, fairs and conventions, ▶ cul-
level of the federal government. Many businesses ture, and ▶ health tourism. Covering 6,000 years
are small- and medium-sized enterprises, and des- of ▶ history, Germany, with its 39 protected
tination management organizations are driven by UNESCO ▶ world heritage sites and eight routes,
regional or local public players. No national polis among the top ten of worldwide culture-based
icy exists, and federal aid to tourism has low destinations. As a leading country in health stan-
priority. However, Germany hosts large interna- dards, ▶ infrastructure, engineering, security,
tionally known hotel groups, airlines, tour opera- ▶ education, and ▶ environment, Germany is an
tors, (online) travel agencies, as well as service important business destination (GNTB 2014).
and technology providers for the ▶ industry. It Foreign tourists are mainly from the European
also hosts the world’s largest travel market ITB Union. Most outbound leisure ▶ travel is by car
Berlin. or aircraft to neighboring countries and the
Ghana 393
Mediterranean destinations. The FIFA soccer DRV 2014 Fakten und Zahlen zum Reisemarkt 2013. Ber-
World Cup hosted in 2006 improved the country’s lin: Deutsche Reisebuero Verband.
Freyer, W. 2015 Tourismus: Einf€ uhrung in die
reputation, with culture tourism and city tourism Fremdenverkehrsökonomie. Munchen: Oldenbourg.
gaining significance. The reunified Berlin fasci- Freyer, W., and W. Pompl 2008 Reiseb€ uro-Management:
nates tourists with its history and diversity Gestaltung der Vertriebsstrukturen im Tourismus.
(Boniface et al. 2012). Munchen: Oldenbourg.
GNTB 2014 Incoming Tourism Germany: Facts and Fig-
The country has a well-developed education ures 2013. Frankfurt: German National Tourist Board.
and training infrastructure, with a large variety of Pompl, W. 2007 Luftverkehr: Eine ökonomische und
different institutions offering tourism, event, and Politische Einf€
uhrung. Berlin: Springer.
hospitality-related programs in German and/or UNWTO 2014 Tourism Highlights 2014 Edition. Madrid:
English language, provided by public (mostly
tuition-free) universities, institutions of applied sci-
ences and corporate education, and vocational edu-
cation under the chamber of commerce and the Ghana G
tourism and hospitality industry. Researchers are
organized in the German Association for Tourism Julian K. Ayeh
Research and other organizations. Tourism-related Department of Hospitality and Tourism
statistics and data are provided, for example, by the Management, University of Cape Coast, Cape
Federal Statistical Office, the national tourism Coast, Ghana
board, and the research cluster Forschungsge-
meinschaft Urlaub und Reisen (FUR).
The Republic of Ghana is situated on the Gulf of
Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean in West Africa. It is
Opportunities and challenges bordered by Togo to the east, Burkina Faso to the
north, and Ivory Coast to the west (Figure 1). With
Tourism is one of the largest contributors to the a land mass of 238,533 km2 (92,098 mi2), it has a
economy, but it lacks public and political awareness. population of 25.5 million, representing over a
The recognition of the industry needs to be increased hundred ethnic groups and several indigenous
and the influence of politics and public players languages. English is the official language and
reduced and fragmentation repaired. To ensure and Twi is the most widely spoken language. As an
encourage product development and investments in emerging economy with a lower–middle-income
tourism, public-private partnerships in marketing, status (World Bank 2013), the country is regarded
▶ management, and financing of destinations and as one of the fastest growing economies in the
infrastructure require attention. Areas of particular region (GDP US$40.71 billion). It is the world’s
research interest include tourism and future mobility, second largest cocoa producer, Africa’s second
innovation and its diffusion and product develop- biggest gold miner, and a recent oil producer.
ment and entrepreneurship in hospitality and tour- Ghana is distinguished for its thriving democ-
ism, tourism taxation and finance, and (re) racy and peaceful society. Notable tourism
organization and governance of destinations. appeals include the country’s rich cultural and
historical heritage, its ecotourism features, and
See also ▶ Europe, ▶ history, ▶ international its hospitable people. As the first place in
tourism, ▶ Mediterranean. sub-Saharan Africa where Europeans arrived to
trade, the country’s coastline is dotted with
centuries-old European castles and forts, with
References
the Elmina Castle, Cape Coast Castle, and Fort
Boniface, B., C. Cooper, and R. Cooper 2012 Worldwide
St. Jago designated as UNESCO world heritage.
Destinations: The Geography of Travel and Tourism. The country’s diverse ethnic groups offer numer-
New York: Routledge. ous cultural and historical festivals. Tropical
394 Ghana
Ghana, Figure 1 Map of Ghana
rainforests and savannas serve as a habitat for Ghana is at the “development” phase (Butler
countless wildlife species. Geographic features 1980), characterized by increased foreign players
of touristic interest include waterfalls, springs, in developing more modern and intricate facilities
rivers, streams, caves, lakes, estuaries, mountains, (Akyeampong 2007). The industry is progres-
wildlife parks, and nature reserves. Sandy beaches sively growing arrivals at 1,080,000 and earnings
line up its Atlantic Ocean coastline. of $ 2.2 billion in 2011. It is ranked as the fourth
Ghetto tourism 395
foreign exchange earner and measured as part of merchants were constrained to live in Venice. As
the services industry which, in its entirety, con- they often dominated commercial activities, an
tributes 49.3 % to the GDP. area was designated to diminish their influence
In 1992, the Hotel, Tourism and Catering on the affairs of the state (Myers and Rowe
Training Institute was established to improve pro- 1997). During the nineteenth and the beginning
fessional standards. University-level education of the twentieth century, especially in the
began in 1996 with the University of Cape Coast ▶ United States, rapid urbanization and shortages
program. Since then, a number of public and in housing contributed to the formation of ethnic
private tertiary institutions have started offering inner-city districts. For example, as minority res-
various related degrees and diplomas. idents (African Americans, Italians, and Chinese)
The Ministry of Tourism, Culture and Creative increased in cities like New York, Chicago, and
Arts has general responsibility for the industry, Boston, the white population relocated to the sub-
with the ▶ national tourism authority as the urbs. These segregated pockets became known as
implementing body. The Ghana Tourism Federa- “ghettos.” G
tion represents the umbrella association for private Ghetto tourism is a voyeuristic pastime capi-
sector organizations and its affiliates. Recently, the talizing on ethnic, cultural, and ▶ lifestyle differ-
government designed a new 15-year national tour- ences. Popular US neighborhoods for these
ism development plan (2013–2027) with the goal expeditions included Chinatown, Harlem, and
of augmenting the industry’s contribution. the Lowest East Side tenements. They are
Attempts to develop the ▶ industry over the past frequented by “white” middle-class Americans
three decades have earned considerable dividends, who come to explore African American and Chi-
though much potential remains untapped. nese often living in lower-class communities. By
Addressing these challenges remains a prime con- the mid-1970s, urban decay was visible in inner
cern for stakeholders and researchers. Areas of cities due to poor transportation, high unemploy-
research interests include product development ment, and deteriorated buildings; thus, some
and related marketing issues. ghettos became a haven for illegal activities,
such as drug trafficking and gambling
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ festival and (Hall 1998; Kenneth and Clark 1965).
event, ▶ world heritage. A connection can hence be drawn between ghetto
and ▶ slum tourism. The former relates to tourists
References seeking ethnic and racial differences in the inner
city, while the latter focuses specifically on eco-
Akyeampong, O. 2007 Tourism in Ghana: The Accommo- nomic disparities; however, sometimes the two
dation Sub-sector. Accra: Janel.
overlap.
Evolution: Implications for Management of Resources. Ghettos were used to refer to oppressive and
The Canadian Geographer 24:5-12. restrictive urban areas (Conforti 1996), but the
World Bank 2013 Ghana: World Bank Country Data http:// ghetto has also become a place synonymous
data.worldbank.org/country/ghana (28 September).
with artistic activity that reflects social disparities
and racism. Harlem, for example, became one of
the most famous ghettos and is recognized as a
Ghetto tourism center for African American art (Kenneth and
Clark 1965). Curious tourists interested in sam-
Jaeyeon Choe pling this lifestyle became temporary participants
Bournemouth University, Poole, UK in it and created the demand. Representations of
“edgy” often appeared in mass media, including
gangsta rap videos, video games, movies, and
The word “ghetto” first appeared in the sixteenth television. From 2002, private operators in Phila-
century referring to an area where Jewish delphia provided tours of blighted inner-city
396 Global distribution system
neighborhoods. Tourists also visited derelict During the 1960s, hotels and airlines started to
buildings (Detroit). build central reservation systems (CRSs) to han-
Ghettos are depicting an ethnic or racial heri- dle reservations for their individual companies. In
tage preserved for the purposes of tourism the 1980s, the need to conveniently access reser-
(Conforti 1996). ▶ Tourist demand has also cre- vations for all aspects of tourism prompted differ-
ated entrepreneurial opportunities for some ghetto ent airlines and hotel chains to connect their
residents. Some offer guided (sometimes staged) inventories together in order to sell directly to
tours. However, how authentic can these experi- travel agents. GDS was established as a spin-off
ences remain will be a question that requires fur- service that would link the different CRSs of
ther investigation. One can also question whether multiple companies. Since the late 1990s, along
and/or how those images and the ▶ attitudes they with the ▶ development of the ▶ internet, GDSs
stimulated can be preserved, restored, or have emerged as a business in their own right,
reconstructed along with material artifacts specializing in tourism distribution for many dif-
(Conforti 1996). Such research should collaborate ferent types of services (Buhalis and Licata 2002).
with businesses to ensure that any benefits and Sabre, Galileo, Amadeus, and Worldspan have
experiences should be mutual to both residents emerged as the GDSs with the largest market
and tourists, creating sustainable and ▶ responsi- shares (Buhalis 2003).
ble tourism. Sabre was developed in the 1960s on a main-
frame computer by American Airlines along with
See also ▶ Ethnic tourism, ▶ gaze, ▶ slum tour- IBM. Sabre and American Airlines separated in
ism, ▶ urban tourism. 2000. Currently, Sabre powers Travelocity,
Expedia, lastminute.com, and a few other online
travel agencies (OTAs). Worldspan was formed in
References the early 1990s by merging the individual reser-
vation systems of Northwest Airlines, Delta Air
Conforti, J. 1996 Ghettos as Tourism Attractions. Annals
Lines, and Trans World Airlines to sell seats to
Hall, T. 1998 Urban Geography. London: Routledge. travel agencies. The owner airlines sold
Kenneth, B., and K. Clark 1965 Dark Ghetto: Dilemmas of Worldspan to Citigroup Venture Capital and
Social Power. Middletown: Wesleyan University Press. Ontario Teachers’ Pension Fund in 2003 and
Myers, D., and W. Rowe 1997 From Ghetto to Emancipa-
tion: Historical and Contemporary Reconsiderations of
later to Travelport in 2007, which also owns Gali-
the Jewish Community. Buffalo: University of Toronto leo. In 1987, Galileo was formed by nine Euro-
Press. pean air carriers. In 1992, it merged with Apollo,
the CRS created by United Airlines in 1971.
Besides air travel, Galileo can also be used to
book train travel, cruises, car rentals, and hotel
Global distribution system rooms. In 2007, Galileo merged with Worldspan,
both owned by Travelport. Amadeus was founded
Bing Pan in 1987 by an alliance of Lufthansa, Air ▶ France,
School of Business, College of Charleston, Scandinavian Airlines, and Iberia Airlines. In the
Charleston, USA 1990s, in addition to flights, Amadeus expanded
their services by including car rentals and hotels.
In the twenty-first century, Amadeus expanded
In tourism and ▶ hospitality, Global Distribution their market share by forming partnerships with
System (GDS) refers to a ▶ network connecting British Airways, Finnair, and Qantas Airways.
multiple vendors of services with end consumers From a historical perspective, the area of GDS
or ▶ travel agents and allows direct booking. The is in a status of dynamic evolution. They origi-
service vendors include airlines, hotels, car nated from ▶ airline CRS, evolved into stand-
rentals, cruises, events, and activities. alone systems, and have experienced multiple
Globalization 397
mergers. Currently, major OTAs such as Expedia, spread of a phenomenon and the consequential
Travelocity, and Orbitz are working with GDS, disruption of the existing status quo wherever it
which is still crucial in providing airline schedul- is locally felt. Local people, their cultures, and
ing and staff allocation (Tesone 2005). However, environments are impacted upon, never to be
individual airlines and hotel chains are trying to entirely the same as before. Early activists
sell directly to their customers bypassing GDS. adopted the mantra “think globally, act locally”
The competitions among different GDSs as well to mobilize collective action locally to address
as with OTAs will continue. Further consolidation global issues, such as environmental pollution.
and fierce race are expected, suggesting many Solutions would be broadly similar from place to
lines of investigation on this subject. place, but exact responses and outcomes would
vary in time and space depending on local condi-
See also ▶ Airline, ▶ eTourism, ▶ information tions, contexts, expectations, and norms.
technology, ▶ internet, ▶ technology. For proponents, globalization and the condi-
tions which have stimulated it are permissive, G
References enabling, and empowering; they have offered
new opportunities to citizen consumers around
Buhalis, D. 2003 E-tourism: Information Technology for the world. As the emergence of the mobilities
Strategic Tourism Management. Gosport: Prentice Hall.
Buhalis, D., and M. Licata 2002 The Future eTourism “paradigm” in the 2000s illustrates (Hall 2005;
Intermediaries. Tourism Management 23:207-220. Hannam et al. 2006), other aspects of globaliza-
Tesone, D. 2005 Hospitality Information Systems and tion resulted in new patterns of travel in time and
eCommerce. Hoboken: Wiley. space, induced alternative forms of tourism con-
sumption, and stimulated new destinations, mar-
kets, and ▶ travel opportunities. For instance, the
Globalization rapid recent growth of ▶ medical tourism has
been interpreted as a direct manifestation of the
Tim Coles progressive globalization of healthcare provision
University of Exeter Business School, Exeter, UK (Hall 2011).
Critics counter that globalization has
empowered some but not all global citizens,
Globalization refers to the spread of people, ideas, among them new configurations of winners and
capital, goods, commodities, services, and so on losers. For some, the state as the traditional foun-
transnationally across the globe. Enabled vari- dation of society has been “hollowed out.” In
ously by advances in transport and ▶ information other words, globalization has challenged its rel-
technology, the liberalization of economies and evance, capacity, and ability to respond to key
societies, as well as a new world political order, issues, such as climate change, biodiversity, ter-
globalization and its effects have been extensively rorism, and migration. Others have argued that,
debated since the late 1980s. At its most basic, instead of resulting in local distinctiveness, glob-
globalization may be conceptualized as a process alization has been a homogenizing force leading
of change (the progressive spread of a phenome- to the reproduction of cultures, ideas, behaviors,
non internationally) and as an outcome, a situa- and places. Perhaps most prominently, within his
tion, or a state of being (that the globalization of a “McDonaldization Thesis,” the American sociol-
phenomenon has been achieved). ogist George Ritzer (1993) argued consumers
around the world desire products and experiences
that are predictable and familiar wherever they
Origins, ideas, and critiques are. This is precisely what they are delivered not
only in fast-food outlets but also by other types of
Central to thinking about globalization is the businesses, including cruise lines, hotel chains,
“global-local nexus.” Globalization implies the and themeparks.
398 Globalization
Globalization in tourism strong tendency to regard tourism as affected or

altered by (other aspects or manifestations of)
Tourism has contributed directly and centrally to globalization in relatively simple cause-and-effect
unfolding understandings and problematizations relationships. As well as a continuing focus on
of globalization in the social sciences, arts, and this duality, the nature of the globalization of
humanities. Examples abound of globalization as tourism is a worthy but largely overlooked
a recurrent theme within tourism studies for over geo-historical research problem in its own right
two decades. For instance, Chang et al. (1996) (Antonescu and Stock 2014). Indeed, some of the
focused on the ways in which the forces of glob- most promising avenues for future research may
alization and localized conditions mediated new lie in how tourism acts as a vector for the spread of
and distinctive forms of cultural and ▶ heritage biohazards, innovation, ideology, extremism, and
tourism, their production, and consumption in conflict. For example, as the September 11 event
▶ Singapore and Montreal. demonstrated par excellence, terrorism around the
Milne and Ateljevic (2001) argued that inter- world is mediated by, and practiced through,
action among geographical scales, as well as the ▶ travel and tourism. Akin to interdisciplinary
resolution of “top-down” and “bottom-up” influ- knowledge creation about medical tourism, sub-
ences, was vital to understanding the nature and jects of this nature may enable scholars to con-
trajectories of “glocal” ▶ economic development tinue to contribute to collective efforts across a
resulting from tourism. In a quintessential range of disciplines aimed at addressing the sorts
instance of “hollowing out,” Hall (2005) identi- of “grand challenges” that globalization itself
fied practices of “intermestic” destination market- once was.
ing. ▶ Domestic tourism managers not only seek
international examples of best practice in other
localities to reproduce in their own marketing See also ▶ Destination, ▶ international tourism,
but also market their local destinations to prospec- ▶ mobility, ▶ theory.
tive customers in international markets without
the assistance of ▶ national tourism organiza-
tions. The result is the progressive loss of local
distinctiveness, greater placelessness, and rela- References
tively anonymous place identities. Legacies of
tourism globalization can also be enduring as Antonescu, A., and M. Stock 2014 Reconstructing the
Globalization of Tourism: A Geo-historical Perspec-
well as expensive. Major international events, tive. Annals of Tourism Research 45:77-88.
spectacles, and flagship projects have not always Chang, T., S. Milne, D. Fallon, and C. Pohlmann 1996
been in the best interests of local taxpayers and Urban Heritage Tourism: The Global-local Divide.
communities in whose name they are attracted and Annals of Tourism Research 23:284-305.
Hall, C. 2005 Tourism: Rethinking the Social Science of
who have to contend with them after the global Mobility. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
caravans have moved on. Hall, C. (ed.) 2011 Medical Tourism: The Ethics, Regula-
In fact, there is such a plethora of studies tion and Marketing of Health Mobility. London:
connecting globalization and tourism to one Routledge.
Hannam, K., M. Sheller, and J. Urry 2006 Editorial:
degree or another that drawing common denomi- Mobilities, Immobilities and Moorings. Mobilities
nators from the body of knowledge is fraught with 1:1-22.
scholarly dangers, especially those of selectivity Milne, S., and I. Ateljevic 2001 Tourism, Economic
and reductionism. Moving forward, it is important Development and the Global-local Nexus: Theory
Embracing Complexity. Tourism Geographies 3:369-
not to lose sight of the multiplicities and complex- 393.
ities of the relationship that exists between tour- Ritzer, G. 1993 The McDonaldization of Society. Thou-
ism and globalization. In the past, there has been a sand Oaks: Sage.
Governance 399
Golf tourism can be understood as a social

Golf tourism phenomenon, motivated by playing golf, which
causes a series of displacements by these people,
Josefa García Mestanza and Lidia Svendsen Maza giving rise to a major economic activity in its area.
Departamento de Economía y Administración de Golf tourism development faces many challenges
Empresas, Universidad de Málaga, Málaga, Spain in its efforts to meet widespread global sustain-
ability, including economic profitability, long-
term feasibility, environmental integration and
Golf tourism is motivated by playing golf, as well improvement of the ▶ environment, and cultural
as a priority in ▶ planning holidays or as a sec- acceptability (Briassoulis 2011; Woodside 2009).
ondary activity while on ▶ vacation. For this seg- Golf tourism is currently facing a changing envi-
ment, a category of ▶ sports tourism, playing golf ronment, characterized by the rise of new destina-
is in the center. Golf has become considerably tions and a strong competition between well-
more popular. It has grown from a sporadic sport established and new locations. Furthermore, it G
to an ▶ activity for millions of tourists worldwide. must be added that new behavioral patterns of
Its origin is somewhat controversial. It has been golf tourists have emerged.
traced back to the Paganica of Rome; others con-
nect it to ▶ China (Memoirs of Dongxuan), to the See also ▶ Leisure, ▶ senior tourism, ▶ sport
▶ United Kingdom (the Cambuca), to ▶ France tourism, ▶ sustainability.
(the Jeu de Mail), or to the ▶ Netherlands (Kolf).
Despite these differences, there is a consensus that
Scotland is the home of golf. From there comes References
the first news, dating back to the fifteenth century.
The first golf course (Saint Andrews Old Links) Briassoulis, H. 2011 Opposition to Golf-related Tourism
Development: An Interpretive Analysis of an Online
was built in Scotland in 1744. Petition. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 19:673-693.
Currently, golf leads the list with the highest KPMG 2013a Golf Tourism Report 2013. IAGTO. Swiss:
growth rate, over 80 million players and over KPMG.
32,000 golf courses worldwide (Turespaña 2004), KPMG 2013b Golf Travel Insights: Cutting Through Com-
plexity. Swiss: KPMG.
and these numbers continue to grow (KPMG
Turespaña 2004 Estudio Sobre la Demanda Extranjera de
2013a). These figures highlight the remarkable Golf: la Promoción y Comercialización del Turismo de
▶ development of this tourism sector, generating Golf en España. Spain: Turespaña.
significant revenue, both direct and indirect. The Woodside, A. 2009 Applying Systems Thinking to Sus-
tainable Golf Tourism. Journal of Travel Research
▶ United States is the market leader (the Ryder Cup
48:205-215.
is the most important team competition), followed by
▶ Spain and ▶ Portugal (KPMG 2013b).
The profile of a golf tourist is a mature, aged
between 40 and 64 years. They are characterized Governance
by a high purchasing power, a long stay at the
▶ destination, and a high spending pattern both in Eduardo Fayos-Solà
stays and in other types of complementary activ- UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain
ities, such as dining and shopping. Tourism golfer,
with dedicated ▶ loyalty, helps with the ▶ season-
ality of their choice destinations. The price of the Many successes and failures in tourism policy
golf tourism packages offered, climate, and must be attributed to governance. As the impor-
▶ location are among their most valued criteria tance of tourism grows in terms of ▶ development
in order to choose a destination (KPMG 2013a). and future global scenario building, governance
400 Governance
has become a key issue. This concept was of challenges: one requiring proactive stakeholder
born centuries ago, but only in the 1990s has it participation in strategic and operational tourism
begun to be used explicitly in tourism as well as in policy, while the other refers to the effectiveness/
▶ other fields. While governance directly efficiency and quality of such policy (Fayos-Solà
concerns the specification, ▶ management, and et al. 2012).
delivery of local/global public goods and In tourism governance frameworks, these chal-
services – including tourism quality, efficiency lenges affect policy formulation and its applica-
and ▶ sustainability, and their contribution to tion. The principle/challenge of stakeholder
development – ultimately it is an indispensable participation is still lacking in most cases of actual
framework for all action in society. policy, with formulation usually being
The United Nations Development Program commended to government designated expert
defines governance as “the exercise of economic, committees. These are often far from the actual
political, and administrative authority to manage a stakeholders, which results in formulation and
nation’s affairs. . . the complex mechanisms, pro- implementation being directly carried out by gov-
cesses, relationships and institutions through ernmental bodies or management agencies
which citizens and groups articulate their inter- (destination management organizations) with
ests, exercise their rights, and mediate their differ- scarce private and civil society representation.
ences” (UNDP 1997: 2–3). However, the World In what concerns the challenges for effective-
Bank (2002) focuses on the effectiveness and ness/efficiency and quality, the paucity of
efficiency of rules, enforcement mechanisms, indicators – and the shortcomings in ex post mea-
and organizations. In this context, tourism gover- surement of policy results – comes somehow as a
nance implies “a complex coordination of. . . surprise, given that effectiveness/efficiency and
[public, private and civil society sector]. . . stake- quality are usually given as the rationale for stake-
holders’ role towards sustainable development of holders’ absence in the design and implementa-
a destination, coupled with flexibility and innovation of a policy. This negligence is perhaps the
tion” (Fayos-Solà et al. 2012: 340). clearest sign of the still huge gap between policy
rhetoric and the reality of tourism governance.
Destinations being complex adaptive systems,
Principles and challenges governance must respond to the stakeholders’
common interest vis-à-vis adaptation to change
Regarding the contents and operations of a proac- in effectiveness/efficiency and quality, including
tive governance, its discussion began in the 1990s external shock. Governance in such complex sys-
(Osborne and Gaebler 1992), with much of the tems as destinations calls for “an adaptive
knowhow taking shape a decade later (Goldsmith approach, rather than a rigid deterministic, author-
and Eggers 2004), emphasizing collaboration of itarian style. . . [It requires]. . . reacting quickly
the government with the private and civil society to all the changes that may occur in the destination
sectors, integration of organizations within gov- or in the external environment” (Baggio et al.
ernment, use of new information technologies, 2010: 55).
and attention to citizens’ demand.
The European Union (2001) has defined the
essential principles/challenges of governance as Requirements
openness, participation, accountability, efficiency,
and coherence, while the United Nations (UNDP The actual experiences of destinations in gover-
1997) lists strategic vision, transparency, partici- nance agenda vary between two groups. The first
pation, consensus orientation, ▶ equity, respon- emphasizes legitimate proactive stakeholder par-
siveness, accountability, effectiveness, efficiency, ticipation, which is well structured to make stra-
and rule of law. All in all, it seems clear that tegic decisions regarding robustness and
tourism governance must comply with two sets adaptability vis-à-vis changing scenarios but
Grand Tour 401
lacks in operational flexibility. The second group cannot really function unless legitimate proactive
includes destinations, which work well in short- stakeholder participation provides strong com-
term stable scenarios by effectiveness/efficiency/ mon values and objectives, allowing for the exis-
quality terms but are flawed in sustainable devel- tence and effectiveness/efficiency/quality pursuit
opment direction and even durable competitive- of amply valued ▶ public goods. Future research
ness because of poor stakeholder satisfaction and must concentrate on achieving this balance and
sketchy approaches to knowledge management specifying the design, policy content, and opera-
and innovation. tion of governance institutions.
In this context, there are seven requirements
for “good” tourism governance (Fayos-Solà See also ▶ Europe, ▶ masterplan, ▶ policy and
et al. 2012): policymaking, ▶ public good, ▶ strategy.
An institution, whether preexistent or purpose-built,
to exert leadership, nucleating proactive stake-
holder participation around strongly shared values G
and objectives; an adequate knowledge manage- References
ment approach to policy construction, with a sup-
portive infrastructure of research, education, and
Baggio, R., N. Scott, and C. Cooper 2010 Improving
innovation, as well as sufficiently qualified human
Tourism Destination Governance: A Complexity Sci-
capital; satisfactory intragovernmental arrange-
ence Approach. Tourism Review 65(4):51-60.
ments, vertical and horizontal, facilitating depart-
mental coordination in (usually transversal) policy European Union 2001 European Governance: A White
Paper. Brussels: EU Commission.
measures and actions, often involving national as
Fayos-Solà, E., L. Ruhanen, C. deBruyn, A. Muñoz,
well as regional and local levels of government;
strength of social capital and competent interinsti- L. Fuentes, and A. Fernández 2012 Conclusion. In
Knowledge Management in Tourism, E. Fayos-Solà,
tutional collaboration to find synergies in the objec-
J. Silva and J. Jafari, eds., pp.323-45. Bingley:
tives and programs of at times very different
Emerald.
organizations belonging to diverse economic sec-
tors; a well-established public administration cul- Goldsmith, S., and W. Eggers 2004 Governing by Net-
work: The New Shape of the Public Sector. Washington
ture, well interlinked with the key instances of
DC: The Brookings Institution.
participatory political decisionmaking, and free
Osborne, D., and T. Gaebler 1992 Reinventing Govern-
from corruption and other malpractice; a set of
specific destination governance institutional provi- ment. Reading: Addison-Wesley.
UNDP 1997 Governance for Sustainable Development.
sions, preferably embodied in a tourism governance
New York: United Nations Development Program.
organization, expanding the role and capacity of the
seminal leadership, and capable of carrying out World Bank 2002 Building Institutions for Markets. Wash-
ington DC: World Bank.
short-term proactive stakeholder participation and
effectiveness/efficiency/quality measures and
actions; and global or at least supra-local knowl-
edge management and norm-building expertise and
support in the selection and application of policy Grand Tour
instruments.
In the Faustian bargain of disregarded proac- Mark Kanning

tive stakeholder participation in favor of suppos- Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon
edly expedite effectiveness/efficiency/quality, it
becomes apparent that often neither of the two is
in fact achieved and that the essential values, The Grand Tour of the seventeenth and eighteenth
institutional frameworks, and procedures/norms centuries was a multiyear international sojourn orig-
of policy must often be realigned by the destina- inally participated in by English aristocratic youth
tion stakeholders. The political impetus needed to as a rite of passage. The journey was designed as a
establish balanced governance provisions must finishing school for social class acculturation via the
obviously originate in a deeply shared belief in acquisition of philosophical, intellectual, and aes-
tourism as an instrument for development. The thetic canons of ▶ knowledge and appreciation.
institutional constructs of governance for policy Semi-structured travels interspersed with elongated
402 Gravity model
stays in European cultural capitals including Paris, past and present pilgrimages, mobilities, and inter-
Florence, and Rome became the norm of this socio- national long-term ▶ travel experiences. ▶ Future
culturally driven experience. research should focus on the relationship between
The journey was a perambulatory finishing global citizenship and its relationship to long-term
school carried out with the support of a servant travel experiences. Furthermore, the outcomes of
and occurring under the tutelage of a respected such journeys need to be investigated through lon-
personal scholar. The personal scholar ensured gitudinal studies focused on understanding the
educational guidance, sociocultural grooming, short- and long-term impacts of such experiences
and networking occurred while instilling the on the participant as well as society.
tenets of aristocratic worldviews. By the
mid-1700s, this rite of passage was participated
in by upwards of 15,000–20,000 youth at any See also ▶ History, ▶ mobility, ▶ pilgrimage
given ▶ time (Towner 1996). Toward the end of tourism, ▶ rite of passage, ▶ study tour.
the century, the form and function of the Grand
Tour shifted from its primary focus on sociocul-
tural grooming to a rite of passage participated in References
by a wider swath of English society. During this
Feifer, M. 1985 Tourism in History: From Imperial Rome
transitional period, scholarly endeavors increas- to the Present. Briarcliff: Stein and Day.
ingly morphed into hedonistic ones. Feifer (1985) Kanning, M. 2008 Influence of Overseas Travel Experi-
writes that by then drinking to excess, general ences on the Worldviews of US Backpackers. PhD
debauchery, and bedding of the townsfolk became Dissertation, Department of Parks, Recreation, and
Tourism Management.Clemson University, USA.
staples of the Grand Tour. Towner, J. 1996 An Historical Geography of Recreation
The Industrial Revolution ushered in a more and Tourism in the Western World 1540-1940. Chich-
utilitarian approach to the Grand Tour as many ester: Wiley.
youth pursued apprenticeships requiring a peripa-
tetic ▶ lifestyle as they traveled ▶ Europe learn-
ing their chosen trade. By this time, the Grand
Tour was a well-established pilgrimage experi- Gravity model
ence participated in for varying reasons from the
profane to the utilitarian and by an amalgamation Maria Santana
of participants from varying social strata. Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de
Similar to the Grand Tour of earlier years, from les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
the 1960s onward, some cultures in the developed
world encourage and/or expect upon completion
of military service, high school or college gradu- Developed during the 1960s, gravity model uses
ation, and participation in an extensive journey an analogy of Newton’s universal law of gravita-
abroad. Often referred to as the overseas experi- tion to describe the patterns of international flows.
ence, gap year, or the big trip, these experiences It considers bilateral flows between two countries
tend to be viewed as a rite of passage and share are directly proportional to their economic masses
many commonalities with the Grand Tour of yes- and inversely proportional to the distance between
teryear. These modern-day journeys are relatively them. Gravity models have been found to fit well
long in duration and provide opportunities and have been extensively used to explain inter-
through which a global worldview can be instilled national flows of trade, ▶ migration, foreign
and honed (Kanning 2008). direct investment, and tourism.
There is an increasing canon of literature by Initially, gravity equation was formulated
interdisciplinary scholars focused on exploring to explain international trade among countries.
Greece 403
The traditional trade gravity equation was later See also ▶ Demand modeling, ▶ economics,
applied to explain bilateral tourism movements ▶ elasticity, demand and supply, ▶ quantitative
on the basis that the degree of interaction between research, ▶ theory.
two geographic areas varies directly with the
degrees of concentration of persons in the two
areas and inversely with the distance separating References
them. Kimura and Lee (2006) show that trade in
services is better predicted by gravity equations Culiuc, A. 2014 Determinants of International Tourism.
IMF Working Papers No.14/82.
than trade in goods. Culiuc (2014) finds that the
Khadaroo, J., and B. Seetanah 2008 The Role of Transport
model explains tourism flows better than trade in Infrastructure in International Tourism Development:
goods for equivalent specifications. The initial A Gravity Model Approach. Tourism Management
model has evolved to more sophisticated formu- 29:831-840.
Kimura, F., and H. Lee 2006 The Gravity Equation in
lations of spatial models, which cover push forces
International Trade in Services. Review of World Eco-
for ▶ outbound tourism (origin income level mea- nomics 142:92-121. G
sured by GDP or GDP per capita, price level), pull Morley, C., J. Rosselló, and M. Santana 2014 Gravity
forces for ▶ inbound tourism (destination income Models for Tourism Demand. Annals of Tourism
Research 48:1-10.
level, ▶ development and stability variables, price
Santana, M., F. Ledesma, and J. Pérez 2010 Exchange Rate
level, climate variables), and travel costs or attrac- Regimes and Tourism. Tourism Economics 16:25-43.
tiveness forces (sharing a common border, com-
mon language and/or colonial relationship,
cultural affinity).
Recently, an augmented version of the gravity
model has reemerged within the tourism demand Greece
literature in order to study the effect of different
regularities on ▶ international tourism flows Dimitrios Buhalis
(Khadaroo and Seetanah 2008; Santana School of Tourism, Bournemouth University,
et al. 2010). One of the critiques on this type of Poole, Dorset, UK
specifications is its lacks of theoretical back-
ground. However, when applied in the literature,
it resembles the demand function considered in The Hellenic Republic, or Greece, lies in Southern
traditional aggregated tourism ▶ demand model- Europe and Balkans, bordering Albania, Bulgaria,
ing. Morley et al. (2014) show that gravity Republic of Macedonia, and Turkey (Figure 1). It
models for tourism can be derived from the con- has a total area of 131,957 km2, featuring world-
sumer choice theory providing theoretical under- class tourism ▶ resources, 13,676 km coastline,
pinnings for the use of this model to explain and about 6,000 islands, 227 of which are
bilateral tourism. Therefore, gravity model can inhabited. Its population is 11 million and Greek
be presented as a valid tool to assess the effects is the main spoken language.
of policies or examine changes in any determinant Many insular and peripheral regions have few
of tourism. alternative economic activities. Tourism enables
The model remains as an interesting tool for growth and is seen as a major driver of the
future research to analyze the determinants of national economy. Since the 1950s, Greece has
bilateral tourism flows due to ▶ religion, cultural seen a growth in the number of arrivals. In 1950,
affinity, and mega-events or of bilateral barriers 33,000 international tourists were recorded; by
such as visa requirements. What is more, this 2012, this number increased to 15.5 million
method can be applied to explain tourism flows (Buhalis 2001). In 2014, arrivals were predicted
at regional level. to exceed 20 million, resulting in US$15.92 bil-
404 Greece
Greece, Figure 1 Map of Greece
lion (€13.5 billion) income, contributing to As a destination, Greece offers unique natural,
18.3 % of the total employment, and generating cultural, and ▶ heritage tourism resources. Its nat-
16.4 % of GDP. Main international markets ural attractions include extensive coastlines,
include ▶ Germany, the ▶ United Kingdom, numerous island destinations, distinctive fauna
▶ France, ▶ Russia, and ▶ Bulgaria (GNTO and flora, as well as climatic superiority (mild
2014). winters and warm summers). As an ancient civi-
Greece is situated in a complex network of sea, lization with rich cultural heritage, it features
road, and rail transportation. Amenities are 2,500 protected monuments and archaeological
offered by a plethora of small and large enter- sites (including Acropolis in Athens) and about
prises. Other than the 771,000 beds provided by 500 traditional settlements. The 2004 Olympic
about 10,000 hotels, there are about one million Games not only promoted the country but also
unregistered beds, in addition to 11,000 beds on improved its infrastructure.
cruise liners, 12,000 in yachts, and 83,000 camp- The Ministry of Tourism and the ▶ national
sites. Most of the 32 airports receive direct inter- tourism organization are responsible for ▶ plan-
national flights. ning, implementation, and promotion at both
Green tourism 405
national and regional levels. Tourism ▶ education ▶ ecotourism, ▶ nature tourism, and ▶ rural tour-
is offered primarily at technological institutes, as ism (Sung-kwon et al. 2003). Businesses have
well as at various universities (Aegean, Piraeus, generally adopted a broader meaning for green
and Open). The largest obstacle in developing the tourism: any tourism ▶ activity operating in an
industry, however, has been the inconsistent and environmentally friendly manner.
irrational political intervention. A long-term strat- Recently, international organizations have
egy is required so the country can optimize its defined the notion in line with the concept of
tourism impacts and develop competitiveness in ▶ sustainable tourism, which also considers
the global marketplace (Tsartas and Lagos 2013). other dimensions than environmental protection.
Future research areas of interest should focus on In fact, for the World Tourism Organization, green
▶ seasonality, quality management, experience tourism consists of “tourism activities that can be
co-creation, and technology engagement maintained, or sustained, indefinitely in their
(Buhalis and Deimezi 2004). social, economic, cultural and environmental con-
texts” (UNWTO 2012: 1). For the United Nations G
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ historical tourism, Environment Programme, green tourism is a key
▶ Mediterranean, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ world component toward a sustainable economy, one
heritage. that results in “improved human wellbeing and
social equity, while significantly reducing envi-
ronmental risks and ecological scarcities” (UNEP
References 2011: 16).
As tourism patterns are increasingly influenced
Buhalis, D. 2001 Tourism in Greece: Strategic Analysis by sustainability considerations, green tourism
and Challenges. Current Issues in Tourism 4:440-480. has the potential to generate important benefits
Buhalis, D., and R. Deimezi 2004 eTourism Developments
in Greece. International Journal of Tourism and Hospi-
for destinations. Its role includes job creation,
tality Research 5:103-130. supporting local economies, reducing poverty,
GNTO 2014 Greek National Tourism Organisation www. lowering the cost of ▶ energy, improving water
gnto.gov.gr (8 January 2015). and ▶ waste management systems, and preserv-
Tsartas, P., and D. Lagos 2013 Critical Evaluation of the
Greek Tourism Policy. European Socio-Economic Inte-
ing biodiversity and culture heritage. Neverthe-
gration: Innovation, Technology, and Knowledge Man- less, tourism faces major challenges to become a
agement 28:203-221. greener industry, such as its intensive use of
nonrenewable energy and the emission of green-
house gases associated with ▶ transportation.
The most common sociodemographic vari-
Green tourism ables used as predictors of green tourist behavior,
also labeled as environmentally friendly, are age,
Pedro Pintassilgo ▶ gender, ▶ education, income, and political ori-
Faculty of Economics and Research Center for entation (Dolnicar 2010). Regarding psychologi-
Organizational and Spatial Dynamics, University cal variables, it has been found that personal
of Algarve, Faro, Portugal values and norms, as well as environmental
awareness/concern, are key determinants of
green behavior (Valle et al. 2012).
The concept of green tourism has evolved over The concept of green tourism has become
time and is presently used with different mean- widely used by both private and public tourism
ings. The original one, spread during the 1980s, organizations. For instance, the ▶ UNWTO orga-
stands for small-scale tourism which involves vis- nized a conference on the topic in 2012. In the
iting natural areas while minimizing environmen- academic literature, on the contrary, the concept is
tal impacts. In this line, green tourism has been not largely disseminated. Due to its multiple
used interchangeably with such concepts as meanings, most scholars prefer alternative
406 Grenada
concepts, such as ▶ ecotourism and ▶ sustainable 61º45⬘ 61º30⬘ Petite

Martinique
tourism. 12º30⬘
Hillsborough 12º30⬘
The prospects for future research on green
ES
tourism are vast. In particular, further research Carriacou
IN
on the profile of green tourists is needed, given
AD
Caribbean
EN
Sea
the diversity of destinations. Evaluating the socio-
GR
economic and environmental impacts of green
Ronde
tourism developments is another promising Island
domain. 12º15⬘ 12º15⬘
Sauteurs
Mount
NORT H
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ nature tourism, Gouyave Saint
Catherine
ATLANTIC
▶ responsible tourism, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ sustain- Grenville
OCEAN
able tourism. SAINT Grenada
GEORGE’S
Point Satines
International
Airport
12º00⬘ 12º00⬘
References 0 5 10 km
61º45⬘ 61º30⬘ 0 5 10 mi
Dolnicar, S. 2010 Identifying Tourists with Smaller Envi-

ronmental Footprints. Journal of Sustainable Tourism Grenada, Figure 1 Map of Grenada
18:717-734.
Sung-kwon, H., K. Jae-hyun, and K. Seong-il 2003 Impli-
cations of Potential Green Tourism Development.
Annals of Tourism Research 30:323-341. ▶ history of agriculture, the economy is now
UNEP 2011 Towards a Green Economy: Pathways to dependent on the ▶ service sector, which
Sustainable Development and Poverty Eradication.
accounted for over 78 % of GDP in the same year.
Geneva: United Nations Environment Programme.
UNWTO 2012 Tourism in the Green Economy: Tourism ▶ development began in the 1960s.
Background Report. Madrid: World Tourism Following the 1979 revolution, the prime minis-
Organization. ter’s policies limited mass tourism development,
Valle, P., P. Pintassilgo, A. Matias, and F. André 2012
such as high-rise hotels (Guerrón Montero 2011).
Tourist Attitudes towards an Accommodation Tax
Earmarked for Environmental Protection: A Survey in Although tourism was slow to develop following
the Algarve. Tourism Management 33:1408-1416. the US invasion in 1983, it is now the
leading economic ▶ activity. Grenada’s main
appeals are its tropical climate, white sand
beaches (▶ beach tourism), and forested volcanic
▶ landscape (▶ nature tourism). The Grenada
Grenada Board of Tourism has also promoted the long-
standing “Spice Islands” ▶ identity and encour-
Velvet Nelson aged visits to spice estates (▶ agritourism)
Department of Geography and Geology, Sam (Nelson 2005).
Houston State University, Huntsville, USA Since 2000, there has been considerable fluc-
tuation in Grenada’s tourism arrivals. The ▶ des-
tination received a record number of overnight
Grenada includes three islands: Grenada, tourists in 2003 (142,000). However, Hurricane
Carriacou, and Petite Martinique. Located in the Ivan devastated Grenada in September 2004 and
Eastern Caribbean Sea and comprised of 344 km2 arrivals fell to about 98,000. In 2012, Grenada
(133 mi2) in land area (Figure 1), Grenada’s received 112,000 overnight tourists and 242,000
population in 2013 was approximately 109,600. cruiseship passengers. In the same year, the
Its estimated GDP (purchasing power parity) in ▶ United Kingdom was the largest single market,
2012 was US$1,467 billion. Despite a long accounting for approximately 28 % of overnight
Grounded theory 407
tourists, followed by the ▶ United States at 22 %

(Caribbean Tourism Organization 2013). Tour- Grounded theory
ism’s direct contribution to Grenada’s GDP is
6.4 %, and the industry directly supports 2,500 Areej Shabib Aloudat
jobs, or 5.9 % of total employment (WTTC 2013). Yarmouk University, Irbid, Jordan
The Maurice Bishop International Airport con-
nects Grenada with other ▶ Caribbean islands and
international air terminals in London, New York, Grounded theory generates “research methodol-
and Toronto. Grenada’s cruise capacity was ogy that gives understandings about how persons
expanded in 2005 with the opening of the Melville or organizations or communities experience and
Street Cruise Terminal. In 2011, the Ministry of respond to events that occur” (Corbin and Holt
Tourism, Civil Aviation, and Culture prepared a 2005: 49). The theory is formed during the
new 5-year strategic plan for tourism. This plan research process through the successive interplay
called for the creation of a tourism authority to between the collection and analysis of data G
replace the existing Board of Tourism and focus (Strauss and Corbin 1998: 158).
on product development and ▶ marketing. Keys The Discovery of Grounded Theory (1967) by
to further tourism development include attracting Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss is the first book
significant foreign investment, expanding the to introduce the theory. Thereafter, the approach
hotel room capacity beyond the existing 1,500, has split into two versions. Barney Glaser, in his
and targeting new markets. Tourism ▶ education books Theoretical Sensitivity (1978) and Emer-
is increasingly emphasized and is taught in 26 pri- gence vs. Forcing (1992), emphasizes that verifi-
mary and secondary schools (Government of Gre- cation has no place in grounded theory. Strauss and
nada 2011). Prospects for ▶ future research Corbin (1998), in Basics of Qualitative Research,
include assessing the effectiveness of the Pure suggest that developing and verifying the theory
Grenada destination brand promotion and pro- should and could be constructed through the
gress toward environmental sustainability across research process, through follow-up quantitative
sectors of the tourism ▶ industry. research. A constructivist’s approach emphasizes
the construction of theory from the respondents’
and the researchers’ meanings (Charmaz 2006).
See also ▶ Agritourism, ▶ beach tourism,
Examples of tourism studies that employed
▶ Caribbean, ▶ cruise tourism, ▶ island tourism.
grounded theory include leisure activity of those
visiting heritage sites and exploring the perceptions
References of stakeholders of tourism. Other studies are travel
experience of cruisers and the emic perspective of
Caribbean Tourism Organization 2013 Latest tourists’ interpretations of authentic and inauthen-
Statistics 2012 www.onecaribbean.org/content/files/ tic experiences (Jennings and Junek 2007).
13MARCH2013Lattab12.pdf (20 November). The grounded theory research process starts by
Government of Grenada 2011 Plans to Appoint Tourism
analyzing the data initially collected (open cod-
Ambassadors to Market Grenada www.gov.gd/egov/
news/2011/nov11/30_11_11/item_1/plans_appoint_tour ing). The researcher then should be involved in
ism_ambassador_market_grenada.html (20 November the constant comparative process of looking for
2013). similarities and differences within the data and
Guerrón Montero, C. 2011 On Tourism and the Constructions
of “Paradise Islands” in Central America and the Carib-
among the concepts and categories that emerge.
bean. Bulletin of Latin American Research 30(1):21-34. As codes accumulate, the researcher begins to
Nelson, V. 2005 Representation and Images of People, perceive relationships between them (axial cod-
Place and Nature in Grenada’s Tourism. Geografiska ing). The concepts are reduced and abstracted to a
Annaler 87B(2):131-143.
higher level and then combined under major cat-
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact
2013: Grenada. London: World Travel and Tourism egories. This is followed by selecting a core cate-
Council. gory in which all other major groupings can be
408 Growth hypothesis
fitted (selective coding). The sampling process in several seminal theoretical studies such as
continues until reaching theoretical saturation, Domar (1946). These spin around the assumption
which is the point where no new emergent con- of the importance of capital accumulation and the
cepts can be developed. existence of industries with high demand for
The limitation of this theoretical framework is workers with low qualification. During the
its plausibility, which can be overcome through 1950s, the importance of capital accumulation to
further research and by transferring the findings to enhance economic growth in the long term lost
other substantive areas. Grounded theory is far relevance in favor of productivity gains through
from subjective interpretation and has since technological change. It is precisely this techno-
moved toward the constructivist view in which logical change that has made falter a potential of
the final product of the research seeks the meanings tourism to promote long-term growth.
of both respondents and researchers. As a valuable Tourism is mainly a demand-driven industry.
qualitative approach to be employed in researching In aggregate terms, such demand is satisfied by
the phenomenon of tourism, grounded theory can domestic production and imports. Import substi-
“generate explanations of events and relationships, tution by domestic production will enhance added
reflecting lived experiences of individuals, groups, value as long as such production provides enough
and processes central to the tourist experience” quality and is sold at competitive prices; other-
(Jennings and Junek 2007: 202). wise, there is risk of losing ▶ destination compet-
itiveness. Domestic production is composed of
See also ▶ Methodology, ▶ qualitative research, added value from labor and capital production.
▶ theory. The share between them is a key determinant for
employment.
References Capital factor may be provided by domestic
sources. This includes investments which contrib-
Charmaz, K. 2006 Constructing Grounded Theory. London: ute to GDP or foreign direct investment which
Sage.
may accelerate capital accumulation, but at the
Corbin, J., and N. Holt 2005 Grounded Theory. In
Research Methods in the Social Sciences, B. Somekh expense of capital rents leaking abroad. Entrepre-
and C. Lewin, eds., pp.49-55. London: Sage. neur’s decisionmaking of tourism ▶ investment
Jennings, G., and O. Junek 2007 Grounded Theory: Inno- depends not only on destination competitiveness
vative Methodology or a Critical Turning from Hege-
and productivity but also on the opportunity costs
monic Methodological Praxis in Tourism Studies. In
The Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Innovative of investing in alternative businesses.
Research Methodologies, I. Ateljevic, A. Pritchard Research methods have been based on Granger
and N. Morgan, eds., pp.197-209. Oxford: Elsevier. causality test. The purpose is to test if tourism
Strauss, A., and J. Corbin 1998 Basics of Qualitative
causes growth and if growth simultaneously
Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing
Grounded Theory. London: Sage. leads to tourism (Balaguer and Cantavella-Jordá
2002). Simultaneous estimations are required
because of the presence of co-integration.
Growth hypothesis However, the results vary by countries (Balaguer
and Cantavella-Jordá 2002; Oh 2005).
Juan L. Eugenio-Martin and Federico Inchausti- ▶ Tourist arrivals can produce an appreciation
Sintes of the real exchange rate which can erode tradi-
Departamento de Análisis Económico Aplicado, tional exports. Moreover, such flows can also
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, produce a reallocation of resources along the
Las Palmas, Spain economy from non-tourism sectors to tourism.
These effects can be seen as a general conse-
quence of the “Dutch disease” which, in the long
Tourism-led growth hypothesis is based on term, can result in economic depletion. Finally,
export-led growth hypothesis. It is deeply rooted tourism demand depends on the environmental
Guatemala 409
quality of the ▶ destination. However, its devel-

opment may erode environmental attributes that
are contributing to destination attractiveness. MEXICO
Hence, according to the destination lifecycle
stage, its development needs to take into account Flores BELIZE
the sustainability of such growth.
0 50 100 km
Three prospective issues are of relevance to
0 50 100 mi Bahia de
future research on growth hypothesis: the conve- Amatique
Lago
nience of a country or region to specialize on de
Izabal Puerto
tourism with respect to other industries; dealing Cobán
Barrios
with the linkages between growth, higher wages, Huehuetenango
and competitiveness over time; and the role of Zacapa
Quetzaltenango
worldwide productivity gains and its implications Mazatenango GUATEMALA HONDURAS
on higher per capita income, income elasticity, Champerico G
and tourism demand. Puerto
San
North José Puerto
Pacific Ocean Quetzal EL SALVADOR
See also ▶ Co-integration, ▶ destination com-

Guatemala, Figure 1 Map of Guatemala
petitiveness, ▶ destination lifecycle, ▶ economic
development.
A string of volcanic mountains runs through
the country from ▶ Mexico to ▶ El Salvador;
References many of them are still active, including the
Fuego, Pacaya, and Santa Maria. The country is
Balaguer, J., and M. Cantavella-Jordá 2002 Tourism as a slowly recovering from the long civil war, which
Long-run Economic Growth Factor: The Spanish Case.
Applied Economics 34:877-884.
took place between the 1960s and the 1990s.
Domar, E. 1946 Capital Expansion, Rate of Growth, and Since the army deposed the last dictator in the
Employment. Econometrica 14 (April):137-147. 1990s, Guatemalan presidents have successfully
Oh, C. 2005 The Contribution of Tourism Development to completed their 4-year mandates (no reelection
Economic Growth in the Korean Economy. Tourism
permitted) with the exception of the most recent
President who was forced to resign a few months
before his term ended due to charges of corrup-
tion. Political stability has begun restoring public
confidence in the judicial and policing institutions
Guatemala with the exception of the most recent President.
Tourism ▶ development was severely affected
Tim Wallace by the civil war. After the war, then, the ▶ tourist
Department of Sociology and Anthropology, arrivals rose from 191,000 in 1984 to 508,000 in
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, 1990. Throughout much of the late nineteenth and
NC, USA most of the twentieth centuries, Arabica coffee
was the most important export commodity until
2005 when tourism took the lead. In 2013, Gua-
Guatemala, located south of Mexico and Belize temala surpassed two million arrivals, earning
and west of El Salvador and Honduras, adjoins the US$1.48 billion (INGUAT 2013). About two mil-
Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea (Figure 1). It lion people or 15 % of the workforce is engaged in
is the largest country in Central America in terms the ▶ industry (Williams 2011).
of population (about 15 million) and third largest The most visited destinations after Guatemala
in size (108,889 km2; 42,042 mi2). City, the capital with over three million residents,
410 Guidebook
are Antigua, Lake Atitlán, Chichicastenango, and

Tikal. Antigua, the old colonial capital before its Guidebook
relocation to Guatemala City, is a UNESCO world
heritage site. Today, the city remains in ruins, Anders Sørensen1 and Victoria Peel2
1
preserving what remains after the devastating TourismLab.dk, Roskilde, Denmark
2
1773 earthquake. The 900-ft-deep crater lake of Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Clayton,
the Atitlán volcanic basin is renowned for its Australia
many traditional Maya communities along its
shore. Here, about 90 % of the population speaks
Kaqchikel, Tz’utujil, or K’iche, in addition to While there is no consensus on its definition, a
Spanish, with most women still wearing tradi- guidebook is commonly understood as instruc-
tional dress. Chichicastenango is famed for its tional writings for people away from home, offer-
massive indigenous markets, trading on Sundays ing both practical information and normative
and Thursdays. The impressive Maya ruins of evaluation (Jack and Phipps 2003). Peel and
Tikal (300 BC–900 AD) have become a heavily Sørensen (2016) conceptualize a guidebook as a
visited destination since its restoration in 1956 commercially distributed instructional entity
(Little 2004). made for transient nonlocals. It contains place
The principal governmental tourism organiza- representations and is comprehensive in coverage,
tion, Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo, pro- facilitating the user’s decisionmaking by being
motes and develops national destinations. selective and evaluative. It asserts its authority
Instituto Técnico de Capacitación y Productividad through a clear publisher identity.
provides courses and workshops in business man- Although originating from ancient descriptive
agement and guiding primarily to high school historical and geographical texts, modern guide-
students. The two Universidad del Valle campuses books drew heavily on English writer Mariana
offer bachelor degrees and licentiate professional Starke’s publications prepared for the early
degree. Security issues arising from urban crime nineteenth-century British travelers to the conti-
and gang activities are a weakness holding back nent (Walchester 2007). Starke’s work was
more robust tourism growth. The industry’s size followed by the sparely written, highly portable
makes Guatemala’s economy vulnerable to exter- style of popular handbooks produced by German
nal political economic events. The location of Karl Baedeker and Englishmen John Murray and
Pacific ports will keep cruiseship income modest Thomas Cooke. These helped in providing the
for the future. scaffolding for the burgeoning European tourism
▶ industry of the mid-nineteenth century. During
See also ▶ Coffee and tea tourism, ▶ cultural the late twentieth century, guidebooks from inde-
tourism, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ world heritage. pendent producers, such as Rough Guides and
Lonely Planet, offered an alternative for a new
wave of self-organized tourists such as back-
References packers but are now mainstream. Barthes’ often
cited designation of the Blue Guide as an “agent
INGUAT 2013 Instituto Guatemalteco de Turismo. Boletín of blindness” (1972: 76) accentuates the popular
Anual Estadísticas de Turismo 2013 www.inguat.gob.
denunciation of guidebooks as emblematic of pas-
gt/media/boletines/boletin-anual-2013.pdf (15 January
2015). sive tourist consumerism. However, while guide-
Little, W. 2004 Mayas in the Marketplace: Tourism, Glob- books do contribute to some regimentation of
alization and Cultural Identity. Austin: University of experience, they are also employed in diverse
Texas Press.
Williams, A. 2011 Huffington Post: An Inside Glimpse into
and, by their ability to reduce uncertainties, liber-
the Guatemalan Tourist Industry www.huffingtonpost. ating ways. Favorable appraisals in guidebooks
com/ashley-michelle-williams/the-economic-domino- are routinely regarded as assuring financial suc-
effec_b_854151.html (13 January 2015). cess without effort for businesses. Yet no research
Guided tour 411
supports this claim, and it is all but impossible for landscapes of a city or region. The accompanying
tourism businesses to track their representation in guide interprets the cultural and natural heritage in
the many guidebooks that are produced globally. an inspiring and entertaining manner and in the
Published studies on guidebooks in modern and language of the tourist’s choice. Guided tours can
▶ historical tourism are also constrained by a vary in terms of settings, length, subject matters,
typically Western focus. types of clients, and activity environments (Black
The basic tenets of the guidebook as a selective and Weiler 2005; Pond 1993).
portable printed textual entity in a distinct edition Tourists often prefer a guided tour so they do
have remained until recently. Both online porta- not have to choose which sites to visit when time
bility of information through the internet and is limited. A group may provide security and
wireless access have challenged the conventional social support, the educational content of a tour
structure and distribution of guidebooks. The can legitimize a tourism experience, and the guide
future of the printed versions remains uncertain, acts as a social buffer. Nowadays, there is a wide
and their transfer to other platforms will enable a range of guided tours available. For example, G
faster updating, in addition to the utilization of tourists can plan their own tour; some tours have
technologies not available in printed books. Yet, optional arrangements such as shopping, free-
in whatever new guise, guidebooks as authored time activities, or independent walking tours.
and influential media will likely continue. The educational component of a tour can also be
customized using technology, including
See also ▶ Backpacker, ▶ geographical infor- smartphones and headsets that allow individuals
mation system, ▶ history, ▶ information center, to listen to commentary in the language of their
tourist, ▶ information technology. choice.
There are other advantages of guided tours. For
tourists, it is often a cheaper and quicker way to
References “see the sites and sights” especially when visiting
a destination or undertaking an activity for the first
Barthes, R. 1972 The Blue Guide. In Mythologies, pp.74- time, going somewhere, or doing something spe-
79. New York: Hill and Wang.
cial that requires specialist transportation, equip-
Jack, G., and A. Phipps 2003 On the Uses of Travel Guides
in the Context of German Tourism to Scotland. Tourist ment, or skills. Sometimes a guided tour is the
Studies 3(3): 281-300. only way of experiencing a site or destination; for
Peel, V., and A. Sørensen 2016 Exploring the Use and example, one cannot visit the Galapagos Islands
Impact of Travel Guidebooks. Bristol: Channel View.
without a guide or swim with wild dolphins.
Walchester, K. 2007 “Our Own Fair Italy”: Nineteenth
Century Women's Travel Writing and Italy 1800- While guided tours are an important part of a
1844. Bern: Peter Lang. tourism experience, they have received limited
attention in the academic literature. The impor-
tance of guided tours is growing as tourism
becomes a more globalized phenomenon and
Guided tour guided tours need to become multifaceted, context
specific, and continuously modified to meet the
Rosemary Black needs of diverse audiences. Guided tours are often
School of Environmental Sciences, Charles Sturt stereotyped and seen as highly choreographed
University, Albury, NSW, Australia experiences involving passive group members
(Zillinger et al. 2012). A multidisciplinary
approach to studying guided tours can raise ques-
A guided tour usually involves a professional tour tions around culture, psychology, economy,
guide who guides individual or group visitors or access, politics, power, sense of place, and perfor-
tourists around venues or places of interest such as mance (Zillinger et al. 2012). With the introduc-
natural areas, historic buildings, and sites and tion of technology such as wireless, Geographic
412 Guinea
Information Systems, and Global Positioning Sys-

tems, there is now a blurring between guided and Guinea
self-guided tours as tourists move in and out of
each genre during their holidays. Anya Diekmann and Thierno Aliou Barry
IGEAT, Université libre de Bruxelles, Brussels,
See also ▶ Sightseeing, ▶ technology, ▶ tour Belgium
guide, ▶ tourist, ▶ visitor.
Guinea, located in West Africa, has an area of

References 245,857 km2 (94,926 mi2) and is surrounded by
▶ Guinea-Bissau, ▶ Senegal, and ▶ Mali in the
Black, R., and B. Weiler 2005 Quality Assurance and north, Ivory Coast in the east, ▶ Liberia and
Regulatory Mechanisms in the Tour Guiding Industry:
A Systematic Review. Journal of Tourism Studies
▶ Sierra Leone in the south, and the Atlantic
16(1):24-37. Ocean in the west. Guinea has four natural areas:
Pond, K. 1993 The Professional Guide: Dynamics of Tour Maritime Guinea, Mid-Guinea, Upper-Guinea,
Guiding. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. and Forested Guinea (Figure 1). In 2012, the
Zillinger, M., M. Jonasson, and P. Adolfson 2012 Editorial:
population was 11.4 million, the GDP was US$
Guided Tours and Tourism. Scandinavian Journal of
Hospitality and Tourism 12(1):1-7. 6,768 billion or $591 GDP per capita. Guinea is
Guinea, Figure 1 Map of Guinea

Guinea-Bissau 413
among the poorest countries, 178th out of See also ▶ Africa, ▶ developing country,
187 according to human development index. ▶ economic development, ▶ stakeholder,
The first tourism ▶ development dated back to ▶ accommodation.
the colonial period with the building of tourism
villages in Mid-Guinea. After independence from
▶ France in 1958, the country was governed by a References
socialist regime until 1984. During that period,
Guinea isolated itself, leading to a slowdown of Diallo, K. 2010 Tourisme et Développement Local au
Fouta Djallon. Unpublished PhD Thesis, Université
development (Diallo 2010). A free market econ-
de Toulouse le Mirail.
omy was introduced at the end of the 1980s, and Ministry of State 2013 Document de Stratégie de Réduc-
the first tourism masterplan was launched in 1989, tion de la Pauvreté DSRP III (2013-2015), Ministère
aiming to develop the ▶ accommodation sector. d’Etat chargé de l’Economie et des Finances www.srp-
guinee.org (23 March 2014).
In 1997, the National Tourism Office and in the
Ministry of Tourism 2013 Notes d'Information. Conakry
following year the Ministry of Tourism were cre- République de Guinée (non publié). Conokrey: Minis- G
ated, to develop policies relevant for a liberal try of Tourism.
market economy and to supervise eight regional UNWTO, 2006, Compendium of Tourism Statistics 2002-
tourism inspectorates. In 2000, the masterplan
was revised, integrating sustainable development
as core feature for poverty alleviation. From 2002,
the country received between 45,000 and 47,000
international tourists per year (UNWTO 2006); Guinea-Bissau
the arrival number significantly grew in 2011 to
130,000. This increase was mainly due to the Thiago Allis and Dedinha Domingos Nancassa
growing number of business tourists after the Department of Geography, Tourism and
first democratic elections in 2010. Tourism reve- Humanities, Universidade Federal de São Carlos,
nues in 2011 were estimated at $4.9 million. São Carlos, Brazil
Since the economic liberalization in 1984, the
Guinean tourism ▶ industry has been character-
ized by a cautious increase in small tourism enter- The Republic of Guinea-Bissau lies on the West-
prises with an estimated 5,000 direct and indirect ern African coast, with a territory of 36,125 km2
jobs (Ministry of Tourism 2013), a lack of quali- (13,948 mi2) divided in eight administrative
fied human resources, and little research. A few regions and one autonomous region. It is bordered
vocational training centers for tourism and ▶ hos- by ▶ Senegal to the north and Guinea-Conakry to
pitality staff exist in the capital city. The latest the south and east, with the Atlantic Ocean to the
governmental poverty alleviation plan (Ministry west (Figure 1). Its population of 1.53 million
of State 2013) aims at increasing tourism through originates from more than 40 ethnic groups,
the (re)development of infrastructure in rural areas though Portuguese is the official language. The
and the creation of new training centers. Higher predominant religions are based on animist
education in tourism is developing in private and beliefs, but 45 % of the population is Muslim
public institutions and the creation of a master (UNIOGBIS 2014).
program is under discussion. Guinea-Bissau was established by the Portu-
The Ministry of Tourism plans to develop and guese in the mid-fifteenth century as a trading port
promote seaside and ▶ cultural tourism in the for slaves, gold, and ivory. It remained a colonial
coming years, as well as developing the upmarket possession until independence was proclaimed in
accommodation sector. Future research needs to 1973 and recognized by ▶ Portugal in 1974. The
analyze how tourism can efficiently meet the chal- country has endured political instability and coups
lenges of poverty alleviation and ▶ sustainable d’état since the 1990s. The UN launched a peace
tourism development. mission in 2010, aiming to support constitutional
414 Guyana
15 14 to provide income and jobs. For example, the

THE GAMBIA
EcoCantanhez project, supported by Portuguese
and Italian non-governmental organizations, is
13 SENEGAL 13
developing lodging and ▶ tourist guide services.
None of the six Guinea-Bissau universities
Casa
mance Farim deliver graduate education in tourism, although
Rio
Cache
u Gabú three vocational courses are offered in Cacheu
Cacheu Bafatá
Canchungo Mansôa and Bissau. As an alternative, periodically the
12
BISSAU unnamed Ministry of Tourism provides training sessions to
elevation
Bolama Buba industry professionals (Nancassa 2013).
AR
Catió See also ▶ Africa, ▶ community-based tourism

QU
I
PE
▶ decolonization.
LA
G
GUINEA
O
11 D 11
O
S
BI
JA
GO
S
NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN

0 40 80 km References
0 40 16 80 mi 15 14
Nancassa, D. 2013 Estudo do Processo de Capacitação dos
Guinea-Bissau, Figure 1 Map of Guinea-Bissau Profissionais do Trade Turístico em Guiné-Bissau.
Sorocaba: Universidade Federal de São Carlos.
República de Guiné-Bissau 2012 Cimeira Mundial Sobre o
rule and national reconciliation as well as to mobi- Desenvolvimento Sustentável: Relatório Nacional.
lize international financial assistance (UNIOGBIS Bissau: Secretaria de Estado de Ambiente e Turismo.
UNIOGBIS 2014 United Nations Integrated Peace-
2014). The primary industry provides 67 % of
Building Office in Guinea-Bissau: Country Profile
GDP, with cashew nuts representing 98 % of http://uniogbis.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=988
exports and 12 % of the world production 2&language=en-US (3 January).
(República de Guiné-Bissau 2012). World Bank 2009 Sub Saharan Africa Tourism
Industry Research http://siteresources.worldbank.org/
▶ Ecotourism activities are beginning in
INTAFRSUMAFTPS/Resources/2049902-132750686
Tarrafes do Rio Cacheu, Lagoas de Cufada, Ilhas 0777/FinalSSATourismRpt1118.pdf (20 September
de Orango and Cantanhez National Parks, as well 2014).
as the João Vieira-Poilão National Marine Park. World Bank 2010 Guiné-Bissau: Para além de Castanha de
caju: Diversificação Através do Comércio www.
The Bolama-Bijagós Archipelago, listed as bio-
enhancedif.org/en/system/files/uploads/guinea-bissau_
sphere reserve, is a key natural tourism resource, dtis_portuguese.pdf (27 December 2013).
combining both natural assets and historical and
architectural heritage. Guinean intangible heritage
includes gumbe guineense (traditional dance),
carnivals, and gastronomy (World Bank 2010).
Tourism ▶ development in Guinea-Bissau Guyana
faces difficulties including political volatility,
poor infrastructure, and crime as the country is a Paulette Bynoe
key transit point in the international drug trade. As School of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
being a “preemerging” country in terms of tour- University of Guyana, Georgetown, Guyana
ism development level, tourism represents only
0.8 % of its GDP (World Bank 2009). In 2010,
around 30,000 arrivals were recorded, typically Guyana, an English-speaking country with a rel-
for humanitarian purposes (Nancassa 2013). Fur- atively stable population of approximately
thermore, several non-governmental organiza- 764,000, is located on the northeastern coast of
tions and international agencies are developing South America (Figure 1). Its history stretches
▶ community-based tourism initiatives, in order over five centuries and is punctuated by wars
Guyana 415
TRINIDAD
The country’s most valuable natural asset is its
AND forests, which cover more than 80 % of the coun-
TOBAGO try, with approximately 8 % designated as
protected areas. Guyana has high biodiversity,
North Atlantic with 1,168 vertebrate species, 1,600 bird species,
Ocean
and one of the richest mammalian fauna assem-
blages of any comparably sized area in the world
(EPA 2000).
VE N E ZU LA The country’s attractions include the interior
Mabaruma
highlands, pristine rainforests, ecological diversity,
Kaieteur Falls located in the Kaieteur National
Park, and cultural diversity with six major races
Parika GEORGETOWN
New
(East Indians, Africans, Amerindians, Europeans,
Bartica Amsterdam Portuguese, and Chinese). Notably, Amerindians G
Linden comprise nine groups with their own unique cus-
toms, lifestyles, and ▶ history who are mostly will-
Ituni
ing to share their cultures with the outside world.
The natural and cultural resource endowment
provides a strong basis upon which tourism’s ▶ per-
SURINAME
formance in the economy can be made visible.
Additionally, “Guyana enjoys a comparative advan-
Lethem tage for the primarily English-speaking North
American and European markets” (Eduardo
et al. 2010: 15), hence the rationale for tourism to
be identified by the National Development Strategy
(2001–2010) as a sustainable development pillar. In
addition, the development of the industry is guided
by Guyana’s 2006–2010 Tourism Development
Action Plan and its Low Carbon Development
B R A Z I L
Strategy (Government of Guyana 2001, 2010).
The success and growth of tourism will be
influenced by successful implementation of these
0 75 150 km
0 75 150 mi
policies, plus effectively addressing tourism man-
agement and ▶ development issues such as pric-
ing, land-use planning, enhancement of the
Guyana, Figure 1 Map of Guyana physical and social infrastructure in hinterland
areas, environmental monitoring and enforcement
fought for ownership among the French, Spanish, of existing regulations and standards, as well as
Dutch, and British. education and training. With respect to the latter,
Guyana remains primarily an agriculture and the University of Guyana currently offers a
resource-based economy, with an expanding ser- diploma, as well as an undergraduate degree in
vice industry which together averages above 60 % tourism studies.
of the GDP in 2010. Per capita GDP has risen
from US$1,694 in 2006 to $2,501.7 in 2010
(Government of Guyana 2012). In the same year, See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
tourism contributed 7 % of GDP and created about ▶ flora and fauna, ▶ forest tourism, ▶ sustainable
2,000–3,000 jobs. tourism.
416 Guyana
References Government of Guyana 2010 A Low Carbon Development

Strategy – Transforming Guyana’s Economy while
Combating Climate Change. Georgetown: Office of
Eduardo, N., C. Hutchinson, J. Karwacki, V. Welch,
the President.
C. Bernard, and G. Albert 2010 Community Tourism
Government of Guyana 2012 RIO+20 National Report.
Enterprise Development in the Rupununi: A Blueprint.
A Green Economy and Institutional Framework for
Georgetown: Conservation International-Guyana.
Sustainable Development: The Guyana Context.
EPA 2000 National Biodiversity Action Plan 2007 – 2011.
Georgetown: Ministry of Natural Resources and the
Georgetown: Environmental Protection Agency,
Environment.
Government of Guyana.
Government of Guyana 2001 National Development
Strategy – A Policy Framework (2001–2010). George-
town: Ministry of Finance.
H
Haiti Before the 1960s, Haiti was once considered a

premier destination. A catastrophic earthquake in
Carolyn E. Hayle 2010 destroyed much of the country’s infrastruc-
Mona School of Business and Management, ture and led to Haiti receiving financial aid. Tour-
The University of the West Indies, Mona, Jamaica ism presents an opportunity for ▶ economic
development. In 2012, Haiti had 950,000 arrivals,
inclusive of cruise passengers, which was
Haiti is on the western end of Hispaniola, an reflected in a contribution of 1.9 % of GDP from
island located between the Caribbean Sea and the tourism ▶ industry. In 2013, tourism grew by
the North Atlantic Ocean, and shares a border 5.9 %, employed 56,500 persons, and is forecast
with the Dominican Republic (Figure 1). The to grow by 8.5 % in 2014 (WTTC 2013).
country has a population of 10.17 million The ▶ UNWTO assisted Haiti to build public
(2012), an area of 27,750 km2 (10,714 mi2), and awareness about the benefits of tourism. It negoti-
is mostly mountainous. Ayiti in Taino, the lan- ated a full package of activities supporting capacity
guage spoken by the Arawaks, means land of building for tourism ▶ development and is helping
high mountains. Presently, two languages are spo- to design a legislative agenda for investment
ken in Haiti: French (official) and Creole. The (UNWTO 2013). The Haiti Tourism Board is posi-
Spanish occupation of Haiti began in 1492 when tioning the country as an ▶ ecotourism and bou-
Christopher Columbus landed there. It ended in tique hotel destination for adventure seekers. While
the early seventeenth century when Haiti was it is understood that ▶ education and ▶ training are
ceded to the French. central pillars for development, there is no tertiary
The country gained independence in 1804 and level education in ▶ hospitality and tourism, but
was the first Caribbean territory to do so. Due to skills training is available to support the industry.
political instability between 1960 and mid-2000, Haiti has faced many challenges, but recently it
Haiti’s economy and democracy declined. It is the has made progress in three critical development
poorest country in the world with a GDP of areas: education, energy infrastructure, and natural
US$7,843 billion in 2012. In that year, per capita disaster risk management (World Bank 2012). All
was $760, with a GDP growth rate of 3 % (World three are significant factors underpinning sustain-
Bank 2012). Agriculture is the main revenue able tourism development. By 2023, the tourism
source providing income for 60 % of the popula- industry is estimated to grow at 5 % per annum and
tion and accounting for 25 % of the GDP, while employ 78,000 persons. Haiti has the potential to
tourism and textiles are the main ▶ foreign yield high economic growth through tourism with
exchange earners. ▶ investment growth projected at 3 % to 2023.
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
418 Hajj
74 72
house of God) in Mecca, ▶ Saudi Arabia, during
NORTH ATLANTHIC OCEAN the second week of last Islamic month Dhul-Hijjah.
CUBA
île de la This pilgrimage is one of the five pillars of Islam
Tortue
20 Windward Cap- 20 and is made obligatory by Allah (God) for a Mus-
Passage Port-de-
Paix
Haïtien lim, once in a lifetime, who is financially sound and
Gonaïves
physically fit (Holy Quran 3:97). The purpose of
Caribbean this sacred journey is to create an atmosphere of
Golfe de la Saint-
Sea Hinche
Gonäve Marc equality, simplicity, and unity among Muslims and
île de la Verrettes
Gonâve to help instill the realization of the smallness of man
Jérémie PORT-AU- Hispaniola and the greatness of God (Din 1989).
Canal du
Navassa Sud
PRINCE DOM.
Island REP. Hajj includes a series of symbolic and emo-
(U.S.) ˆ
Miragoane Chaine de la
Les Cayes Jacmel Selle tional rituals performed in unison, endorsing the
18 18
critical faith-testing events in the life of Prophet
Ibrahim, his wife Hajar, and son Prophet Ismail.
Caribbean Sea Hajj comprises all actions and words mentioned in
0 50 km
accounts of the Prophet Muhammad’s Hajj, such
74
0 50 mi
72 as Ihram (a sacred state, including wearing of
seamless white attire), Tawaaf (clockwise walking
Haiti, Figure 1 Map of Haiti seven times around holy Ka’bah), Al-Saa’ee
(running seven times between the hills Safah and
See also ▶ Cruise tourism, ▶ cultural tourism, Marwah), staying at Arafat (an open land outside
▶ ecotourism, ▶ heritage. Mecca), stoning the Jamaraat (three towers sym-
bolizing Satan) at Minah, drinking Zam Zam
water, and finally performing animal sacrifice.
References Most pilgrims (excluding women) shave their
heads after they have finished Hajj as this is man-
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- datory to leave the state of Ihram.
ism Organization. Contrary to modern ▶ mass tourism, the Islamic
World Bank 2012 Country at a Glance. Washington DC:
World Bank. concept of tourism focuses on submission to the
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact. ways of God. Muslims are encouraged to ▶ travel
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. for Hajj and other pilgrimages so that they appreci-
ate the greatness of God through observing the
“signs” of beauty and bounty of His creations
(Holy Quran 3:137, 6:11, 12:109, 16:36, 27:69,
Hajj 30:42, 47:10). During Hajj, sexual activities,
smoking, swearing, shaving, cutting one’s nails
Syed Ahmad Rizwan1 and Syed Masood Ansar and beard, using profane language, quarreling, and
Naqvi2 fighting are strictly forbidden. Profligate consump-
1
Centre for Tourism Research and Development, tion and all forms of excessive indulgence are also
Tourism Recreation Research, Lucknow, Uttar prohibited. These restrictions are imposed on Hajjis
Pradesh, India (pilgrims) to sustain the sacredness of the Ka’bah.
2
Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Religious obligation and growing Muslim pop-
Lucknow, India ulation worldwide have resulted in mass move-
ment of tourists to and within Saudi Arabia during
the Hajj. In 2012, Saudi Arabia’s government
Hajj is an Arabic word which means “to go, head earned a total revenue of about US$16.5 billion
for.” The specific meaning of Hajj is taken as from 3.1 million Hajj pilgrims, of whom 1.7 mil-
pilgrimage by a Muslim to Ka’bah (the sacred lion were from abroad (dawn.com 2012).
Handicraft 419
Since, during Hajj, stress is given on self- Regarding tourism, handicrafts have attracted
restraint, austerity, and modesty – an attitude of an eager audience among tourists since the late
tolerance and respect for the diversity of religious, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, who
philosophical, and moral beliefs, which, desire handmade objects as souvenirs of their
according to ▶ UNWTO Global Code of ▶ Ethics travel experiences (Phillips and Steiner 1999).
for Tourism, are the foundations of ▶ responsible The term handicraft is regularly confused and
tourism (Rifai 2010), future research could focus interchanged with terms related to other handmade
upon how Hajj can be made a model for practicing arts, namely, folk arts, crafts, handcrafts, ethnic
responsible tourism at other destinations. arts, and tourist arts. Graburn’s (1976) Ethnic
and Tourist Arts sought to delineate these and
See also ▶ Pilgrimage tourism, ▶ religion, other categories through focused essays on indig-
▶ ritual, ▶ Saudi Arabia. enous arts presented from cross-cultural and cross-
disciplinary angles. Since the publication of this
seminal volume, much scholarly research has been
References
devoted to investigating handicrafts from anthro-
pological, sociological, economic, and art histori- H
Dawn.com. 2012 www.dawn.com/news/762515/saudi-nets-
16-5-bn-from-pilgrims-paper (12 December 2013). cal perspectives, many of which utilize
Din, K. 1989 Islam and Tourism. Annals of Tourism interdisciplinary research methodologies. Like-
Research 16:542-563. wise, studying handicrafts in relation to tourism
Holy Quran 3:97; 3:137; 6:11; 12:109; 16:36; 27:69;
30:42; 47:10. and trade involves analyzing diverse internal and
Rifai, T. 2010 Preface. In Tourism in the Muslim World, external forces, institutions, and phenomena,
N. Scott and J. Jafari, eds., pp.xv-xvi. Bingley: Emerald. including international art markets, museums,
communications and ▶ media, social and political
hierarchies, and ▶ globalization.
Handicraft
Mary Katherine Scott Makers and tourism

Art History, University of Wyoming, Laramie,
USA In a contemporary context, the makers of handi-
crafts, who identify themselves as artisans, crafts-
people, or artists, generally do not supply their
Handicrafts are utilitarian objects that are hand- local communities with a particular ▶ product so
made with little or no complex ▶ technology. much as they meet tourists’ demand. In many
Often incorporating multifarious and symbolic developing countries, the production intended
imagery, handicrafts – whether domestic tools, strictly for local audiences has become too costly
decorative items, or religious or ceremonial to be sustainable. This is primarily due to the influx
objects – are generally intended for people within into local markets of imported and manufactured
a particular community or for established trade goods that are more cost-effective to produce and
networks. In most production contexts, handicrafts serve the same needs as previously handcrafted
are made by individuals, families, small work- objects, as well as the overuse or disappearance
shops, or occasionally by entire villages specializ- of valued materials, such as ironwood or whale
ing in a single type of object. Typically, handicrafts baleen among Northwest Coast peoples.
are created from locally sourced materials, includ- Where modernization has stymied local pro-
ing wood, leather, clay, stone, plant and animal duction and consumption of handicrafts, tourism
fibers, or metal, but also rare materials acquired has had the opposite effect. Proponents argue that
from trading relationships. Handicrafts populate tourism to indigenous areas has preserved
such categories as carvings, leatherwork, textiles, ▶ knowledge about traditional usage and manu-
ceramics, and metalwork (Cohen 1993). facture of local handicrafts. Accordingly, tourism
420 Handicraft
is responsible for the continued production of a ▶ language, or making handicrafts onsite while
handicraft that is no longer economically viable to selling their work (MacCannell 1999). Local gov-
produce locally. Opponents argue that this ernments also promote handicrafts as effective
▶ industry encourages mass production of handi- methods of cultural preservation and viable
crafts that deviate from traditional processes and sources of income. Some governments offer sub-
materials to increase cost-effectiveness. Such sidies to workshops, training programs, or entire
practices are believed to contribute to derivative communities who engage in handicraft produc-
and inauthentic expressions of ▶ culture for the tion. Such support in connection to growing tour-
benefit of tourists rather than for cultural preser- ism economies has formed the foundation for new
vation efforts. nationalistic identities based on indigenous cul-
From an anthropological perspective, makers ture and histories (Frew and White 2011).
of handicrafts may recognize both of these situ-
ations occurring simultaneously, but not view
this juxtaposition as problematic. Instead, Globalization
changes in traditional processes, usage, or
intended audience may be considered positive The internet’s facility in disseminating information
innovations rather than derivations of form and means that handicraft production in many rural
function. As such, producing handicrafts offers areas is no longer an isolated, local enterprise but
individuals a potentially lucrative opportunity a complex global system of manufacture and
within tourism markets to improve their financial exchange (Nash 1993). Foreign interest in handi-
circumstances. Moreover, making handicrafts is crafts, their sustainability, and their makers’ wel-
consistent with the rural ▶ lifestyle of many arti- fare spawned the Fair Trade Movement of the
sans while also being preferable to other types 1960s, which has had both positive and negative
of work available in the labor, agricultural, or effects on communities around the world. It has
▶ service sectors. simultaneously provided a livable wage for pro-
ducers while making their handicrafts too expen-
sive for local people and small-scale vendors to
Tourists’ experience and authenticity buy. As it is with tourists who purchase handicrafts
on their travels, the buyers of Fair Trade handicrafts
Where the mass production of handicrafts might are the middle- and upper-class citizens of devel-
not represent a ▶ cultural conflict for makers, tour- oped nations who frequent the museums, boutique
ists may regard this as a loss of culture and an shops, and other international retailers where these
exploitation of local traditions primarily for finan- items are sold. Further research that examines more
cial gain. They seek ▶ authenticity when traveling closely the beneficial and the adverse outcomes of
to foreign places, both in the peoples they meet and the Fair Trade Movement on indigenous commu-
the souvenirs they buy, with handicrafts compris- nities will be worthwhile in assessing the ▶ future
ing a large component of these purchases. Tangible of handicraft production around the world.
objects are valued because they serve as proof of
tourists’ travels and experiences within another See also ▶ Art, ▶ authenticity, ▶ experience,
culture and enhance their self-identifications as ▶ souvenir.
“cultured” and “worldly” individuals.
Tourists’ notions about authenticity are partly
influenced by regional and national marketing
campaigns, which promote handicrafts as one References
aspect of traditional indigenous culture. Makers
Cohen, E. (ed.) 1993 Special Issue on Tourist Arts. Annals
appeal to these ideas through careful displays of
staged authenticity to tourists, such as wearing Frew, E., and L. White 2011 Tourism and National Identi-
local costumes, speaking an indigenous ties: An International Perspective. Oxford: Routledge.
Health tourism 421
Graburn, N. 1976 Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Cultural Expres- surveillance interventions and travel advisory sys-
sions from the Fourth World. Berkeley: University of tems have been implemented.
California Press.
MacCannell, D. 1999 The Tourist: A New Theory of the Travel-related problems encompass food,
Leisure Class. Berkeley: University of California Press. water, air, vector-borne, and communicable dis-
Nash, J. 1993 Crafts in the World Market: The Impact of eases; stress; exhaustion; accidents; air, sea, and
Global Exchange on Middle American Artisans. altitude sickness; personal security incidents and
Albany: State University of New York Press.
Phillips, R., and C. Steiner 1999 Unpacking Culture: Art assaults; exposure to natural disasters; and a myr-
and Commodity in the Colonial and Postcolonial iad of issues relating to excessive drug and alcohol
Worlds. Berkeley: University of California Press. consumption and unsafe sex. Some risks are
directly related to the ▶ destination and local con-
ditions: stages of development, conflicts and
unrest, general sanitation and water quality, avail-
Health tourism ability and standards of medical services, and
climatic conditions. Others are tourist related:
Robyn Bushell age, health status, fitness, and activities under-
School of Social Science and Psychology, taken, together with suitable preparation, training, H
Western Sydney University, Penrith, Australia equipment, and attitude to personal safety. Infec-
tious diseases account for a very high percentage
of reported nonfatal illness, though most go
The World Health Organization defines health as a unreported. Cardiovascular disease accounts for
complete state of physical, mental, and social some 50 % of deaths in people over 55 and acci-
wellbeing, not just the absence of disease. Despite dents and various traumas for mortality in youn-
this, until recently most research linking health ger travelers. The health profession has responded
and tourism was concerned with the health risks. to the huge growth in tourism by developing spe-
Medical investigators have tracked the epidemi- cialized training and provision of travel health
ology of tourism-related disease and the incidence clinics, safe travel advice, telemedicine, and evac-
and etiology of the diseases involved. Tourism uation services. It has additionally introduced
researchers have focused on the effect of health travel medicine associations and corresponding
and safety concerns on motivation, liabilities for journals. The tourism industry and tourists are
the industry, and the consequent need for pretravel also much better informed of potential problems
advisories, health, and safety advice. and risks with online information and services.
A social turn in health, away from a purely
medical model, reflected in the World Health Orga-
Relationship to tourism nization’s definition, places emphasis on both well-
ness and illness, on prevention as well as
Health and safety influence tourism treatment, and on health promotion. As standards
decisionmaking. Events such as September of living rise, better levels of education and aware-
11, the 2002 Bali bombing, SARS outbreak in ness of the connection between lifestyle and health
2003, and the more recent H1N1 swine flu epi- have prompted a revolution with more people
demics and the tsunami disaster in Phuket in 2004, seeking improved physical, emotional, and spiri-
among other calamities, reinforce the negative tual wellness (Kickbush and Payne 2003). The
relationship between health and tourism, focusing realization of the health costs of stressful modern
the attention of public health and tourism bodies lifestyles is reflected in the rapid rise in the popu-
on risk management. Governments and the indus- larity of spa and wellness tourism. In 2006, Smith
try are understandably concerned when major and Kelly edited a special issue on wellness tour-
destinations experience devastating declines in ism in Tourism Recreation Research. Prior to this,
tourist arrivals. The economic effects filter deep articles with a wellness focus were irregular.
into local economies. Consequently, major health Bushell and Sheldon (2009) reviewed the literature
422 Heritage
on health tourism and the diverse interests in this protection and promotion of the health of tourists
field of enquiry as an emerging and growing sector. and host communities (Bushell and Powis 2009).
There is considerable debate about the fragmented There has been a considerable shift in thinking.
and diverse nature of the sector, as well as many The medical profession is beginning to document
inherent paradoxes, not least the insatiable demand the health promotion aspects of travel: relaxation,
for ever-increasing levels of luxury. exercise, and connecting with nature (Sönmez and
Wellness tourism products range from medita- Apostolpoulos 2009). Tourism research remains
tion retreats, life coaching holidays, alternative descriptive, somewhat locked into market seg-
therapies, day spas, through to cosmetic surgery, mentation, typologies of tourism and tourists,
and medical and dental procedures in luxurious and the mapping of supply and demand. While it
environments. Like museums, hospitals in some can provide useful baseline data, more theoreti-
countries see tourists as an essential revenue cally informed investigation is needed.
stream. For example, in 2004 about 150,000 med-
ical tourists from the ▶ United States traveled to See also ▶ Medical tourism, ▶ quality of life,
▶ India for first-world healthcare at third-world ▶ safety and security, ▶ spa tourism,
prices (Turner 2007). There are many dimensions ▶ wellbeing.
and considerable concerns, ethical and medical,
associated with the rise of ▶ medical tourism that
warrant detailed exploration. To date, the literature
on the wellness tourism phenomenon privileges/ References
limits the framing of its definitions, typologies, and
contents (wellness, health, medical, spa, holistic, Bushell, R., and B. Powis 2009 Healthy Tourism Report.
Jakarta: ASEAN Secretariat on Emerging Infectious
and/or other special interests), with sociological, Diseases.
anthropological, and economic perspectives. Bushell, R., and P. Sheldon, eds. 2009 Wellness and Tour-
ism: Mind, Body, Spirit, Place. New York: Cognizant.
Kickbush, I., and L. Payne 2003 Twenty-first Century
Health Promotion: The Public Health Revolution
Healthy tourism Meets the Wellness Revolution. Health Promotion
International 18(4):275- 278.
A conceptual link to the achievement of the UN Smith, M., and C. Kelly, eds. 2006 Wellness Tourism.
Millennium Development Goals and the objectives Tourism Recreation Research 31(1).
Sönmez, S., and Y. Apostolpoulos 2009 Vacation as Pre-
of ▶ sustainable tourism to bring health and well- ventive Medicine. In Wellness and Tourism: Mind,
being benefits to host/local communities is still miss- Body, Spirit, Place, R. Bushell and P. Sheldon, eds.,
ing. Lavish spas in the midst of local poverty are pp.37-51 New York: Cognizant.
neither ethical nor sustainable. The human and envi- Turner, L. 2007 First World Health Care at Third World
Prices: Globalization, Bioethics and Medical Tourism.
ronmental health consequences of tourism deserve BioSocieties 2:303-325.
consideration as the wellness sector develops. Tour-
ism should also be proactive in conserving resources
such as water, minimizing pollution, and protecting
ecosystems. Enhancing the wellbeing of tourists at
the cost of locals is inconsistent with all principles of Heritage
sustainable development.
In 2002, the World Health Organization Clare J. A. Mitchell
commissioned an investigation of “Healthy Tour- Geography and Environmental Management,
ism.” This has been further developed by the University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada
ASEAN Secretariat as a partnership between
health and tourism. It is a commitment to
▶ responsible tourism planning, development, In a literal sense, heritage is anything that is
and operations. This has, as its vision, the inherited, or acquired, from the past. It includes
Heritage 423
natural resources (physical, biological, and geo- site of Chavin, Peru), past accomplishments are
logical features) and cultural assets in both tangi- memorialized (Stonehenge, United Kingdom),
ble (artifacts, buildings, and cultural landscapes) spirits are renewed (Bahá’i Holy Places, Israel),
and intangible (oral traditions, social practices, arts are celebrated (the Sydney Opera House,
and craftsmanship) forms. In a philosophical Australia), atrocities are acknowledged
sense, heritage is a discursive construct that is (Auschwitz Concentration Camp, Poland), and
produced to suit the needs, and reflect the percep- artifacts are housed (Tokyo National Museum,
tions, of those living in the present. Thus, heritage Japan). Today, many sites incorporate didactic
is an amorphous and fluid entity whose choice, digital technologies (computer 3D reconstructions
interpretation, and representation (production) and interpretation applications) that provide visu-
vary over both space and time. alizations, immersive experiences, and vehicles
for public discussion. Heritage areas are spatially
extensive landscapes that contain multiple points
Production of heritage of attraction. Included here are natural history
parks, providing species protection (Bwindi
Heritage production is an extrinsic process that is Impenetrable National Park, Uganda) and/or geo- H
undertaken by stakeholders for a variety of rea- logical features (Grand Canyon National Park,
sons. Nongovernment organizations, such as United States), and living heritage landscapes,
UNESCO, believe that heritage is a universal where historic pasts mingle with present realities
right. They promote maintenance of this right by (the Historic Town of Ouro Preto, Brazil). Linear
promulgating the long-term protection and con- sites include transportation routes (the Mountain
servation of universally significant sites (Labadi Railway, India) and heritage trails (the Baccalieu
2013). Nation-states, particularly those subjected Trail, Canada). These link various points and
to colonial rule, produce heritage to establish an areas of natural or cultural significance and appeal
identity and to foster a sense of national pride. to an increasingly mobile cohort of cosmopolitan
They also use heritage as an instrument for build- consumers.
ing social and cultural capital and advancing sus-
tainable development practices. Individuals
assemble heritage to connect to the milieu of Consumption of heritage
their predecessors and to cultivate a sense of
belonging. Tourism stakeholders produce heritage Heritage consumption has a lengthy past. It
for its transactional value. This valorization is gained prominence in Europe during the seven-
now accepted by heritage professionals as a teenth century when young aristocrats embarked
means to finance conservation of the heritage on the Grand Tour to broaden their cultural hori-
legacy (Smith et al. 2010). zons. The middle classes joined these pursuits in
Heritage production is neither a rapid nor nec- the nineteenth century, as rail and steamship travel
essarily smooth process. It is one of negotiation become widely available. Global tourism levels
and mediation that reflects the sentiments, dis- escalated during the twentieth and twenty-first
courses, and hegemonies of its participants. Dis- centuries, driven by cultural democratization,
sonance and contestation may accompany its lifestyle-oriented mobilities, mediascape influ-
production. These issues are debated in the social ences, and the emergence of an experiential soci-
space of the contact zone, where the politics of ety. This trend is particularly noticeable today in
power ultimately dictate their resolution (Labadi emerging nations, although trips taken by cosmo-
2013). politan tourists from developed economies con-
Heritage products are many and take a variety tinue to rise as well.
of spatial forms (Wall 1997). Points of attraction Multiple motivations bring contemporary con-
concentrate consumers in one location. Here, sumers to gaze at historic environments. Post-
material objects are uncovered (the archaeological Fordist tourists seek authentic heritage sites to
424 Historical tourism
escape the sameness and placelessness that char- sustainable in the long run (Barthel-Bouchier
acterizes their quotidian world. Some see these 2013).
nostalgic landscapes as liminal spaces of self- Heritage is thus an amorphous concept whose
reflection or communitas. Others desire to reaffirm extrinsic production, and meaningful consump-
a connection to the past, gain a cross-cultural tion, may compromise its availability for future
education, or establish a social identity. Fordist generations. A better understanding of sustainable
tourists are content to consume heritage that is heritage tourism is required to ensure conserva-
found in staged or hyper-real experiences and tion of the product on which this industry is based.
heavily commodified spaces. For this cohort, her-
itage consumption may be an incidental, or See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ ethnic tourism,
adjunct, event that is part of a pleasure-seeking ▶ historical tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism,
experience. Heritage consumption today is thus ▶ world heritage.
omnivorous, reflecting a desire for both the
authentic and inauthentic, the elite and the
popular.
References
Production and consumption impacts Barthel-Bouchier, D. 2013 Cultural Heritage and the Chal-
lenge of Sustainability. Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
Hall, M., and A. Lew 2009 Understanding and Managing
Tourism scholars demonstrate the positive and Tourism Impacts: An Integrated Approach. New York:
negative economic, sociocultural, and environ- Routledge.
mental impacts that arise from the production Labadi, S. 2013 UNESCO, Cultural Heritage, and Out-
standing Universal Value. Lanham: Altamira Press.
and consumption of heritage (Hall and Lew Smith, G., P. Messenger, and H. Soderland (eds.) 2010
2009). From an economic standpoint, the heritage Heritage Values in Contemporary Society. Walnut
industry may provide employment and income for Creek: West Coast Press.
residents and generate revenue and taxes for gov- Wall, G. 1997 Tourist Attractions: Points, Lines and Areas.
ernments. Price inflation and economic vulnera-
bility also have been found to surface in
communities over-reliant on their heritage assets.
Socially, heritage tourism may enhance cross-
cultural awareness and foster societal empower- Historical tourism
ment. It may also lead to acculturation, cultural
misappropriation, and the erosion of place depen- Deepak Chhabra1 and Shengnan Zhao2
1
dence, attachment, and identity, particularly if School of Community Resources and
heritage appropriation has been pursued without Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix,
local support. AZ, USA
2
Environmentally, excessive consumption may Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies,
generate in situ congestion, noise, wear and tear, California State University, Long Beach, CA, USA
and pollution. Ex situ impacts are of greatest
concern, particularly the significant carbon foot-
print that accompanies global tourism. Jet-setting Historical tourism is commonly described as a
tourists contribute to climate change and, subse- form that is centered on the narratives of a partic-
quently, to destruction of natural (primeval jun- ular site, place, or a ▶ region (Grozeva 2009). It
gles) and cultural (monuments and traditional “ultimately reminds us both of the powerful ide-
livelihoods) assets. Heritage professionals con- ality of ▶ history and the fundamental material
stantly grapple with the apparent contradiction reality of the past and our kinship with all those
between heritage conservation and heritage tour- separated from us by ▶ time, place and ▶ culture,
ism, questioning if commitment to the latter is or by the rudimentary fact of their not being us”
Historical tourism 425
(Weston 2011: 94). Consuming history in tourism Evidently, motives for visiting antiquity sites
is not a new ▶ phenomenon. It is in essence an and places vary although interest in history
orchestration of history or historicity (Carr 1961; appears to be a key driving force. In general,
Lowenthal 2000). A critical perspective of this tourists visit to learn about the past cultures,
practice refers to the manner in which narratives politics, traditions, and events (Grever
are presented and/or consumed in the et al. 2012). Today, there are several ways to
contemporary era. become acquainted with the past history, which
is being “constantly mediated and remediated”
(Grever et al. 2012: 876). An examination of
Benefits and motives promotional content of Native American history
in Arizona, the ▶ United States, shows that only
Documented literature on historical tourism is stereotyped images of the historical past are pro-
meager. The few available published studies moted by destination marketing organizations.
focus on the benefits of its promotion, ▶ tourist Aligned with this, Lowenthal stresses that “his-
motives, and historical perceptions. As a case in torical knowledge, however communal and ver-
point, Grozeva (2009) discusses historical tourism ifiable, is also invariably subjective and biased H
in the context of a peace-generating mechanism to both by its narrator and by its audience. We see it
promote cross-border cooperation between through an interpreter who stands between past
▶ Bulgaria and ▶ Greece. It is a noted fact that events and our apprehension of them” (2000:
several neighboring countries share similar mon- 216). Therefore, depending on preferences or
uments and histories across their borders. Joint priorities of the narrator, both continuity and
projects are often touted as examples to boost foreignness of the past in historical accounts
international cooperation. But documented can be evidenced.
accounts often marginalize areas of continuity
between past and current cultures that run parallel
across the border. Evidently, the slant is toward Treatment of history in modern tourism
distancing past history from the present era. This
view disputes Lowenthal’s (2000) argument that Most documented literature does not focus on
most narratives focus on continuity and familiar- the audience or tourist engagement with history.
ity, with the distant past foreign to many because Engagement can range from seeking a shared
of its nonexistence. sense of belonging to personalized connections
In the context of physical proximity to a (Schott 2010) to a rejuvenated or existentialist
historical site, Weston (2011) wonders if state of mind as a result of gathering informa-
“being there” affects a tourist’s attitude to the tion about the site. Lowenthal states that “his-
past or history. He argues that the encounter torical knowledge is collectively produced and
with a historical place, site, or artifact evokes shared, [with groups defining] themselves
an imaginative reaction and provokes historical through history and the enterprise of history is
visions and deeper connections with the distant crucial to social preservation fostering a feeling
past. Allcock (1988) reports that sites of signif- of belonging” (2000: 213–214). Dispersed his-
icance, for the most part, are favored by tourists torical facts are often woven together in “mean-
seeking validation of their community member- ingful” stories to evoke a sense of communal
ship or of a set of shared traditional group ▶ heritage for the present-day audience and
values. For Weston, “Mexican experience was effective orchestration of historicity (Grever
of a privatized religiosity, so to speak, seeking et al. 2012). A mix of continuity and foreign-
historical sites as a means of existential affirma- ness is buttressed in historical narratives, with
tion or self actualization, which is not depen- the latter revealed in the postmodern era as the
dent on affirming, communal values or “past’s alien character” (Lowenthal 2000: 233).
membership” (2009: 90). Not placing too much blame on historical
426 History
tourism for commodification of this process, it

can be argued that the past has always been History
“historicity” in nature, because all its versions
are subjective in that they are influenced by their Auvo Kostiainen
social, cultural, economic, and political envi- Department of European and World History,
ronments. In support of this, Carr posits that University of Turku, Turku, Finland
“as individuals, historians too are a ‘social phe-
nomenon’ and this subsequently influences
their interpretation of the past” (1961: 2). History as a discipline has long traditions going
In conclusion, it is hoped that this entry will back to the ancient ▶ time. Its writing has changed
stimulate deliberations on the present- from chronicles and data collection into a multiple
centeredness of history in historical tourism, and continuously mutating field of studying
which, like other forms of tourism, is subject to human experiences throughout diverse times and
interplay between authority and ▶ power relation- places. Because of their important role in
ships. The nature of its presentation is impacted explaining the contemporary world, historical
by the constructed and deconstructed orchestra- studies are widely debated among academics and
tions of prevailing historical narratives. One laymen. Even if the discipline appears to address
suggested line of inquiry might be to figure out only humans, the natural world often plays an
ways to reconcile dominant historical narratives important role in its studies. History not only
with the prevailing sociocultural values of a com- refers to the past but also to the academic disci-
munity to inculcate a holistic sense of continuity pline and various other ways of capturing and
and evolution. presenting the past.
What presently is called modern history writ-
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ history, ▶ holistic ing was established during the 1800s. This raises a
approach. question about the timing of the publication of the
first scholarly studies on the history of tourism or
▶ travel. By the late nineteenth century, a number
References of minor studies had already been published about
pilgrimages as well as about travel literature in the
Allcock, J. 1988 Tourism as a Sacred Journey. Society and West. A good example of more comprehensive
Leisure 11(1):33-48. studies in the field is the four-volume history of
Carr, E. 1961 Historiography. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni- American travel by Dunbar (1915). Because of
versity Press.
Grever, M., P. Bruijin, and C. Boxtel 2012 Negotiating the rapid expansion of domestic and ▶ interna-
Historical Distance: Or How to Deal with the Past as tional tourism, as well as the recognition of its
a Foreign Country in Heritage Education. Journal of the importance in the political, economic, and cultural
History of Education 48:873-887. sphere of life, academic interest was also on the
Grozeva, M. 2009 Bulgarian-Greek Cultural-Historical
Tourism Corridors. East-Central European Regional rise. Thus, the writing of its history became an
Seminar Gyula, Discussion Papers, pp.71-78. <http:// established area of scholarly research during the
discussionpapers.rkk.hu/index.php/DP/article/view/ early decades of the twentieth century. Interest in
2346/4386> (5 August 2013). the international aspects and influence of travel
Lowenthal, D. 2000 The Past is a Foreign Country.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. and tourism increased especially in the second
Schott, S. 2010 Standing Where Your Heroes Stood: half of the nineteenth century. Historical research
Using Historical Tourism to Create American and on tourism began in the Western World, mainly
Religious Identities. Journal of Mormon History because its modern forms were first developed in
36(4):41-66.
Weston, R. 2011 Being There and Being Then: Ideal Pres- the West, despite the fact that the practices of
ence and Historical Tourism. New Zealand Journal of travel had been established in other cultural
Public History 1:84-96. spheres of the world several centuries earlier,
History 427
such as the Chinese or the Arabian long-distance Historians are keen to analyze the precondi-
travels. tions for the ability to participate in tourism at
various time periods, locations, and social and
political contexts. Among other objects of study
Historical scope are social classes and group participation. The
importance of ▶ technology has been stressed,
A large number of topics are included in the as it has created the means for domestic and inter-
history of tourism. An important starting point is national tourism. This is true especially since the
to find out what the study of tourism history early 1800s when the development of steam
actually means. This depends on how concepts engines resulted in increased speeds and made
such as travel and tourism are defined. In princi- longer trips by train and ship possible. Internal
ple, “travel” is the general concept of the subject combustion engines, then, were invented to
field for all spaces and periods, relative to which ▶ power private cars and jet engines of airplanes,
all other forms and names of traveling should be with computer technology in recent decades facil-
understood. However, in a very confusing way, itating all forms of movement. These develop-
even the terms “tourism” and “tourism history” ments were connected to leisure opportunities H
have been used for practically all the periods of due to the simultaneous advancements in free
history, contemporary or distant. time and increases in the standard of living.
Yet these kinds of definitions are vague; more On the other hand, historians have widely
precise conceptual thinking is needed. The term discussed the meeting of cultures and peoples.
“travel” primarily points to various movements Many biographical studies of artists and their
prior to the period of industrialization. That era, visits abroad, along with their experiences, have
in turn, generated many forms of travel and been published. Therefore, the history of tourism
tourism, covering a person or people who is also seen as an important form of cultural trans-
▶ tour around in order to see sights or sites of fer. Furthermore, ideological, cultural, political,
interest, or visit ▶ leisure destinations, or travel and other features have “traveled” to different
in want of amusement, or scenery. Industrializa- locations and thereafter adapted to their new sur-
tion was followed by new forms of tourism. roundings. Many tourism and colonial histories
▶ Mass tourism, on the other hand, developed cross paths. For example, British colonial history
later on, commencing its actual heyday during in ▶ India involves links between travel and colo-
the interwar period and expanding rapidly after nial or postcolonial politics and practices
World War II. Accordingly, mass tourism, which (Henderson and Weissgrau 2007; Iggers and
included travel packages and large numbers of Wang 2008).
participants, became a dominant form. However,
the dominating type of individual travel from the
past was not extinct but simultaneously lived Research traditions
and recreated itself. New types of individual
tourism were created emphasizing, for example, Research into the history of tourism has been on
experience, adventure, or thematic options. This the rise. Many historical studies deploying chro-
phase of history has been called by some nological debates and investigations have
scholars the post-tourism era. As the latest appeared during the last decades, resulting in per-
▶ development, a great mix of travel types can spectives related to themes such as long-distance
be identified: the contents and forms of mass trade linkages, explorations, information, and
tourism may include some individual travel tra- other networks. On the other hand, medieval pil-
ditions, such as greater choice for excursions or grimages, particularly the ▶ Grand Tour, have
not being tied to the original mass tourism or received special attention (Black 1997). The latter
packaged options. prevailed from the late 1500s to the 1800s, and it
428 History
was originally practiced for educational purposes movement possible. These studies have also pro-
among elites in the Western World. The Grand vided an understanding of how mass tourism itself
Tour of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries caused worldwide impacts and trends that
began to evolve alongside societal and cultural occurred when the number of international tour-
changes, but it played an important part in setting ists leaped from 25 million in 1950 to over one
travel patterns for later periods. Historians have billion in 2012.
been interested in tracing changes in forms, Global and local research issues of tourism
routes, and contents, as well as the social back- are due to world-encompassing developments in
ground of participants of the Grand Tours. the last decades (Towner 1998). New emerging
Studying the ever-present ▶ travel literature destinations, such as ▶ China, have risen to
has been a popular pastime activity. The writings great importance. There is a need for the analy-
have also been used as source materials for the sis of the history of tourism in such countries.
analysis of tourism experiences, the meetings of This perspective is also reflected in postcolonial
people, and many other sociocultural topics. His- studies that look for the form of cultures and
torical and cultural studies intersect in the field of societies ridding themselves of imposed influ-
heritage studies, which discuss both material and ence. Generally, the historical growth of the
intellectual heritage, as well as questions, perspec- ▶ industry has been studied from the viewpoint
tives, approaches, and methods typically combin- of structural and organizational development,
ing ethnology and history. In the history of resulting in a large number of local, regional,
tourism, it has been quite common to analyze or ▶ national tourism policy histories, including
ways of presenting data on ▶ tourist destinations, case studies of tourism enterprises such as
local cultures, and representations of past tourists Thomas Cook.
at specific times and contexts. Topics have varied
a great deal: from the colonial or imperial views of
travelers to their views on local cultures or cultural Expansion of historical frameworks
presentations and from tourism propaganda and
exhibition to the curiosities or meetings of locals It is quite common nowadays for scholarly
and foreigners. The ▶ World Heritage list of journals representing various disciplines, includ-
UNESCO, introduced in 1972, represents an ing history, geography, anthropology, and sociol-
influential catalog of tangible, intangible, and nat- ogy, to publish research on the history of tourism.
ural destinations around the world, including a For example, the multidisciplinary social science
large number of important historical topics featur- journal, Annals of Tourism Research, regularly
ing the visits of tourists from the past and the publishes articles on historical topics. Historians
present. have their own active H-Travel Network of the
Mass tourism, its roots and forms at various History of Travel, Transport and Tourism, and
times and places, has increasingly interested his- Journal of Tourism History initiated in 2009. In
torians. The spas and sea bathing traditions cre- contrast, tourism historians quite rarely participate
ated in the ancient Greco-Roman world have been in such yearly conferences as the ATLAS which
seen as distant predecessors to the modern ▶ phe- attracts multidisciplinary audiences to its many
nomenon (Casson 1994). The revitalization of assemblies.
spas and sea bathing began in the 1600s and Weiler et al. (2012) reveal that the number of
expanded vastly in the 1800s and 1900s. This doctoral theses in tourism has greatly increased.
trend has led to various forms of wellness tourism They studied dissertations in the ▶ United States,
(Löfgren 1999; Walton 2005). The historical ▶ Canada, ▶ Australia, and ▶ New Zealand and
interest in mass tourism per se, however, concen- found that tourism history was one of the largest
trated on the 1900s, specifically attempting to fields among the total of 212 dissertations. The
explain the large societal, cultural, technological, great expansion started primarily in the 1990s.
and even political changes which made this ▶ Other signs of increasing interest in tourism
Holiday 429
history are the many seminars and conferences Kostiainen, A., and T. Syrj€amaa, eds. 2008 Touring the
featuring this topic in their programs. For exam- Past: Uses of History in Tourism. Discussion and
Working Papers No. 6. Savonlinna: Finnish University
ple, the Amsterdam World Conference of Histo- Network for Tourism Studies.
rians in 2010 had two large sessions on the Towner, J. 1998 What is Tourism’s History? Tourism Man-
subject, with similar sessions also scheduled for agement 16:339-343.
the 2015 conference in Jinan, China. Walton, J., ed. 2005 Histories of Tourism: Representation,
Identity. Clevedon: Channel View.
Tourism historians primarily ▶ work individu- Weiler, B., B. Moyle, and C. McLennan 2012 Disciplines
ally within history or other university depart- that Influence Tourism Doctoral Research: The United
ments. However, there are various academic States, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand. Annals of
networks, research groups, projects, and other Tourism Research 39:1425-1445.
forms of international cooperation. This focus
has increased greatly within the last two decades
and expanded into new themes and spaces.
Research trends have followed the internal devel- Holiday
opment of the discipline and have received
increasingly multidisciplinary influences mainly Catherine Cheung H
from human geography and several humanistic School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
or social sciences. While there has been a trend The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
toward ▶ multidisciplinarity, adherence to the Hong Kong, China
study methods of history has sustained.
History will preserve its strong place among
disciplines interested in travel and tourism. As a The word “holiday” traditionally referred to spe-
response to ▶ globalization, studies on tourism cial religious days. A holiday intends to allow
history and international tourism movements will people to celebrate or commemorate events or
be needed in the years to come. Researching into people of cultural or religious significance. In
images, myths, memories, and ▶ heritage is a modern days, the term refers to any special day
growing ▶ trend in the historical studies of tourism of rest or relaxation, since normal day activities
(Kostiainen and Syrj€amaa 2008), so is the history such as work or school are suspended or reduced.
of environmental issues in travel and tourism an In most countries, holidays are set aside by cus-
emerging area awaiting further investigation. tom or by ▶ law. Different types of holidays are
designated by governments such as religious,
See also ▶ Colonialism, ▶ Grand Tour, ▶ heri- national, and unofficial holidays (Wikipedia
tage, ▶ historical tourism, ▶ pilgrimage tourism. 2013).
The psychological need of people, such as
desires, motivations, degree of commitment, and
involvement, drives the demand for holidays.
References They represent a period when people can have
Black, J. 1997 The British Abroad: The Grand Tour in the
the ▶ time of their lives. The idea of taking a
Eighteenth Century. Stroud: Sutton. holiday is believed to stimulate the ultimate fan-
Casson, L. 1994 Travel in the Ancient World. Baltimore: tasy trip. In 1980, Psychology Today found in a
Johns Hopkins University Press. survey of their readers’ “dream vacation” that
Dunbar, S. 1915 A History of Travel in America. India-
napolis: Bobbs-Merril.
“men dreamed of becoming heroes while women
Henderson, C., and M. Weissgrau 2007 Raj Rhapsodies: envisioned vacations that would bring about a
Tourism, Heritage and the Seduction of History. Alder- dramatic change in their lives, making them some-
shot: Ashgate. how more carefree, adventurous, more daring,
Iggers, G., and Q. Wang 2008 A Global History of Modern
more elegant, and more sophisticated”
Historiography. Harlow: Pearson Longman.
Löfgren, O. 1999 On Holiday: A History of Vacationing. (Rubenstein 1980: 62). Such aspirations of
Berkeley: University of California Press. dream vacations would also suggest that tourism
430 Holistic approach
“is an alternative experience of time, i.e., time off Domestic and International Tourist Demand. Report
or holiday time” (Wang 2000: 216). In other of the Secretary-General on the General Programme
of Work for the Period 1984-1985. World Tourism
words, tourism provides a sense of ▶ escape and Organization General Assembly.
freedom.
Holiday is the antecedent of tourism, espe-
cially when paid vacation has become the norm
for most developed countries. Moreover, a holi-
day contributes to one’s ▶ quality of life. As the Holistic approach
need for variety of activities becomes increasingly
apparent, individuals look for free time away from Paula Cristina Remoaldo1 and José Cadima
home or the workplace. They seek to compensate Ribeiro2
1
for the psychological imbalances attributable to Department of Geography, University of Minho,
▶ work, and this is normally done through tour- Institute of Social Sciences, Braga, Guimarães,
ism and changes of milieu. Kelly (1985) notes that Portugal
2
tourism (▶ vacation) is ▶ recreation on the move, Department of Economics, University of Minho,
engaging in ▶ activity away from home in which School of Economics and Management, Braga,
▶ travel can lead to satisfaction sought. Portugal
Today, holiday desires and habits have a sig-
nificant ▶ impact on tourism pursuits. Most of the
▶ leisure tourists look for new scenery, memora- Holistic refers to something that emphasizes the
ble experiences, and relaxation holidays. They are whole and the interdependence of its parts. It can
interested in active holidays involving cultural be conceptualized as interdisciplinary: the claim
and sporting activities, personal enrichment, and that most social and economic phenomena cannot
knowledge acquisition. Hence, ▶ special interest be fully understood or explained without adopting
tourism in particular is becoming increasingly an approach that goes beyond the aims of a single
popular and a growing area for research. In most scientific discipline.
of the developing countries, when free time Walter Hunziker and Kurt Krapf were the first
increases, tourism will also occupy an increas- scholars to contribute to this concept in 1942,
ingly important place in society (UNWTO rejecting the perception of tourism as just an eco-
1985). Future research needs to address if tourism nomic phenomenon. Instead, they approached it as
in these countries unfolds in a way similar to that a composite, human, and economic phenomenon
in the developed world. (Williams 2004). Some years later, another
pioneering contribution came from Leiper (1979).
See also ▶ Escape, ▶ festival and event, ▶ qual- He advocates a systems approach as the only way to
ity of life, ▶ special interest tourism, ▶ vacation. fully understanding destinations, generating areas,
transit zones, the environment, and ▶ tourist flows.
Murphy (1985) highlights the need for a more
References comprehensive and integrated approach to tour-
ism ▶ planning at local levels, including the com-
Kelly, J. 1985 Recreation Business. New York: Wiley. munity. Accordingly, if people have to live with
Rubenstein, C. 1980 Vacations, Expectations, Satisfac- the decisions of authorities, they must participate
tions, Frustrations, Fantasies. Psychology Today (May
in their formulation and application. More
14):62-76.
Wang, N. 2000 Tourism and Modernity: A Sociological recently, there has been a call to develop an inte-
Analysis. Oxford: Elsevier. grative approach capable of dealing with eco-
Wikipedia 2013 Holiday http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holi nomic, ecological, and social systems. In this
day (10 December).
UNWTO 1985 Identification and Evaluation of Existing
context, the term panarchy has been used to iden-
and New Factors and Holiday and Travel Motivations tify a specific form of governance that would
Influencing the Pattern of Present and Potential encompass all (partial) other systems.
Honduras 431
Current tourism experience research continues

to favor a holistic approach. Instead of focusing Honduras
solely on the sense of vision, all senses should be
included, allowing tourists a more complete and Stella Maris Arnaiz Burne1 and
complex ▶ destination experience. This relates Fernanda César Arnaiz2
1
also to destinations’ competitiveness, as it arises Universidad de Guadalajara, Jalisco, Mexico
2
from many factors, including natural environment, Universidad Anáhuac-Puebla, Puebla, Mexico
climate, built attractions, infrastructures and
supporting facilities, and geographical ▶ location.
▶ Sustainable tourism ▶ development can The Republic of Honduras is located in the trop-
only succeed if the destination is able to supply a ical zone of Central America and is bordered to
product that can be preserved and renewed in its the north and east by the Caribbean Sea, to the
singularity and if the interests of the different southeast by the Republic of Nicaragua, to the
stakeholders are considered. One can claim that south by the Gulf of Fonseca and the Republic
the concept of sustainable development itself is of El Salvador, and to the west by the Republic of
holistic and multi-sectorial, as suggested by But- Guatemala (Figure 1). H
ler (1999). However, the concept has been used Honduras is divided into 18 administrative
more in theoretical than empirical terms, due to departments and the capital city Tegucigalpa is
the difficulty of its implementation. the official seat of government. The country has
Sustainable tourism development requires that a strong private sector, weak industrialization, and
researchers continue seeking a broader under- an important tourism ▶ industry. The country is
standing of tourism and making use of a variety part of the Central American Integration System,
of research tools of quantitative and qualitative an economic and political organization of Central
nature, which will improve the rigor of the analy- American states, established in 1991. The system
sis. According to Yeoman et al. (2012), the future also includes ▶ El Salvador, ▶ Guatemala, ▶ Nic-
has already begun; however, its primary drivers aragua, ▶ Costa Rica, ▶ Panama, and ▶ Belize
will be wealth, resources, and technology. There- with the ▶ Dominican Republic as an associated
fore, emerging research challenges include how to state. The Central American Tourism Council is a
best provide holistic destination experiences that part of Central American Integration System, as
are competitive while reducing CO2 emissions tourism is the main economic activity of the state
and other environmental and social impacts. (Meyer Krumholz 2004).
The country’s main attractions are diving
See also ▶ Community development, ▶ experi- around its ▶ Caribbean islands, and on the main-
ence, ▶ multidisciplinarity, ▶ planning, ▶ sus- land, there are the jungle and Mayan archaeolog-
tainable tourism. ical sites. The Caribbean Bay Islands are
composed of the islands of Roatan, Utila,
Guanaja, and numerous islets and cays that were
References initially inhabited by the Maya and later by Span-
ish and British settlers. Roatan has pleasant
Butler, R. 1999 Sustainable Tourism: A State-of-the-Art beaches and is visited by up to five cruise lines
Review. Tourism Geographies 1:7-25. weekly in the high season, and tourism is the
Leiper, N. 1979 The Framework of Tourism: Towards a
Definition of Tourism, Tourist, and the Tourism Indus-
driving forces of these island cruises.
try. Annals of Tourism Research 6:390-407. On the mainland, the Mayan ruins of Copán are
Murphy, P. 1985 Tourism: A Community Approach. an important archaeological site on the western
London: Methuen. region, just 14 km from the border with ▶ Guate-
Williams, S. 2004 Tourism: The Nature and Structure of
Tourism. London: Routledge.
mala. Several Mayan dynasties lived in Copán
Yeoman, I., T. Rebecca, M. Mars, and M. Wouters 2012 until they mysteriously disappeared in the ninth
2050 – Tomorrow’s Tourism. Bristol: Channel View. century (IICA 2009). Copán was a scientific
432 Honduras
Honduras, Figure 1 Map of Honduras
center of the Mayan world where they studied should look into the planning and sustainable
astronomy and calculated time in a way which development of Honduras as a Central American
was more accurate than that of the calendars we ▶ destination.
use today. These ruins are the best proof of the
existence of one of the largest pre-Columbian See also ▶ Archaeology, ▶ development, ▶ eco-
cultures of America and were declared a tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism, ▶ world heritage.
UNESCO world heritage site in 1980.
In 2001, the Universidad Pedagógica
Francisco Morazán opened to provide education
nationwide. This university offers an undergradu- References
ate degree in ▶ hospitality and tourism. Related
CNTH 2012 Honduras. Directorio Nacional Turístico.
jobs totaled 208,000, making it the largest Honduras: Cámara Nacional de Turismo de Honduras.
employer in the country (CNTH 2012). The IICA 2009 Estudio Sobre Turismo Rural en Honduras.
Honduran Institute of Tourism reported Honduras: Instituto Interamericano de Cooperación
para la Agricultura.
that inbound arrivals in 2011 reached 1,651,403
Meyer Krumholz, D. 2004 Economía Turística en América
foreign tourists. In view of the increase in the Latina y el Caribe. Colombia: Universidad Externado
number of incoming tourists, future research de Colombia.
Hospitality 433
in which it emerges, have resulted in it being

Hospitality studied from a number of different perspectives,
all of which are relevant to tourism. These can be
Peter Lugosi summarized into three groups: applied business
Oxford School of Hospitality Management, and management; the social sciences, particularly
Oxford Brookes University, Oxford, UK from the disciplines of anthropology, history,
geography, and sociology; and philosophy
(Lugosi 2009).
Hospitality refers to various practices of welcom- Business and management academics have
ing, inclusion, and sheltering. Hospitality takes focused on the effective organization of hospital-
place within commercial and noncommercial con- ity in commercial contexts (Lashley and Morrison
texts (Lashley and Morrison 2000); consequently, 2000). They have explored a variety of strategic
it can involve both market-based and nonmarket- and operational aspects of hospitality provision,
based consumption practices and experiences. including the efficient organization of production
The acts of hospitality often involve food, drink, processes, service routines, staffing, marketing,
and other stimulants, alongside entertaining or and finance. Management academics have also H
engaging interaction as people create shared considered the consumers of hospitality, including
social spaces. These elements are not always part their motivations, expectations, behaviors, satis-
of the hospitality offering. Food, drink, or faction, and future intentions. The majority of
▶ accommodation, supplied to meet basic business and management research is practitioner
human needs, may require minimal or no interac- focused. Historically, there has been limited
tion between staff and customers. Therefore, pro- engagement with critical social science or philo-
vision may not involve embodied performances of sophical debates concerning the broader dimen-
hospitality or hospitableness. sions of hospitality (Lugosi 2009).
Hospitality should not be thought of purely in Anthropologists, historians, geographers, and
terms of openness or unconditional inclusivity. It sociologists have also considered the commercial
is rarely accessible to everyone or free from con- contexts in which hospitality emerges, but they
straints. All acts of inclusion involve exclusion of have adopted a wider perspective and also consid-
some groups or individuals for various reasons, ered it in noncommercial social and private con-
including unresolvable differences in values, texts (Germann-Molz and Gibson 2007; Lashley
norms, expectations, or lack of access to social, et al. 2007). Eating and drinking are universal
cultural, or economic capital. Moreover, hospital- features of all societies. Although not all people
ity, in its ideal form, requires welcoming and ▶ travel or are equally accustomed to encounter-
inclusion on the part of the host without any ing tourists, norms regarding the reception, enter-
assertion of ▶ power over the guest or expectation tainment, or exclusion of strangers or unwanted
of reciprocity (Lynch et al. 2011). Derrida (2001) familiars are evident in many cultures. Social sci-
has argued that such unconditional hospitality is entists have examined the different forms and
an impossible ideal, because host-guest relations dimensions of hospitality in and across societies
are always accompanied by tensions concerning and cultures, questioning its processes, normative
power, position, status, role, expectations, and aspects, and social functions. These include delin-
reciprocity between those involved in the giving eating spaces, (re)constructing identities, bound-
and taking of hospitality. aries or hierarchies, and power relations.
There is also a distinct philosophical tradition
examining hospitality, which has most promi-
Disciplinary perspectives nently concentrated on its broad principles and
discourses, particularly as they operate at the
The diverse forms and dimensions of hospitality, level of the state or nation (Derrida 2001;
and the multiple social and commercial contexts Germann-Molz and Gibson 2007). Philosophers
434 Hospitality
have explored the abstract laws and principles of provision (in terms of accommodation and
hospitality, including the problematic notions of foodservice) directly influence the levels and/or
host and guest, the complexities associated with types of tourism that can operate in a place
their roles, and power relationships (Derrida (Smith 1994). Destination marketing may also con-
2001; Lynch et al. 2011). Their studies have sider how specific hospitality venues, which may
largely ignored or dismissed commercial hospital- include hotels, restaurants, bars, cafes, clubs, or
ity, often highlighting the contradictions between other ▶ leisure/entertainment venues, can be used
the ideals of altruistic, universal hospitality, and to position and differentiate destinations or gener-
the instrumental nature of hospitality in its com- ally be used in place promotion (Bell 2007). Mar-
mercial manifestations (Lashley and Morrison keting communications in tourism may also
2000; Lynch et al. 2011). “represent” host populations as being welcoming
In the past, these three broad perspectives, and hospitable, thus creating certain preconcep-
which include a variety of (sub)disciplines and tions and expectations for tourists.
theoretical approaches, have tended to consider From a management perspective, concern for
hospitality independently of each other. After hospitality at the level of the resort or organization
all, there exist some fundamental differences focuses on issues such as different models of
regarding epistemologies, ontologies, and meth- ownership and operation, financial investment,
odologies and whether they seek to further com- risk management, branding, marketing, alongside
mercial interests or cast a critical eye on them. revenue management, human resources, facilities
However, contemporary studies of hospitality in management, and customer satisfaction (Lashley
their social and commercial manifestations have and Morrison 2000). The significant role of hos-
sought to understand the links between the differ- pitality in the tourism system and destination
ent perspectives (Lynch et al. 2011). experiences, including its social, economic, and
environmental impacts, requires the effective
organization of these and related strategic and
Application to tourism studies operational issues.
At the micro level of people and their interac-
Hospitality can be considered as a part of the tions, hospitality management is concerned with
tourism ▶ system, consisting of people and orga- employee behaviors, service provider relation-
nizations providing accommodation, food- and ships, and the overall customer experience within
drink-related services, and experiences to tourists commercial transactions (Lashley and Morrison
at destinations, attractions, and as they move 2000; Smith 1994). In part, managerial concern
between them and their places of origin. Framed with hospitality at this level focuses on the mech-
this way, hospitality can be thought of as a series anistic aspects of experience, for instance, the
of mundane functional supporting activities in design and control of the products and the service
tourism: the provision of shelter and sustenance environments to ensure satisfaction. However, also
enables people to engage in various touristic important are the human aspects of hospitality pro-
activities. However, hospitality can also be a vision, particularly service-based interactions.
peak experience by and in itself in tourism: Social scientists also consider the emergence
staying in exclusive grand hotels or intimate and implications of hospitality at different scales.
homestays and visiting distinctive restaurants or However, as already noted, rather than concen-
entertainment venues, among others. trating on the extraction of surplus value from the
The relevance of hospitality to tourism depends effective management of hospitality, they have
partly on the disciplinary approach from which it is considered its different forms, dimensions, and
examined, alongside the scale at which it is consid- impacts from critical perspectives (Lugosi 2009).
ered in any ▶ destination. For example, at the level For example, studies question how discourses of
of destination development and management, the hospitality/hostility, from politicians, state agen-
availability and quality of commercial hospitality cies, media, and social commentators, shape
Hospitality 435
people’s perceptions of destinations and experi- disciplines will open up further critical debates
ences of places, which includes both the host and concerning how it emerges or operates at and
the guest populations (Bell 2007). During large- across various spatial scales, what the experiences
scale public events that drive tourism and are of hospitality actually involve for different peo-
often vehicles for regional (re)development (e.g., ple, and what the impacts of its different forms or
sporting events, cultural festivals, and carnivals), dimensions are for diverse sets of stakeholders.
locals are mobilized to create a welcoming envi- This nuanced appreciation of the subject will
ronment for tourists. This discourse of facilitate the increasing movement of concepts
hospitableness is not just relevant or limited to from hospitality studies back into other disci-
frontline employees in hotels or foodservice out- plines. This is prompted when, for example,
lets. Others working in supporting sectors of scholars use notions of hospitality to understand
transportation or retail and members of the general organizational practices as well as the dynamics of
public are also compelled to be helpful, patient, social and spatial relations.
and friendly toward tourists, which is often prob- Whether it is conceived as a functional aspect of
lematic and causes tensions (Aramberri 2001). the tourism system and a set of management chal-
Social scientists have questioned how hospi- lenges or as the actions and processes of human H
tality actually emerges and operates in destina- relations (and hence the subject of social scientific
tions, organizations, and micro-spaces of social enquiry), hospitality will continue to be a core
interaction, in commercial and noncommercial aspect of tourism. Practitioners and academics
contexts (Lashley et al. 2007; Lynch et al. 2011). increasingly appreciate that in order for destina-
The production and consumption of hospitality tions and organizations to remain sustainably com-
may result in positive cultural exchanges and petitive, they need to create unique, memorable,
transform power relations as women and those multi-sensorial experiences. There is also increased
from marginalized ethnic groups are empowered interest in food- and drink-related tourism, which
to generate capital and create alternative represen- can help to create social and economic linkages,
tations of themselves (Lashley et al. 2007). How- differentiate destinations and organizations, and
ever, in contrast, it may reinforce social exclusion promote social, cultural, and economic sustainabil-
and disempowerment (Aramberri 2001; Lynch ity. The principles and practices of hospitality are
et al. 2011). The provision and consumption of important both to experience creation and to the
hospitality have a number of negative impacts. It development of gastronomic tourism. Therefore,
can lead to the transgression of social norms and both operators and researchers will benefit from a
values, cultural conflicts, environmental degrada- more nuanced understanding of hospitality and
tion, and other forms of disadvantage, because of further multidisciplinary study of its components,
competition for such local resources as water and dimensions, and processes.
foodstuffs. Engaging in hospitality labor may Hospitality research, education, and practice
also reproduce gender and ethnic inequality will have to respond to a number of emerging
(Zampoukos and Ioannides 2011). global challenges. These include the changing
demographic profile of consumers, particularly
aging populations in ▶ Europe and North Amer-
Future of hospitality research ica, and increasing numbers of tourists from South
America, Asia, and the Far East. The growing
Conceptions of hospitality will continue to prominence of these and other consumer seg-
evolve. In part, evolution here refers to more ments will require research to understand their
sophisticated ways of conceptualizing and needs and behaviors. Businesses and their
researching hospitality to support its effective employees will have to be better prepared to inter-
management within commercial settings. More act with diverse cultures, through multiple lan-
importantly, the growing interest in hospitality guages. Research can thus inform education and
among social scientists working in a variety of training to develop relevant competencies and
436 Host and guest
drive management to create appropriate products

and services. A second related challenge concerns Host and guest
the advancement of technologies available to
organizations and consumers. Technological Tom Selwyn
innovations offer businesses increasingly sophis- Department of Anthropology and Sociology,
ticated ways to engage with consumers; they also SOAS University of London, London, UK
facilitate consumer interactions. Research can
shed light on changes in consumer behavior. It
can also inform the advancement of marketing The relationship between host and guest lies at the
and management techniques that respond to and heart of tourism. It also forms part of the title of
shape consumption practices. A final important one of the founding volumes in tourism studies,
set of challenges concern climate change and Smith’s (1977, revised in 2001) edited Hosts and
diminishing resources available to meet growing Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, the overall
global demand. Research can help to comprehend theme of which is the relationship between hosts
the social and environmental impacts of hospital- and guests in tourist destinations. While the orig-
ity, while offering pathways to developing respon- inal version treated host/guest relations as the
sible business practices. primary issue in anthropological studies of tour-
ism, the revised edition gives more space to the
See also ▶ Culinary tourism, ▶ host and guest, complex global and local political economies of
▶ restaurant, ▶ service, ▶ wine tourism. tourism within which these relationships are
embedded.
References The etiology of host and guest

Aramberri, J. 2001 The Host Should Get Lost: Paradigms
in the Tourism Theory. Annals of Tourism Research Before going further, it is necessary to consider
28:738-761. aspects of the etiology of the two terms together
Bell, D. 2007 The Hospitable City: Social Relations in with the web of interlocking and overlapping
Commercial Settings. Progress in Human Geography
meanings, contexts, and connotations that
31:7-22.
Derrida, J. 2001 On Cosmopolitanism and Forgiveness. surround them.
New York: Routledge. O’Gorman observes that the “hypothetical
Germann-Molz, J., and S. Gibson (eds.) 2007 Mobilizing proto-Indo-European root ghos-ti” means
Hospitality: The Ethics of Social Relations in a Mobile
“stranger, guest, host: someone with whom one
World. Aldershot: Ashgate.
Lashley, C., and A. Morrison (eds.) 2000 In Search of has reciprocal duties of hospitality” (2007:
Hospitality: Theoretical Perspectives and Debates. 17–18). Among a large number of other linguistic
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. roots, he traces the modern word guest from the
Lashley, C., P. Lynch, and A. Morrison (eds.) 2007 Hospi-
Middle English gest and the word host from the
tality: A Social Lens. Oxford: Elsevier.
Lugosi, P. 2009 The Production of Hospitable Space: Latin hostis: enemy and army (hence hostile).
Commercial Propositions and Consumer Co-creation Assembling a variety of other terminological
in a Bar Operation. Space and Culture 12:396-411. roots and routes, O’Gorman demonstrates how
Lynch, P., J. Germann-Molz, A. McIntosh, P. Lugosi, and
the terms host and guest are derived from words
C. Lashley 2011 Theorizing Hospitality. Hospitality
and Society 1:3-24. denoting sacrifice, ▶ power, hospice, hospitable,
Smith, S. 1994 The Tourism Product. Annals of Tourism hospital, ▶ hospitality, hostage, and hostel, also
Research 21:582-595. pointing to the fact that the Greek philoxenos
Zampoukos, K., and D. Ioannides 2011 The Tourism
means “‘love of strangers,’ the antithesis of
Labour Conundrum: Agenda for New Research in the
Geography of Hospitality Workers. Hospitality and which is still in usage today (in the term)
Society 1:25-45. ‘▶ xenophobia’.”
Host and guest 437
Host and guest relationships friends and potential enemies into allies. This
raises an issue that at first sight may seem para-
One may start to thread the way through a com- doxical, namely, the kinship between hospitality
plex social, cultural, and political landscape by and hostility. In some of the societies already
observing that hosts offer their guests a combina- mentioned, it is not difficult to understand
tion of space, food, warmth, and respect and that the role of feasts in helping settle disputes. Nor
guests give honor to their hosts, often in the form is it hard to explain why, in economic environ-
of gifts. The aim of this exchange may be to ments in which ▶ resources may be limited and/or
initiate a relationship (between strangers and political alliances fragile, hospitality can change
even former or potential enemies) or to consoli- quite rapidly into hostility, feasts may turn into
date an existing relationship. fights, and a host may find that a guest turns into
A host may be an individual, but is more likely an enemy.
to be a representative of a larger group, such as a European notions of hospitality are shaped by
family, tribe, city, or even country: father at a Jewish, Christian, and Muslim traditions, all of
gathering of friends and family members sharing which maintain that the giving of hospitality is a
a meal at home, king or queen at a state banquet, moral obligation. One of the responsibilities of the H
CEO at a corporate party, manager at a special medieval guilds, for example, was to make provi-
occasion mounted by a hotel and/or hostel to sion for the poor, sick, and old. A hospital was
welcome guests, doctor or nurse going through originally a house designed to give hospitality to
procedures to introduce a patient into a hospital or pilgrims, and the duty of hospitalers, such as the
hospice, and ground representative of a tour oper- Knights of Malta, was to provide pilgrims with
ator at welcoming gatherings offered to holiday- hospitium, lodging, and entertainment. All that
makers on arrival at a ▶ destination, to mention a said, hospitality has seldom been all virtue and
few possibilities. good works, associated as it sometimes is, with
Anthropologists are familiar with these sorts of the delights and pleasures of excess.
processes. Among societies in Amazonia and A number of points can now be made. First, the
New Guinea, for example, heads of families and relationship between hosts and guests is grounded
kin groups offer hospitality to others by giving in the nature of social life itself: society would
feasts. These may signal the building of alliances actually be impossible without hospitality. Sec-
between groups, thus enabling formations of part- ond, hosts and guests give each other honor – a
nerships for trade or marriage. Acts of hospitality quality that Hocart (1952) has taught
in this context appear as natural and inevitable people – which is often associated with the idea
parts of the cycle of economic production and that guests have something of the divine about
social reproduction. them. Third, the relationship between hosts and
Similar observations may be made about pas- guests is often thought to be a virtuous one.
toralist or nomadic societies such as the Bedouin Fourth, however, in addition to its links with
of North Africa. In the geographically large nobility, honor, virtue, and ideas of altruism, hos-
spaces of the desert, in which one family or kin pitality also has associations with excess. Fifth,
group may live several days and/or many kilome- hospitality and the social relationships it expresses
ters away from another, the role and significance are in fundamental ways distinct from the relation-
of being hospitable to strangers have always been ships formed in the marketplace.
pronounced. People need ways of getting to know
those who they have not met before but who they
imagine would like to become part of their world. The tourism market
Furthermore, in political landscapes in which
feuding takes place, it is clearly necessary to What happens to hosts and guests in market-
have a system of converting strangers into driven societies, including in the tourism
438 Host and guest
▶ industry? There is a considerable amount of tribes, and other cities and states through acts of
literature on the way that relationships between hospitality have been replaced by corporations
hosts and guests are conceived and managed in selling hospitality to clients in marketplaces of
hotels, resorts, cruiseships, casinos, sporting commodities and commercial services. In some
venues, and sites of what Ritzer (2004) has termed respects, but not all, today’s hospitality sector
“eatertainment” and “retailtainment” (fast-food appears, at first sight, to be cutting loose from
restaurants and shopping malls). Ritzer refers to its foundations.
the processes of “McDonaldization” and “Disney- Thus, when one thinks of hosts and guests, he
fication” that have little, if any, of the characteris- envisages occupying spaces traditionally
tics of hospitality described here. The fast-food concerned with marking out persons and their
restaurant, for example, runs on principles not of relations to each other and which, quite fre-
virtue and altruistic sociability but of commercial quently, signal moments of coming together and
efficiency, predictability, calculability, and control transition. The children and grandchildren come
by “managers,” who are not concerned with the to lunch, a baby is born or given a name, a parent
identity of guests as persons or their relations with dies, a stranger is incorporated into the group, an
hosts, but with paying clients as sources of finan- enemy is converted into a friend, the farm workers
cial profit. or office staff are treated to an annual party, and a
One of Ritzer’s sharpest observations is that peace agreement is signed. All these and many
whereas traditional hospitality was nearly always more are examples of moments when relation-
offered in a real place (village, oasis, front room in ships are established, symbolized, and celebrated.
private houses, and so on), “McDisneyfied” hos- Some would argue that market-based, com-
pitality is likely to be found in spaces that are often mercial hospitality in contemporary tourism has
pretend places: at best replicas of the real thing. democratized the practice of hospitality (or even
The Jesus themeparks springing up in parts of the made it more egalitarian). It is said that people are
Holy Land are cases in point. The pilgrim/▶ tour- “free” to enter the market and buy whatever hos-
ist is no longer guest of a hospitable Jewish, pitality they want when they want it. However, it
Christian, or Islamic host. He or she does not is also true that corporate hospitality, including
even need to set foot in the real Holy Land at all, that offered in hotels, themeparks, and the myriad
let alone meet any of the people who actually live Disney worlds and McDonalds of Western and
there. The Holy Land and the hospitality of its Eastern cities, indicates a triumph of the individ-
residents are served up not in the actual town of ual and the corporation over every other social
Bethlehem and/or Nazareth. Instead, they are form. In such contexts, the original meanings
received and served in a replica of these places and connotations of the host/guest relationships
where it is not so much given and received but are pared down to a minimum, making it seem that
bought and sold. the contemporary tourism industry is in the pro-
There are some in the contemporary hospital- cess of turning hospitality, classically conceived,
ity businesses who might be mildly offended by on its head. Interestingly, though, there are some
these comments and point out that modern hotels signs of growing resistance to such a project.
go out of their way to please their customers and Growing engagement with such phenomena as
to take great care in supplying them with prod- couch surfing (Picard and Buchberger 2013)
ucts and services to meet their individual desires. suggests that some hosts and guests are seeking
This may be true, but it would hardly be to rediscover in contemporary tourism the
stretching it too far to suggest that some grander features of the relationship that are recognized as
hotels are, fundamentally, temples dedicated to belonging to social and cultural landscapes of
individual needs. The families, households, the past.
tribes, villages, cities, and states who tradition- What sorts of future research on the subject of
ally articulated their relationships with more dis- hosts and guests are emerging? Here are three
tant kin, members of other households, distant reflections. First, at a ▶ time when many countries
Hostility 439
and regions in the global south are looking to Smith, V. (ed.) 1977 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology
tourism and hospitality to take increasingly lead- of Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania
Press.
ing roles in economic development (Beek and Smith, V. (ed.) 2001 Hosts and Guests Revisted: Tourism
Schmidt 2012), there is a good case for more Issues of the 21st Century. New York: Cognizant.
research into the complexities inherent in relation-
ships between southern hosts and northern guests.
Second, at a time when there are unprecedented
numbers of refugees seeking asylum in a hostile Hostility
world, the relationship between hospitality and
hostility is a promising avenue for further research Ahmad Reza Sheikhi
(Selwyn 2000). Finally, there are growing num- University of La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain
bers of independent tourists and associated support
services, such as AirBnB (AirBed and Breakfast)
and home exchanges. The role of ▶ information In tourism, many factors can cause conflicts
technology in mediating and making such features between hosts and guests. The sources of conflict
of contemporary tourism possible is rapidly rising. are many. Central to the problem is that tourism, H
Given these features of tourism today, future by its nature, commoditizes the people of the host
research is likely to be concerned with the struggle population and their culture, disrupts the structure
in a capitalist world between those who regard the of a local society, renders hosts and guests as
relationship between hosts and guests in the con- stereotypes, and increases opportunities for
temporary tourism industry as primarily and inev- crimes. These and other negative consequences
itably commercial and those who see hosts and can lead to misunderstanding, ▶ xenophobia,
guests asserting themselves in a variety of spaces and eventually ▶ hostility toward tourists and
outside the market, thus playing a part in what even the businesses catering to them (Jafari 1990).
Picard and Buchberger (2013) describe as “mak-
ing a better world.”
Hostility and hospitality
See also ▶ Alternative tourism, ▶ anthropology,
▶ hospitality, ▶ hostility, ▶ sociology. The notion, inherent from host-guest relation-
ships, can be tracked through the derivation of
the two words: “hostility” and “▶ hospitality.”
These two words share a common root that has
References to do with food, but the sharing of a common root
Beek, W., and A. Schmidt (eds.) 2012 African Hosts and
has not prevented them from evolving to a point
Their Guests: Cultural Dynamics of Tourism. New where, effectively, they have opposite meanings.
York: James Currey. Hospitality means offering to outsiders or
Hocart, A. 1952 (1927) The Divinity of the Guest. In The strangers the right not to be treated as enemies in
Life Giving Myth, A. Hocart, ed., pp.78-86. London:
places where they are guests. So long as a guest
Methuen.
O’Gorman, K. 2007 Dimensions of Hospitality: Exploring peacefully occupies a place or takes up options
Ancient and Classical Origins. In Hospitality: A Social offered to them, locals are unlikely to treat them
Lens, C. Lashley, P. Lynch and A. Morrison, eds., with hostility. The word “guest” itself is derived
pp.17-33. Oxford: Elsevier.
Picard, D., and S. Buchberger (eds.) 2013 Couchsurfing
from the Middle English gest, which evolved
Cosmopolitanisms: Can Tourism Make a BetterWorld? from Old Norse gestr and from Old High German
Bielefeld: Transcript. gast – both are rooted in the Germanic gastiz.
Ritzer, G. 2004 The McDonaldization of Society. London: Ghos-ti also evolved into the Latin root hostis,
Pine Forge.
Selwyn, T. 2000 An Anthropology of Hospitality. In In
which relates to an enemy army, where “host”
Search of Hospitality, C. Lashley and A. Morrison, can mean a multitude of enemies. It is from
eds., pp.18-37. London: Routledge. there that the word “hostile” is originated.
440 Hostility
The combination roots of ghos-pot- and ghos-po- services and begins to overlook the fact that
have evolved to the Latin hospes and eventually tourism also brings benefits. So, without proper
into the words of hospice, hospitable, hospital, planning and management to ensure the equita-
hospitality, and host (giver of hospitality and hos- ble distribution of economic benefits across the
tel) (O’Gorman 2007). host community, tourism – a potentially benefi-
If tourism development is organized in such a cial activity – can quickly generate open hostil-
way that negative impacts on the ▶ quality of life ity toward tourists and eventually lead to the
of a host community are felt, it will then result in a destination’s decline.
hostile backlash toward tourists, in a loss of sup- Smith (1989) notes that there is a wide eco-
port for tourism businesses, and even in violent nomic disparity between hosts and guests, for
protests. The problem in such a situation is that example, in developing countries where narcotic
tourists are much more prone to taking risks while usage is widespread. In these situations, tourists
on ▶ vacation and far less likely to observe secu- may be singled out for robbery, terrorism, or drug
rity measures they routinely observe at home. As dealing, not because they are tourists per se but
▶ tourist number grows, so does local hostility because they are seen as easy targets. For a num-
toward tourism, thereby increasing the tendency ber of reasons, the criminal understands that it is
to cheat, rob, or even assault tourists (Pearce more advantageous to prey upon the tourist. After
1998). The increased levels of interactions all, tourists, who have been victimized, will inev-
between tourists and locals boost the adverse itably depart for home at the end of their visit
affects proportionately. and will seldom return to prosecute the
perpetrator – even if one is apprehended.
The problem may stem from when the tour-
Tourism and irritation index ism industry is managed by outsiders to whom
profits flow, so that tourism becomes a form of
Doxey’s (1975) Irridex suggests that the growth ▶ imperialism and may develop into a kind of
of hostility correlates with negative impacts of neocolonialism. As tourism expands and the
tourism perceived by the host community. The number of tourists increases, so will the prob-
stage of “irritation” begins when tourism devel- lems. However, many avenues now exist to mit-
opment reaches or exceeds saturation, an extent igate stresses in the interactions between hosts
beyond which a community cannot effectively and guests.
deliver services to the growing number of tour- But tourism does not have to be the damaging
ists without having to expand facilities. The and exploitative forces described above. It has the
pressures on all facilities and services, due to power to engender a sense of understanding
the high volume of tourist arrivals, will begin between nations and cultures, increasing peace,
to turn the apathy of the locals into irritation. and reducing the chances of hostility. Advocates
They begin to complain among themselves, of ▶ volunteer tourism along with other advocates
thinking that incoming tourists are “stealing” of effectively managed, ▶ responsible tourism
their local resources and opportunities. It is at have long articulated that tourism can actually
this juncture that the host community can begin reduce hostility and be a powerful force for under-
to believe that tourism development and its fur- standing and tolerance across the divides in the
ther growth have adversely affected the order global community. Indeed, a number of
and balance of their local sociocultural structure. researchers have postulated that increasing tourist
As the level of irritation increases, hostility flows into countries involved in some forms of
begins to manifest itself in a variety of ways, hostility may be a positive force and will help
both active and passive. The host population has reduce tension and suspicion by influencing
come to see tourists as competitors against the national politics, international relations, and
locals in using recreational resources and world peace.
Human resource management 441
See also ▶ Cultural conflict, ▶ host and guest, companies increased, new labor laws were
▶ impact. passed, and employees became more mobile.
The role of human resource management shifted
to also include recruitment, employee develop-
ment, compensation management, and legal
References
compliance.
Doxey, G. 1975 A Causation Theory of Visitor-Resident
By the early 1980s, the field of human resource
Irritants: Methodology and Research Inferences. In management had evolved into two independent
Conference Proceedings: Sixth Annual Conference of subfields: functional and strategic (Wright and
Travel Research Association, San Diego, pp.195-198. Boswell 2002). The former represents the contin-
Jafari, J. 1990 Research and Scholarship: The Basis of
Tourism Education. Journal of Tourism Studies
ued evolution and increasing sophistication of
1:33-41. traditional roles, including managing day-to-day
O’Gorman, K. 2007 Dimensions of Hospitality: Exploring activities such as employee selection, training,
Ancient and Classical Origins. In Hospitality: A Social compensation, and performance appraisal. How-
Lens, C. Lashley, P. Lynch and A. Morrison, eds.,
ever, it has also advanced to include a strategic
pp.17-32. Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Pearce, P. 1998 The Relationship between Residents and component, helping organizations with decisions H
Tourists: The Research Literature and Management related to issues such as mergers and acquisitions,
Directions. In Global Tourism, W. Theobold, ed., downsizing, outsourcing, workforce blending and
pp.129-149. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Smith, V. 1989 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of
mixing, and even developing means to helping an
Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania organization achieve its core strategy and goals.
Press.
Approaches
Human resource management Human resource management can be defined as

the process of managing a company’s employees
Sanghee Park1 and Michael C. Sturman2 and personnel management systems to facilitate
1
School of Management and Labor Relations, the fulfillment of organizational goals. Human
Rutgers, State University of New Jersey, resources are often called “human capital,”
Piscataway, USA which reflects the value of the capabilities, knowl-
2
School of Hotel Administration, Cornell edge, skills, life experiences, and motivation of a
University, Ithaca, USA workforce. This capital is what allows employees
to contribute to organizational achievement. Stra-
tegic perspectives suggest that the human capital
Tourism, as an industry, predates the Industrial plays the key role in holding together all the other
Revolution. Although the sophisticated and important factors such as physical, financial, and
scientific management of its human resources is intangible assets and in incorporating them to lead
relatively recent, the employment and manage- to success.
ment of employees have always been an issue in Fundamentally, the mission of human resource
this labor-intensive industry. In general, the first management is to get the right person, to the right
human resource management functions, such as place, at the right time, and for the right price. This
record keeping and administration, began in requires decision makers to have a clear under-
1920s, primarily associated with the management standing of what sort of knowledge, skills, and
of employees at large factories. The main abilities are needed to help the organization
functions were simply to administer a pay plan deliver its product. In the tourism industry, this
and design training programs. As the labor market often entails offering high-quality service, which
became more complex, competition among combines elements of providing both tangible
442 Human resource management
(e.g., meals, hotel rooms, meeting rooms, and The seasonal nature of the industry makes this
tours) and intangible services (e.g., high-quality task rather cyclical, with intensive efforts begin-
service, pleasant employee-customer interactions, ning before the start of the high season and
and seamless service). The function of human downsizing and reduced staffing efforts when
resources is to supply a workforce which can the low season is in sight. For this reason, recruit-
deliver a service product that meets or exceeds ment and staffing is an ongoing process, often
customers’ expectations (Ford et al. 2012). This is associated with high turnover and an unequal
accomplished through the combination of human distribution of necessary effort over a given year.
resource practices, which include recruitment and Once employees are in the organization, the
selection, training and development, compensa- next critical role is to ensure that new recruits
tion and benefits, and employee relations. have the ability to perform their jobs successfully.
This involves training and development. They
must know how to perform the specific tasks
Practices associated with their positions. This often requires
understanding the organizational procedures that
The specific systems that organizations use to are in place to ensure a high-quality service prod-
build, enhance, and maintain their human capital uct. For example, Disney provides extensive
constitute human resource practices, with each training for new employees who need to learn
playing a critical and yet interrelated role. The their job assignments within the context of its
first major task is to get employees into the orga- corporate culture (Ford et al. 2012). Training
nization. This is accomplished through the com- involves all sorts of short-term on-the-job sessions
bination of recruitment and selection. The purpose designed to deliver new skills and knowledge to
is to attract a sufficient quantity of prospective employees about specific functions or off the job
employees so that those individuals who can ful- in orientation sessions, in classroom training, or
fill its human capital needs are hired. Recruitment via technology. Because of the highly cyclical
thus involves managing the company’s reputa- nature of employment in this industry, the training
tion, encouraging people to apply for positions, processes must be repeated (often several times a
and ideally finding a large pool of highly qualified year) to prepare the new incoming workforce.
individuals who want to join. For example, to While many jobs are short-term seasonal posi-
facilitate recruitment, Marriott International sees tions, companies must still maintain a core set of
an inherent link between human resources and employees, particularly in management, to main-
marketing. The company aims to boost both its tain the business and to be able to perform across
consumer and employer brands, based on the fluctuations in consumer demand.
belief that every customer is a potential employee, Keeping employees’ skills current, or some-
and every employee is a potential customer. times preparing them for promotion to positions
The selection process helps determine who in of greater responsibility, is a long-term process
the pool of applicants can become high- designed for knowledge, skills, and abilities
performing employees. This entails collecting enhancements. Development may include
information on applications – through resumes involvement in specific forms of training and
or application banks, interviews, references, assigning specific roles to advance employees’
and/or selection tests. In turn, this information is experience in certain functions. For example, a
used to select those who are potentially the best new front office recruit receives customer service
performing employees. Because of the nature of training to learn the procedures for meeting, greet-
the tourism industry, selection often involves finding, and checking the guest into a room using the
ing individuals with strong customer-service hotel’s systems. The development process may
skills. But it also involves finding individuals for include working for several years in the front
low-skilled, low-paying positions, thus often office, marketing, and food and beverage depart-
making the process of recruitment more difficult. ment before the individual can potentially rise to a
Human resource management 443
general manager’s position. Development is crit- have done well, recognizing high-performing
ical for companies wishing to keep employees for employees in front of their peers, and providing
an extensive period of time. Sofitel, for example, verbal feedback in order to foster improvements
aggressively markets their “Global Ambassador” are all key actions that the companies take advan-
program. This 12- to 18-month developmental tage of in order to get the best performance from
program is designed to fully ingrain the knowl- their employees. The most effective organizations
edge, skills, and abilities associated with the spe- use a combination of financial and non-pecuniary
cific luxury brand that the company wants rewards to encourage high-quality service behav-
customers to experience (Kim and Sturman iors desired in tourism. Nonetheless, the process
2012). This nurturing is more than short-term of employing individuals is also made more com-
skills training; rather, it is an extensive process plex by the legal environment in which tourism
that prepares individuals for a long-term commit- operates. All countries have different employment
ment to the organization. and labor laws, which provide varying degrees of
In all industries, the primary motivation for regulation regarding work conditions, on-the-job
seeking employment is economic. Compensation treatments, salary conditions, and even firing
refers to various forms of pay and rewards, both procedures. H
financial and non-pecuniary, that employees
receive while with the organization. To align
employees’ efforts with organizational goals and Challenges and opportunities
corporate culture, companies need to provide fair
and reasonable compensation and benefits designed Maintaining a qualified and motivated workforce
to motivate their employees. At a minimum, the is an ongoing challenge. Characteristics of tour-
compensation must be substantial enough to draw ism, however, create particular human resource
sufficient individuals to accept employment. But challenges. One is that the industry relies heavily
compensation is much more important than simply on entry-level, low-skilled, and low-paying
providing just enough to get someone to take a job. positions (Baum 2007). The nature of these jobs
It also plays a critical role in maintaining and prompts employees to be highly mobile, making
enhancing an employee’s motivation. turnover a common problem (Davidson et al.
The compensation package includes the base 2010b). Furthermore, the cyclical nature of
wage or salary received by an individuating employment in this industry makes job insecurity
exchange for employment. It also includes other a prevalent issue (Lee-Ross and Pryce 2010). Jobs
direct financial rewards, such as bonuses intended in many of its sectors involve difficult working
to encourage and reward high performance. Pay conditions, such as providing service 24 hours a
for performance can be one of the most effective day and 7 days a week, working during holidays,
human resource tools for motivating certain kinds performing in unpleasant environments like hot
of behaviors (Gerhart et al. 2009). This can come kitchens or laundry rooms, or serving in positions
in the form of individual, team, or organizational where workers must be on their feet all day.
performance-based bonuses (for instance, profit All of these conditions make the ultimate per-
sharing, stock awards, and stock options). Other formance goal of human resources – providing
rewards, while not in cash, come in the form of high-quality service – particularly challenging.
benefits with financial value. These may include Recent studies recognize the importance of train-
health, life, and disability insurance coverage, ing and development (Davidson et al. 2010a). In
paid time off (sick leave, personal days, vacation culturally diverse environments, managers will
days), daycare, and even housing. have to deliver sophisticated trainings, to help
While financial rewards are perhaps the funda- employees understand and embrace their peers
mental reason people seek employment, other and customers for creating and fostering a diverse,
rewards can also play a significant role in improv- inclusive, and respectful organizational culture.
ing performance. Informing employees when they Companies like Ritz-Carlton and Disney use
444 Humanism
regular training to repeatedly remind employees Kim, D., and M. Sturman 2012 HR Branding: How Human
of their primary goal: to provide exceptional cus- Resources Can Learn from Product and Service Brand-
ing to Improve Attraction, Selection, and Retention.
tomer service. Many companies recognize that Cornell Hospitality Report 12(14):5-17.
compensation systems are effective means to dif- Lee-Ross, D., and J. Pryce 2010 Human Resources and
ferentiating themselves from their competitors. Tourism: Skills, Culture, and Industry. Bristol: Channel
While pay is traditionally low, by offering slightly View.
Wright, P., and W. Boswell 2002 Desegregating HRM:
above market averages and by using pay-for- A Review and Synthesis of Micro and Macro Human
performance systems to encourage high-quality Resource Management Research. Journal of Manage-
services, tourism companies can attract, hire, and ment 28:247-276.
retain workers at all levels in order to achieve their
organizational goals.
No matter how technology develops, the tour-
ism industry will remain labor-intensive. While Humanism
customer demands will change, and the way ser-
vice products are delivered will shift as well, there Kellee Caton
will always be a need for people to deliver high- Tourism Management Department, Thompson
quality services. More than in any other industries, Rivers University, Kamloops, Canada
the mix of language and cultural backgrounds
among the workforce and their guests makes
proper performance in tourism businesses increas- Humanism is a philosophy that emphasizes peo-
ingly difficult. Thus, considering the complexities ple’s moral capacity and their responsibility to use
in tourism workplace, future research should con- it for the greater good. Humanism takes an agnos-
tinue to explore how the industry can better man- tic view on supernatural matters, holding deities
age its perpetual human resource challenges. The and religious doctrines to be unnecessary precon-
companies that manage their human resources and ditions for morality. Instead, morality is rooted in
related processes effectively will have an advan- human compassion, which requires no further
tage in this highly competitive industry. justification beyond itself: ends and processes
are judged as good or bad based on whether or
See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ employment, ▶ labor not they increase the wellbeing and decrease the
relation, ▶ leadership, ▶ organizational culture. suffering of humans and other living creatures,
including future generations. In this way, human-
ism is affiliated with the pragmatist philosophical
References tradition (Rorty 1989), which emphasizes contex-
tual reasoning and outcome-based judgments
Baum, T. 2007 Human Resources in Tourism: Still Waiting rather than blanket rules for moral choices and
for Change. Tourism Management 28:1393-1399. behaviors.
Davidson, M., R. McPhail, and S. Barry 2010 Hospitality Humanism arose as a named movement only
HRM: Past, Present, and the Future. International
after the Enlightenment, but its roots go deeper;
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management
23:498-516. humanistic reasoning can be traced to Renais-
Davidson, M., N. Timo, and Y, Wang 2010 How Much sance thought, as well as to much earlier traditions
does Labor Turnover Cost? A Study of Four and Five as diverse as Buddhism, Confucianism, and
Star Hotels. International Journal of Contemporary
Hospitality Management 22:451-466.
ancient Greek and Medieval Islamic thought. In
Ford, R., M. Sturman, and C. Heaton 2012 Managing the modern era, humanism has been a driving
Quality Service in Hospitality: How Organizations force behind a variety of progressive social
Achieve Excellence in Guest Experience. Clifton causes, including slavery abolition, labor rights,
Park: Delmar.
Gerhart, B., S. Rynes, and I. Fulmer 2009 Pay and
disease eradication, and universal childhood edu-
Performance: Individuals, Groups, and Executives. cation. Key to this philosophy is the belief that
Academy of Management Annals 3:251-315. people have the ▶ power – through science,
Humor 445
logical reasoning, and inherent moral capacity – to Rorty, R. 1999 Philosophy and Social Hope. London:
improve the human condition. Penguin.
Tribe, J. 2009 Philosophical Issues in Tourism. Bristol:
Humanistic philosophy is increasingly Channel View.
influencing tourism thought in the wake of its
“critical” (Pritchard et al. 2011) and “moral”
(Caton 2012) turns. Scholars following this path
seek to understand tourism’s capacity to improve
the lives of individuals and communities, as well Humor
as its darker potential to engender negative
impacts. Further, they emphasize philosophy’s Anja Pabel1 and Philip L. Pearce2
1
value for contributing to such understandings School of Business and Law, Central Queensland
(Tribe 2009). A central concern is the tension University, Cairns, Australia
2
between tourism as a practice of consumption, College of Business, Law and Governance,
pleasure, and individual growth versus the duty James Cook University, Townsville, Australia
of care for others who are affected by this pursuit
of individual fulfillment. Humanistically inclined H
scholars hold optimism that tourism practice can Although humor is a universal ▶ phenomenon
be brought to better serve the interests of social found in every society, there are cultural and indi-
justice, equality, and human flourishing, a posi- vidual differences in appreciating it. Defining
tion captured in Pritchard et al. (2011) notion of humor is a challenging task due to its emotional,
the “Academy of Hope.” However, they do not cognitive, physiological, behavioral, and physical
hold naïve optimism. They accept the inevitable features. In tourism studies, humor may be viewed
tension between the Self and ▶ Other (Rorty as a communication or an act which results in
1999) and seek to understand the constraints that positive emotional states such as mirth or exhila-
thwart human flourishing in tourism and to devise ration (Ruch 1993). Humor in tourism is often
strategies that take into account the full reality of context specific and can be found as part of
these constraints. It is not imagined that a perfect pre-visit, onsite, and post-▶ tourist experiences.
tourism world can ever be created: only a better Frew (2006) considers two main areas of
one. Such scholars also frequently advocate for humor in tourism: formal where tourists attend
the engagement of individuals’ full humanity in events such as comedy festivals or go to see
knowledge production and education. Thus, they comedic TV and ▶ film locations and informal
are often proponents of broadening tourism’s where tourists share jokes during difficult situa-
epistemological space to include arts-based tions. Pearce (2009) maintains that humor plays
approaches and of enriching the curriculum with various roles: assists tourists to relax and feel com-
content from humanities disciplines. fortable in novel environments, helps them concen-
trate, and can contribute to enhancing connections
See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ education, with others. Pearce and Pabel (2014) argue that
▶ ethics, ▶ responsible tourism, ▶ worldmaking. humor can effectively be used to promote destina-
tions, to assist the delivery of safety messages, and
to add excitement at attractions and activities. They
also note from studying tourists’ blogs that in some
References
circumstances humor helps tourists cope with awk-
Caton, K. 2012 Taking the Moral Turn in Tourism Studies. ward and embarrassing occasions.
Annals of Tourism Research 39:1906-1928. Humor can also play an important role in tour-
Pritchard, A., N. Morgan, and I. Ateljevic 2011 Hopeful ism ▶ interpretation. Moscardo et al. (2004)
Tourism: A New Transformative Perspective. Annals
explain that effective interpretation should
Rorty, R. 1989 Contingency, Irony, and Solidarity. include humor, metaphors, and analogies, when
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. explanations are given during a ▶ guided tour.
446 Hungary
This can lead to more interesting and engaging Pearce, P. 2009 Now that is Funny: Humor in Tourism
experiences. Much of the success of the humor Settings. Annals of Tourism Research 36:627-644.
Pearce, P., and A. Pabel 2014 Humor, Tourism and Positive
delivery is based on it being self-deprecatory, that Psychology. In Tourist Experience and Fulfilment:
is, tourism presenters mock themselves rather Insights from Positive Psychology, S. Filep and
than their audience (Pearce and Pabel 2014). P. Pearce, eds., pp.17-36. New York: Routledge.
One of the main challenges when employing Ruch, W. 1993 Exhilaration and Humor. In The Handbook
of Emotions, M. Lewis and J. Haviland, eds.,
humor during tourism presentations is to make it pp. 605-616. New York: Guilford.
natural, and another is to keep it light and respect-
ful in order not to offend its audiences. ▶ Future
studies may look at tourism employees and their
opinions about using humor. Other topics to
explore include humor among tourists, failed Hungary
instances of humor, and national differences in
humor appreciation. Tamara Rátz
Kodolányi János University of Applied Sciences,
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ guided tour, ▶ interpreta- Budapest, Hungary
tion, ▶ phenomenon.
Hungary is a landlocked country located in

References Central Europe, bordered by ▶ Austria, ▶ Slova-
kia, ▶ Ukraine, ▶ Romania, ▶ Serbia, ▶ Croatia,
Frew, E. 2006 Humorous Sites: An Exploration of Tourism and ▶ Slovenia (Figure 1). It has a territory of
at Comedic TV and Film Locations. Tourism, Culture 93,030 km2 (35,919 mi2) and a population of 9.9
and Communication 6:205-208. million (2011 census). In 2011, the country’s GDP
Moscardo, G., B. Woods, and R. Saltzer 2004 The Role of
Interpretation in Wildlife Tourism. In Wildlife was US$138.8 billion (27.9 billion HUF), pre-
Tourism: Impacts, Management, and Planning, dominantly due to its service industry (70 %).
K. Higginbottom, ed., pp. 231-251. Altona: Common The key products of Hungary are ▶ health
Ground Publishing. tourism, ▶ cultural tourism, and ▶ MICE tourism.
16 18 20 22
UKRAINE
SLOVAKIA
Miskolc
48 48
Nyíregyháza
Kékes
Danube
AUSTRIA Györ
Sopron
BUDAPEST za Debrecen
Tis
Szombathely
Székesfehérvár
Dunaújváros
Balaton
Kecskemét
ROMANIA
Danube
SLOVENIA
Szeged
Pécs
46 46
SERBIA 0 20 40 km
CROATIA
16 20 22 0 20 40 mi
Hungary, Figure 1 Map of Hungary

Hunting tourism 447
The capital city Budapest is the center of cultural Further challenges include developing a distinc-
and ▶ business tourism, while Lake Balaton, the tive destination brand, increasing the country’s
largest freshwater lake in ▶ Europe, is the main competitiveness by utilizing its ▶ resources more
holiday destination (HNTO 2014). effectively, and promoting innovation. Topics of
Modern tourism ▶ development started in the current research interest include destination mar-
eighteenth century and continued until World War keting and ▶ management, product development,
II. Between 1945 and 1989, the economy was competitiveness, and ▶ sustainability.
centrally planned, the tourism infra- and super-
structures were mainly state owned, and ▶ social See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ Europe, ▶ health
tourism was promoted (Puczkó and Rátz 2011). tourism, ▶ social tourism.
After 1989, the ▶ industry was gradually
privatized and the liberalized market resulted in
a boom of new companies. The 2004 European References
Union accession brought about legal harmoniza-
tion, structural changes, and higher-level inclu- HNTO 2014 Marketingterv 2014 Stratégia. Budapest:
sion in this market due to the liberalization of air Hungarian National Tourist Office. H
Puczkó, L., and T. Rátz 2006 Product Development and
traffic and participation in the Schengen Treaty Diversification in Hungary. In Tourism in the New
from 2007 (Puczkó and Rátz 2006). Europe: The Challenges and Opportunities of EU
According to the latest available Tourism Satel- Enlargement, D. Hall, M. Smith and
B. Marciszewska, eds., pp.116-126. Wallingford:
lite Accounts (2007), the industry’s direct contribu-
CABI.
tion to GDP reaches 5.9 %, creating 323,000 jobs Puczkó, L., and T. Rátz 2011 Social Tourism in Hungary:
(8.4 % of total ▶ employment). In 2012, Hungary From Trade Unions to Cinema Tickets. Current Issues
received 10.3 million arrivals (+1.0 % compared to in Tourism 14:459-473.
2011) and earned $4.8 billion in receipts ( 13.7 %).
The number of domestic tourists at registered
accommodation reached 4.9 million. The main gen-
erating markets were ▶ Germany, Austria, and Hunting tourism
▶ Italy, while the ▶ Netherlands (+36.6 %) and
▶ Russia (+32.9 %) accounted for the highest Michael K. Tschapka1 and Christine L. Kern2
1
growth in overnight stays (HNTO 2014). Institut f€ur Angewandte Forschung,
Tourism development is an economic priority Ostbayerische Technische Hochschule Amberg,
in Hungary: between 2007 and 2013, 3 % of the Weiden, Germany
2
overall structural expenditure was allocated for Tourism Faculty, University of Applied Sciences
tourism, with the aim to develop attractions, HTW Chur, Chur, Switzerland
establish destination management organizations,
and expand the accommodation sector.
▶ National tourism administration belongs to the Hunting tourism is a form of wildlife activity in
Ministry of National Economy. At the operational which a person travels from his home environ-
level, the Tourism and Catering Department is in ment for the purpose of hunting, either in natural
charge of strategic ▶ planning decisions, the sites or in purposely created areas (Lovelock
industry’s regulatory environment, and interna- 2008). Like hunting itself, this form of tourism
tional relations. The Hungarian National Tourist can be non-consumptive or consumptive. The for-
Office is responsible for marketing Hungary in the mer includes pursuing and observing or taking
domestic and international markets. In other pictures of animals and may involve learning
fronts, tourism studies generally enjoy high pop- about natural environments and ecosystems. The
ularity. In 2013, it was the most sought-after field latter involves the capturing, injuring, or killing of
in higher education, with 15 institutions offering animals for food, trophy, or conservational pur-
bachelor and six Master’s degrees. poses (Dryden et al. 2007).
448 Hunting tourism
The acceptance of non-consumptive forms of of hunting tourism. Regarding its future develop-
hunting tourism seems to be generally more ment, several aspects of hunting tourism remain
widespread than for its consumptive counterpart. particularly important, including its economic sig-
The latter typically polarizes the society, creating nificance and potential, its social acceptance
either passionate positive or negative attitudes. among different stakeholders, and how these con-
At the extreme, opponents argue that it is nect to the conservation debate.
immoral and may lead to over-exploitation or
even to the extinction of the species (Matilainen See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ legislation, ▶ recre-
and Keskinarkaus 2010). Supporters see the ation, ▶ safari, ▶ wildlife tourism.
potential of hunting tourism mainly in its eco-
nomic benefits, especially for rural economic
development, and its contribution to biodiversity
References
conservation. The International Council for
Game and Wildlife Conservation recognizes Baldus, R., G. Damm, and K.Wollscheid, eds. 2008 Best
that there are many best practice examples. But Practices in Sustainable Hunting: A Guide to
malpractices also exist in almost all continents, Best Practices from around the World. Budapest:
such as corruption and overshooting of quotas International Council for Game and Wildlife
Conservation.
(Baldus et al. 2008). Dryden, G., S. Craig-Smith, and C. Arcodia 2007 Safari
Information on the economic dimensions of Hunting of Australian Wild Exotic Game – Extension.
the global hunting tourism sector is patchy. In Establishment of a Peak Body for the Industry. Can-
Northern Europe, it is reported to be still under- berra: Rural Industries Research and Development
Corporation.
developed but has been identified as an important Lindsey, A. 2008 Trophy Hunting in Sub Saharan Africa:
driver for regional development (Matilainen and Economic Scale and Conservation Significance. In
Keskinarkaus 2010). In ▶ Australia, safari hunt- Best Practices in Sustainable Hunting: A Guide to
ing generates direct sales of about US$4.6 million Best Practices from around the World, R. Baldus,
G. Dammand and K. Wollscheid, eds., pp.41-47. Buda-
(AU$5 million) annually (Dryden et al. 2007). In pest: International Council for Game and Wildlife
▶ Africa, hunting tourism traditionally has played Conservation.
an important role, and trophy hunting is a major Lovelock, B. ed. 2008 Tourism and the Consumption of
activity, especially in ▶ Namibia and ▶ South Wildlife: Hunting, Shooting and Sport Fishing.
London: Routledge.
Africa (Lindsey 2008). There are some data on Matilainen, A., and S. Keskinarkaus, eds. 2010 The Social
specific continents or regions, but comparing Sustainability of Hunting Tourism in Northern Europe.
these is difficult as they include different aspects Sein€ajoki: Ruralia Institute.
I
Iceland mountains, and black volcanic deserts. Iceland

has an image of a clean country with a vast pris-
Unnur B. Karlsdóttir tine and quiet wilderness. Thus, the focus of mar-
East Iceland Heritage Museum, Egilsstaðir, keting the country as a destination lies first and
Iceland foremost in promoting that its speciality for tour-
ists is sublime nature and wilderness. In most
cases this refers to the central highland, which
Iceland, an island of 103,000 km2 (39,769 mi2), is has become, and has remained till today, the
located in the North Atlantic Ocean, on a hot spot main attraction of Iceland since the last quarter
on the geologic rifts between the Eurasian and of the twentieth century (Karlsdottir 2013).
North American plates (Figure 1). The number Recent research shows that around 88 % of the
of inhabitants is just over 300,000. The national tourists arriving in the summer come to experi-
economy is based on fishing, agriculture, alumi- ence Icelandic nature, and approximately 50 %
num industry, and tourism (Statistics Iceland come during the months of June to August. The
2013). country’s popularity as a destination has
The best-known natural phenomena of the increased. The number of incoming tourists was
country are its volcanic activities, glaciers, and 72,000 in 1981 (Sæþórsdóttir 2012), and in 2013
geothermal sites with hot springs and geysers. the number of arrivals was 781,000. The share of
Mountainous peninsulas, fjords, and bays shape tourism in the national economy was 15.4 %, and
the island’s outlines. The habitable area is the year-round jobs created by the industry were more
lowland around the coast with small towns and than 8,500 (Icelandic Tourist Board 2014).
farmland, while the center is the uninhabited high- Two universities offer tourism studies among
land. The country was settled in the ninth century, other disciplines. The key issues for future
in the Viking period, and the Icelandic nation has research are how to build and sustain tourism
its ancestral roots in ▶ Norway, the British Isles, which meets both the varying needs of modern
and ▶ Ireland, as the first settlers came from there. people and at the same time protects the natural
The majority of the sites offered by Icelandic environment from the detrimental effects of grow-
travel agencies are for nature-based organized ing ▶ tourist arrivals.
tours. Iceland is first and foremost highlighted as
an attraction for its nature, featuring geysers, vol- See also ▶ Antarctic tourism, ▶ nature tourism,
canic eruptions, lava fields, waterfalls, glaciers, ▶ polar tourism, ▶ wilderness tourism.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
450 Identity
24 20 16 the qualities or beliefs rendering a person or group

Greenland Sea
distinctive from others, social scientists have
underscored that many forms of identity are not
Arctic Circle biologically determined and unchanging. Rather,
Grimsey
Ísafjörður they are dynamic social constructs. These identi-
66 66
Húsavík ties are shaped, re-envisioned, and manipulated in
Denmark Str
Akureyri
tandem with encounters with others and in
Seyðisfjörður
Reyðarfjörður
response to broader economic, ecological, and
Langjökull
Hofsjökull
political factors. In philosophy, the vision of iden-
tity as a social construct derives from existential
ait
Grundartangi Vatnajðkull
Hafnarfjörður REYKJAVÍK Höfn
visions of the “self” as formulated and defined in
64 64
Keflavík Selfoss
Hvannadalshnúkur
part by the ▶ Other.
Vestmannaeyjar
Myrdalsjökull In anthropology, Barth (1969) advanced con-
Surtsey
Heimaey structivist notions of identity. He argued against
NORTH ATLANTIC
older primordialist conceptions of ethnic identi-
0 50 100 km OCEAN ties as fixed inheritances from the past. Barth
0 50 100 mi 20 16
emphasized that interactions among groups pro-
duce ethnic/cultural categories and that individ-
Iceland, Figure 1 Map of Iceland
ual members may shift ethnic or cultural
identities over time and may share affiliations
References with multiple groups. Subsequent scholars note
that some attributes on which identities are based
Icelandic Tourist Board 2014 Ferðaþjónustan á Íslandi í are less fluid or mutable than others, notably
tölum – Apríl. Reykjavík: Icelandic Tourist Board.
Karlsdottir, U. 2013 Nature Worth Seeing! The Tourist
gender, “race,” sexuality, language, and geo-
Gaze as a Factor in Shaping Views on Nature in Ice- graphical origin. However, Barth’s observation
land. Tourist Studies 13:139-155. that ethnic and cultural identities “do not depend
Statistics Iceland 2013 Statistical Yearbook of Iceland. on an absence of mobility, contact and informa-
Reykjavík: Hagstofa Íslands.
Sæþórsdóttir, A. 2012 Ferðamennska á miðhálendi Íslands,
tion” (1969: 9) bears relevance for tourism stud-
Reykjavík: Land- og ferðamálafræðistofa, Líf- og ies. This emphasis on mobility and intergroup
umhverfisvísindadeild Háskóla Íslands. interactions as identity-generative has formed
the basis of a range of social scientific tourism
research.
Identity
Initial perspectives
Kathleen M. Adams
Department of Anthropology, Loyola University MacCannell (1976) first suggested that by study-
Chicago, Chicago, USA ing tourists, people gain a better understanding of
“modern” Western, middle-class identity. How-
ever, soon thereafter scholars began examining
The concept of identity is central to the study of how tourism is articulated with the identities of
tourism. Ethnic, cultural, national, gender/sexual, the toured. The earliest studies were ▶ impact
and regional identities are not simply marketed for oriented, highlighting how the advent of tourism
tourists, but these various dimensions of tourees’ altered aspects of “hosts’” identities. In these stud-
identities can be reaffirmed or altered via tourism. ies, dubbed “billiard ball models” (Picard and
Moreover, tourists’ identities are also challenged, Wood 1997), hosts’ identities were generally
asserted, or transformed via tourism experiences. assumed to be stable and challenged by the
Although the term identity is popularly defined as dynamic outside force of tourism. A common
Identity 451
concern in this first wave of research was centered dialogic construction between Balinese and the
on tourism as prompting “inauthentic” perfor- identity images projected upon them by outsiders.
mances of false identities by host populations More recent ethnographic studies have further
(“staged authenticity”). Early studies also advanced the understanding of tourism’s simulta-
suggested that tourism entailed commoditization neous role in local identity politics and in regional
of hosts’ identities and frequently made the prob- and national identity dynamics. Adams (2006)
lematic assumption that commoditization equated demonstrates how tourism both challenges and
with loss of cultural value. reaffirms local rank-based identity hierarchies
Graburn (1976) pioneered a more productive within Toraja society and also how tourism simul-
approach. In writing about ethnic and ▶ tourist taneously fosters broader regional identities and
arts, he underscored that tourism involves trans- challenges age-old ethnic hierarchies in ▶ Indo-
actions in symbols of identity and that there are nesia. Other recent studies address tourism’s inter-
widely ranging relationships among these iden- section with gender identities and roles (e.g.,
tity symbols and their makers and buyers. Some illustrating, how Panamanian Kuna women’s
are more closely tethered to the makers’ cultural involvement in marketing textiles to tourists fos-
norms and others more purely reflective of tour- ters feminized representations of Kuna identity
ist fantasies regarding the identities of the and empowers Kuna women).
I
groups whose products they purchase while Additionally, recent studies highlight how
vacationing. tourists’ religious, national, “racial,” or ethnic
Van den Berghe and Charles Keyes’ (1984) identities are reaffirmed, challenged, or altered
special issue of Annals of Tourism Research via their tourism activities. Recent research
offered the first serious treatment of the interrela- examines ▶ heritage tourism and museum visits
tions between tourism and ethnic identity. in this light. For example, Kelner’s nuanced
Approaching ▶ ethnic tourism as a form of ethnic study of Israeli birthright tours sponsored by
relations, this volume’s contributors recognized North American Jewish organizations and
tourism “middlemen” (guides, ▶ travel brochures, ▶ Israel illustrates that although these diaspora
etc.) as identity “brokers” and noted that many tours may not necessarily change tourists’ iden-
ethnic tourists’ pursuits were identity driven, as tities, they can foster emotionally compelling,
they seek contact with communities and groups embodied experiences that “re-ground” young
imagined to offer more “authentic” lifestyles than tourists’ process of self-creation, thereby “recre-
their own. ating their understandings of themselves and of
Israel in the meeting of the two” (2010:198).
Thus, tourism is increasingly recognized as an
Newer perspectives important arena for understanding broader pro-
cesses of identity formation, negotiation, and
Picard and Wood’s (1997) groundbreaking edited transformation.
volume advanced scholarly appreciation of tour- Exciting prospects for future research lie at the
ism as an integral dimension in the construction intersection of tourism, identity, and politics
and representation of local identities. They stress and in the role of cyber-travel in fostering
that it is no longer possible to envision tourism as reassessments of identities. How have labor and
external to local cultural identities, nor is it possi- education migrants’ offspring reassessed their
ble to ignore the complicity of national govern- hyphenated identities via international heritage
ments (pursuing both foreign revenue and tourism? What role does internet surfing play in
national identity-building agendas) in these pro- fostering new conceptions of identities based on
cesses. Drawing from research on Bali, Picard travel fantasies?
(in Picard and Wood, ibid) argued that tourism is
so entwined in Balinese cultural identity as to be See also ▶ Ethnic tourism, ▶ ethnicity, ▶ gen-
dubbed a “touristic culture” – the product of a der, ▶ heritage, ▶ nationalism.
452 Ideology
References thus it provides a link between thought and action

(Minar 1961).
Adams, K. 2006 Art as Politics: Re-crafting Identities, In its neutral form, tourism ideology can be
Tourism and Power in Tana Toraja, Indonesia. Hono-
defined as a ▶ system of ideas, values, and beliefs
lulu: University of Hawaii Press.
Barth, F. 1969 Ethnic Groups and Boundaries: The Social that drive tourism production and consumption, as
Organization of Culture Difference. Oslo: in the case of the ideology of sustainability
Universitetsforlaget. (Saarinen 2006). It can be also traced in tourism
Graburn, N. 1976 Ethnic and Tourist Arts: Cultural Expres-
scholarship related to group affiliation or imag-
sions from the Fourth World. Berkeley: University of
California Press. ined communities. In this sense, romanticized
Kelner, S. 2010 Tours that Bind: Diaspora, Pilgrimage and indigenous ideologies become a badge for
Israeli Birthright Tourism. New York: New York Uni- regional affiliation for the locals and at the same
versity Press.
time function as a marketing strategy promoting
Leisure Class, New York: Schocken Books. local traditions for the consumption of tourists
Picard, M., and R. Wood 1997 Tourism, Ethnicity and the (van den Berghe and Ochoa 2000). Ideologies
State in Asian and Pacific Societies. Honolulu: Univer- are also employed by tourists in ▶ heritage sites
sity of Hawaii Press.
in order to (re)construct and strengthen particular
Van den Berghe, P., and C. Keyes 1984 Tourism and
Ethnicity. Annals of Tourism Research 11:343-352. values of the past perceived to be engendered in
the present (Chronis 2005).
As a critical conception, tourism ideology can
be defined as a system of ideas, values, and beliefs
that channels and reproduces tourists’ thoughts
Ideology and actions in such a way as to perpetuate the
dominant sociocultural and economic logics.
Athinodoros Chronis Adopting a critical approach to tourism, a number
California State University, Stanislaus, Turlock, of authors see tourism representations, discourses,
CA, USA and imaginings as political processes that reflect
and reinforce existing dominant ideologies
(Ateljevic and Doorne 2002). Ideological posi-
Ideology is one of the most comprehensive and tions of nation states shape tourism policies
widespread concepts in modern social thought which, in turn, not only regulate the movement
that has sparked extensive academic inquiry in of tourists within the national landscape but they
philosophy, sociology, ▶ political science, ▶ his- also perpetuate the existing political conscious-
tory, ▶ media studies, and ▶ marketing, among ness and solidify the power of the dominant
other disciplines (Althusser 2001 [1971]; class (Kim and Prideaux 2003; Kreck 1998; Mat-
Eagleton 2007 [1991]; Minar 1961). Neverthe- thews and Richter 1991). Dominant ideologies,
less, for most writers, a single adequate definition however, do not remain uncontested. What is
is rather an illusory pursuit. Thompson’s (1990) staged by tourism organizers is not uncritically
classification in two basic categories – neutral and accepted by tourists, and their interactions may
critical conceptions – becomes very handy in this produce conflict (Chronis 2005). Similarly, ideo-
respect. As a neutral conception, ideology is seen logical contestations in tourism can be based on
as a kind of “social cement” which integrates organizers’ effort to minimize negative tourism
social groups by providing their members with a impacts and on anti-tourist reactions of host
shared system of ideas or values. Rooted in Marx- populations. We should pay attention, therefore,
ist writers, a critical conception of ideology refers not only to one but to multiple, competing ideol-
to a system of ideas, which conceal and mislead ogies (Chronis 2012).
and, in so doing, they serve the interests of the Still, much remains to be done. First, we have
dominant class. Whether neutral or critical, ideol- not examined the ways in which ideology is
ogy plays a normative and prescriptive role, and carried out. The link between ideology and
Image 453
advertising has already been acknowledged

(Thurot and Thurot 1983), but what is the role Image
of symbols, myths, materialities, and practices?
Second, we have not done much progress in William C. Gartner
theory building. How does ideology relate to Department of Applied Economics, University of
▶ other tourism concepts, and what are the con- Minnesota, Saint Paul, Minnesota, USA
ditions in which it becomes critical in analyzing
tourism phenomena? What are its potential
impacts? Although ideology has been identified Image may be defined as the perceptions, beliefs,
as having a normative or prescriptive function, impressions, ideas, and understanding one holds
in what way it drives specific tourism of objects, people, events, and places. Arising
behaviors? from the psychology discipline, tourism image is
a simplified, condensed version of places and
See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ power. what exists there which the holder assumes to be
reality. Held and stored images are the means
humans use to organize various stimuli received
and processed on a daily basis and help to make
References I
sense of the world in which one lives.
Althusser, L. 2001 [1971] Ideology and Ideological State Image has been an important research topic in
Apparatuses (Notes Towards an Investigation in Lenin tourism since the 1960s and was believed to be the
and Philosophy and Other Essays. Louis Althusser, key underlying factor in ▶ destination site selec-
New York: Monthly Review Press, 85-126.
Ateljevic, I. & Doorne, S. 2002 Representing New tion. But recent advances in ▶ destination brand-
Zealand: Tourism Imagery and Ideology. Annals of ing research have somewhat modified this notion
Tourism Research 29:648-667. and its direction (Cai 2002). Image is a central
Chronis, A. 2005 Coconstructing Heritage at the Gettys- construct of branding, but people hold different
burg Storyscape. Annals of Tourism Research 32:386-
406. images of different destinations. Images are one of
Chronis, A. 2012 Between Place and Story: Gettysburg as the main determinants in deciding whether a des-
Tourism Imaginary. Annals of Tourism Research tination is eliminated or investigated further for
39:1797-1816. site selection. Once the list of all known determi-
Eagleton, T. 2007 [1991] Ideology: An Introduction. New
York: Verso. nants is subjected to a winnowing process, more
Kim, H. & Richardson, S. L. 2003 Tourism, Peace, Politics tangible considerations such as time and money
and Ideology: Impacts of the Mt. Gumgang Tour Pro- become operational.
ject in the Korean Peninsula. Tourism Management 24: Studies of image received attention in the
675-685.
Kreck, L. A. 1998 Tourism in Former Eastern European 1930s after the advent of sophisticated attitude
Societies: Ideology in Conflict with Requisites. Journal measurement research. It came to the forefront
of Travel Research 36:62-67. of psychology with the publication of The
Matthews, H. G., & Richter, L. K. 1991 Political Science Image: Knowledge in Life and Society (Boulding
and Yourism. Annals of Tourism Research 18:120-135.
Minar, D. 1961 Ideology and Political Behavior. Midwest 1956). With the advance of the “consumer age”
Journal of Political Science 5:317-331. following World War II, marketing research began
Saarinen, J. 2006 Traditions of Sustainability in Tourism to devote more attention to product attribute mea-
Studies. Annals of Tourism Research 33:1121-1140. surement and, by association, image. In the early
Thompson, J. 1990 Ideology and Modern Culture: Critical
Social Theory in the Era of Mass Communication. 1970s, the first tourism academic treatments of
Cambridge: Polity. image began to appear, and it has been a prolific
Thurot, J. M. & Thurot, G. 1983 The Ideology of Class and area of research since. In recent years, image
Tourism Confronting the Discourse of Advertising. research has begun to recede in importance to
Annals of Tourism research 10:173-189.
Van Den Berghe, P. L. & Ochoa, J. F. 2000 Tourism and brand destination research which has as an inte-
Nativistic Ideology in Cuzco, Peru. Annals of Tourism gral part the dimension of image. But unlike ear-
Research 27:7-26. lier studies on image, where it was considered the
454 Image
overriding criterion for destination selection, it not be the case over time, as ▶ Vietnam has
has become just one of the dimensions of a shown, rising from the negative images of the
brand, albeit the central one (Konecnik and Vietnam War to a place viewed more favorably
Gartner 2007). by many and thus being able to establish a tourism
economy. Affective evaluation of place images
can change over time, but in most instances, they
Image components change very slowly.
Conative is the third image component. It is the
The image formation process is more important to action or decision component. Decisions are made
tourism than for other consumer products. Since based on held images and how one feels about
tourism products are an amorphous mass of expe- those images. Some may reject a destination based
riences produced and consumed simultaneously, on how they feel about the images they hold,
with no opportunity for sampling prior to pur- search for additional information about it, or
chase, the images someone holds act as a surro- select it for travel. The conative component can-
gate for product evaluation. Because of its not be manipulated by destination promoters or
importance in the destination selection process, developers. It is a personal, internal decision made
marketers will spend an inordinate amount of by the potential tourist who uses held images and
time, effort, and expense presenting particular evaluates them according to personal attitudes,
images to target markets in order for a destination needs, wants, and motives.
to rise above the others vying for a share of Generally accepted findings of image research
▶ tourist expenditures. are several (Gallarza et al. 2002; Pike 2002), but
Place images are comprised of three distinctly five are examined here. The first is that people
different but hierarchically interrelated compo- residing in different geographic regions will hold
nents. The first is cognitive. It consists of what different images of a place. This has been found to
one knows or believes they know about a place. be the case in many studies. Second, and related to
Knowledge about it has been acquired over time the first, the longer one lives in a particular place,
from a variety of sources and melds into a belief the less likely he is to have a distinct image of the
about what exists at the place. Even if it is rela- place. Images will be derived from numerous
tively unknown, people will still have images of it sources, but first-hand knowledge will be less
that may be derived from some larger area where likely to be one of them. Third, images change
the destination in question is found. For example, slowly. In the absence of an overriding event,
someone may not have clear images of ▶ Ghana, which floods the mind with new “credible” infor-
but once informed that Ghana is a country in West mation, there will be resistance to change. Not
Africa, they may hold images of this country that unique to image, this is a safety mechanism built
are taken from those they hold of the African into the human psyche. Unless new credible over-
continent. Image is based on perceptions, and to whelming evidence is presented, no image change
an individual, perception is reality. will result in the short term (Gartner 1994). Indi-
The second component is affective. Affective viduals hold onto their beliefs about people,
is how one feels about what he knows or thinks he places, and things. Fourth, the smaller the desti-
knows. Affective assessment is how one values nation, the more likely its image will be based on
the object under consideration based on personal those of the larger place in which it is found. There
feelings or motives which determine what one are exceptions to this, such as New York City
wishes to obtain from the object thereby giving versus New York State. Most people without
the object value. For example, many people have familiarity with the state will project the image
images of the country of ▶ Afghanistan. Most of held of the city to the entire state. Those familiar
the images would probably be evaluated nega- with the latter know there are vast differences
tively, and Afghanistan would be eliminated between the smaller New York City and the larger
from consideration as a destination. This may entity in which it is located, New York State.
Image 455
In most cases, small destinations are subject to the for the host destination. In the absence of
image of the larger destination to which they reinforcing events, images revert to what they
belong. Fifth, images are modified over time were before the event that modified them.
through various means. Based on travel patterns,
it does not matter how positive a destination
image may be, if distribution channels do not Image measurement prospective
exist. Then images cannot be transformed into
visitation and tourists’ expenditures. If people In recent years, attention was paid to the methods
cannot access the destination at a reasonable used to assess held images. The early studies
cost, it does not matter how powerful and positive almost exclusively relied on Likert-type scales
its images may be (such as space travel). which consisted of five or seven opposite catego-
ries with a neutral midpoint and anchored on each
end by bipolar adjectives (e.g., very impressive,
Image formation process very unimpressive). Data from studies utilizing
Likert-type scales have been subjected to numer-
How images are formed and how they may be ous analytical techniques to try and uncover hid-
modified have been a subject of research for den structures. Some of the more common
I
over 40 years. Gunn (1972) was the first scholar analysis techniques have been simple t-tests to
to coin the terms “organic” and “induced” images. check for differences between attributes tested
The former are based on information gleaned by destinations, multidimensional scaling to
from sources with intimate knowledge of the uncover attribute attachment to places, and factor
place and believed to be credible. The latter are analysis to understand how attributes relate to
formed based on what has been projected about a each other with respect to particular destinations.
place. Gartner (1994) expanded Gunn’s initial Echtner and Ritchie (1993) introduced the free
typology to eight image formation agents. Four elicitation methodology with open-ended
fit into the induced end of the spectrum and three responses used to uncover held images that were
were related to the organic end. One of the eight not represented in structured scale measurements.
agents was separated from the others, as this was They believed that only through unstructured
deemed the most influential among them. Called questions could true images emerge. Much of
“autonomous,” it consists of media reports and the image research today employs both Likert-
popular culture and is the only one shown that type scales with discrete categories supplemented
can change held images quickly and in some cases with free elicitation measurement to uncover often
instantaneously. subtle but meaningful destination images.
All image formation agents were analyzed Destination image research has been a fruitful
according to market penetration (how many peo- and active area of study for many years. However,
ple it reaches), credibility (how believable the recently, it is being surpassed in frequency and
agent may be), and destination cost (what the interest by destination branding research. Image
cost is as a result of using this image formation still remains a central, if not the most important,
agent). General findings aid in understanding the dimension of a place brand (Cai 2002), a position
image formation process better. If induced agents supported by more recent studies (Gartner and
are utilized, the marketing program must be Konecnik-Ruzzier 2011; Konecnik and Gartner
focused and budgeted for the long term. In the 2007). However, there is little doubt that image
absence of the influence of a powerful autono- will remain at the forefront of tourism ▶ market-
mous agent, images will change slowly and a ing and psychology-based research. Areas that
one-off attempt to do so has short (rarely any will receive increasing attention include the role
long)-term effects. Even hosting mega events, that group dynamics play in the formation of
such as the Olympics, which employ autonomous organic (gained through visitation) images and
agents show very few long-term image changes how an individual’s state of mind when traveling
456 Imaginary
influences acquired images. The use of social imaginings and are used as meaning-making and
media, which has the potential to increase the world-shaping devices in tourism and beyond.
market penetration of organic images, is also an Scholars from a wide array of disciplines have
area that will receive additional attention in the given ▶ attention to the human capacity to ima-
years ahead. gine. Although imaginaries influence collective
behavior, they are not necessarily an acknowl-
See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ film, ▶ mar- edged part of public discourse or coterminous
keting, ▶ psychology, ▶ social media. with implicit or covert culture. They are unspoken
schemas of ▶ interpretation, rather than explicit
ideologies (Salazar 2012). Many imaginaries are
structured by dichotomies, sometimes difficult to
References discern in practice, that represent the world in
simplified oppositional binaries (nature–culture,
Boulding, K. 1956 The Image: Knowledge in Life and here–there, male–female, inside–outside, and
Society. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
Cai, L. 2002 Cooperative Branding for Rural Destinations.
local–global) as can be seen, for example, in the
Annals of Tourism Research 29:720-742. ▶ language of guidebooks.
Echtner, C., and J. Ritchie 1993 The Measurement of In common with other human activities, tour-
Destination Image: An Empirical Assessment. Journal ism involves the capacity to imagine or to enter
of Travel Research 31(4):3-13.
Gallarza, M., I. Saura, and H. Garcia 2002 Destination
into the imaginings of Others. Imaginaries come
Image: Toward a Conceptual Framework. Annals of to occupy a central position in a complex set of
Tourism Research 29:56-78. connections among diverse societies, dissimilar
Gartner, W. 1994 Image Formation Process. Journal of places, and different kinds of relations of produc-
Travel and Tourism Marketing 2:191-216.
Gartner, W., and M. Konecnik-Ruzzier 2011 Tourism
tion and consumption. Stories, images, and
Destination Brand Equity Assessment: Renewal desires, running the gamut from essentialized,
versus Repeat Market. Journal of Travel Research mythologized, and exoticized imaginaries of
50:471-481. Otherness to more realistic frames of reference,
Gunn, C. 1972 Vacationscape: Designing Tourism
Regions. Austin: The University of Texas Bureau of
often function as the motor setting tourism in
Business Research. motion (Skinner and Theodossopoulos 2011).
Konecnik, M., and W. Gartner 2007 Customer-based Marketers rely on imaginaries to represent and
Brand Equity for a Destination. Annals of Tourism sell dreams of the world’s limitless destinations,
Pike, S. 2002 Destination Image Analysis: A Review of
activities, types of ▶ accommodation, and peo-
142 Papers from 1973-2000. Tourism Management ples to discover and experience. Seductive
23:541-549. images and discourses about peoples and places
are so predominant that without them there prob-
ably would be little tourism, if any at all. They
resonate most clearly in destinations, the physi-
Imaginary cal and mental landscapes where the imaginaries
of residents, tourism ▶ service providers, and
Noel B. Salazar tourists meet and, occasionally, clash (Graburn
Cultural Mobilities Research, University of and Gravari-Barbas 2011).
Leuven, Leuven, Belgium By their very nature, imaginaries remain intan-
gible, so the only way to study them is by focus-
ing on the multiple conduits through which they
It is hard to imagine tourism without the creative pass and become visible in the form of verbal and
use of tempting as well as restrictive imaginaries nonverbal images (Salazar 2010). The in-depth
of both peoples and places. Tourism imaginaries study of tourism imaginaries – tracing their his-
are socially transmitted representational assem- torical and semiotic roots while keeping the mate-
blages that interact with people’s personal rial effects of the processes in view – reveals that
Immigration 457
they are potent catalysts of sociocultural and They both call for a migration, a physical move-
environmental change and essential elements in ment in space. While touristic activity is limited in
the process of ▶ identity formation, the making time, as most tourists have a return ticket or a
of place, and the perpetual invention of ▶ culture deadline for their trip, immigration calls for an
(Salazar and Graburn 2014). Since they are undetermined lapse of time, in spite of the fact
grounded in relations of ▶ power, tourism imag- that most immigrants wish to return to their native
inaries are never neutral. Rather, they renegotiate countries once they succeeded economically
political and social realities. Their critical analy- (Viallon 2008). Both activities evoke somewhat
sis offers a powerful deconstruction device of the similar reactions on the part of the hosts who
ideological, political, and sociocultural stereo- welcome tourists and immigrants. It just so hap-
types and clichés operating in tourism. pens that in the Western countries, the most
immigrant-friendly zones are those which also
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ ideology, ▶ image, welcome tourists, tourism being one of the first
▶ multidisciplinarity, ▶ theory. three contributing factors of the GDP. Another
crossover may also be observed: tourists often
go to the places from which immigrants depart
References and vice versa. Both groups meet on the same
I
planes and boats, especially when ▶ transporta-
Graburn, N., and M. Gravari-Barbas 2011 Imagined Land-
scapes of Tourism. Journal of Tourism and Cultural
tion prices are carefully considered.
Change 9:159-269. Given the contrasting elements between tourism
Salazar, N. 2010 Envisioning Eden: Mobilizing Imagi- and immigration, it is difficult to develop the study
naries in Tourism and Beyond. Oxford: Berghahn. of each separately. While the two fields may be
Salazar, N. 2012 Tourism Imaginaries: A Conceptual
Approach. Annals of Tourism Research 39:863-882.
differentiated, there are several hybrid forms. As
Salazar, N., and N. Graburn, eds. 2014 Tourism Imagi- the baby boomers reached the age of retirement,
naries: Anthropological Approaches. Oxford: both concepts and practices merged or overlapped.
Berghahn. Northern Europeans settled in warmer southern
Skinner, J., and D. Theodossopoulos, eds. 2011 Great
Expectations: Imagination and Anticipation in Tour-
countries for several months (Gustavson 2002).
ism. Oxford: Berghahn. To some it is not clear whether they are still tourists
or they have become immigrants. This population
movement shows there are some forms of immi-
gration other than economic that are for comfort or
Immigration pleasure (Williams and Hall 2000).
The comparative approach of the two concepts is
Philippe Viallon fruitful for studies of tourism. It brings forth ele-
University of Strasbourg, Strasbourg, France ments, such as space, time, and ruptures, which
differentiate them (Dehoorne 2002). Yet the most
important factor is certainly the idea which the
Fields such as economics, political science, and tourists or immigrants hold of themselves. The
law have dealt with the concepts of tourism and number of hybrid forms will surely grow in the
immigration. But they are rarely related and at first future. The development of information and com-
sight dissociated. While tourism bears a positive munication technologies will contribute to the over-
image, immigration carries a rather neutral or neg- lap of tourism and immigration and expand their
ative connotation. If brought into contact with one field of studies, such as considering the role of
another, they would cancel each other out, as the digital social networks in the relationship between
pleasure found in the former would be spoiled and tourists or immigrants and their native countries.
the eagerness found in the latter discouraged.
The scientific view is rather complex, as both See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ diaspora, ▶ host
concepts have common traits and tend to overlap. and guest, ▶ migration.
458 Impact
References ▶ foreign exchange, soils, vegetation, water,

wildlife, ▶ landscape, ▶ crime, ▶ language,
Dehoorne, O. 2002 Tourisme, Travail, Migration: Interre- music, arts and crafts, and celebrations (Buckley
lations et Logiques Mobiles. Revue Européenne des
2004; Dogan 1989; Hall and Lew 2009; Knight
Migrations Internationales 18:7-36.
Gustavson, P. 2002 Tourism and Seasonal Retirement and Gutzwiller 1995; Kottke 1988; Liddle 1997;
Migration. Annals of Tourism Research 29:899- Newsome et al. 2013). Most are case studies,
918. detailing the consequences of tourism for specific
Viallon, P. 2008 Immigration et Tourisme: Prolégomènes à
places. Typically, impacts are considered under
une Approche Interculturelle de ces Phénomènes. In
Interagir et Transmettre, Informer et Communiquer, three major categories: economic, environmental,
L. Chouika, V. Meyer and W. Gooura, eds., pp.59-68. and sociocultural (Mathieson and Wall 1982).
Tunis: ISD. However, these do not exhaust the reach of tour-
Williams, A., and M. Hall 2000 Tourism and Migration:
ism with its institutional and political implica-
New Relationships between Production and Consump-
tion. Tourism Geographies 2:5-27. tions. Furthermore, the categories are not distinct
as, for example, it is possible to spend money to
protect or modify environments, and the acquisi-
tion of a job in tourism can change the relation-
ships within a family as working hours,
Impact responsibilities, and earning capacity modify the
distribution of ▶ power among family members.
Geoffrey Wall Nevertheless, the threefold division is a useful and
Department of Geography, University of widely used heuristic for thinking about impacts.
Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada Impacts of tourism can be either positive or
negative, or even both at the same ▶ time across
all three major domains. Thus, for instance, tour-
Impacts cover both expected and unexpected ism can stimulate an economy and also result in
changes that occur as a result of taking an action, undesirable increases in the costs of local goods
or, sometimes, even thinking about taking an action and inflation, it can result in environmental deg-
for the ▶ anticipation of an event occurring may radation and also provide a rationale for environ-
raise hopes or fears and modify the behaviors of mental protection, and it can lead to both the
those that may be affected. In the case of tourism, revival and destruction of cultural expressions.
impacts occur in the place of origin as potential Such statements are not contradictory. Rather,
tourists look forward to and plan their journey and, they indicate that the nature of impacts varies
upon their return, relive and share their experi- with the forms of tourism and the nature of the
ences. Impacts also occur both en route and at the destinations in which it occurs. It follows that it
destinations. The former have received much more may not be helpful to discuss the impacts of tour-
▶ attention recently, as the importance of the ism in an undifferentiated manner, for they are
▶ travel phase for ▶ energy consumption and the contingent; rather it may be more informative to
production of greenhouse gases have been increas- consider the impacts of types of tourism along
ingly recognized. However, by far the most atten- with the differences in the characteristics of the
tion has been accorded to impacts that occur in communities in which they occur. Thus, for exam-
▶ destination areas (Wall and Mathieson 2006). ple, the numbers and types of tourists, their length
of stay, and their activities will result in different
impacts, as will the characteristics of the environ-
The nature of impacts ments that they visit: urban or rural, coast or
mountain, and so on. Furthermore, a similar
There is a wealth of studies of the impacts of ▶ development may have different impacts on
tourism on a wide variety of destination-based communities at different stages in the tourism
topics, including ▶ employment, incomes, taxes, lifecycle.
Impact 459
Measuring impacts A third difficulty is the result of spatial and

temporal discontinuities in cause and effect. This
The measurement of impacts is fraught with chal- means that the cause of change may occur in one
lenges. Two main approaches can be recognized: ▶ location, but some impacts occur at a later time
first, the use of scientific or so-called “objective” and in another place. For example, erosion and
measures and, second, the elicitation of perceptual ▶ pollution in the headwaters of a stream, perhaps
or “subjective” information. While both are use- resulting from unwise tourism development, may
ful, there is seldom a simple relationship between eventually result in the deposition of contami-
them. For example, scientists may measure water nated sediments downstream. This can also be
quality through such indicators as coliform counts regarded as a specific case that illustrates direct
and biochemical oxygen demand, whereas lay and indirect effects, for habitats and, hence, spe-
members of the public may employ such criteria cies composition may also be modified in the
as color, smell, and the presence or absence of downstream areas as a result of the initial
debris. The features that are used to measure upstream development. This example also illus-
change are “indicators,” but even the scientific trates the challenges associated with determining
measures are not value-free, as how the ones that an appropriate scale of study when undertaking an
are used are chosen, and the assessment of the investigation of impacts.
I
importance of any particular change is ultimately Three approaches are commonly adopted in
a value judgment, even though specific objectives investigations of the impacts of tourism: after-
or standards may be specified in policy. There is a the-fact analysis, monitoring, and ▶ simulation.
substantial literature on the selection and use of Most academic studies are of the first type and
indicators. have documented the impacts in a place after they
Regardless of the approach to measurement have occurred. The main advantage of this
that is adopted, a number of circumstances make approach is that results can often be obtained
the study difficult. The first is the difficulty of expeditiously. However, it is seldom possible to
knowing what a place was like prior to the initia- determine in retrospect the number of tourists and
tion of tourism. If this cannot be determined, then the exact nature of the activities that caused the
it is not possible to assess its impacts accurately. impacts, nor is it possible to avoid the adverse
Furthermore, in some destination areas, tourism is impacts since they have already occurred. Moni-
so pervasive that it may be difficult to imagine toring can overcome these problems by taking
what the place would be like without it. Bali, repeated measurements of both the number of
▶ Indonesia, and Niagara Falls, ▶ Canada, are tourists and their activities and the resulting
examples of such places. They both have a long impacts, permitting the establishment of cause-
▶ history of tourism which penetrates deeply into effect relationships. But this process requires
the communities, with far-reaching consequences much more time and money. Simulation is an
for their residents. In such places it may be better experimental approach employed in some ecolog-
to explore the results of a particular tourism ini- ical studies where, for instance, plots of land are
tiative, such as a new resort or casino, rather than exposed to known stresses, such as a specific
to address tourism as a whole. number of passes of a snowmobile, following
A second challenge is the difficulty of sepa- which the impacts on soils and vegetation are
rating the effects of tourism from other sources of recorded. This approach also permits the measure-
change, as many aspects of modernization may ment of relationships between agents of change
have similar consequences. Because tourism is and their consequences, but it is not suitable for
present, it may be incorrectly assumed that any use in economic and sociocultural studies.
changes occurring in the same place are caused It is seldom possible to add up impacts, even of
by it. As a result, tourism is often blamed for the same kind, in a simple way in order to get an
negative impacts that may be attributable to overall assessment. For example, the assumptions
other causes. and techniques behind economic ▶ impact
460 Impact
assessment, such as calculations based on eco- should not regard impacts as being simply
nomic multipliers and leakages, mean that esti- imposed upon destinations, for tourism develop-
mates for adjacent areas cannot be summed ment and tourists are actively sought. There are
because of the likelihood of substantial double only a few examples of destinations that want
counting. Furthermore, economic, environmental, fewer tourists, although different stakeholders
and sociocultural effects are measured in different within a destination may have divergent opinions
ways. Consequently, in contentious situations, it on this. Thus, destinations are not simply
is seldom possible to determine accurately impacted, rather their people may respond in mul-
whether the projected benefits of a tourism initia- tiple ways: by fighting against or participating in
tive are likely to exceed the costs. Regardless, development, by withdrawing from or taking
disaggregated information on each of the three advantage of opportunities that may arise, and so
topics is usually necessary to inform ▶ manage- on. Responses may occur at both societal and
ment decisions. individual levels. For example, ▶ planning and
management can be viewed as a means of foster-
ing desirable impacts and reducing those that are
Recipients of and responses to impacts unwanted. The requirement to conduct environ-
mental and social impact assessments of projects
It is also important to understand who receives the prior to implementation is a means of anticipating
impacts. Impacts are unlikely to be evenly distrib- and preventing negative impacts before they
uted. For example, they may vary with ▶ gender, occur. The promulgation of codes of conduct for
▶ race, and class in destination communities, with both tourists and suppliers is another way of
some species more resilient than others in natural avoiding undesirable impacts through behavior
areas. In perception studies, evaluations of the modification.
impacts of tourism have been found to vary with In a globalizing world and in an era of ▶ cli-
socioeconomic status, level of involvement in tour- mate change, tourism both contributes to and is
ism, proximity to the development, and the like, but impacted by global change in complex ways that
not in a consistent manner. Some scholars point to necessitate investigation and monitoring. Further-
disagreements in the literature. Their study results more, emphasis is likely to change toward ▶ eval-
reveal that the ways in which impacts of tourism uation of the distribution of impacts with greater
are viewed are likely to vary with circumstances, consideration of exactly who benefits and loses as
pointing out the need for the monitoring of public a result of tourism development. It also would be
opinion rather than assertions based upon refreshing to see greater attention paid to possible
overgeneralization derived from earlier studies means of securing positive outcomes to counter-
undertaken elsewhere. It is widely argued that peo- act the negativity that pervades much of the
ple should have an opportunity to participate in the literature.
decisions that affect their lives and that greater
public participation will result in more equitable See also ▶ Community development, ▶ envi-
distributions of impacts. Such concerns with ronment, ▶ management, ▶ stakeholder,
▶ equity have underpinned initiatives such as ▶ sustainability.
community-based and ▶ pro-poor tourism, as
well as sustainable development with its emphasis
on the so-called triple bottom line of economic,
environmental, and social implications. References
Although the word “impact” is at its root a
neutral concept, it often has negative connota- Buckley, R., ed. 2004 Environmental Impacts of Ecotour-
ism. Wallingford: CABI.
tions. Although people may desire enhanced Dogan, H. 1989 Forms of Adjustment: Sociocultural
wellbeing, they may also fear change, particularly Impacts of Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
if it is outside of their control. However, one 16:216-36.
Imperialism 461
Hall, M., and A. Lew 2009 Understanding and Managing ideological, cultural, and cosmological hegemony
Tourism Impacts: An Integrated Approach. London: shaped and delivered by the tourism ▶ industry.
Routledge.
Knight, R., and K. Gutzwiller, eds. 1995 Wildlife and For example, borrowing the concept of “ecologi-
Recreationists: Coexistence through Management and cal imperialism” from Crosby’s (1986) work, Hall
Research. Washington: Island Press. (1994) asks whether ▶ ecotourism has presented a
Kottke, M. 1988 Estimating Economic Impacts of form of ecological imperialism in the southwest
Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 15:122-133.
Liddle, M. 1997 Recreation Ecology: The Ecological Pacific region, one that promotes European cul-
Impact of Outdoor Recreation and Ecotourism. tural values about the relationship between
London: Chapman and Hall. humans and nature.
Mathieson, A., and G. Wall 1982 Tourism: Economic, Recently, scholars who advocate “▶ critical
Physical and Social Impacts. Harlow: Longman.
Newsome, D., S. Moore, and R. Dowling 2013 Natural studies” argue that the typical positivism of tour-
Area Tourism: Ecology, Impacts and Management. ism research is a production of a power structure
Bristol: Channel View. within the academia and thus constitutes an intel-
Wall, G., and A. Mathieson 2006 Tourism: Change, lectual imperialism (Pritchard et al. 2011). In
Impacts and Opportunities. Harlow: Pearson.
short, imperialism in tourism can be defined as
the unequal relationship among human and
nonhuman actors that is caused by economic,
I
sociocultural, and political dominance, including
Imperialism the superiority and authority for which tourism
serves as a medium.
Jundan Jasmine Zhang and Eric J. Shelton The main application of the concept lies in the
Department of Tourism, University of Otago, introduction of a postcolonial studies literature in
Dunedin, New Zealand the tourism field. The concept of imperialism has
advanced the interdisciplinary nature and contex-
tualization of tourism by addressing implicit and
Derived from the colonization and territorial explicit power issues. As a consequence, treating
expansion pursued by numerous empires in the tourism as a process that engages various political
nineteenth and twentieth centuries, the concept of agents to make/remake a dominant vision of real-
“imperialism” has been studied in several disci- ity adds to the understanding of both imperialism
plines including ▶ history, politics, English liter- and hegemony. Adopting a postcolonial perspec-
ature, and human geography. Said (1993) tive, tourism researchers need to be aware of the
suggested taking a critical approach to studying hybridity of any population and ▶ environment
imperialism after the Second World War because, and reflect more on critical and creative method-
in a time without “empire,” imperialism was a ologies, rather than simply applying the all too
▶ power relation of hegemony that could be easily used words “imperialism” or “anti-
manifested in various forms. imperialism.”
The relationship between tourism and imperi-
alism has been of academic interest since the early See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ colonialism, ▶ ori-
1980s. It has been observed that tourism interlinks entalism, ▶ postmodernism, ▶ sociology.
economic, social, and cultural networks inter-
transnationally, while the body of decisionmakers
remains predominantly wealthy European Amer- References
ican tourism operators and their tourists. Tourism
distinguished between “host and guest,” where Crosby, A. 1986 Ecological Imperialism: The Biological
alien social and cultural transactions brought by Expansion of Europe, 900-1900. Cambridge: Cam-
tourists to native people converted tourism into a bridge University Press.
Hall, C. 1994 Ecotourism in Australia, New Zealand and
form of imperialism (Nash 1989). More recently, the South Pacific: Appropriate Tourism or a New Form
“imperialism” has been understood as an of Ecological Imperialism? In Ecotourism, a
462 Import
Sustainable Option? E. Cater and G. Lowman, eds., Assessing the scale and type of tourism
pp.137-157. Chichester: Wiley. imports is among the most difficult parts of com-
Nash, D. 1989 Tourism as a Form of Imperialism. In Hosts
and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, piling satellite accounts because tourists are usu-
V. Smith, ed., pp.37-52. Philadelphia: University of ally unaware of the origin of their purchases, and
Pennsylvania Press. hence, such imports cannot be assessed using
Pritchard, A, N. Morgan, and I. Ateljevic 2011 Hopeful tourist surveys. In some cases, particularly excur-
Tourism: A New Transformative Perspective. Annals
of Tourism Research 38:941-963. sionists, purchases of finished goods can comprise
Said, E. 1993 Culture and Imperialism. New York: Alfred a significant proportion of ▶ tourist spending at
A. Knopf. destinations. This means that increasing the levels
of excursionist visits with a view to local eco-
nomic development has to be carefully considered
with respect to the nature and origin of the goods
Import and services likely to be consumed as a result
(Jones and Munday 2008).
Calvin Jones There is rarely data available from national or
Cardiff Business School, Cardiff University, regional accounts relating specifically to the origins
Cardiff, UK of finished goods bought by tourists, and hence,
compilers may have to assume that the pattern of
goods purchased (in terms of ▶ location of the
Tourism imports are goods or services consumed manufacturer and perhaps even type) matches that
by tourists in an economic area that are not proof typical consumers in the reference region. This is
duced there and are sold with no additional unlikely to be correct. For example, tourists may be
processing or added value. They typically com- more likely to purchase locally produced commod-
prise finished goods purchased in a ▶ destination ities than the average consumer, and if this is the
and are not counted as part of local economic case, the Tourism ▶ Satellite Account headline
output. Consideration of these goods is important results will undervalue the economic significance
in assessing the economic significance of tourism of such spending. While estimation of tourism
to a nation, region, or locality, as spending on such imports is important, it should be remembered
items does not support employment or incomes in that the bulk of tourists’ spending is on labor-
that destination with the exception of their retail intensive services (▶ accommodation, food ▶ ser-
and, potentially, wholesale margins. Thus, the vice) that by their very nature cannot be imported
higher the propensity of tourists to purchase into a ▶ destination.
non-locally produced goods, the lower the eco-
nomic ▶ impact of tourism will be per unit of See also ▶ Employment, ▶ leakage, economic,
spending, and with small, underdeveloped or ▶ product, ▶ Tourism Satellite Account.
peripheral economies, the higher the proportions
of tourism imports.
Tourism imports should be distinguished from
References
raw materials or other inputs brought into a
▶ region to produce commodities that are then Frechtling, D. 2010 The Tourism Satellite Account:
consumed by tourists (imported food contained A Primer. Annals of Tourism Research 37:136-153.
in a restaurant meal). The whole value of the Jones, C., and M. Munday 2008 Tourism Satellite
final meal is part of the output of the relevant Accounts and Impact Assessments: Some Consider-
ations. Tourism Analysis 13:53-69.
economy, with the value of any imported products UNWTO 2008 Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended
then discounted from economic gross value added Methodological Framework. Madrid: World Tourism
(Frechtling 2010; UNWTO 2008). Organization.
Import substitution 463
Agreement on Trade in Services (1995), restric-

Import substitution tions on either inbound or outbound tourism are
not popular. Moreover, the former has nowadays
Lidija Petrić become an intrinsic part of the export-oriented
Faculty of Economics, University of Split, Split, development strategy that many of the countries
Croatia have adopted as a mainstream approach. In this
regard, a number of empirical studies (Cortés-
Jimenéz and Pulina 2010) have argued that
Import substitution is a development strategy ▶ international tourism may be a generator of
advocating replacement of foreign imports economic growth, thus introducing the concept
with domestic production of goods (rarely ser- of tourism-led growth strategies.
vices). This is with the aim of improving ▶ bal- To this end, following the increasingly popular
ance of payments and creating a diversified endogenous growth theory recommendations
economy, which is able to create opportunities (Romer 1994), it is of utmost importance for a
for growth and to generate welfare (Bruton country to embrace openness and to rely on the
1989). Even though it is positioned under devel- local knowledge and innovation which produce
opment theory, its rationale is rooted in trade positive externalities and spillover effects. Only
I
theory. such a strategy may enhance the national compet-
Import substitution can be traced back to the itiveness of tourism ▶ supply and consequently
eighteenth century. It gained popularity in Latin lead to the increase of both domestic and interna-
American countries in the 1950s led by a group tional demand and receipts, thus resulting in eco-
of “structural economists” (Raul Prebisch, Celso nomic growth and development. Future research
Furtado, and Hans Singer). Among the most should explore the role of the public policy in
important arguments in favor of this strategy is encouraging and facilitating the development of
one of infant industry which has comparative inclusiveness and empowerment that could foster
advantages in the goods production (Krugman the necessary environment of productivity,
and Obstfeld 2003). It suggests the use of tariffs ▶ innovation, and upgrading for a sustained tour-
or import quotas or other kinds of impediments ism development.
to imports (restrictions on foreign investments
and control over exchange rate policy) as tem- See also ▶ Comparative advantage, ▶ develop-
porary measures during the industrialization ment, ▶ inbound tourism, ▶ leakage, economic,
phase. ▶ outbound tourism.
Import substitution in tourism was a mostly
politically motivated strategy used by some for-
mer communist countries (Soviet Union), where References
the government restricted flows in both directions.
Occasionally, even some developing countries Bruton, H. 1989 Import Substitution. In Handbook of
(▶ Turkey until the early 1980s) have been Development Economics (Vol. II), H. Chenery and
restricting ▶ outbound tourism via exit taxes, T. Srivansan, eds., pp.1602-1641. Amsterdam:
Elsevier.
limits to the amount of foreign currency to take Cortés-Jimenéz, I., and M. Pulina 2010 Inbound Tourism
abroad, etc., but generally, this strategy, related to and Long-run Economic Growth. Current Issues in
prevention of outflows, has been neither widely Tourism 13:61-74.
accepted in practice, nor has it received much Krugman, P., and M. Obstfeld 2003 International
Economics, Theory and Policy. London: Pearson
▶ attention in the tourism development literature. Education.
Today, in the global free market economy, in Romer, P. 1994 The Origins of Endogenous Growth. The
particular after the enforcement of the General Journal of Economic Perspectives 8:3-22.
464 Importance-performance analysis
marketers capitalize on potential and highlight

Importance-performance analysis strength for target markets.
The analysis has been adopted in various fields
Joseph T. O’Leary1 and Gyehee Lee2 such as service, ▶ marketing, ▶ education, public
1
Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, administration, banking, healthcare, eBusiness,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, USA and in other diverse contexts. It has been used
2
Kyung Hee University, Seoul, South Korea widely in the tourism field as well. Since its intro-
duction, the method has gained a wide array of
applications for its simplicity in terms of measure-
The “importance-performance analysis” tech- ment and practical utility as a decision/assessment
nique is widely applied in general marketing and tool in the areas of ▶ destination competitiveness,
more recently in ▶ hospitality and tourism positioning, convention city evaluation, and guest
research. Using automobile dealer data, Martilla satisfaction; in service evaluation in hotels, ▶ lei-
and James (1977) found customer satisfaction to sure, park, and recreation services; and in airline
be a function of both expectations related to competitiveness and employee job performance.
salient attributes and judgments of the actual per- Research suggests that assumptions tied to the
formance of such attributes. They argued that a original method make the validity of the
partial approach that measures only the perfor- importance-performance analysis questionable
mance aspect leaves a problem in translating the and suggest a need for additional attention to
results of research into marketing action. In improve understanding (Azzopardi and Nash
response to that challenge, they devised a straight- 2013; Matzler et al. 2003; Oh 2001).
forward analysis solution, now known by its In conclusion, importance-performance analy-
present name. sis has been adopted as a useful tool for resource
The importance-performance analysis allocation and market positioning. The original
matrix consists of four quadrants along two approach, however, has been criticized for its
axes, one for measuring perceived importance oversimplified and unrealistic assumption: the
of each attribute and the other for perfor- symmetrical and linear relationship between per-
mance evaluation. The vertical (importance) formance and satisfaction. This erroneous
and horizontal (performance) axes call for assumption must be empirically tested so that
calculation of the mean value of all attributes. this analytic technique can serve practitioners as
The cross-hair points can be based on either a better decisionmaking tool.
the data rating or scale mean values. Each
quadrant is named to implicitly indicate the See also ▶ Marketing, ▶ satisfaction,
nature of the plots. ▶ performance.
The first quadrant, “keep up the good work,”
represents attributes of both high importance and
performance. The second, named “potential over- References
kill,” contains attributes of low importance but
high performance. Attributes with both low Azzopardi, E., and R. Nash 2013 A Critical Evaluation of
Importance–performance Analysis. Tourism Manage-
importance and performance are included in the
ment 35:222-233.
third quadrant, “low priority.” The last quadrant, Martilla, J., and J. James 1977 Importance–performance
“concentrate here,” represents attributes that need Analysis. Journal of Marketing 41:77-79.
to be improved. The information gained from the Matzler, K., E. Sauerwein, and K. Heischmidt 2003
Importance–performance Analysis Revisited. The
plotting of the results may reveal weaknesses and
Service Industries Journal 23:112-129.
strengths of a target product or ▶ service. Ulti- Oh, H. 2001 Revisiting Importance–performance
mately, this analysis is purported to help Analysis. Tourism Management 22:617-627.
Inbound tourism 465
services. In particular, pleasure seekers from the

Inbound tourism developed countries seek at par amenities at their
choice destinations. Hence, attracting and hosting
Shalini Singh them requires significant financial investments in
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, building needed infrastructure, in addition to
Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada informed planning, development, and marketing.
National governments are responsible for formu-
lating policies and providing incentives to mobi-
▶ UNWTO defines inbound tourism as all incom- lize agencies and residents, to attract tourists, and
ing nonresident arrivals to a targeted ▶ destination. to participate in the commerce of hospitality and
Evidentially, the literature applies and reflects this product development. Stakeholders, destination
interpretation in discourses pertaining to interna- marketing organizations, and resource managers
tional tourists. The foremost choice of ▶ travel are required to ensure ethical and sustainable
mode among inbound tourists is by air, closely operations through community involvement.
followed by road, and, peripherally, by water and Inbound tourism is a “political” activity. Gov-
▶ rail. While their primary purposes are ▶ leisure, ernmental actions determine and shape its demand
▶ recreation, and holidaying, secondary reasons and supply. Its policies thus become a means to
I
include health, religion, and visiting friends and showcasing the willingness and ability of govern-
relatives. Business, conference, and profession- ments to implement sustainable measures to real-
related arrivals account for a further one eighth of ize the benefits of tourism by ensuring safe and
global inbound traffic (UNWTO 2013). To maxi- visit-worthy experiences.
mize their use of time and money, inbound tourists Researchers have identified problems with the
prefer all-inclusive packages to multiple destina- initiation, measurement, and growth of inbound tour-
tions. The innumerable options and preferences ism, world over (Dwyer and Forsyth 1993). Subse-
lend to two forms of inbound tourism: institution- quently, scholars have recommended modeling and
alized (group/individual mass, psychocentric) and estimating ▶ tourist demand (Cortes-Jimenez and
noninstitutionalized (informal, drifter, allocentric). Pulina 2010), though inconclusively. In developing
The importance of inbound tourism is countries, escalated costs of living, rising crime
acknowledged in the world’s economy, account- levels, imbalanced spatial developments, speculative
ing for over US$1,000 billion (UNWTO 2013). investments, exorbitant promotion campaigns,
Asia and Pacific region leads in annual arrival unintegrated planning, and erratic mandates continue
growth rate (7 % in 2012). Owing to its significant to be researched. Presently, issues of sustainability
profit margins, most countries consider the persist to highlight research on inbound tourism.
inbound markets as highly lucrative. Understand-
ably, national governments deploy considerable See also ▶ Governance, ▶ impact, ▶ international
attention and resources to increasing and tourism, ▶ typology, tourist, ▶ World Tourism
maintaining international arrivals and receipts. Organization.
Resultantly, inbound tourism has emerged as a
formidable challenge to countries aspiring for
enhanced share of the receipts and whose econo- References
mies depend substantially on this source of earn-
ings (Sahli and Nowak 2007). Cortes-Jimenez, I., and M. Pulina 2010 Inbound Tourism
Inbound tourists generally choose prominent and Long-run Economic Growth. Current Issues in
Tourism 13:61-74.
and exotic destinations that can involve long-
Dwyer, L., and P. Forsyth 1993 Assessing the Benefits and
haul trips. This market segment has relatively Costs of Inbound Tourism. Annals of Tourism
higher expectations from destinations and Research 20:751-768.
466 Incentive tourism
Sahli, M., and J. Nowak 2007 Does Inbound Tourism companies in the ▶ United States alone spent
Benefit Developing Countries? A Trade Theoretic US$22.5 billion on incentive tourism.
Approach. Journal of Travel Research 45:426-434.
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- Incentive tourism programs are traditionally
ism Organization. associated with Unique Group Travel, which set
apart from fully independent travelers and other
forms of group travels such as corporate meetings
and seminars. Some companies integrated incen-
Incentive tourism tive tourism to a broad point-based employee
▶ loyalty program to effectively help strengthen
Zhen Lu their core value and motivate employees and
Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism external partners. More and more companies inte-
Management, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON, grate incentive tourism programs into their com-
Canada munication and business strategies to maximize
the benefit of such investments. In response to
changes in technology and a more global and
Incentive tourism, or incentive ▶ travel, pro- independent workforce, individual incentive tour-
grams have long been used by companies or ism programs have now become a new ▶ trend. In
institutions as a noncash reward to their the United States, about 50 % of the companies
employees and external partners for achieving offer incentive tourism to both groups and
key business objectives (SITE 2014). It is one individuals.
of the major types of the ▶ MICE (Meetings, Research confirms that incentive tourism pro-
Conferences, Incentives, and Events) sector. Its grams provide long-lasting positive reinforcement
uniqueness separates itself from other types. to individuals and companies (Shinew and
Incentive tourism emphasizes fun, food, and Backman 1995). In recent years, with the increas-
▶ other entertainment activities rather than ing complex and dynamic ▶ environment, man-
▶ education and ▶ work. The major players are agers responsible for incentive tourism perceive
companies or institutions offering incentive tour- business opportunities with greater uncertainty
ism programs as a noncash reward and incentive (Xiang and Formica 2007). One strategic issue
houses and travel agencies providing such pro- for ▶ future research in this area is to study the
grams to businesses, ▶ destination ▶ marketing effectiveness and attractiveness of incentive tour-
organizations, and ▶ industry associations. ism within the context of the fast-changing exter-
The earliest documented incentive tourism nal environments.
program was in the 1900s, when NCR Corpora-
tion offered a weekend at the NY Plaza to their See also ▶ Destination marketing organization,
employees. It was not a common business tool ▶ MICE, ▶ travel agency and tour operation.
used by companies to motivate employee until
the 1960s when the advent of Jet Air Travel
made the “exotic destinations” affordable in
References
terms of costs and time. In 1973, the first meeting
of the Society of Incentive Travel Executives was Jeffrey, S., A. Dickinson, and Y. Einarsson 2013 The Use
held in New York City (SITE 2014). Currently, of Incentives in Organizations. International Journal of
incentive tourism is one of the fast-growing sec- Productivity and Performance Management 62:606-
tors (Xiang and Formica 2007) and is global in 615.
Shinew, K., and S. Backman 1995 Incentive Travel: An
nature from the perspectives of both destinations Attractive Option. Tourism Management 16:285-293.
and its users, including local, regional, national, or SITE (Society of Incentive Travel Executives) 2014 His-
international travel (Jeffrey et al. 2013). In 2013, tory www.siteglobal.com/p/cm/ld/fid=109 (6 April).
India 467
Xiang, Z., and S. Formica 2007 Mapping Environmental

Change in Tourism: A Study of the Incentive Industry.
India
Sagar Singh and Syed Ahmad Rizwan

Centre for Tourism Research and Development,
Tourism Recreation Research, Lucknow, Uttar
Pradesh, India
India is a federal constitutional republic,

consisting of 29 states and 7 union territories
(Figure 1). The country derives its name from
I
the river Indus, now in ▶ Pakistan, and the name
goes back to the time of the invasion of Alexander India, Figure 1 Map of India
of Macedonia, who arrived sometime after the
death of the Buddha around 650 BC. It is the
seventh largest country by area, consisting of rest of Kerala, and Goa are popular destinations
3,166,414 km2 (1,222,559 mi2), and the second for inbound and ▶ domestic tourism. Affordable
most populous country of the world numbered at tourism was popularized with the construction of
1.2 billion (GOI 2011a). India has the greatest inexpensive hotels and guesthouses as far back as
portion of the habitable Himalayas, which are 1977. India still remains a haven for backpackers
the highest and youngest mountain ranges of the and has retained one of the top spots in terms of
world and one of the oldest mountains and pla- length of stay of foreign tourists (WTTC 2012).
teaus in central and south India. The country is better served by a vast railway
network that remains cheap despite escalating
costs of fuel.
Tourism in India Wildlife parks account for a substantial tourism
revenue source, and India has over 102 national
Tourism in India is as old as the times of the parks (IUCN category II protected area), 514 wild-
Harappan or Indus Valley culture (roughly life sanctuaries (IUCN category IV), and 53 tiger
4,000 years ago), and pilgrimages and religious reserves. Besides, it has some 17 biosphere
trips remain the mainstay of the tourism economy reserves (IUCN category I protected area), some
(Singh 2011), though ▶ leisure tourism is gaining of them in the Himalayas. As of 2012, India had
popularity. The concepts of tirthatan almost 5 % area under national parks which are
(pilgrimages), deshatan (▶ travel for economic statutorily open to tourists and wildlife sanctuaries
gain and educational tourism), and paryatan which need special permission (MOEF 2013).
(tourism as in modern times) are as old as the Some 23 % of its landmass is covered by forests
times of the Buddha and are deeply engrained in (MOEF 2013). India thus retains a vast potential
the Indian psyche (Singh 2011). Today, Delhi, for nature-based tourism, even though its protec-
Jaipur, Agra, Rajasthan, Shimla, Manali, Mum- tion of endemic species, including the tiger, lags
bai, Kolkata, Chennai, Hyderabad, Kochi and the behind. The country has some 28 world heritage
468 India
sites. It is also served by some 35 ▶ tourist trains, fields, with the latter being identified with hotel,
including the world heritage-listed Kalka to food, and beverage management. At least 50 cen-
Shimla toy train route in Himachal Pradesh. tral and state government-run universities and a
host of private institutions offer degree or diploma
courses, besides the Indian Institute of Tourism
Significance of tourism and Travel Management and the Indira Gandhi
National Open University. The former offers
During the period 2002–2011 India witnessed an vocational courses for even tourist guides and
increase in international tourist arrivals from 2.38 the latter aims at continuing education, largely
million to 6.29 million, an increase of 8.9 % from through distance methods.
5.78 million in 2010. It ranks the 38th country in A majority of graduates and postgraduates in
world tourism arrivals. There are an estimated India learn about the management, and less atten-
850.8 million domestic tourists (including pil- tion is paid to tourism and social science field.
grims). This has given India the fifth rank among While doctoral research is often done on tourism
countries with the fastest growing tourism and history, economics and administration, and
▶ industry (Hamid 2012). wildlife parks and conservation, India lags behind
The growth of tourism in India has come in the sociological, anthropological, psychologi-
about with the expansion of a salaried middle cal, and linguistic aspects of research. Lately, the
class that accounts for approximately 30 % of Indian Institutes of Management have also started
the population, as well as cheap private airlines researching tourism from the managerial perspec-
like Spice Jet, Jet Airways, and Indigo, among tives, with special emphasis on statistical treat-
others. Over the 2000–2011 period, the tourism ment. Future studies need to be directed at these
gross domestic product has expanded 229 %. areas that help understand tourist motivation,
Considered an emerging economy worth almost experience, and sustainability in India and
two trillion dollars, India generates twice the beyond.
number of international tourists that it receives
(GOI 2011b). See also ▶ Domestic tourism, ▶ heritage,
▶ international tourism, ▶ pilgrimage tourism,
▶ wildlife tourism.
Organization, education, and research
Tourism in India has been characterized by lack of

planning and devoid of insightful and inclusive References
policies (Hannam and Deikmann 2011). The
industry is not regulated, but the Ministry of Tour- GOI 2011a Census Report. New Delhi: Government of
ism, which began as a cell in the Department of India Department of Census.
Transport in the 1950s, has been in control of GOI 2011b Number of Indian Nationals’ Departure. New
Delhi: Government of India Bureau of Immigration.
▶ aviation through the Directorate General of Hamid, Z. 2012 The Medical Capital’s Place in History.
Civil Aviation and collects statistics for inbound The Hindu (August 20):6.
and ▶ outbound tourism. The Ministry of Tourism Hannam, K., and A. Deikmann 2011 Tourism and India:
formulates policies largely for promotion of A Critical Introduction. Oxon: Routledge.
MOEF 2013 Ministry of Environment and Forests, India
▶ international tourism, whereas states are www.envfor.nic.in/ (30 August).
responsible for domestic tourism. Singh, S. 2011 Religious Tourism in India: A Mix, a Fix or
Tourism ▶ education in India began in the an Abiding Concern for Planners? In Religious Tour-
mid-1970s, when diplomas were offered by ism in Asia and the Pacific, pp.329-340. Madrid: World
Delhi University and Garhwal University (now WTTC 2012 India: How Does Travel and Tourism Com-
in Uttarakhand). Since then, tourism and ▶ hos- pare to Other Sectors? London: World Travel and Tour-
pitality education have emerged as often separate ism Council.
Indonesia 469
5,400 km (3,400 mi) with a sovereign area of

Indonesia 1,904,569 km2 (735,358 mi2) of which
1,811,569 km2 (699,451 mi2) is land (CIA 2013).
Steve Noakes1 and Agung Suryawan Wiranatha2 From 1950 to 2010, the population of the
1
Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport country increased threefold from 72.6 to 240.7
Management, Griffith University, Queensland, million. Its nominal GDP is US$720 billion
Australia (8,241,864 billion rupiah) for 2012 (IMF 2013).
2
Tourism Study and Research Center, Udayana In terms of economic ▶ impact, tourism contrib-
University, Denpasar City, Bali, Indonesia uted about 3.9 % to the national GDP in 2012 and
accounted for 8.37 % or 9.28 million people on
the overall employment (Republic of Indonesia
Indonesia occupies an archipelago stretching from 2013). With natural and cultural resources in
the Indian Ocean to the Pacific Ocean, lying abundance (Picard 1990), the key destinations
between the Asian and Australian continents. It are Bali, Borobudur, Lake Toba, Jakarta, Mount
is adjacent to the Malay Peninsula to the west and Bromo, the Gili Trawangan Island, Komodo
▶ Papua New Guinea to its east and shares bor- Island and Lake Kelimutu, Toraja, Tanjung Puting
ders with ▶ Singapore, the ▶ Philippines, ▶ Aus- National Park, Bunaken, Wakatobi, and
I
tralia, Timor-Leste, and the Indian territories of Raja Ampat. The early stages of tourism
Andaman and Nicobar Islands (Figure 1). Indo- ▶ development in the 1970s were troubled by
nesia comprises 17,508 islands spanning domestic policy barriers, an oil boom causing
Indonesia, Figure 1 Map of Indonesia

470 Industrial tourism
currency appreciation, and high costs compared

to competitive neighboring destinations. In Industrial tourism
the later decades, however, tourism increased
from 562,000 arrivals in 1980 to 8,044 million Alfonso Vargas-Sánchez, Nuria Porras-Bueno
in 2012. and Ma Ángeles Plaza-Mejía
Bali received approximately three million Management and Marketing Department, Faculty
arrivals in 2013, making it the main ▶ destina- of Business Studies, University of Huelva,
tion for Indonesia. The ▶ destination suffered Huelva, Spain
from ▶ terrorism attacks in 2002 and again in
2004 but regained momentum from 2007 to
2012 with an average annual growth of interna- Industrial tourism, as a form of ▶ cultural tourism,
tional tourists at 14.7 %. With a significant num- can be defined widely or narrowly, and,
ber of tourism-related jobs reported in 2013, a depending on the definition used, its ▶ statistics
key objective of the Ministry of Tourism and are difficult to compare and aggregate. Two
Creative Economy is to improve the quality, branches are commonly considered. One covers
quantity, and ▶ professionalism of tourism visits to companies, to sites where productive
human resources. The Indonesia Tourism Educa- activity is actually happening, to witness pro-
tion Association listed 80 ▶ education and cesses that are actually alive, in motion, and in
▶ training providers in 2011. real ▶ time. The ▶ other branch covers what it is
Indonesia continues to consider ways to move usually known as industrial ▶ heritage tourism
beyond Bali in promoting the country to interna- (or industrial ▶ archaeology), which is founded
tional as well as domestic tourists. The Minister on a long dead and later recreated heritage.
for Tourism and Creative Economy’s “16-7-16 Although industrial tourism is not a new ▶ activ-
formula” calls for focusing on 16 key markets to ity, it is acquiring increasing importance as a part
attract international tourists; developing seven of the cultural landscape in a growing number of
thematic and special tourism sectors, such destinations. A number of successful cases around
as nature-based ecotourism, sports, cruises, the world (Otgaar et al. 2010) demonstrate the
▶ culture, and ▶ heritage; and promoting 16 des- adequacy and benefits of exploiting the industrial
tinations within the country, including Bali tourism market.
(Republic of Indonesia 2013).
Retrospective development
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ cultural tour-
ism, ▶ heritage, ▶ image, ▶ terrorism. Industrial tourism is not a homogenous subject. It
has been fragmented by approaches from diverse
scientific and methodological standpoints. Thus,
the main research areas under which studies can
References be categorized reflect its multidisciplinary charac-
ter, with few and scattered research efforts in a
CIA 2013 Central Intelligence Agency – the World somewhat disciplinary guerrilla warfare. This
Factbook <www.cia.gov/library/publications/the- reflects the general situation of tourism, but is
world-factbook/geos/id.html> (12 December).
IMF 2013 Principal Global Indicators. Washington, D.C.:
even more acute in industrial tourism studies.
International Monetary Fund www.principalglobal The conceptualization of tourism in its business
indicators.org/default.aspx (12 December). and nonbusiness aspects is also applicable in this
Picard, M. 1990 “Cultural Tourism” in Bali: Cultural Per- case. It is true that the economic and business
formances as Tourist Attraction. Indonesia 49:37-74.
Republic of Indonesia 2013 Indonesia Tourism Perfor-
management axis is present, but this is surpassed
mance 2012. Jakarta: Ministry of Tourism and Creative by geography. The panorama becomes even more
Economy. complex when a mix of other disciplinary
Industrial tourism 471
approaches are used, such as environmental and purpose. This represents an even greater challenge
urban studies, humanities, sociology, and others. and provides, at the same time, an additional
Generally, research on industrial tourism is source of interest in terms of theory development.
supported by case studies conducted mainly in The researchers’ ability to integrate this variety of
the ▶ United Kingdom and ▶ Spain, followed perspectives will be essential for a better under-
by ▶ Canada and the ▶ United States. These stud- standing of this ▶ phenomenon.
ies are predominantly descriptive and exploratory Factories and industrial tourism facilities that
utilizing qualitative techniques. Concerning their are still in operation, both soft and hard, provide
topics of study, a specific niche appears with a another emergent ▶ future research direction.
very significant role: mining tourism. From dif- This is a more recent dimension with particular
ferent perspectives, this kind of industrial heritage implications, such as the potential tensions among
has attracted a larger portion of the research the ▶ gaze of the ▶ tourist, the experience of those
▶ attention, in a number of countries with a strong working there, ▶ visitor safety, costs and benefits,
mining ▶ tradition. This fact reflects that research and complementarity with other ▶ resources in a
efforts have been mainly concentrated on what is ▶ destination.
generally known as “industrial archaeology.” In With regard to ▶ methodology, without
contrast, very few articles have been published on glossing over qualitative approaches on particular
I
operating industrial tourism facilities, with the cases, a more balanced position would be desir-
exception of wineries. Mining and ▶ wine tour- able, with an increase in the application of quan-
ism are probably the most popular manifestations titative methods and a move from mere
of industrial tourism in the world, with museums, descriptive research efforts into explanatory (and
parks, and other facilities built around them. even predictive) ones. The encouragement of
The evolution over time of the number of arti- these scientific paths (induction-deduction;
cles published (taking the databases of ISI Web of description-explanation) would help to consoli-
Knowledge and Scopus) has been irregular, date this corpus of ▶ knowledge.
although there appears to be a growing ▶ trend. Several aspects related to tourism ▶ manage-
After the pioneering paper by Oglethorpe (1987), ment have been already considered, but much
a long gap of 8 years follows, but the scientific more emphasis will be needed on them and others.
output has gained momentum in the last few For instance, key theoretical constructs such as
years. The ▶ work of McIntosh and Prentice ▶ authenticity and experience have been treated
(1999) has attracted the highest number of cita- very rarely in this context, as well as stakeholders’
tions, followed by Prentice et al. (1998), Edwards collaboration, partnerships, and ▶ governance.
and Coit (1996), Caffyn and Lutz (1999), and Furthermore, although some issues related to
Vargas-Sánchez et al. (2009). As a whole, this ▶ sustainability have been already researched,
niche of the tourism literature is still in its infancy. sustainable ▶ development will remain as a prom-
ising line of research on industrial tourism.
Conclusions and future directions See also ▶ Archaeology, ▶ cultural tourism,

▶ heritage, ▶ wine tourism.
Industrial tourism is an under-researched field,
with a great potential for growth. The limited
number of papers published and their relatively References
low number of citations can lead to the conclusion
that this narrow segment of the scientific commu- Caffyn, A., and J. Lutz 1999 Developing the Heritage
nity needs to be strengthened, especially in terms Tourism Product in Multi-ethnic Cities. Tourism
of interactions among its members. The diversity Edwards, J., and J. Coit 1996 Mines and
of disciplines or research areas informing their Quarries – Industrial Heritage Tourism. Annals of
studies has to be taken into account for this Tourism Research 23:341-363.
472 Industry
McIntosh, A., and R. Prentice 1999 Affirming Tourism ▶ supply is provided by “establish-
Authenticity – Consuming Cultural Heritage. Annals ments” defined as an enterprise or part of it is
Oglethorpe, M. 1987 Tourism and Industrial Scotland. situated in a single location in which only a
Tourism Management 8:268-271. single productive activity is carried out or in
Otgaar, A., L. Van Den Berg, C. Berger, and R. Feng 2010 which the principal productive activity accounts
Industrial Tourism: Opportunities for City and Enter- for most of the value added. The “industry” rep-
prise. Farnham: Ashgate.
Prentice, R., S. Witt, and C. Hamer 1998 Tourism as resents the grouping of those establishments,
Experience – The Case of Heritage Parks. Annals of which typically produce tourism goods and ser-
Tourism Research 25:1-24. vices. They are grouped by main categories,
Vargas-Sánchez, A., M. Plaza-Mejía, and N. Porras-Bueno according to a UN international standard (the
2009 Understanding Residents' Attitudes toward the
Development of Industrial Tourism in a Former Mining Central Product Classification – CPC 2008),
Community. Journal of Travel Research 47(3):373-387. comprising of two subcategories: internationally
comparable tourism characteristic products
representing the basic core for international com-
parison of tourism expenditure and country-
Industry specific products.
The new standards identify 12 categories of
Antonio Massieu tourism industries: Categories 1–10 support inter-
UNWTO, Madrid, Spain national comparability, while categories 11–12
are country-specific. All of them are related to
the updated UN Industrial Classification of All
Tourism is an economic activity determined prin- Economic Activities (ISIC 2008). Both classifica-
cipally by demand. Nevertheless, in its descriptions are mutually consistent as highlighted in
tion and measurement, it is necessary to take also Table 1.
supply into consideration. Without the provision
of products (goods and services) to meet the
demand, tourism economic effect on production A new conceptual framework
cannot be stated nor measured.
Both IRTS 2008 and TSA:RMF 2008 reproduce
the explanatory notes included in ISIC 2008 as
An economic activity well as CPC 2008. In the case of ISIC 2008, such
notes refer to the different classes of activities
The concept of tourism as an industry was intro- covered in each of the 12 categories. For instance,
duced and defined in the new international stan- “accommodation for visitors” includes not only
dards on tourism ▶ statistics (the International short-term accommodation services, camping
Recommendations for Tourism Statistics, IRTS grounds, and other temporary or longer-term
2008, and Tourism Satellite Account, TSA:RMF accommodation but also real-estate activities
2008) and is strictly related to the “characteristic with own or leased property, as well as real-estate
product” concept, where consumption of products activities on a fee or contract basis.
satisfies one or two criteria: the payment repre- Application of these concepts and definitions
sents a significant share of the total tourism to provide tourism measurements and macroeco-
▶ expenditure (share of expenditure/demand con- nomic analyses with appropriate data and indica-
dition) and/or of the supply of the product in the tors is a strategic objective for the World Tourism
economy (share of supply condition). This Organization in its capacity as the specialized
implies that the supply of a product would cease tourism agency in the UN system. More specifi-
to exist in meaningful quantity in the absence of cally, with the purpose of properly covering tour-
overnight visitors (tourists) or same-day visitors ism analyses within that of the total economy,
(excursionists). ▶ UNWTO warns about the need for practitioners
Industry 473
Industry, Table 1 List of categories of tourism characteristic consumption products and tourism characteristic activities
(tourism industries)
Products Activities
1. Accommodation services for visitors 1. Accommodation for visitors
2. Food and beverage services 2. Food and beverage serving activities
3. Railway passenger transport services 3. Railway passenger transport
4. Road passenger transport services 4. Road passenger transport
5. Water passenger transport services 5. Water passenger transport
6. Air passenger transport services 6. Air passenger transport
7. Transport equipment rental services 7. Transport equipment rental
8. Travel agencies and other reservation services 8. Travel agencies and other reservation services activities
9. Cultural services 9. Cultural activities
10. Sports and recreational services 10. Sports and recreational activities
11. Country-specific tourism characteristic goods 11. Retail trade of country-specific tourism characteristic goods
12. Country-specific tourism characteristic services 12. Other country-specific tourism characteristic activities
to ensure that what is measured as the supply Future research directions

I
(output of tourism industries) is consistent
with what is measured from the demand side IRTS 2008 explicitly mentions the relevance of
(tourism expenditure), even though a global measuring for each tourism industry (and the
coherence and consistency of the data are only corresponding establishments) with a dual objec-
specifically pursued when setting up a Tourism tive, the analysis of the industry as such and the
Satellite Account. generation of data with which to reconcile demand
Traditionally, the focus of tourism statistics by visitors in a fairly detailed way, in terms of both
has been on the demand side and on physical value (items a to d) and, when possible and rele-
data and indicators. The new international stan- vant, quantity or nonmonetary units (items e and f):
dards on tourism statistics bring a new focus to
the supply perspective, including understanding (a) Total value of output and output broken down
the supply as the direct provision of the goods by products (with special emphasis on tourism
and services that make up tourism expenditure; characteristic products) at basic prices and
describing the processes and the production costs producer prices when relevant
and the economic performance of those busi- (b) Total value of intermediate consumption bro-
nesses producing such products identifying the ken down by main product categories
establishment as the observation unit; and rising (if possible) at purchaser prices
awareness about the relevance of administrative (c) Total gross value added at basic prices – the
records (and business registers as a key informa- difference between total value of output at
tion resource) for the development of national basic prices and the total value of intermediate
systems of tourism statistics, particularly in consumption at purchaser prices
developed countries. (d) Total compensation of employees – wages
UNWTO (2010) warns tourism stakeholders and salaries, in cash and in kind, and social
(practitioners, public bodies and agencies, contributions, as well as globally and specif-
research centers, ▶ universities, trade associations ically identified categories of employees
and bodies, and specialized firms) about the fact (e) Number of establishments classified (and if
that only part of the output of each tourism possible cross-classified) in categories that
▶ industry is attributable to tourism expenditure. should be country relevant, such as formal/
This issue is explicitly identified and treated in the informal, market/ nonmarket, by legal form
Tourism Satellite Account by the use of “tourism of organization, employment size, etc.
shares” within their total output. (f) Information on ▶ employment
474 Informal economy
See also ▶ Economics, ▶ supply, ▶ Tourism and social security contributions and labor regula-
Satellite Account. tions are the primary reasons for its existence.
In tourism, hotel chains and ▶ air transport are
highly regulated; however, the ▶ industry
lends itself to informality as it is fragmented,
References tertiary, and local. According to WTTC (2015),
there were 277 million tourism jobs in 2014 (1 in
CPC 2008 Central Product Classification http://unstats.un. 11 jobs worldwide). In emerging economies,
org/unsd/cr/registry/cpc-2.asp (10 February 2014).
IRTS 2008 United Nations and World Tourism Organiza-
informal jobs as guides, hosts, drivers, hawkers,
tion, International Recommendations for Tourism Sta- and street vendors appeal due to low barriers
tistics http://statistics.unwto.org/content/conceptual- to entry.
framework-tourism-statistics-international-recommend In advanced economies, informality is lower
ations-tourism-statistics-2008 (10 February 2014).
ISIC 2008 Industrial Classification of All Economic Activ-
due to greater regulation, for example, account-
ities, Revision 4 http://unstats.un.org/unsd/cr/registry/ ing for 10 % of GDP in the ▶ United States
isic-4.asp (10 February 2014). compared to 60 % in ▶ Bolivia. Yet, there is a
TSA:RMF 2008 Tourism Satellite Account: shift away from the formal due to technological,
Recommended Methodological Framework 2008.
New York: United Nations.
economic, and social change. Flexible labor laws
UNWTO 2010 World Tourism Organization Positioning boost self-employment and start up test ideas
Tourism in Economic Policy; Evidence and Some Pro- outside of regulation. One consequence is the
posals, Second T.20 Ministers Meeting (Republic of emergence of the sharing economy allowing con-
Korea, 11-13 October 2010).
sumers to rent, lend, barter, or exchange goods/
services, where consumers eschew ownership of
assets in favor of sharing ▶ resources to gain
efficiencies. Airbnb is the most well-known
Informal economy peer-to-peer platforms, active in private rentals
in 192 countries with 500,000 listings and wel-
Caroline Bremner coming nine million guests since its launch in
Travel and Tourism, Euromonitor International, 2008, compared to 885,000 private rental outlets,
London, UK according to Euromonitor International (2014).
Uber is the highest valued sharing brand at over
US$40 billion in 2015, active in taxi and ride-
The informal economy consists of all activities car- sharing.
ried out by workers or business units that are not The sharing economy provokes controversy
covered in ▶ law or by formal arrangements, hence with high-profile court cases including New
untaxed, unregulated, or unmeasured. It is also York, and so far the official response has been
known as the shadow, parallel, cash economic sys- inconsistent given the lack of regulatory frame-
tems. Its diversity makes it difficult to define and work. Tourism is clearly at the crossroads about
quantify. Informal employment is high in emerging/ how to encourage such ▶ innovation while cre-
developing countries, with 50–75 % of ating a level playing field for new and old busi-
nonagricultural employment (ILO 2012), averaging ness models. Seeing as the OECD (2011)
35 % of GDP (World Bank 2010). It covers informal predicts, two-thirds of global employment will
workers employed by firms, informal self- be informal by 2020, greater understanding of
employed, and informal production. Informal work informality and clarification about its regulation
is characterized by poor conditions, low wages, and are required.
a lack of social protection or safety and involves
workers of all backgrounds (women, migrants, and See also ▶ Accommodation, ▶ employment,
children), although men are the largest group in ▶ innovation, ▶ policy and policymaking, ▶ rule
informal sector employment. The burden of tax and regulation.
Information center, tourist 475
References events and may induce them to revise their initial

visitation plans (Tierney 1993). Information centers
Euromonitor International 2014 Passport: Travel and Tour- play a key role in creating a first impression of the
ism. London: Euromonitor International.
level of ▶ hospitality and ▶ service quality of a
ILO 2012 The Informal Economy and Decent Work:
Supporting Transitions to Formality. Geneva: Interna- destination when they are located, at a point of
tional Labor Organization. entry, such as airports, train stations, or ferry termi-
OECD 2011 Towards a Better Understanding of the Infor- nals (Perdue 1995). Their staff are influential
mal Economy. Paris: Organization of Economic Coop-
▶ knowledge brokers as they control what informa-
eration and Development.
World Bank 2010 Shadow Economies All over the World: tion they filter, select, and choose to communicate to
New Estimates for 162 Countries from 1999 to 2007. the tourists; this brokering process has an effect on
Washington DC: World Bank. the tourists’ ▶ travel experience.
WTTC 2015 World Travel and Tourism Council: World
Research finds that the survival of many
2015 Economic Impact Report. London: World Travel
and Tourism Council. non-primary attractions of a destination is highly
dependent on tourists’ use of the services pro-
vided by such information centers and on the
dissemination of relevant information by their
staff (Wong and McKercher 2011). As repeaters
I
Information center, tourist to a destination become more common and iconic
attractions get more and more crowded, the con-
Cora Un In Wong tribution of information centers to the ▶ manage-
Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China ment of the ▶ carrying capacity of each
▶ attraction is likely to become more important.
Tourist information centers as potentially the most
Tourists collect information about a ▶ destination influential in-destination ▶ marker will attract fur-
from different sources typically accessible at their ther interest in tourism research, particularly from
home ▶ location, in transit, or in destinations. a managerial perspective, as little is known about
A ▶ tourist information center is an in-destination how they should be planned and run to optimize
source of information that one may choose to have the visitation at different attractions.
recourse to; it is typically provided as a public
▶ service, in principle free of private commercial See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ destination, ▶ market-
meddling. Its function is to disseminate informa- ing, ▶ tourist.
tion to tourists about the destination with the pur-
pose of encouraging visitation of local attractions
and generating positive tourism experiences. Its
staff are often local professionals who answer References
queries, facilitate practical aspects of the tourists’
visit, and provide useful up-to-date information. Fesenmaier, D., C. Vogt, and W. Steward 1993 Investigat-
ing the Influence of Welcome Center Information on
The literature on tourist information centers is Travel Behavior. Journal of Travel Research 31:47-52.
relatively limited; the subject began to be researched Gitelson, R., and J. Crompton 1983 The Planning Horizon
in the 1980s. Early papers were about the state and Sources of Information used by Pleasure Vaca-
welcome centers found along the US highways. tioners. Tourism Management 21:2-7.
Perdue, R. 1995 Traveler Preferences for Information Cen-
The tourists who use such centers have characteris- ter Attributes and Services. Journal of Travel Research
tics that distinguish them from those who do not 33:2-7.
(Fesenmaier et al. 1993; Gitelson and Crompton Tierney, P. 1993 The Influence of State Traveler Informa-
1983). Information centers have an influence on tion Centers on Tourist Length of Stay and Expendi-
tures. Journal of Travel Research 31:28-32.
tourists’ behavior, length of stay, and expenditures Wong, C. U. I., and B. McKercher 2011 Tourist Informa-
in a destination. There is also evidence that they can tion Center Staff as Knowledge Brokers. Annals of
stimulate tourists’ participation in local and ad hoc Tourism Research 38:481-498.
476 Information technology
convey product information to, and communicate

Information technology with, worldwide customers, it has become indis-
pensable to global marketing of the industry.
Daniel Leung1 and Rob Law2 Besides, Benckendorff et al. (2014) posited
1
Department of Tourism and Service that IT provides the information backbone that
Management, MODUL University Vienna, facilitates tourism development. Given that cus-
Vienna, Austria tomer preferences change rapidly and information
2
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, is critical for day-to-day operations in tourism
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, organizations, IT enables suppliers to search for
Hong Kong, China meaningful and profitable niche markets, to iden-
tify value-added components, and to promote dif-
ferentiated products through specialized media to
Being two of the most dynamic motivators of the particular segments that would be of interest. As
emerging global economy, the progress in infor- IT promises significant benefits, the landscape of
mation technology (IT) and dynamic develop- the industry has become technologically oriented
ments of tourism have been going hand in hand while IT is, and remains, pivotal for the prosperity
over the last few decades. Intrinsically, tourism is of the industry.
affected by IT as the latter represents a strong
driving force for changes in tourism development,
creating new products, communication networks,
business models, business practices, industry Applications in tourism
structure, as well as types of firms. On the other
hand, the growing demand in the industry induces The benefits received from the exploitation of IT
the requirement of new technologies for manage- such as minimizing cost, increasing revenue,
ment, leading to the emergence of more and improving business operation, and enhancing cus-
advanced technologies being applied to supple- tomers’ experience render a wide range of prod-
ment the continuous industry development. ucts and services being used to exchange
Hence, the progress in technology has been information and to facilitate operations in the
supporting tourism innovation and vice versa. industry. Buhalis (2003) and Werthner and Klein
(1999) summarize the technologies that are nor-
mally used in tourism and hospitality into three
Importance of information technology main categories: hardware, software, and
telecommunications.
Benckendorff et al. (2014) and Buhalis (2003) Hardware comprises all physical equipments
suggest that the use of IT in tourism is driven by of computer systems, including mechanical, mag-
the intangible nature of its products as well as the netic, electrical, electronic, or optical devices.
information-dependent nature of the industry. From the 1970s to 1990s, mainframes and per-
Unlike other durable and physical goods, tourism sonal computers were the most popular hardware
products are generally intangible, which normally supporting reservation and operation functions of
cannot be physically displayed or inspected prior airlines and hotels. As mainframes and personal
to purchasing. They thus depend exclusively on computers are capable of supporting hundreds of
representations and descriptions, provided by sup- terminals, the machines are very useful for dis-
pliers, intermediaries, or even previous customers, tributing tourism products among branches and
to attract more business. Since IT provides effec- stations through computer reservation systems.
tive tools enabling suppliers and intermediaries to In the 1990s, self-service terminals emerged and
Information technology 477
expanded in usage as points of information and further enhanced both inter- and intra-
sales. Since the 2000s, the emergence of mobile organizational networking. Since the internet
devices (including smartphones and tablets) has can empower organizations to communicate
further enhanced the interactivity and facilitates directly with prospective tourists, the technology
instant communications between suppliers and has transformed the competition and structure of
customers. the entire industry. Considering the related ben-
Software represents all prewritten detailed efits, such as high-speed global information dis-
instructions that control the operation of a com- semination, low distribution costs, and high
puter system or an electronic device. It incorporates levels of interactions and links to computerized
operating systems, software processes, intelligent reservation regardless of geographic location,
agents, and user interfaces. In tourism and hospi- time zone, or computer system, the internet is
tality, it is often divided into front- and back-office one of the most influential technologies that
applications. The former are primarily designed to have revolutionized the operational and strategic
facilitate transactions with customers. Property practices in travel and tourism (Buhalis and Law
management system, an automated lodging infor- 2008; Xiang et al. 2015).
mation system supporting room inventory control, The development of new and more powerful
is a prototype of front-office application. In con- technologies undoubtedly empowers both sup-
I
trast, back-office applications mainly support orga- pliers and consumers to enhance their efficiency
nizational needs and managerial requirements. and to reengineer their communications strate-
These include, among others, financial and man- gies. Agile strategies are still required at both
agement accounting, payrolls, as well as food and strategic and tactical management levels to ensure
beverage control. Strategic information system and that the technology-driven opportunities and chal-
decision support system are two examples that lenges are turned into the advantage of tourism
managers often use to support decisionmaking organizations in enhancing their innovation and
and to enhance operation efficiency. competitiveness.
Telecommunications comprise the transmis-
sion of signals over long distances, including See also ▶ eTourism, ▶ social media,
communication and transmission of multimedia ▶ technology.
data using different technologies. In hindsight,
different types of telecommunications (e.g., tele-
phone, telex, and fax) have been used exten- References
sively for facilitating communication and
information transmission. Before the emergence Benckendorff, P., P. Sheldon, and D. Fesenmaier 2014
of the internet, electronic data interchange was Tourism Information Technology. Oxford: CABI.
Buhalis, D. 2003 eTourism: Information Technology for
widely recognized as the most important tele- Strategic Tourism Management. London: Prentice Hall.
communication technology in the industry. It Buhalis, D., and R. Law 2008 Progress in Information
uses computer networks to enable transmission Technology and Tourism Management: 20 Years on
of transaction data and interchange of transaction and 10 Years after the Internet – The State of eTourism
documents. In other words, travel agencies can Werthner, H., and S. Klein 1999 Information Technology
transfer the details of a hotel reservation to the and Tourism – A Challenging Relationship. New York:
tour operator’s database with less paper. Springer.
Although electronic data interchange enhanced Xiang, Z., V. Magnini, and D. Fesenmaier 2015 Informa-
tion Technology and Consumer Behavior in Travel and
communication efficiency and reduces transac- Tourism – Insights from Travel Planning Using the
tion costs, the emergence of the internet in the Internet. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services
1990s has dramatically replaced the former and 22:244-249.
478 Infrastructure
extent of deforestation, or state of lagoons while

Infrastructure choosing a destination.
Wellness of the human being is at the heart
Jameel Khadaroo1 and Boopen Seetanah2 of the industry. Mental infrastructure as
1
Department of Economics and Statistics, reflected in mindset, ▶ education, ▶ culture,
University of Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius ▶ language, and ▶ hospitality of the inhabitants
2
Department of Finance and Accounting, Faculty of a destination is thus as important as physical
of Law and Management, University of infrastructure for the promotion of tourism
Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius development. A cultured, educated, and hospi-
table tourism workforce will raise the profile
and reputation of a destination by enhancing
tourist experience.
Sound infrastructure is indispensable for the In addition, infrastructure boosts tourism
▶ development of tourism as an economic pillar development by raising the attractiveness and
in any country. In a broad sense, infrastructure competitiveness of a destination. Tourists usually
includes physical, legal, environmental, and expect facilities in their chosen destination to be
mental amenities which contribute to making comparable to what they enjoy at home. There-
the tourism ▶ product enjoyable, reliable, and fore, good infrastructure in a destination pulls
sustainable. Physical infrastructure of direct rele- demand for its products. Research by Khadaroo
vance to tourism comprises the airport, seaport, and Seetanah (2007, 2008) shows that transport
inland road ▶ network, mass transport system, infrastructure is essential in raising the attractive-
hotels, bungalows, and recreational facilities. ness of a destination, with tourists residing in
The airport provides a first critical impression of developed countries more sensitive than those
the ▶ destination while adequate air connectivity from developing countries to the availability of
is necessary for expanding arrivals and diversify- transport in a destination. Comfortable air connec-
ing ▶ tourist sources. Efficient road network and tivity to and from a destination reduces pressure
transport system improve inland mobility and on airfares because of sufficient seat capacity,
experience. while also enabling tourists to visit more than
Hotels, bungalows, spas, restaurants, and rec- one country or ▶ region on a given trip. A good
reational facilities constitute the main tourism road network ensures access to remote tourism
infrastructure. Destinations typically cater to dif- sites at reasonable prices. ▶ Future research may
ferent classes of tourists by having facilities that estimate the specific contributions of the different
appeal to both average and high spenders. Given types of infrastructure to the growth of the tourism
the seasonal nature of demand, operators make the ▶ industry.
most of available infrastructure by offering
off-peak special packages. Legal infrastructure
covers trustworthy legislation, reputable enforce- See also ▶ Accessibility, ▶ accommodation,
ment authorities, and strong independent institu- ▶ destination, ▶ hospitality, ▶ travel.
tions, which provide tourists with comfort
regarding their personal ▶ safety and security.
Modern tourists may consult the applicability of
References
the rule of ▶ law before visiting a country. Envi-
ronmental infrastructure has gradually gained Khadaroo, J., and B. Seetanah 2007 Transport and Tourism
importance with the development of ▶ ecotour- Development. Annals of Tourism Research 34:1021-
ism. Tourists are nowadays sensitive to the con- 1032.
Khadaroo, J., and B. Seetanah 2008 Transport
cepts of green economy, renewable ▶ energy, and
Infrastructure and Tourism Development: A Dynamic
natural beauty. Ecologically friendly tourists pay Gravity Model Approach. Tourism Management
▶ attention to sources of energy production, the 29:831-840.
Innovation 479
having weaker capacity. More recent research

Innovation has recognized that service innovation is distinc-
tive because of the intangible nature of its prod-
Allan M. Williams ucts and processes.
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, Innovation in tourism shares many character-
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK istics with other industries but also remains dis-
tinctive. The co-terminality of production and
consumption means that the service interaction is
Whereas inventions are concerned with basic or a key area of innovation, manifest particularly in
scientific research, innovation is the application of the focus on improving the quality of experiences.
new ideas (Schumpeter 1934). The latter is the Co-terminality means that ▶ product and process
process of implementation of new ideas, and inno- innovation are interfolded and often difficult to
vators require the capacity to recognize the poten- disentangle. The focus on quality and the service
tial values of new ideas and to bring these into encounter has also enhanced the importance of
fruition. In the private sector, innovation is the human resources and ▶ training as foci for driving
▶ commercialization of new ideas about products, change. Organizational innovations are important
their production and ▶ marketing, but it also with format changes being important in both air-
I
exists in the public and voluntary sectors. lines and hotels, for example, the emergence of
Tourism studies have long been concerned budget hotels or low-cost airlines.
with changes, including the resort life cycle, ▶ Technology plays an important role in tour-
▶ sustainability programs, the impact of the inter- ism innovation, especially because it is an
net, and thus implicitly with innovation. However, information-intensive industry where airlines
only recently have tourism researchers explicitly and hotels routinely collect vast amounts of infor-
engaged with this concept, especially following mation about customers. Therefore, tourism has
the pioneer work of Hjalager (2002). Initially this been at the forefront of developments utilizing
was in relation to sustainability but subsequently ▶ information technology, whether in backroom
addressed the distinctiveness of tourism innova- operations or in digital marketing and sales. While
tion (Hjalager 2002). Tourism policymakers were much of the technological innovation has been
also relatively late to engage in this field, but the exogenous, further down the ▶ supply chain,
OECD (2003) has stimulated interest in develop- implementation has involved significant changes.
ing innovation policies. Academic interest has Another distinctive characteristic, which influ-
continued to grow with Tourism and Innovation ences innovation, is that the experience is a com-
(Hall and Williams 2008), representing the first plex and cumulative process delivered by
multi-scalar overview of the subject. multiple, interrelated agencies, including different
types of tourism firms, non-governmental organi-
zations, the public sector, the host community, and
Distinctiveness of tourism innovation the tourists themselves (OECD 2003). Hence the
practice, or outcome, of change in any individual
The innovation literature was initially dominated firm or organization is conditional on other stake-
by manufacturing, informed by the notion that it holders, and coproduction is often a key feature of
was driven by research and ▶ development, successful tourism innovations (Shaw et al. 2011).
patenting, and high-tech applications. Tourism
innovation tended to be ignored or hidden, and
this was partly informed by the near invisibility of Characteristics of tourism innovation
most ▶ service products (especially tourism) in
secondary data on innovation. This approach There are three main typologies of innovation
assumed that innovation in services was funda- based on newness, focus, and attributes (Adams
mentally similar to that in manufacturing but et al. 2006). The conceptualization of newness
480 Input-output analysis
dates back to Schumpeter’s (1934) pioneering endogenous and exogenous to the industry. It
work, which distinguishes between radical and lies at the heart of competitiveness and competi-
incremental changes. While intuitively appealing, tion. Future research priorities include the need
it has been difficult to operationalize these con- for detailed empirical studies of tourism innova-
cepts, but they are usually understood in terms of tion processes and making stronger links to stud-
whether they are new to the individual firm or ies of ▶ entrepreneurship, corporate strategies,
organization, the ▶ industry, or the economy. and policies.
Radical innovations are also considered to be
those which “change the rules of the game” or See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ entrepre-
the nature of competition. Low-cost airlines, Dis- neurship, ▶ management, ▶ product.
ney themeparks, and on-line marketing and sales
all represent radical innovations.
The most common basis for differentiating References
innovations in terms of focus is the Oslo manual
(OECD 2005). This distinguishes among Adams, R., D. Tranfield, and D. Denyer 2006 Innovation
▶ product, process, organizational, and ▶ mar- Types: Configurations of Attributes as a Basis for Inno-
vation Classification. Working Paper 46. London:
keting innovations. Other commentators have Advanced Institute of Management Research.
suggested alternative typologies based on focus Hall, C., and A. Williams 2008 Tourism and Innovation.
(Hjalager 2002), including technological, envi- London: Routledge.
ronmental, and institutional innovations. There Hjalager, A. 2002 Repairing Innovation Defectiveness in
Tourism. Tourism Management 23:465-474.
have been relatively few empirical attempts to OECD 2003 Proceedings of OECD Conference on Inno-
identify and classify types of tourism innova- vation and Growth in Tourism. Paris: Organization for
tions, but process and organizational types tend Economic Cooperation and Development.
to be particularly significant (Hall and Williams OECD 2005 Oslo Manual: Guidelines for Collecting and
Interpreting Innovation Data. Paris: Organization for
2008). One problem with focus-based definitions Economic Cooperation and Development.
is that they tend to fragment the innovation pro- Schumpeter, J. 1934 The Theory of Economic Develop-
cess, which usually involves a series of interre- ment. Cambridge: Harvard University Press.
lated changes. This is particularly important in Shaw, G., A. Bailey, and A. Williams 2011 Service Dom-
inant Logic and its Implications for Tourism Manage-
tourism where the distinction between product ment: The Co-production of Innovation in the Hotel
and process is blurred. Industry. Tourism Management 32:207-214.
Finally, innovations can also be classified in
terms of their attributes. These include their com-
plexity, trialability, relative advantage, compati-
bility, and observability (Adams et al. 2006). Input-output analysis
Innovations are essential to competitiveness, so
firms pay particular attention to their relative Elisabeth Valle1 and Clemente Polo2
1
advantage. However, observability is also impor- Department of Applied Economics, Universitat
tant because the highly observable nature of front- de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
2
stage changes in practices or products makes it Universidad Autónoma de Barcelona, Barcelona,
difficult to protect innovation in tourism from Spain
imitation by competitors. However, complexity
can be a barrier to imitation. As innovation tends
to be resource intensive, high costs can also be a Input-output (IO) analysis was developed after the
deterrent. As compatibility and trialability can seminal work by Leontief (1936). Following Leon
reduce costs, these are valued attributes. Walras’ general equilibrium framework, Leontief
In tourism, innovation is the means by which proposed a simple linear model to determine pro-
companies and organizations respond to changes duction quantities and prices in a setup where com-
in demand and supply conditions, both modities are produced with commodities, in which
Insurance 481
all “coefficients of production” can be specified accounting matrices) assembled from statistical
numerically with the aid of an IO table. Leontief information on production, distribution, and
(1936) was also the first to construct a statistical expenditure to improve the accuracy of model
table for the ▶ United States that presented infor- specifications. A finer disaggregation of tourism
mation on “quantitative input and output relations” services and nonresident consumers would be
for 44 industries in 1919, when the first “tableau very useful. Greater attention should also be
economique” of a national economy and the first paid to separating tourism-related investments
numerical general equilibrium model were born. from other construction investments.
Since then, IO tables have been routinely
constructed for national and regional economies See also ▶ Computable general equilibrium
to quantify demand, examine sectoral interdepen- model, ▶ multiplier effect, ▶ social accounting
dencies, analyze structural/productivity changes, matrix, ▶ Tourism Satellite Account.
study redistribution, calculate energy content of
commodities, and estimate CO2 emissions.
By the 1970s, ▶ international tourism had References
become a key export “industry” accounting for
shares of output, income, labor, and tax revenues Archer, B. 1982 The Value of Multipliers and their Policy
Implications. Tourism Management 3:236-241. I
in recipient countries (Archer 1982). IO models
Fletcher, J. 1989 Input-output Analysis and Tourism Impact
were used to quantify the ▶ impact of tourism on Studies. Annals of Tourism Research 16:514-529.
national/regional economies (Fletcher 1989). Leontief, W. 1936 Quantitative Input-output Relations in
Polo and Valle (2012) presented a comprehensive the Economic System of the United States. Review of
survey of tourism studies and discussed the Economics and Statistics 18(3):105-125.
Polo, C., and E. Valle 2012 Input-Output and SAM
advantages and limitations of linear models rela- Models. In Handbook of Research Methods in
tive to computable general equilibrium models. Tourism, L. Dwyer, A. Gill and N. Seetaram, eds.,
Notwithstanding, IO analysis has provided inter- pp.227-260. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
esting and useful information to policymakers,
making it possible to quantify the overall economic
impact of tourism on a ▶ destination economy, for
example, ranking production and calculating Insurance
imports according to tourists’ demands, estimating
the effects of ▶ tourist injections on services, mea- Rosario Monter
suring linkages among touristic sectors, Department of Business Economics, Universitat
ascertaining the importance of tourism to traditional des Illes Baleares, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
exports, estimating government revenues and costs
from tourism, and assessing environmental conse-
quences of ▶ mass tourism. All in all, IO studies An insurance contract is a risk-transfer mecha-
have made a great contribution to understanding the nism between an entity exposed to potential risks
multiple impacts of tourism on an economy. (the insured) and another that compensates the
With growing economic integration and glob- losses originated by such risks (the insurer). It
alization and rapid increase in per capita income, promises an economic compensation in case a
tourism will continue to be a major driving force specific future loss occurs in exchange of
in large, medium, and small economies alike. premium payments fixed in advance. According
Due to its ease in specification and implementa- to the risks covered, insurance contracts may be
tion, IO analysis and its related linear models will classified in two types: life insurance covers
continue to be routinely used to estimate the the risks related to the insured in terms of
economic and environmental consequences of illness, accident, retirement income, and death,
tourism. Efforts should be made to construct whereas property insurance covers the risks
more solid data basis (IO tables and social related to a property in the instance of fire,
482 Intellectual property
flood, and earthquake. Dionne (2013) collects the See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ crisis manage-
scientific foundations of risk and insurance ment, ▶ risk, ▶ safety and security.
economics.
The origin of insurance is traced back to the
third millennium BC by Babylonian traders who References
looked to reduce their losses. The earliest contract
that is known covered a ship traveling from Genoa APEC 2006 Tourism Risk Management: An Authoritative
Guide to Managing Crises in Tourism. APEC: Interna-
to Majorca in 1347. In the nineteenth century,
tional Centre for Sustainable Tourism.
some government institutions and insurance com- Bank, M., and R. Wiesner 2011 Determinants of Weather
panies introduced pension systems, accident Derivatives Usage in the Austrian Winter Tourism
insurance, medical care, and life insurance. It Industry. Tourism Management 32:62-68.
Becken, S., and K. Hughey 2013 Linking Tourism into
was not until 1864 that the Travelers Insurance
Emergency Management Structures to Enhance Disas-
Company was created in the ▶ United States cov- ter Risk Reduction. Tourism Management 36:77-85.
ering tourists against loss of life or injury caused Dionne, G. 2013 Handbook of Insurance (2nd ed.).
during their journey. Since then, this coverage has New York: Springer.
been extended to include cancellation and trip
interruption, medical assistance abroad, lost or
damaged baggage, financial default coverage,
risks involved in outdoor activities, and other Intellectual property
travel-related risks.
Global risks, such as climate changes and nat- Hugo Pinto
ural catastrophes, affect the tourism ▶ industry Centre for Social Studies, University of Coimbra,
enormously. Recent examples of natural catastro- Coimbra, Portugal
phes are the tsunami in 2004 that devastated the
coast causing directly and indirectly losses to sev-
eral Asian countries, the volcano eruption in Intellectual property refers to legal rights of intel-
▶ Iceland in 2010 that affected air traffic over lectual activity in the industrial, scientific, literary,
▶ Europe, and the 2011 ▶ New Zealand earth- and artistic domains. The justification for its pro-
quakes. Global risk management experts suggest tection is to guarantee that creators can absorb the
implementing the four R’s framework of reduc- economic benefits from its public dissemination,
tion, readiness, response, and recovery (APEC thus rewarding creative activities, and have incen-
2006; Becken and Hughey 2013). tive to continue their inventive efforts. The right
The role of insurance and reinsurance compa- grants time-limited privileges to control the use
nies is crucial to help tourism businesses to made of such goods and services. With roots in
recover quickly. In turn, the insurance industry medieval ▶ Europe, property-based instruments
must have enough financial liquidity to honor are one of the oldest institutional arrangements
the promised benefits to the insured. Some finan- for knowledge production and exchange. Cur-
cial instruments that hedge such risks are the cat rently, these mechanisms are largely focusing on
bonds which offer to the investors a high-risk international protection (Granstrand 2005).
premium related to their expected loss. Weather Intellectual property is divided into industrial
derivatives may help to smooth the earnings of a property and copyright. The first covers inven-
tourism business (Bank and Wiesner 2011). They tions, new solutions to technical problems, indus-
rely on specific weather conditions like the num- trial designs, and visual creations determining the
ber of sunny days on a specific ▶ destination or appearance of industrial products. It also includes
the snowfall amount in ski resorts. Current scien- trademarks, service marks, commercial names
tific research aims to design adequate mechanisms and designations (including indications of source
that may help to mitigate, share, or hedge risks and origin), and protection against unfair compe-
that are still uncovered. tition. Copyright regards scientific, literary and
International Academy for the Study of Tourism 483
artistic works, films, music, and architectural References

design. It also includes artists’ performances, pro-
ducers of phonograms in their recordings, and Granstrand, O. 2005 Innovation and Intellectual Property
Rights. In The Oxford Handbook of Innovation,
broadcasters in their radio and television pro-
J. Fagerberg, D. Mowery and R. Nelson, eds.,
grams (WIPO 2004). pp.266–290. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Intellectual property is often contested because Jaffe, A., and J. Lerner 2007 Innovation and its Discon-
of its consequences to free trade, knowledge uti- tents. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
Lai, J. 2014 Indigenous Cultural Heritage and Intellectual
lization, and equity. Today, the debate is polarized
Property Rights. Cham: Springer.
between supporters and antagonists. An example WIPO 2004 Intellectual Property Handbook: Policy,
with impacts on human health and strong moral Law and Use www.wipo.int/about-ip/en/iprm (8 July
implications is the case of drug access in devel- 2013).
oping countries and the fierce protection from
pharmaceutical companies. Other negative
impacts are the monopolization by multinational
enterprises of natural and bio-resources and the
barriers to incremental development of knowl- International Academy for the Study
edge (Jaffe and Lerner 2007). of Tourism
I
Tourism is not commonly associated with
intellectual property, but its utilization is of critical Erik Cohen
relevance. It should be an encompassing initia- Department of Sociology and Anthropology,
tive, paying attention to different instruments The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem,
and their applicability to products that character- Israel
ize the uniqueness of the ▶ destination. Differen-
tiation can be better achieved with an active
utilization of intellectual property, to guarantee Founded in 1988 at the initiative of Jafar Jafari,
that the replication of singularities from the terri- the Academy <www.polyu.edu.hk/htm/iast/>
tory is done fairly. One interesting example is the seeks to bring together the leading academics in
Maori (▶ New Zealand) that have developed tourism studies in order to further the scholarly
brands to protect their cultural intellectual prop- research and professional investigation of tour-
erty against cheaper copies of tourism souvenirs ism, to encourage the application of findings,
(Lai 2014). For bigger private actors, such as hotel and to advance the international diffusion and
chains or ▶ tour operators facing huge interna- exchange of tourism ▶ knowledge. Its member-
tional competition, strategies are accompanied ship is limited to 75 Fellows; candidates are nom-
by multiple trademarks and copyrights to obtain inated by Fellows and elected by a simple
▶ tourist recognition. For smaller players, like majority vote from at least two thirds of the mem-
those in cultural and creative sectors, the vigilance bership. At present the Academy has 70 Fellows,
of copyright has strategic relevance to avoiding 7 of whom are women. Two thirds of the mem-
illicit imitation. ▶ Future research will pay signif- bership hail from academic institutions of Anglo-
icant ▶ attention to different types of intellectual phone countries (principally the ▶ United States,
property protection in tourism and to the difficul- the ▶ United Kingdom, ▶ Canada, ▶ Australia,
ties in managing intangible assets within the gen- and ▶ New Zealand) and the rest from other Euro-
eralization of information and communication pean (11), Asian (10), and Latin American
technologies, which may provide answers for (1) countries. The academic backgrounds of
controversies regarding the interplay of tradition, more than half of the Fellows are in ▶ economics,
culture, and innovation in the destination. ▶ management, and business studies; other social
sciences, except geography, are sparsely
See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ image, represented. About three quarters of the Fellows
▶ innovation. are affiliated with tourism, ▶ hospitality, or
484 International tourism
business management schools, while only about References

one quarter are affiliated with disciplinary depart-
ments, such as geography, economics, anthropol- Dann, G. 2009 How International Is the International
Academy for the Study of Tourism? Tourism Analysis
ogy, or sociology.
14(1):3-13.
The Academy’s chief activity comprises bian- Nash, D. 2012 Balance of Power in Developing an Asso-
nual membership meetings. Since 1989, 13 meet- ciation of Tourism Researchers. Tourism Recreation
ings have been held, mainly in East and South Research 37(1):91-97.
Europe, East Asia, and the ▶ Middle East, spon-
sored mostly by local academic institutions. In
addition to academic sessions at which Fellows,
candidates, and emergent tourism scholars present International tourism
their works, workshops are held with representa-
tives of the sponsoring body and the local tourism Esteban Bardolet
▶ industry. Eight collections of papers from the Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de
Academy’s meetings have been published in book les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
format.
The Academy faces some critical issues. Some
claim that the composition of the Academy’s International tourism has become an important
membership does not fully reflect its “interna- form of mass consumerism, standardized and
tional” aspirations, owing to the high incidence protected by ▶ legislation. It differs from
of Fellows from Anglophone countries, while ▶ domestic tourism as it focuses on those who
tourism researchers who publish in other lan- cross a country’s border and spend at least one
guages, or inhabit the non-Western regions of night but not more than 6 consecutive months
the world, are underrepresented (Dann 2009). there. Tourists not staying overnight on ▶ desti-
Another issue is an emerging divergence in aca- nation are “visitors” (UNWTO 2012).
demic concerns between the growing preponder- ▶ Inbound tourism refers to the flow of foreign
ance of business and management professionals in tourists traveling to a destination country
its membership, preoccupied mainly with practi- (or international arrivals), whereas its counterpart
cal issues in tourism ▶ development, and the of ▶ outbound tourism refers to residents travel-
diminishing representation of such disciplines as ing to a foreign country (or international depar-
sociology and anthropology that deal with theo- tures). At a global scale, total arrivals match total
retical issues (Nash 2012). The somewhat conser- international departures, saving a minor statistical
vative predilection of the Fellows in nominating problem of unspecified allocations. A single
and electing new members from similar back- ▶ tourist can generate one or more arrivals/depar-
grounds tends to overlook a younger generation tures during 1 year.
of researchers who are innovators in their respec- There are three main types of international
tive fields, while the implicit pro-industry orien- arrivals. In 2012, the first was “leisure and holi-
tation of the Academy could make it hard for more day,” accounting for 52 %. The second with 27 %
radical critics of tourism to become members. had other purposes (▶ visiting friends and rela-
Finally, as tourism in a rapidly changing world tives, ▶ religion, health). The third with 14 %
becomes increasingly merged with other mobil- included arrivals of business and professional tour-
ities, the Academy faces the prospect of redefining ists, a statistically complex type because it is also a
its ▶ identity and expanding its membership user of many tourism facilities. Finally there was a
beyond the limits of conventional “tourism 7 % for unspecified reasons (UNWTO 2012).
studies.” International tourism adds economic potential
to domestic tourism as an economic double-
See also ▶ Journal, academic, ▶ knowledge, folded agent: generating receipts that in 2012
▶ scholarship, ▶ theory, ▶ university. amounted to 30 % of the world exports of
International tourism 485
commercial services (6 % of the world exports of The world top four inbound destinations show
goods and services), also generating noticeable a ranking in million arrivals that do not match the
foreign investment in many emerging countries. one after their receipts in billion dollars. ▶ France
Moreover, for many of these countries, it is a was first with 83 arrivals but third with 53.7
major source of foreign currencies and employ- receipts. The ▶ United States was second with
ment opportunities. It should also be mentioned of 67 arrivals but first with 126.2 receipts. Continen-
its role in promoting world peace. tal ▶ China (excluding Macao and Hong Kong)
As international tourism means ▶ transporta- was third with 57.7 arrivals but fourth with
tion, technical development of systems and oper- 50 receipts. ▶ Spain was fourth with 57.7 arrivals
ating costs are important. In 2012, as much as but second with 55.9 receipts. These top four
52 % of arrivals were by air, 40 % by road, 6 % arrivals add up to 265.4 million and a world
by water, and 2 % by railways. Thus, many desti- share of 25.6 %, showing a geographical concen-
nations owe their successes to modern and cheap tration of tourism flows. China has three territories
air connectivity. The growth of “low-cost” carriers that are registered statistically as different desti-
(mostly flying year round) is smoothing the “off- nations; thus, due to the magnitude of its popula-
peak” season of some popular destinations. The tion, the sum of all three ranked it as the world first
growth of international sea cruises is also a notice- destination in terms of arrivals (95.1 million) and
I
able trend (UNWTO 2013a). second in receipts ($125.8 billion).
Concerning outbound tourism departures, only
limited data is available, and statistical difficulties
Data selection for wider information are mainly due to the
unclear recording of tourists. In 2012 world
The traditional way to rank and compare inbound region shares were Europe 52.1 %, Asia and the
tourism is by the number of arrivals, often the only Pacific 22.8 %, the Americas 16.6 %, the Middle
data available. The number of stays is a more East 3.1 %, Africa 3 %, and other non-specified
significant measure, but hotels and similar regis- ▶ region 2.4 %. Significantly, 77.3 % of tourists
tered lodging units do not equal the total destina- remained within their same world region, whereas
tion lodging capacity supply. Total inbound only 20.3 % were bound to elsewhere. The rank-
tourism receipt is a more reliable indicator of ing of the top source countries by expenditure
destination economics. However, GDPs gener- of outbound tourism departures was: first China
ated by international tourism are not easily found ($ 102 billion), second Germany ($83,8 billion),
by destinations as they are not yet made available third United States ($ 83,5 billion), fourth United
by ▶ UNWTO. Kingdom ($52,3 billion) and fifth Russian Feder-
In 2010, domestic tourism estimated genera- ation ($ 42,8 billion) (UNWT 2013b).
tion of world GDP was 78 % and international
tourism was 22 %, but for the main European
destinations, these weights were 60 % and 40 %, Future trends
respectively, showing a higher participation than
world average due to its higher economic standing The strength of international tourism ▶ trend has
(Vellas 2011). In 2012, the world inbound tourism such a potential that total inbound in 2030 may
receipts reached US$1.075 billion. Europe’s share reach 1.8 billion arrivals, indicating an 80 %
was 42.6 %, ▶ Asia and the Pacific 30.1 %, the growth over 2012. In terms of “advanced” versus
▶ Americas 19.8 %, the ▶ Middle East 4.4 %, and “emerging” economies, the 2030 distribution of
▶ Africa 3.1 %. On the same year world inbound arrivals may be 43–57 %, respectively, and for the
tourism arrivals reached 1.035 billion. ▶ Europe first time in history, the dominant share could be
was the first region with 51.6 %, followed by Asia for “emerging economies.” UNWTO (2011) fore-
and the Pacific 22.6 %, the Americas 15.8 %, casts are pending on world economic perfor-
Africa 5.1 %, and the Middle East 4.9 %. mance, increasing life expectancy of population,
486 Internet
improvement of transport systems, and visa facil- globe. It is not only a cultural phenomenon but also
ities, but in addition a peaceful world scenario a new way of understanding communication sys-
would be needed. tems that is transforming the world. Today, millions
Related topics for further research include sub- access information in such a way causing an
merged economy in tourism (specially due to immense and rapidly changing virtual landscape
nonofficially registered lodgings for foreign tour- of interactive knowledge transfer. The internet has
ists), jobs generated by the ▶ industry (generally changed the way tourists search, find, read, and
annual average omits important seasonality unbal- even buy products or services, as well as how
ances), and amount of receipts/expenditures. new information about suppliers and destinations
Notably, destination receipts may not include all is produced (Sigala et al. 2012).
types of international tourist transportation Several features define the characteristics of
contracted from companies outside of the tourists’ the internet: widespread (the largest computer net-
countries of residence, and tourists’ expenditure work in the world), changeable (continually
in destinations does not always reflect the adapting to new needs and circumstances), varied
expenses prepaid in their own countries. (accommodating all types of equipments, manu-
facturers, organizations, suppliers, networks,
See also ▶ Foreign exchange, ▶ inbound tour- technologies, and users), and decentralized
ism, ▶ outbound tourism, ▶ transportation. (no official controller such as governments or
international organizations). The internet is a
valuable tool in the commercialization of prod-
ucts. Some competitive advantages over tradi-
References
tional forms of media include reduced costs of
UNWTO 2011 Tourism Towards 2030: Global Overview. information exchange, high transmission speed,
XIX General Assembly. Madrid: World Tourism direct and customized relationships with con-
Organization. sumers, transaction control, and flexibility in the
UNWTO 2012 Yearbook of Tourism Statistics (2012 Edi- use of marketing elements. The main business
tion). Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
UNWTO 2013a Compendium of Tourism Statistics http:// applications are communications, market
statistics.unwto.org/content/compendium-tourism- research, customer support, market penetration,
statistics (2 April 2015). product development, direct product marketing,
UNWTO 2013b Tourism Highlights www.e-unwto.org/ and advertising, among others.
content/hq4538/fulltext.pdf (2 April 2015).
Vellas, F. 2011 The Indirect Impacts of Tourism: An Eco- In tourism, due to the fact that service pro-
nomic Analysis. The Third Meeting of T20 Tourism viders and their users are distant, the internet has
Ministers. Paris: Toulouse University www2.unwto. become a revolution in terms of dissemination,
org/agora/indirect-impact-tourism-economic-analysis marketing, and trading of products. Nowadays,
(2 April 2015).
tourists assemble their own online packages by
buying everything separately and thus use less
services of tour operators and travel agencies.
Most online providers offer separate products
Internet (travel tickets, hotel accommodation) instead of
packaged sets. In order to prepare for the trip,
José Leiva potential tourists use the websites of destination
Department of Computer Science, University of management organizations. In addition, they visit
Málaga, Malaga, Spain social networks, consult travel blogs, and see
photos and videos of others for recommendations
and opinions. When they visit the destinations,
The internet is a global set of networks they too take photos and videos and later share
interconnecting various types of devices their own experience in the network, comment
(computers, tablets, smartphones, etc.) around the and rate hotels, and much more.
Interpretation 487
Today, tourism economic activities are largely tourists (Moscardo and Ballantyne 2008). Interpre-
influenced by the massive development of infor- tation includes activities such as guided tours,
mation and communication technologies (Buhalis educational presentations, guide books, brochures
and Law 2008). Before a trip, tourists obtain and pamphlets, exhibits and displays, self-guiding
information and buy services through the internet. programs, and educational signage. It is most often
Systems such as online travel agencies and associated with cultural heritage settings such as
low-cost carriers are the most visited websites. historic precincts, museums and art galleries, zoos,
The impact of the internet on tourism is unques- wildlife parks and aquaria, and natural heritage
tionable. In the future, destination marketing orga- attractions including national parks, forests, and
nizations will continue to learn from the protected areas. Interpretation can also be seen as
information generated and available on the inter- a type of education where tourists are voluntary
net. New lines of inquiries are recommendation and temporary participants, and this distinguishes
systems (Fesenmaier et al. 2006) and augmented it from the more formal environmental education
reality, which continue to change the way people programs offered to student groups at many of
interact with and experience the world. these sites (Ham 1992). To highlight this distinc-
tion, interpretation is sometimes referred to as free-
See also ▶ Computer reservation system, choice learning or informal education (Ballantyne
I
▶ eCommerce, ▶ information technology, and Packer 2011).
▶ social media, ▶ virtual reality. The recognition and labeling of interpretation
as a specific form of communication with tourists
is usually attributed to Freeman Tilden who
References worked in the US National Parks Service in the
early decades of the twentieth century and who is
Buhalis, D., and R. Law 2008 Progress in Tourism Man- often referred to as the father of interpretation.
agement: Twenty Years on and 10 Years after the Tilden’s book (Tilden 1977), published in 1957,
Internet – The State of eTourism Research. Tourism outlined a set of principles for interpretation that
Fesenmaier, D., H. Werthner, and K. Wober 2006 Destina- are still used extensively in contemporary defini-
tion Recommendation System: Behavioural Founda- tions and discussions of interpretation in tourism.
tions and Applications. Cambridge: CABI. Translating these principles into a tourism context
Sigala, M., E. Christou, and U. Greztel 2012 Social Media suggests that interpretation must relate aspects of
in Travel, Tourism and Hospitality: Theory, Practice
and Cases. Burlington: Ashgate. the place being presented to something of per-
sonal relevance to the tourists. Interpretation
should additionally provide more than just factual
information by assisting tourists in developing a
deeper understanding of the targeted places and
Interpretation people. Interpretation should also be provocative
and encourage tourists to reconsider their
Gianna Moscardo preexisting beliefs, and it should be about
College of Business, Law and Governance, presenting destinations as whole systems, not
James Cook University, Townsville, Australia just particular elements that might be of interest.
In a natural heritage context, the traditional
focus of researchers and practitioners has been
Interpretation in a tourism context is a form of on the use and effectiveness of interpretation as a
communication between those responsible for tool to minimize tourists’ negative environmental
managing a ▶ destination or attraction and those impacts. In both cultural heritage settings and
visiting them. This particular form of persuasive tourism studies, interpretation has been consid-
communication is focused on presenting and ered in a wider range of ▶ roles. Thus, it can be
explaining one or more aspects of a destination to seen as having three main functions: as a form of
488 Interpretation
▶ visitor management, as a major contributor to destination ▶ marketing organizations, adding

▶ tourist experiences, and as a process supporting this technique to more traditional forms of tourist
aspirations to use tourism in order to encourage communication (Moscardo 2009).
more sustainable lifestyles.
Interpretation for future sustainability

Interpretation research
An emerging area is concerned with the potential
The most common approach to interpretation for tourists to learn about sustainability through
research has been to evaluate specific interpretive the interpretation they experience at various des-
activities and programs in terms of their effective- tinations. This reflects a growing belief that tour-
ness in modifying tourists’ beliefs and behaviors ism needs to consider ▶ sustainability beyond the
(Ballantyne and Packer 2011; Moscardo and Bal- immediate destination and to educate and encour-
lantyne 2008). The majority of this research eval- age tourists to be more sustainable in their day-to-
uates minimal ▶ impact programs that seek to day lives when they return home. This new focus
change behaviors associated with negative envi- on tourism as a mechanism for teaching people
ronmental impacts, such as littering, walking off about sustainable lifestyles is supported by a
paths, and harassing wildlife (Moscardo 2008). range of new interpretive activities, many of
A parallel version of this research has examined which use mobile communication technologies
the effectiveness of interpretation in altering tour- and ▶ social media to supplement experiences.
ist attitudes and intentions towards support for While there has been much discussion on these
conservation (Ballantyne and Packer 2011; new interpretive platforms, research into their
Moscardo and Ballantyne 2008). Although much effectiveness has only recently begun to emerge.
research in this area has concentrated on environ- This issue of the effectiveness of interpretation in
mental impacts, there are also studies investigat- achieving its goals continues to be a major con-
ing the role of interpretation in creating cern for tourism research with a need to develop a
representations of destination residents, which wider range of methods and conceptual frame-
explore some of the conflicts that can arise over works for understanding this type of tourist
whose voice is included in various interpretive ▶ activity.
activities (Moscardo 2009; Moscardo and Ballan-
tyne 2008).
Interpretation is a central component of many See also ▶ Expenditure, ▶ guided tour, ▶ heri-
attractions, especially those that are based on nat- tage, ▶ representation, cultural, ▶ sustainability.
ural, cultural, and historic sites of significance.
There is considerable evidence that tourists expect
interpretation to be provided at these sites and
many are motivated by the opportunity to learn References
more about these places. Moscardo (2009) pro-
vides a review of this evidence and discusses in Ballantyne, R., and J. Packer 2011 Using Tourism Free-
Choice Learning Experiences to Promote Environmen-
more detail the different elements of interpretation
tally Sustainable Behavior: The Role of Post-Visit
and how these contribute to positive tourist expe- “Action Resources”. Environmental Education
riences. As the concept of experience has become Research 17(2):201-215.
more central to tourism practice, the range of Ham, S. 1992 Environmental Interpretation. Golden: North
American Press.
places and organizations offering some form of
Moscardo, G. 2008 Interpretation. In Encyclopedia of
interpretation has widened to include events, retail Tourism and Recreation in Marine Environments,
stores, restaurants and hotels, and various M. Luck, ed., pp. 249-252. Wallingford: CABI.
Interview 489
Moscardo, G. 2009 Understanding Tourist Experience structured interviews are partially formulated by a
through Mindfulness. In Handbook of Tourist Behav- flexible interview guide, which ensures the focus
ior: Theory and Practice, M. Kozak and A. Decrop,
eds., pp.99-115. New York: Routledge. on desired themes, but allows new ideas to be
Moscardo, G., and R. Ballantyne 2008 Interpretation and brought up. Unstructured interviews are not
Attractions. In Managing Visitor Attractions: New guided by any set format or questions, allowing
Directions, A. Fyall, A. Leask, and S. Wanhill, eds., for spontaneity and for questions to develop dur-
pp.237-252. Oxford: Elsevier.
Tilden, F. 1977 Interpreting Our Heritage. Chapel Hill: ing the course. Semi-structured and unstructured
North Carolina Press. interviews are often associated with a qualitative
methodology. In addition, by number of partici-
pants and modes of interaction, this approach is
also used in focus groups and Delphi panels,
Interview paired interviews involving two related persons,
and individual exchanges conducted between the
Ming Ming Su interviewer and the participant.
School of Environment and Natural Resources, In tourism research, interviews are widely
Renmin University of China, Beijing, China used to gather information from stakeholders,
including governments, planning agencies,
I
enterprises, tourists, and destination communi-
Interview is a data collection method, informa- ties. It is an efficient and cost-effective approach
tion/opinion gathering that involves face-to-face to understanding and collecting opinions toward
or voice-to-voice interactions, following a tourism and its related issues. It is particularly
question-answer format or a conversation style. useful for assessing behaviors, experiences,
Interviews are typically associated with both values, ▶ attitudes, and perceptions of tourists
quantitative and qualitative social research. Dif- and destination communities, enabling
ferent from other data collection methods, it is researchers to access the multiple voices and
more exploratory in nature and allows for more views inherent in the complex system of tourism
flexibility and adaptability. It is particularly useful (Ritchie et al. 2005; Veal 2005).
to gather rich and in-depth information around a With the increasing tendency toward mixed and
topic, from verbal and nonverbal behaviors of the multiple investigations, interviews are often
interviewees. Interview requires an active engage- employed as one of a range of concepts and
ment of both the researcher and the informant. The methods (rather than a singular or the only tech-
former needs to monitor the content and the pro- nique) introduced from other disciplines to the
cess of the interview, develops rapport, and builds structuring and application of this method in tour-
up mutual trust and understanding. Through ism studies, leading to new attempts such as ethno-
observation and probing, thoughts and feelings graphic and photo-based methods. Along with the
of the interviewees can be captured, along with development of new technologies, the mode
their verbal responses. Interview is often time- of interviewing has also expanded to incorporate
consuming, despite its relatively small sample; electronic outlets. Future research should examine
thus, the results can hardly be generalized into a how facilitation through new attempts and new
larger population (Richards and Munsters 2010). technologies affects response quality and how inter-
In tourism, as in other social sciences, interviews can be better integrated with other research
views can be categorized into structured/standard- methods to enhance understanding of research
ized, semi-structured, and unstructured/in-depth problems.
types. Structured interviews are conducted with
a set of standardized questions and are often asso- See also ▶ Methodology, ▶ qualitative research,
ciated with a quantitative ▶ methodology. Semi- ▶ quantitative research, ▶ stakeholder, ▶ survey.
490 Investment
References The sales comparison approach to hotel valu-

ation has immensely benefited from Sherwin
Richards, G., and W. Munsters (eds.) 2010 Cultural Tour- Rosen’s widely -cited Journal of Political Econ-
ism Research Methods. London: CABI.
omy (1974) article on “hedonic prices and
Ritchie, B., P. Burns, and C. Palmer (eds.) 2005 Tourism
Research Methods. London: CABI. implicit markets” to develop a statistically robust
Veal, A. 2005 Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism. method to answer the fundamental valuation
Harlow: Prentice Hall. question of “what the comparable property
[would] have sold for if it possessed the same
characteristics of the subject property.” Hedonic
pricing models find many applications in tourism
investment such as estimating market value and
separating intangible property value (Roubi
Investment 2004), constructing transaction-based hotel
property price indices (Roubi 2015), estimating
Sherif Roubi net asset values of hotels (Corgel 1997), and
Assetreal Limited, Glasgow, UK making high-level asset class fund allocation
decisions (Quan et al. 2002). Future research
agenda has yet to expand its horizon on portfolio,
asset, and property management not only to fur-
Governments at the national, regional, and ther investigate output on additional primary
local levels invest in collective public infrastruc- facilities but also to embrace research on the
ture. They also invest in facilities and services wider infrastructure and superstructure within
such as hotels and themeparks through sovereign the tourism context.
wealth funds and public-private partnerships.
But the latter is dominated by the private
sector such as private equity, real estate invest- See also ▶ Development, ▶ impact, ▶ infra-
ment trusts, pension funds, and insurance structure, ▶ sustainability.
companies.
Tourism investment research draws primarily
on the specialist discipline of real estate which is
concerned with the ▶ development, valuation,
finance, and management of property assets. It References
integrates academic scholarship, sector personal-
Corgel, J. 1997 Property-by-Property Valuation of Publicly
ity, and professional practice. Steve Rushmore,
Traded Real Estate Firms. Journal of Real Estate
in his 1978 text titled The Valuation of Hotels Research 14(1/2):77-90.
and Motels, adapted the buildup approach Mellen, S. 1983 Simultaneous Valuation: A New Capital-
from the real estate literature to undertaking ization Technique for Hotel and Other Income Proper-
ties. Appraisal Journal 51(2):165-189.
hotel market studies that are primarily preoccu-
Quan, D., J. Li, and A. Sehgal 2002 The Perfor-
pied with forecasting future occupancy rates mance of Lodging Properties in an Investment
of hotel properties or projects based on Portfolio: Hotel-property Investments Have Some
calculations and assumptions about their Surprising Characteristics - Notably, Their Diver-
gence from the Performance of Other Commercial
competitiveness, expected growth rates in
Real Estate. Cornell Hospitality Quarterly
various market segments, ▶ seasonality, planned 43(6):81-89.
facilities and programs, attracting new segments, Roubi, S. 2004 The Valuation of Intangibles for
and future development projects. Mellen (1983) Hotel Investments. Property Management
22(5):410-423.
introduced simultaneous valuation to the income
Roubi, S. 2015 Towards a Transaction-based Hotel
capitalization technique for the appraisal of Property Price Index for Europe. Journal of Property
hotels. Investment & Finance 33(3):256-281.
Iran 491
Islamic Republic of Iran, located between Iraq and

Iran Pakistan (Figure 1), has an area of 1,648,195 km2
(650,200 mi2) and a population of around 80 mil-
Rahim Heydari Chianeh1 and Hamid Zargham2 lion (UNDP 2010; World Bank 2009). It is home
1
Department of Geography and Urban Planning, to one of the oldest world civilizations. Today, the
Faculty of Geographer and Planning, University economy is predominantly reliant on oil exports.
of Tabriz, Tabriz, East Azarbayjan, Iran Iran has a wealth of attractions, including
2
Department of Tourism Management, Faculty of 17 inscribed UNESCO world heritage sites, ski
Management and Accounting, University of resorts, and Kish, a resort island in the Persian
Allameh Tabataba’i University (ATU), Tehrān, Gulf. The former capital Isfahan is famous for its
Iran Islamic architecture and mosques. Tourism
Iran, Figure 1 Map of Iran (Source: www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/iran_pol01.pdf)

492 Iraq
contributes around 2.9 % to total capital invest- development may be expected, if political econ-
ment. It directly supports 414,500 jobs (1.9 % of omy challenges and ▶ Middle East instability are
total employment) and indirectly 5.3 % of total reduced.
employment (1,184,000 jobs) (WTTC 2015). Its
▶ domestic tourism is one of the largest in the See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ domestic tour-
world. The number of tourists with overnight ism, ▶ heritage, ▶ history, ▶ Middle East.
stay in spring and summer 2012 has reached
82,197,500 (SCI 2012).
The official tourism policymaking organiza- References
tion is the Iran Cultural Heritage, Handicrafts
and Tourism Organization. Their involvement Heydari Chianeh, R. 2003 Tourism Planning in Iran: An
Evaluation. PhD Thesis. East Azerbaijan: University of
with other governmental and semigovernmental
Tabriz.
institutions has resulted in the ▶ management SCI 2012 The Results of Statistics of National Tourists,
of tourism ▶ infrastructure and facilities. Yet, Summer and Spring of 2012 (In Persian). Tehran: Sta-
tourism remains on the margin of the national tistical Centre of Iran.
UNDP 2010 Human Development Report, Human Devel-
development plans and, consequently, in compar-
opment Index, United Nations. New York: United
ison with other Muslim countries (▶ Turkey, Nations Development Program.
▶ Egypt, and ▶ Malaysia), it has been less World Bank 2009 World Development Report. Washing-
successful. ton: World Bank.
WTTC 2015 World Travel and Tourism Economic Impact:
International arrivals are comparatively low;
Iran. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
however, since 2013, the country has seen contin-
uous growth. The major hindrance at present is
that tourism policy and ▶ planning are both a
political and social issue. The insistence on
“glocalization” continues to adversely affect Iraq
the international ▶ tourist market (Heydari
Chianeh 2003). Instead of aligning the domestic Hadil Munther Faris and Kevin Griffin
norms with the international ones, the country School of Hospitality Management and Tourism,
seeks to adjust to its own domestic conditions. Dublin Institute of Technology, Dublin, Ireland
Moreover, the stringent observance of local reli-
gious norms has led to a decline in ▶ inbound
tourism. The Republic of Iraq, with a population of
Despite its political situation, nearly 150 higher 31.86 million, has an area of 438,317 km2
education institutions and 25 universities are (169,235 mi2), including three autonomous north-
accepting students in graduate and undergraduate ern provinces of Iraqi Kurdistan. It is bounded by
degrees in tourism management. However, there ▶ Iran, ▶ Turkey, ▶ Syria, ▶ Jordan, ▶ Saudi
remains a lack of trained manpower. Research on Arabia, and ▶ Kuwait, with a 58 km coastline on
the country’s tourism ▶ development is a Hercu- the Persian Gulf (Figure 1). Iraq is a country with
lean task. It is mixed with a lot of difficulties such vast wealth, an educated population, and a strate-
as complicated structure, highly unique model of gic ▶ location, but one which has suffered
its political structure, and the lack of awareness of decades of war and sanctions (Al-Oraibi 2013).
the host society of tourism ▶ industry per Iraq is a relatively modern entity dating to
se. Thus, areas open for research include ▶ eco- 1920, receiving independence as a kingdom in
tourism, ▶ history and ▶ heritage, and health- 1932 and as a republic in 1958. Disputes with
related activities and how these niche markets Iran (1980–1988), the Gulf War of 1991, and the
can best reflect the tourism character of the coun- subsequent invasion by US-led UN troops in 2003
try and, at the same time, contribute to its econ- have left lasting scars on the country’s fabric and
omy and place in the global community. Future people, especially its touristic ▶ image.
Ireland 493
40 45 inadequate infrastructure and services, currency,

TURKEY
and a complex visa system. The government is
unnamed
peak working with international organizations to make
Mosul Erbil
tourism the largest source of income after oil;
As Suiayman yah
SYRIA however, various challenges need to be met. Tour-
Kirkuk
ism ▶ education also requires ▶ investment, and
35 IRAN 35
Buhayrat
ath Tharthär
Samarra while institutions in the likes of Baghdad,
BAGHDAD Karbala, and Erbil offer programs (some in asso-
Ar Ramad
Buhayrat
Ti
gr ciation with overseas ▶ universities), the empha-
Ar Rutbah is
JOR at Razäzah
Karbala’
sis is on product rather than personnel
Al Kut
An Najaf development.
Eu
ph
ra t
es
Shatt
Some ▶ domestic tourism is faring well. Trade
al
An Naşir yah Arab shows and conferences take place and Baghdad,
Al Başrah
30 SAUDI Umm Qaşr as the second largest city in the Arab world, sees a
ARABIA Persian
regular flow of pilgrims to its shrines and
KUWAIT Gulf
mosques. Until June 2014, the greatest growth
0 50 100 km
was in peaceful Kurdistan (Bradosty 2013); how-
I
40 45
0 50 100 mi
ever, travel has since been discouraged. ▶ Future
Iraq, Figure 1 Map of Iraq potential exists in the areas of cultural and nature-
based tourism.
For millennia, the country has been a meeting
point between Asia, ▶ Europe, and ▶ Africa and a See also ▶ Dark tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ pilgrim-
land bridge between the Indian Ocean and the age tourism, ▶ religion, ▶ warfare tourism.
Mediterranean. In the fourth millennium BC, the
banks of the fertile Tigris and Euphrates rivers
provided, in this area of southern Mesopotamia,
References
a suitable environment for the world’s earliest
civilization with a writing system and recorded Al-Oraibi, M. 2013 Iraq: A Decade of Lost Opportunities.
history. Its agriculturally rich landscape contrasts The Washington Quarterly 36(2):77-89.
with the steppe and deserts of surrounding West- Bradosty, R. 2013 Tourist Numbers Climb as Kurdistan’s
Reputation Grows http://rudaw.net/english/kurdistan/
ern Asia, and together its ▶ landscape and ▶ her-
17112013 (17 November).
itage provide a rich resource for tourism. In 2013, WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Iraq.
the contribution of ▶ travel and tourism to GDP London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
was 6.4 % (US$9.0 billion, or IQD10, 441.1 bil-
lion), while ▶ employment was 406,500 jobs
(5.4 % of total employment) (WTTC 2014).
The main attractions of Iraq are cultural and Ireland
religious, with sites such as Ur, Assyria, and Bab-
ylon. The World Monuments Fund is helping to Mary Cawley
record and protect over 10,000 sites, many exten- School of Geography and Archaeology, National
sively damaged by warfare, terrorism, looting, University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
and vandalism (such as ancient Babylon which
was modified and built upon during the reign of
Saddam Hussein). Pilgrimage to sites and shrines Ireland (area 70,280 km2; 27,135 m2) lies west of
makes religious tourism a prominent niche Britain on the western edge of ▶ Europe and
▶ product. shares a border with Northern Ireland, Britain
Despite the end of the war in 2011, travel (Figure 1). The population was 4.6 million in
remains risky. Further challenges include 2011. Services, especially computer, financial,
494 Ireland
0 30 60 km
8 6 tourism to GDP was US$5 billion in 2014 (2.1 %
0 30 60 mi
of GDP), providing some 41,000 jobs, 2.1 % of
N
or
th
Lifford Northern
total employment (WTTC 2015). Since 2011, the
Ch
Ireland
an
government has promoted investment and
ne
(U.K.)
l
Sligo Monaghan reduced travel and employment taxes, to stimulate
54 54
growth of tourism and ▶ employment. Dublin, the
Castlebar capital, is the main destination for overseas tour-
Drogheda
ists, followed by the South West and West regions.
NORTH DUBLIN
ATLANTIC Galway Irish ▶ Urban tourism has increased in the recent years,
Tullamore
OCEAN
n
Sea and dispersing tourists to more rural areas is

no
an
ARAN Wicklow
receiving increased ▶ attention.
Sh
ISLANDS
Barrow
Shannon Arklow
Limerick New The Bord Fáilte (tourism board) was

Ross
Sulr established in 1955. In 2003, it was replaced by
Killarney
Waterford Saint Fáilte Ireland, the ▶ national tourism develop-
52 Georges 52
Carrauntoohil Cork Channel ment authority, as part of a major review of the
industry. In 2003 also, Fáilte Ireland was merged
Celtic Sea
10 8 6 with the Council for Education, Recruitment and
Training in tourism and ▶ hospitality. Since 2002,
Ireland, Figure 1 Map of Ireland (Source: https://www. Tourism Ireland has promoted Ireland and North-
cia.gov/library/publications/cia-maps-publications)
ern Ireland jointly internationally. Seven regional
tourism authorities ▶ play strategic management
and business services, accounted for 70.4 % of roles. Local development organizations support
GDP in 2013, with ▶ industry and agriculture small tourism businesses. The Irish Tourist Indus-
representing 28 % and 1.6 %, respectively (CIA try Confederation represents the trade. Degree,
2014). Computer products, pharmaceuticals, and certificate, and shorter courses in tourism,
other chemicals are the principal exports in terms catering, and ▶ recreation are provided by Insti-
of value. The economy experienced severe reces- tutes of Technology and a specialized College of
sion between 2008 and 2011, during which over- Hotel Management. Fáilte Ireland provides online
seas ▶ tourist numbers also declined, as part of a training.
wider international downturn. Since 2011, the Ireland is a temperate island heavily dependent
domestic economy has grown slowly (CIA 2014). on overseas tourists. Its experience raises ques-
Ireland has been promoted as a ▶ destination tions about the most appropriate methods of cap-
since the late nineteenth century. Scenic natural italizing on natural and cultural resources in order
landscapes, outdoor recreational opportunities, to retain existing and capture new markets.
cultural ▶ heritage, and a welcoming people are
key attractions. Newer products include ▶ eco-
See also ▶ Diaspora, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ heritage,
tourism, food experiences, genealogy, and walk-
▶ rural tourism.
ing. Greenways and tourism routes are being
developed. Key source markets are Britain and
the ▶ United States (with which diasporic links
References
exist), followed by other western European coun-
tries. New markets are being targeted in Asia, the CIA 2014 The World Factbook: Ireland www.cia.gov/
▶ Middle East, and Latin America. Incoming library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ei.html
arrivals reached a peak of 8.1 million in 2007 (14 October).
and declined until 2010 after which recovery com- UNWTO 2015 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World
menced, recording 8.3 million arrivals in 2013 WTTC 2015 Travel and Tourism Economic
and almost seven million domestic trips Impact – Ireland. London: World Travel and Tourism
(UNWTO 2015). The total direct contribution of Council.
Irritation index 495
associated with the local community members,

Irritation index such as individual demographic and sociographic
characteristics, failing to clarify the distinctions
Ivana Pavlić and Ana Portolan between individual residents and their community
Department of Economics and Business (Zhang et al. 2006). Locals can be composed of
Economics, University of Dubrovnik, Dubrovnik, multiple nationalities, with varying values
Croatia and traditions. Moreover, the Irridex does not
define ▶ tourist management models or strategies
which may help reduce tourist pressures on a
local community. Obviously, tourism develop-
Established by Doxey (1975), irritation index or ment has economic, environmental, social, and
“Irridex” is based on the understanding of local cultural impacts on the destination locality.
residents’ attitude change toward tourists and Hence, the irritation index is a theoretical
tourism ▶ development in different stages of a model that requires constant and contextual
▶ destination’s life cycle. Its different phases empirical tests, as it can be changed depending
are primarily the consequence of tourism on geographical locations, problems, and even
development in terms of its varying social, eco- aims of a study.
nomic, and environmental impacts on the
I
Nonetheless, the model serves as a useful
destination. This model assumes the resulting framework for the understanding of the changing
circumstances with negative sociocultural resident attitudes and developmental stages of a
impacts can lead to irritation in the local commu- destination. Its applications in tourism research
nity. Its four stages of euphoria, apathy, irritation, and practice need further academic ▶ attention
and antagonism explain the deteriorating and community support, which may not have
responses of the local residents to tourism been present or explicit in previous undertakings.
development. During the first stage, the number Hence, future research could shed light on the
of tourists is small and the local community model from comparative and empirical
welcomes tourism. In the phase of apathy, the perspectives.
number of tourists increases, and the relationship
between tourists and residents becomes
formalized. Irritation is the phase when residents See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ destination lifecycle,
become concerned about tourism due to signifi- ▶ social exchange theory.
cant growth of arrivals and increasing competition
for ▶ resources. In the last stage, antagonism,
tourists become responsible for everything bad
that has happened in the host community (Doxey References
1975).
Although Irridex has been currently considered Cordero, J. 2008 Resident Perception of Tourism:
A Critical Theoretical and Methodological Review.
as one of the most important models between local CIENCA Ergo Sum 15:35-44.
residents and tourists, certain limitations remain. Doxey, G. 1975 A Causation Theory of Visitor–Resident
Irridex as a concept is not based on any detailed Irritants: Methodology and Research Inferences. The
empirical research. As a unidirectional model, it Impact of Tourism. In the Sixth Annual Conference
Proceedings, pp.195-198. San Diego: The Travel
was intended to represent current attitudes of local Research Association.
residents in their entirety (Fridgen 1991). The Fridgen, J. 1991 Dimension of Tourism. Lansing: Educa-
model assumes a degree of homogeneity and lin- tional Institute of the American Hotel and Lodging
ear positive relationship and ignores complexities Association.
Zhang, J., R. Inbakaran, and M. Jackson 2006 Understand-
within the host community as well as multidimen- ing Community Attitudes towards Tourism and Host-
sionality of tourism impacts (Cordero 2008). guest Interaction in the Urban-rural Border Region.
Therefore, it disregards intrinsic factors Tourism Geographies 8:182-204.
496 Island tourism
include, for example, limitations to carrying

Island tourism capacity; population size versus resident tourist
ratios; the availability of trained personnel; finite
Andrew Jones economic resources (capital to finance invest-
Institute for Tourism, Travel and Culture, ment); relatively high transportation costs
University of Malta, Msida, Malta (reliance on air transportation); geographic iso-
lation from markets; insufficient natural
resources such as water supply and availability
It is difficult to define the notion of “island tour- of development land; environmental and ecolog-
ism,” especially because islands themselves ical vulnerability; inadequate infrastructure
come in different sizes, topographies, locations, capacity such as utilities, waste, and recycling
economies, cultures, demographics, and envi- (particularly during high seasons); climate
ronments. As such, islands in the Pacific, Atlan- change threats; and associated diverse and often
tic, Caribbean, Mediterranean, and Indian unpredictable governance. Such issues present
Oceans can offer both well-developed, accessi- tangible challenges for the sustainable develop-
ble destinations and more remote, less- ment of many island destinations today
developed alternatives. (Apostolopoulos and Gayle 2002).
Definitions of island tourism remain diverse Zubair et al. (2011) suggest that one of the most
but can be largely associated with islands that pervasive issues for most island destinations is the
attribute a large proportion of their economies, continued reliance on air transport which renders
or GDP/GNP, to tourism (Apostolopoulos and many of them vulnerable to changeable airline
Gayle 2002; Briguglio 1996). Island destinations network priorities and global oil prices. It is an
can thus be classified into categories which issue that may ultimately determine the successful
largely consist of either well-developed or growth or decline of many island destinations
“mature” destinations such as the Balearic and today. Future research will focus on such issues
Maltese islands, Cyprus, the Canary Islands, by using islands as destination case studies.
Caribbean islands, or Bali in Indonesia. Less- Topics relating to ▶ travel patterns, tourism
developed categories may include remoter archi- impact, ▶ climate change, and tourism diversifi-
pelagos of Indonesia or Malaysia or the Samoan, cation will remain relevant for current and future
Tongan, or Andaman archipelagos. A “one-size- investigation.
fits-all” definition is not easy to frame. Despite
their diversities, there remain common issues and See also ▶ Airline, ▶ coastal tourism, ▶ marine
characteristics associated with the concept and tourism, ▶ paradise, ▶ sustainable tourism.
practice of island tourism.
According to Carlsen and Butler, “islands
perform perfect ‘living laboratories’ that enable References
researchers to isolate the casual and immediate
effects of tourism development on the commu- Apostolopoulos, Y., and D. Gayle (eds.) 2002 Island Tour-
nity, environment and economy of islands and to ism and Sustainable Development: Caribbean, Pacific,
and Mediterranean Examples. Westport: Praeger.
study them at a level of detail that is not possible Briguglio, L. (ed.) 1996 Sustainable Tourism in Islands and
in other tourism destinations” (2013:1). As such, Small States: Case Studies. London: Pinter.
these destinations often illustrate shared or com- Carlsen, J., and R. Butler (eds.) 2013 Island Tourism.
mon socioeconomic and environmental issues. Oxford: CABI.
Zubair, S., D. Bowen, and J. Elwin 2011 Not Quite
While they are not identical, they do emphasize Paradise: Inadequacies of Environmental Impact
a number of common challenges confronting the Assessment in the Maldives. Tourism Management
growth and development of island tourism. They 32:225-234.
Israel 497
34 0 10 20 km 35 LEBANON 36
Israel 0 10 20 mi
1949
UNDOF
Zone
Armistice Line
Golan
Noga Collins-Kreiner Nahariyya Har
Heights SYRIA
(Israeli
Department of Geography and Environmental Meron occupied)
Lake
Studies, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel Haifa Tiberias
Mediterranean Nazareth
Sea
The State of Israel is located in the ▶ Middle East on Hadera
Netanya
the eastern coast of the Mediterranean Sea
Jordan
(Figure 1). In July 2013, the country was home to
a population of 7,707,042, including 75.6 % Jews Tel Aviv-Yafo3 Petah Tigwa 1994
Bat Yam Holon
Treaty
32 West 32
and 16.9 % Arabs, who represent the country’s Rishon LeZiyyon Bank 2
Line
largest minority. At the same time, the West Bank Ashdod

had a population of 2,676,740, consisting of approx- Jerusalem3
imately 75.6 % Muslims and 17 % Jews (CIA 2013). Gaza

Ashqelon Dead
Israel receives both domestic and international Strip1 Sea
1950 194 9 Ar m is ti c e
Li
n e
I
tourists. In 2012, the total number of visitors was Armistice
Line
3.5 million, 2.9 million of whom were tourists who Beersheba
spent at least one night in the country, a 5 % and Dimona
2 % increase over 2011, respectively. Some 70 %
arrived by air, most via Ben-Gurion International
Airport (the country’s largest airport), with more
than 12 million passengers annually (Israel Air- NEGEV JORDAN
ports Authority 2013). In 2012, the number of 1 The status of the Gaza
overnight domestic stays was 16.5 million (Israel Strip is a final status
issue to be resolved
Ministry of Tourism 2013). In the same year, through negotiations.
EGYPT 2 Israeli-occupied with
Israel’s GDP was US$252 billion (CIA 2013), of current status subject
(Sinai) to the Israeli-Palestinian
which tourism revenue accounts for $10.35 billion Interim Agreement;
30
(an 8 % increase over 2011). The tourism ▶ indus-
permanent status to be 30
determined through
further negotiation.
try provided 213,000 jobs which are 6 % of all 3 Israelproclaimed
employees in Israel. About 104,000 of the jobs are Jerusalem as its capital
in 1950. but the United
States, like nearly all
direct results of tourism activities (about 1/3 in Eilat
other countries, retains
Gulf of its embassy in Tel
hotels) and the rest are indirectly linked to the 34 Aqaba 35 Aviv-Yafo. 36
industry (Israel Ministry of Tourism 2013).
Israel is a religious holy land for Christianity, Israel, Figure 1 Map of Israel
Judaism, and Islam. As a result, 26 % of its incom-
ing tourists in 2012 classified their purpose as The largest number of tourists (excluding day
pilgrimage, whereas 25 % classified as touring and visitors and cruise passengers) came from the
▶ travel, and 9 % as ▶ vacation and ▶ leisure. All ▶ United States (18 %), ▶ Russia (17 %),
in all, 60 % of Israel’s incoming tourists in 2012 ▶ France (9 %), ▶ Germany (7 %), and the
classified their purpose as tourism, 21 % as ▶ vis- ▶ United Kingdom (6 %). The city most often
iting friends and relatives, and 13 % as business or visited was Jerusalem (77 %), followed by Tel
convention attendance. Among them, 57 % were Aviv-Jaffa (56 %). Of all tourists, 51 % visited
Christian (and approximately half of this number the Dead Sea, 44 % Tiberius, and 35 % Nazareth
were Catholic) and 24 % were Jewish. (Israel Ministry of Tourism 2013).
498 Italy
Tourism to Israel is significantly influenced by (301,000 km2 or 116,000 mi2) with a population
geopolitical and security conditions. Since the of 60.7 million. It has one of the world’s largest
country’s establishment in 1948, its tourism economies, with a GDP per capita of US$33,000.
industry has reacted sharply to developments in The Italian peninsula has four main geographical
the political and security arenas, resulting in an regions: the northern Alpine area, the lowland
unstable cyclicality of tourism ▶ development. around the Po River (one of the most important
There are currently several programs that industrial areas of ▶ Europe), the long peninsula
engage in tourism ▶ education and ▶ training, (with about 7,500 km long coastline), and the two
particularly in colleges and ▶ universities. major islands of Sicily and Sardinia. Rome,
Research and study in this field continue to located at the center of the country, is the capital
emerge and deal with key issues pertaining to city (Figure 1).
tourism to Israel as the “Holy Land” such as A core location of ancient civilizations, the
pilgrimage, religious tourism and ▶ heritage tour- Italian peninsula has attracted British tourists
ism, issues regarding ▶ safety and security, and since the late 1700s and, while the elites of the
various additional broader, universal topics. ▶ Grand Tour were exploring its art and culture,
Thomas Cook brought his first group of tourists to
See also ▶ Heritage, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, Italy in 1864. In 1919, the Tourist Board was
▶ religion, ▶ safety and security, ▶ visiting friend established, acknowledging the growing impor-
and relative. tance of tourism. Tourism attractiveness and the
resulting receipts helped the economy throughout
the reconstruction periods which followed the
References world wars. Art, ▶ history, ▶ culture, and ▶ her-
itage, coupled with a unique geographical and
CIA 2013 The World Factbook: Middle East – Israel, Mid- natural variety, have gained Italy an uncontested
dle East – West Bank. Central Intelligence Agency
position in the ▶ international tourism market-
geos (26 September). place, placing it consistently among the top five
Israel Airports Authority 2013 International Passenger world destinations in terms of ▶ tourist arrivals.
Traffic www.iaa.gov.il/Rashat/enUS/Airports/ Indeed in 2013, according to the UNWTO (2014),
BenGurion/AbouttheAirport/Statistics/ (26 September).
the country was ranked fifth and sixth in the world
Israel Ministry of Tourism 2013 Tourism to Israel 2012 Sta-
tistical Report www.tourism.gov.il/GOVheb/Ministry based on the indicators of arrivals (48 million) and
%20of%20Tourism/Statistics/Documents/doch_statisti.pdf receipts (US$ 44 billion).
(26 September).
Significance of tourism
Tourism is one of the most important industries in

Italy the country’s economy, significantly contributing
to the ▶ balance of payments, ▶ employment, and
Serena Volo1 and Paolo Figini2 GDP. The Italian National Statistical Office is
1
Faculty of Economics and Management, responsible for collecting and disseminating tour-
TOMTE, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, ism ▶ statistics. This office, Bank of Italy, and the
Bolzano, Italy national and regional tourism departments pro-
2
Department of Economics, University of vide supply and demand data, although more
Bologna, Bologna, Italy comprehensive and coordinated analysis of statis-
tics is desirable. According to these official statis-
tics, hotel accommodation provides about 2.3
Located at the center of the ▶ Mediterranean, Italy million beds while other forms of accommodation
is one of the largest southern European countries offer about 2.5 million bed places (ISTAT 2014).
Italy 499
Italy, Figure 1 Map of Italy
Overall, there were 104 million arrivals in is about 3.7 nights for both domestic and interna-
2012 and 380 million overnight stays (about tional tourists (ISTAT 2014). Italy’s major mar-
175 million were international). The length of kets are ▶ Germany, ▶ United States, ▶ France,
stay is shorter than in the past: the average stay ▶ United Kingdom, and ▶ Austria. Arrivals from
500 Italy
these countries have had a consistent growth over in 2013 became the Ministry of Cultural Heritage
the last decade, and lately, promising flows from and Tourism. The Italian Tourism Board has a long
other markets are emerging, mainly ▶ Russia and history in promoting tourism and supporting the
▶ China. Although the ▶ industry is highly Italian brand while also marketing various regional
internationalized, ▶ domestic tourism represents attractions and offerings. This body ensures a
about 55 % of overnight stays with peaks of 75 % worldwide presence with offices in five continents
of overnight stays in the southern regions assisting and collaborating with private and public
(UNWTO 2014). entities to promote Italy.
In the last decade, tourism’s direct contribution Italy has a strong tourism reputation, being
to the GDP averaged around 6 %. In 2012, tourism internationally recognized as one of the top desti-
supported about 12 % of total employment and nations worldwide. Notwithstanding, opportuni-
around 10 % of the GDP (WTTC 2013). Over the ties for further growth exist and policy and
last decade, the country’s performance was medi- planning to achieve these have recently been
ocre, and this was due to the loss in market share implemented. There is a need to identify Italy’s
when compared to its main competitors ▶ Spain strategic priorities for tourism ▶ development and
and ▶ France (Banca d’Italia 2013). Italy has define segments, areas, and target markets in
attractive natural and cultural resources, but which to allocate investments. Themes of partic-
inconsistent service quality is provided by the ular interest include service quality improve-
industry. The ▶ supply is dominated by small ments, investments to improve the
and micro companies mostly family owned. competitiveness of the small enterprises which
While this often enriches the tourists’ experience, constitute the industry’s backbone, a coherent
it does limit the ability to reach economies of scale promotional activity pivoting around the national
and scope, thus making it difficult to improve brand, and a higher degree of coordination
efficiency and competitiveness. Despite the well- between cultural and tourism policies.
developed infrastructure, Italy is not keeping pace Public intervention is needed at different
with its main competitors. Furthermore, the his- strategic levels to sustain productivity, enhance
torical gap between the industrial, highly devel- the quality of tourists’ experiences, and improve
oped northern regions and the less developed competitiveness (OECD 2011). Subsidies and
southern part is reflected in the lower quality and ▶ tax incentives would facilitate private
density of infrastructure in the south. ventures and ▶ innovation. Infrastructural
investments will improve accessibility to the
south of Italy and increase internal mobility. Coor-
Governance and policy dination between national and regional bodies
will strengthen destination image. Investments in
Italian tourism policy has seen many actors education – currently ranging from technical
involved, with a strong role initially played by the training to doctoral programs – are needed to
Minister of Tourism, from 1959 until 1993, when foster skilled labor force and enhance
its functions were passed on to the regional admin- knowledge transfer between ▶ education and
istrations. After almost a decade of uncoordinated industry, as stakeholders seek more alignment
regional policies and challenges to tourism, due to between competences offered and the industry’s
the worldwide economic crisis, there is increasing needs.
recognition of a need for coordination at the
national level. In 2009, industry leadership func-
tions were reassigned to a newly established See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ Grand Tour,
department led by the Minister of Tourism which ▶ heritage, ▶ infrastructure, ▶ marketing.
Italy 501
References OECD 2011 OECD Studies on Tourism: Italy: Review of

Issues and Policies http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/
Banca d’Italia 2013 Il Turismo Internazionale in Italia. 9789264114258-en (01 October 2014).
Banca dÍtalia. www.bancaditalia.it/pubblicazioni/ UNWTO 2014 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World
seminari_convegni/conv-12/n.12_turismo_internazio Tourism Organization.
nale.pdf (01 October 2014). WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2013.
ISTAT 2014 Noi Italia 100 Statistiche Per Capire il Paese in London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
Cui Viviamo. Istituto Nazionale di Statistica http://noi-
italia.istat.it/index.php?id=3&L=0 (01 October 2014).
I
J
Jamaica The average ▶ tourist spending was $113 per

day with an average length of stay of 8.7 nights.
Rebecca A. Leadbeater1 and Cedric Wilson2 For cruiseship tourists, the average spending per
1
Hilton Worldwide, Orlando, FL, USA passenger was $80. In 2013, there were an esti-
2
Department of CARICOM, Caribbean mated 3.3 million tourists to Jamaica, an increase
Renewable Energy Project, University of the West of 33 % from 2003 when there were 2.48 million.
Indies, Bridgeview, Jamaica The total number of cruise passenger arrivals in
2013 was approximately1.32 million (WTTC
2013). The most popular port of call for cruiseships
Jamaica is an island country located in the Carib- in 2013 was Falmouth (51 % of the total passen-
bean Sea (Figure 1). It is the 187th largest country gers), followed by Ocho Rios and Montego.
in the world (10,991 km2, or 42,432 mi2) and the The Board of Tourism was founded in 1955 in
139th most populous country with a population of order to promote the country as a leading travel
2.72 million by 2013 estimation. It is approxi- destination, to create marketing efforts to attract
mately 146 miles long and 22 miles wide. The diverse and new groups, and to maintain a support-
estimated GDP of the country in 2013 was US$14 ive relationship with partners such as the Ministry
billion. of Tourism and the Tourism Product Development
Jamaica is the birthplace of reggae music and Company. The future plan is to stimulate interest
the country is known for its culture and diverse among potential tourists and focus on sports and
cuisine. Attractions include white sandy beaches ▶ health tourism in addition to casino gambling.
along its western and northern coastline and To ensure continued success and growth of the
mountainous hinterland. The country’s economy ▶ industry, the country has invested in tourism
is heavily dependent on services which accounted ▶ education for both students and employees.
for almost 80 % of GDP in 2013. About 5 % of the ▶ Travel and tourism are integrated into the
total GDP is attributable to tourism, and in 2013, national school curriculum covering topics such
the total spending by tourists amounted to $2.07 as sectors of the industry, impacts of tourism, and
billion. On average in 2013, the sector employed ▶ marketing. Meanwhile, Jamaica’s Tourism
approximately 75,750 workers. The majority of Product Development Company has developed
tourists (approximately 95 %) are from the the “Team Jamaica” program, mandatory for tour-
▶ United States, ▶ Europe, and ▶ Canada, with ism personnel, providing the knowledge and skills
North Americans accounting for 83 % of tourist required to develop well-informed tourism
arrivals (Jamaican Tourist Board 2014; Planning ambassadors for the country (Ministry of Tourism
Institute of Jamaica 2013). and Entertainment 2014).
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
504 Japan
78′00′ 77′30′ 77′00′ 76′30′
Port Caribbean Sea

18′30′ Rhoades 18′30′
Monotego
Bay Saint Ann’s
Bay Ocho
Rios
Savanna-
Negril la-Mar
Port Antonio
Linstead Blue Mountain
Peak Jameica
Mandeville Spanish Channel
Black River May Town
18′00′ KINGSTON 18′00′
Pen
Port Portmore Morant Rocky
Port Bay Point
Kaiser Esquivel
Caribbean Sea
Portland
0 10 20 km Point
0 10 20 ml 78′00′ 77′30′ 77′00′ 76′30′
Jamaica, Figure 1 Map of Jamaica
See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ cruise tourism, and more than 4,000 smaller islands. Its area is
▶ cultural tourism, ▶ developing country, approximately 380,000 km2 (146,719 mi2) which
▶ ecotourism. is slightly smaller than California and approxi-
mately equal to a combination of ▶ Germany
and ▶ Switzerland (JNTO 2013). Japan’s popula-
References tion is nearly 130 million with a GDP per capita of
US$36,900, ranked as 38th in the world (CIA
Jamaican Tourist Board 2014 Annual Travel Statistics, 2013) (Figure 1).
Jamaica. Kingston: Jamaican Tourist Board.
Ministry of Tourism and Entertainment 2014 Tourism Pro-
duct Development Company www.mot.gov.jm/content/
tourism-product-development-company (16 May 2015). Past and present
Planning Institute of Jamaica 2013 Economic and Social
Survey of Jamaica. Kingston: Planning Institute of The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport
Jamaica.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact and Tourism (formerly the Ministry of Railway)
2013 – Jamaica. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. established the Bureau of International Tourism in
1930 although this organization was terminated in
1942 (MLITT 2013). In 1963, the first tourism
policy called the “Tourism Basic Act” was
Japan enacted, after which Japan increased its ▶ tourist
numbers through mega-events, such as the Tokyo
Erwei Dong1 and Masashi Arakawa2 Olympics in 1964 and the Osaka World Expo in
1
University of South Alabama, Alabama, USA 1970. In 1964, it also upgraded its transportation
2
Graduate School of Tourism Sciences, infrastructure, including the introduction of the
University of the Ryukyus, Okinawa, Japan first bullet train, and built a new domestic terminal
at Tokyo Haneda International Airport. In 1978,
with the construction of the Narita International
Japan is an East Asian island nation located in the Airport, Tokyo became the first city in Asia to
Pacific Ocean, consisting of four major islands have two international airports.
Japan 505
China (1.1), Taiwan (0.99), the United States

(0.57), and Hong Kong (0.36).
Japan has a variety of attractions. In the
north, Hokkaido’s low humidity attracts tourists
in the summer, and in the winter, cold weather
offers many snow-related activities. In the
south, subtropical Ryukyu provides sun and
white sand beaches year round. Japan has
17 cultural and natural UNESCO world heritage
sites, including the Gusuku Sites and Related
Properties of the Kingdom of Ryukyu, the His-
toric Monuments of Ancient Kyoto, the
Shirakami-Sanchi mountains, and Yakushima
Island. Japan created one of the earliest national
park systems in the world. The first “National
Parks Law” was enacted in 1931, based on the
US national park system, and the first national
parks were dedicated in 1934. As of 2013, Japan
Japan, Figure 1 Map of Japan has a total of 30 national parks throughout the J
country. Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park is the
most famous and attracted more than 300,000
tourists to climb Mt. Fuji in 2012 (National
Before 2000, Japan primarily focused on Parks of Japan 2013). ▶ Industrial tourism in
developing golf resorts, hot springs, and Japan includes visits to the Tokyo Stock
themeparks to promote ▶ domestic tourism. Exchange, the Suntory Hakushu Distillery, the
After 2000, the country aimed to become a “tour- Instant Ramen Museum, and the Toyota
ism nation.” In 2003, advocated by former Prime Automobile Museum.
Minister Junichiro Koizumi, the Visit Japan Cam- Although both national ▶ universities and pri-
paign was launched to “achieve the goal of ten vate universities play a vital role in higher educa-
million overseas tourists to Japan in 2010” (Japan tion in Japan, tourism ▶ education first started in a
Tourism Agency 2013). In order to further support private university. Rikkyo University established
▶ development, “Tourism Nation Promotion the first tourism department in 1967, and the first
Basic Law” came into effect in 2007 and the tourism college and the first tourism graduate
Japan Tourism Agency was created in 2008. program in 1998. Among national universities,
In 2009, domestic tourism revenue reached the University of the Ryukyus and Yamaguchi
$255 billion (25.5 trillion yen). In 2011, more University established the first tourism depart-
than 400 million domestic tourists stayed at hotels ment in 2005, and the University of the Ryukyus
for an average of 2.2 nights per person. Outbound and Wakayama University established the first
numbers have been growing since 1964 and are tourism college in 2008.
influenced by the yen/US dollar exchange rate. The Japan Association of Travel Agents
Historically, the outbound numbers have reported that tourism directly employs 2.1 million
exceeded the inbound. In 2012, there were 8.36 Japanese and indirectly accounts for nearly
million arrivals, whereas outbound volume 4 million other jobs in 2013. Japan is a unique
reached 18.5 million. The top five outbound des- country wherein ▶ travel agents control the tour-
tinations in millions of tourists are ▶ China (3.7), ism business such as booking tickets, organizing
Korea (3.3), the ▶ United States (3.3), Taiwan tours, and promoting attractions. In 2012, Japan
(1.3), and Hong Kong (1.3) in 2011. The top five has 10,146 travel agents employing nearly
inbound markets, in millions, are Korea (1.7), 110,000 people.
506 Jordan
Future prospects MLITT 2013 Railway Industry Chronology. Ministry of

Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism www.mlit.
go.jp/common/000227427.pdf (1 December).
In 2012, the Japanese government’s “Tourism National Parks of Japan 2013 www.env.go.jp/en/nature/
Nation Promotion Basic Plan” was adopted nps/park/index.html (1 December).
and seeks to achieve seven goals by 2016: The Japan Times 2013 Hosting Olympics to Lift Japan’s
$300 billion in domestic tourism revenue; GDP by 0.5%: Estimate www.japantimes.co.jp/news/
2013/09/08/business/hosting-olympics-to-lift-japans-
18 million international arrivals; the highest tour- gdp-by-0-5-estimate/#.U9LiM7HQA1R (1 December).
ism satisfaction rating received from at least 45 %
of first-time inbound tourists; increasing interna-
tional convention numbers by 50 % to become the
biggest hosting country in Asia; 20 million out-
bound tourists; an average of 2.5 nights per domes- Jordan
tic tourist in hotels; and the highest tourism
satisfaction rating received from at least 45 % of Mohammad M. Alazaizeh and Nidal M. Alzboun
first-time domestic tourists. Because international Department of Travel and Tourism Management,
tourist arrivals in Japan are far behind China, The University of Jordan, Aqaba, Jordan
▶ Thailand, ▶ Malaysia, Hong Kong, Macao, and
Korea, Japanese tourism researchers think
attracting international tourists is the most impor- Jordan is located in Southwest Asia, the heart of
tant agenda for future research on tourism in Japan. the Middle East, between latitudes of 29 and 34
On 7 September 2013, Tokyo won the right to N and longitudes 35 and 40 E. It is bordered by
host the 2020 Summer Olympic Games, which is ▶ Syria, ▶ Iraq, ▶ Saudi Arabia, ▶ Israel, Pales-
forecast to attract 8.5 million tourists (The Japan tine, and Gulf of Aqaba (Figure 1). The country
Times 2013). For this event, the Japan National occupies 88,778 km2 (34,277 mi2) and has a pop-
Tourism Organization plans to promote Tokyo as ulation of 6.4 million (DOS 2012). Its climate
“a city where advanced technology exists along- varies from Mediterranean in the west to arid in
side tradition” and “a convenient city that warmly the east and south.
welcomes visitors” (Japan Monthly Web Maga- Arabic is the official language, with Islam as its
zine 2013). Such international events provide an official religion, but other religions are recognized
opportunity to study the legacies provided by the and respected. Jordan is a small country with limited
2020 Summer Olympic Games. resources; its economy depends mainly on the ser-
vice sector, foreign aid, and some natural resources
See also ▶ Heritage, ▶ inbound tourism, ▶ out- such as phosphates, potash, and oil shale (Malkawi
bound tourism, ▶ policy and policymaking. 2008). In 2012, its GDP was US$31.34 billion.
In the past, tourism was related to ▶ travel by
Muslim pilgrims using the Hejaz Railway to visit
the holy sites in Mecca and Medina. In the 1980s,
References
other types of tourism were introduced, including
CIA 2013 Japan. Central Intelligence Agency www.cia. ▶ heritage, eco-, adventure, health, and ▶ business
gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ja. tourism. Nowadays, tourism is an important
html (1 December). ▶ industry in Jordan’s economy (11 % of GDP)
Japan Monthly Web Magazine 2013 Let’s Enjoy a Festival
and one of the country’s highest producers of
of Sports in the World’s Most Enjoyable City
www.jnto.go.jp/eng/indepth/exotic/JapanesQue/1302/ ▶ foreign exchange (CBJ 2013). Jordan ▶ tourist
olympics.html (1 December). numbers reached about 2.5 million in 2012 (DOS
Japan Tourism Agency 2013 Visit Japan Campaign www. 2012). Its main inbound markets are Arabs (the
mlit.go.jp/kankocho/en/inbound/vjc.html (1 December).
largest segment), Europeans, and Americans. In
JNTO 2013 Japan Overview. Japan National Tourism
Organization www.jnto.go.jp/eng/arrange/essential/ 2012, the income from tourism was $3.4 billion,
overview/ (1 December). and the number of employees reached 43,942
Jordan 507
Jordan, Figure 1 Map of Jordan
(MOTA 2012). The main attractions include Petra, The Jordan National Tourism Strategy
Jerash, and Madaba heritage sites; Wadi Rum, 2011–2015 adopted a public-private partnership
Aqaba, and natural reserves as natural attractions; approach, led by the business sector, and built upon
and the Dead Sea as a therapeutic attraction. the achievements of the 2004–2010 strategic plan.
508 Journal, academic
The main goals were to improve the quality of ser- health of a field of study. Tourism (and ▶ hos-
vices and products and to double the country’s tour- pitality) is no different. This entry discusses the
ism economy by 2015. Tourism is also now included number, diversity, and origins of tourism and
as an academic program in most of public and private hospitality journals.
▶ universities in the country, along with some of
▶ hospitality and tourism ▶ training centers. The
▶ future of the tourism ▶ industry in Jordan faces a Journal history
variety of challenges such as water shortage, the lack
of awareness about the importance of tourism in some The Review de Turisme (Tourism Review) is the
communities, an improvement in tourism ▶ sustain- oldest tourism publication. It first appeared in
ability, the high cost of ▶ domestic tourism, and the 1946 in ▶ Switzerland and was published in Ger-
influence of Arab Spring on tourist flows. man and French. The journal was published by the
International Association of Scientific Experts in
See also ▶ Domestic tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ Mid- Tourism with the goal of fostering scientific dis-
dle East, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, ▶ sustainability. course on tourism. Tourism: An International
Interdisciplinary Journal, published by the Insti-
tute for Tourism in Zagreb, ▶ Croatia, is the sec-
References ond oldest, appearing first in 1953. The Cornell
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
CBJ 2013 Economics Environment of Jordan. Central generally regarded as the first hospitality journal,
Bank of Jordan www.cbj.gov.jo (30 August). appeared in 1960. In the same year, the Japanese
DOS 2012 Population and Housing. Department of Statis-
tics www.dos.gov.jo (30 August 2013). language Journal of Tourism Research was
Malkawi, B. 2008 Jordan and the World Trading System: launched. Other early journals include Journal of
A Case Study of Arab Countries. Saarbr€ucken: VDM Travel Research (1972, initially titled the Western
Verlag. Council for Travel Research Bulletin since 1962),
MOTA 2012 Tourism Statistical Newsletter. Ministry of
Tourism and Antiquities www.mota.gov.jo/en/Default. Annals of Tourism Research (1973), Tourism Rec-
aspx?tabid=133 (30 August 2013). reation Research (1975), Journal of Hospitality
and Tourism Research (1976), and Tourism Man-
agement (1980, initially titled the International
Journal of Tourism Management).
Journal, academic ▶ Development was slow, and indeed, by
1988, only about 20 tourism and hospitality titles
Bob McKercher existed. These early journals shared two features
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, in common. First, their topic coverage was broad.
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Second, most were published “in-house” by indi-
Hong Kong, China vidual universities, such as Cornell University and
Florida International University, or by profes-
sional associations like the Travel and Tourism
Academic journals have traditionally played an Research Association or the Council on Hotel,
important role in the development of disciplines Restaurant, and Institutional Education. Few pub-
and fields of study. Cheng et al. (2011) suggest lishing houses were involved directly in initiating
journals play three main roles. They produce, and managing journals at that time.
disseminate, and exchange academic knowl-
edge, provide a means of evaluating research
and scholarly work, and inform decisions Growth in the 1990s
concerning appointment and promotion. It is
also thought that the number and variety of The situation changed rapidly in the 1990s in
journals available are strong barometers of the parallel with the dramatic growth in tourism and
Journal, academic 509
hospitality programs (Oppermann 1988). For 200

Type of journal
example, the number of providers in ▶ Australia Tourism, Travel,

Destination
Hospitality, Food
grew from three in 1987 to more than 25 by the Service
150 Both Tourism and
mid 1990s (Craig-Smith et al. 1995), with similar Hospitality
Number of Journals
Events
expansion in the ▶ United Kingdom from two in
1986 to 66 by 1997 (Airey and Johnson 1999). 100
The number of tourism-related dissertations grew

by 2.6 times between 1986 and 1996 (Cheng
50
et al. 2011). Coincidentally, the number of
journals also tripled. Expansion saw a shift in
program focus, as tourism and hospitality educa- 0
tion moved from being a peripheral field of study
1946
1960
1970
1973
1976
1982
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
2006
2008
2010
2012
2014
embedded in social science disciplines into a Year
stand-alone field of study usually affiliated with

business schools. Journal, academic, Figure 1 Journals by type
(1946–2014)
Collectively, these changes exerted two
impacts on publishing. First, demand was cre-
ated for more outlets to publish the growing 28 journals focus exclusively on hospitality-
volume of tourism research. Second, opportuni- related fields and seven deal with events. J
ties emerged for specialist journals. Niche pub-
lishers saw a business opportunity and entered
the market. Haworth Press, Channel View, and Internationalization in the 2000s
Cognizant published such periodicals as the
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing (1992), Tourism journals have also undergone a signifi-
Journal of Sustainable Tourism (1993), and cant level of internationalization in the past
Tourism Analysis (1996), respectively. Other 15 years. Pearce (2013) argues internationaliza-
specialist titles covered such fields of enquiry as tion has been influenced by the desire to develop a
▶ education, sport, ▶ financial management, more integrated approach to analyzing tourism
conventions and events, geography, medicine, across international borders and to testing the
quality assurance, and human resources. The generalizability of (mostly Western) patterns and
emergence of these and other specialist titles processes in other contexts and the international-
resulted in a narrowing of the focus of journals. ization of both the academic and student
A review of mission statements, for example, populations. Others have pointed to the growth
revealed that journals published before 1980 in programs in Asia, Latin America, and emerging
covered an average of six disciplines, while by Eastern European economies as a significant fac-
the 1990s, it had dropped to 3.4 disciplines tor. For example, the number of tourism and hos-
(Cheng et al. 2011). pitality degrees in Taiwan grew from 12 in 1997 to
Figure 1 tracks the spectacular growth in the 82 in 2003; more than 85 institutions in ▶ Thai-
number of titles, based on a database compiled by land now offer tourism programs; over
the author. By mid-2014, about 290 titles were 700 college-level tourism and hospitality pro-
identified that focus exclusively or primarily on grams are on offer in ▶ China (Gu and Hobson
tourism, hospitality, food service, and/or events. 2008); and the number of tourism and hospitality
No doubt others exist. This figure excludes programs in ▶ Brazil grew by more than 1,000 %
journals in related fields of ▶ gaming, food sci- from 1994 to 2004 (Leal 2004).
ence, transport, ▶ leisure, ▶ recreation, and park Internationalization has further resulted in the
management. Tourism journals dominate with dramatic expansion in the number of journals
over 210 titles. Another 40 journals include both being published outside of the traditional devel-
tourism and hospitality in their titles, while about oped English-speaking economies of North
510 Journal, academic
Journal, academic, Table 1 Home economy of journals Journal, academic, Table 2 Journal language
(2014)
Number of
Number of Language titles
Origin titles English 159
Developed English-speaking economy 98 Portuguese 27
Brazil 25 Spanish 21
Western Europe (excluding Spain) 20 Multilingual (usually English and 16
Eastern Europe 20 another language)
Spain 14 Chinese 13
India 13 Korean 11
Other South and Central American 13 Japanese 10
countries Russian 7
Korea 13 Italian 6
Japan 11 French 5
China 9 Turkish 3
Poland 8 German 3
Other Mediterranean Europe countries 8 Hungarian 1
Russia 7 Polish 1
Southeast Asia 7 Slovakian 1
Turkey 6 Thai 1
Greek 1
America, ▶ Europe, and Oceania. Table 1 iden-

tifies the “home” economy of all active and Here the term “multilingual” refers to journals
announced journals. Here “home” economy refers published in two or more languages. In almost
to the location of the university, organization, or all cases, English is one of the two languages
commercial publishing house that produces the used, with the exception of a small number of
journal. The category “developed English- journals originating from South America, which
speaking economies” refers to journals published publish in English and Portuguese. English lan-
in ▶ Canada, the ▶ United States, ▶ Australia, guage journals represent about 55 % of all titles
▶ New Zealand, and the United Kingdom and published. Portuguese and Spanish are the next
includes all journals owned by large multinational most common languages used, which is a reflec-
publishers regardless of home institution of the tion of the growth of programs in South America.
chief editor. At present, journals are being The number of Chinese, Japanese, and Korean
published in 45 different economies, apart from language journals is increasing, while the emer-
the aforementioned developed English-speaking gence of Russian language titles is evident.
economies. Indeed, more than two-thirds of all The proliferation of non-English language
titles originate outside of these traditional econo- journals has a number of implications for tourism
mies. Brazil is a significant source of academic research. Pearce (2013) identifies many issues
journals, while Indian publishers and Spanish uni- ranging from observed cultural and linguistic
versities have entered the market aggressively in preferences to adopting specific disciplinary foci;
the past 10 years. Tourism and hospitality journals studying certain topics and using different meth-
are also flourishing in Korea, ▶ Japan, China, odologies; limited transfer of ▶ knowledge, espe-
▶ Poland, ▶ Russia, ▶ Turkey, and Eastern Euro- cially from non-English-speaking to English-
pean economies. speaking academics; limited transfer of state-of-
Interestingly, though, English remains the pre- the-art methods, especially from English- to
ferred language and, if anything, is becoming non-English-speaking academics; and a tendency
more entrenched as the ▶ language of tourism to concentrate regional research in language-
and hospitality research, as shown in Table 2. relevant journals.
Journal, academic 511
The future met, to provide feedback to improve works, and

more importantly, to guarantee, as much as possi-
Consolidation and the emergence of open-access ble, that research that is published is valid, legit-
journals with questionable refereeing processes imate, and conducted in a rigorous manner. The
will change the nature of tourism and hospitality new business model adopted by some publishers
publishing. Historically, journals were initiated by leads to the likelihood that a work of dubious
either university departments or professional bod- quality, accuracy, and legitimacy may get
ies, with few publishing houses interested in this published.
subject area. That situation changed when niche There has been a massive explosion in the
publishers created viable businesses catering to number of tourism and hospitality titles in the
the tourism and hospitality sector. Today, niche past 30 years, with no slow down in sight. Growth
players are a threatened species, as they are being in the number of journals has tracked the global
or have been bought out by large multinational expansion of tourism and hospitality education,
publishing houses. A variety of economic, social, first in developed English-speaking economies
and technological factors have created a situation and more recently in emerging Asian, South
where large publishing houses that offer multiple American, and Eastern European economies.
titles across many discipline areas, accompanied From modest beginnings in the 1980s, more than
by multiple distribution systems, have such a 260 titles are published today. The locus of the
powerful competitive advantage that small journals has also undergone significant interna- J
players are having difficulty competing. Pub- tionalization during this time. However, the pre-
lishers such as Taylor and Francis, Sage, Emerald, ferred language remains English.
and Elsevier have expanded their English lan- The large number of non-English language
guage catalog by acquiring niche publishers. journals creates many opportunities for future
This trend will continue with two likely outcomes. research, especially in the area of knowledge
First, foreign language journals are likely to be transfer. No doubt, many if not all of the
next on the list as programs grow in Asia, South 100 plus non-English language journals are pro-
America, and Eastern Europe. Second, it will be ducing novel research, publishing research
increasingly difficult for smaller publishers or infused by different cultural and linguistic points
independent journals to achieve a critical mass of view, and developing new methodologies.
of subscriptions as libraries come under increas- Few people, though, may be aware of this inno-
ing cost pressure. vative research if they cannot read these journals.
Open access is the second emerging issue. It The same situation also applies for people who
represents a double-edged sword. On the one cannot read the English language media. Oppor-
hand, the current trend toward online publishing tunities exist for multilingual academics to trans-
and limited open access by large publishers has late important papers from these journals either
enabled more researchers to access a far greater to or from English and, in doing so, to help
variety of materials than ever before. One the advance the field of study to become truly global
other hand, many new open-access publishers in scope.
have adopted a “pay-for-publication” predatory
business model, where the scholarly merits of See also ▶ Education, ▶ journal, travel trade,
the work are far less important than the ability of ▶ knowledge, ▶ scholarship, ▶ university.
the individual to pay for the privilege of being
published. The integrity of academic publishing is
based on the concept of the double-blind peer
References
review, where the author submits the paper to a
journal and two or more qualified people assess its Airey, D., and S. Johnson 1999 The Content of Tourism
merits without knowing who the author is. This Degree Courses in the UK. Tourism Management
system is designed to ensure quality standards are 20:229-235.
512 Journal, travel trade
Cheng, C., Z. Li, J. Petrick, and J. O’Leary 2011 An to key individuals working and operating in the
Examination of Tourism Journal Development. Tour- industry.
Craig-Smith, S., M. Davidson, and C. French 1995 Hospi- ▶ Travel trade journals, country or regionally
tality and Tourism Education in Australia: Challenges based, are aimed at either the whole industry or a
and Opportunities. In Tourism Education National specific business sector. Many include supple-
Conference Papers, B. Faulkner, M. Fagence, ments dedicated to activities such as cruise vaca-
M. Davidson and S. Craig-Smith, eds., pp.144-150.
Canberra: Bureau of Tourism Research. tions or promoting specific destinations. Although
Gu, H., and P. Hobson 2008 The Dragon is Roaring. . . The the Travel Trade Gazette, launched in the UK in
Development of Tourism, Hospitality and Event Man- 1953, claims to be the first travel trade journal,
agement Education in China. Journal of Hospitality and Smith (1998) references the first as being Travel
Tourism Education 20:20-29.
Leal, S. 2004 Is Tourism Education in Brazil Sustainable? Trade, which first appeared in the USA in July
In Critical Issues in Tourism Education, J. Tribe and 1929. Contemporary developments include pro-
E. Wickens, eds., pp.71-76. Association for Tourism in viding editions that can be downloaded from a
Higher Education, ATHE Publication No.14. website, updating content online, and the
Oppermann, M. 1988 Touirismus Journal. Tourism Man-
agement 19:395-396. launching of online only publications.
Pearce, D. 2013 The Internationalization of Tourism TravelMole.com, established in 1998 and solely
Research. Journal of Travel Research available through its web presences, claims
53(3):267-280. 450,000 industry-professional readers.
Those working within the industry use travel
trade journals to keep informed of issues, while
opinion formers use them as a vehicle to shape
Journal, travel trade and contribute to debates concerning industry
issues. Those working in educational institutions
Adam Jones utilize the content of travel trade journals to pro-
School of Sport and Service Management, vide insight and case studies on the sector for their
University of Brighton, Brighton, UK teaching. The information within trade journals
also contributes to academic research, supports
analysis of contemporary issues and evaluation
Trade journals are a sector of the business press of the changing structure of the industry, reports
generally published weekly, biweekly, or sector-specific statistics, and provides comment
monthly. They serve the needs of those working from industry leaders and insiders. Authors and
within a specific sector, subsector, or trade. Their information from travel trade journals are fre-
readership includes those operating in the differ- quently cited in academic journal papers to sup-
ent sectors of the industry, including travel port the analysis undertaken.
agents, ▶ tour operators, hotels, ▶ car rental The contribution and relevance of trade
firms, insurance companies, technology pro- journals to the industry is reflected by their growth
viders, ▶ tourist boards, marketing agencies, in both number and size. They have adapted to
and tourism businesses such as airlines, ▶ rail and taken advantage of technology changes, to
companies, and ferry and cruise operators. With provide pertinent and easily accessible sources
content dedicated to reporting and discussing of information for practitioners and academics.
news on the industry, they are journalistic in Little research has been conducted into the oppor-
style. The format contains extensive advertise- tunities they provide for disseminating and
ments promoting products to the trade, classified increasing the ▶ impact of academic research by
advertisements, and information on conferences reducing the industry/academic divide (Tribe
and trade fairs. Trade journals are provided free 1997). There also exists an opportunity to
Journalism 513
research the role they play and the impact they make certain items, ▶ ideology, concepts, and
have on shaping policy, practice, and performance images salient so that they can affect audience’s
for the industry. ▶ interpretation of and decision on certain
issues. Therefore, this implies to select, to
See also ▶ Advertisement, ▶ destination mar- ignore, and to emphasize. How travel journalists
keting organization, ▶ journal, academic, ▶ mar- and editors decide what to include or not is
keting, ▶ travel. strongly associated with the profile of the read-
ership/audiences and editorial policy of the
media in question. Articles without bylines are
References usually unsolicited ▶ public relations materials,
and the frames are mostly, if not entirely, those of
Smith, V. 1998 War and Tourism: An American Ethnogra- information sources. Unlike hard news, the gath-
phy. Annals of Tourism Research 25:202-227.
ering of travel and tourism news is sometimes
Tribe, J. 1997 The Indiscipline of Tourism. Annals of
Tourism Research 24:638-657. sponsored by destinations. This ethical issue has
long been criticized and should be taken into
consideration when conducting tourism research
perusing these journalism publications.
Journalism An important tourism research field in jour-
nalism is the study on the ▶ power played by J
Steve Pan media frame sponsors. The frames circulated in
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, mainstream societies of the hosts, and guests are
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, conditioned by the stereotypes therein. As
Hong Kong, China Figure 1 illustrates, there are four major players
in this frame competition arena. Whoever con-
trols the frames manipulates the image creation.
Journalism is a profession that involves journal- The chart summarizes eight interplays of this
ists or writers in gathering materials with refer- dynamic process or “the circle of representa-
ence to factual and ongoing events of public tion.” Each interaction can be a future research
concern and disseminating their findings through area. For example, research area six may inves-
public ▶ media (Harcup 2009). In general, jour- tigate audiences’ and readers’ reactions to pro-
nalism comprises five typical traits or values: grams and articles which specifically disclose
public ▶ service, objectivity, autonomy, imme- their sponsors. To maximize the effect of their
diacy, and ▶ ethics (Deuze 2005). Nowadays, budget, it is important that destination ▶ market-
prime-time news bulletins usually devote most ing organizations understand if their sponsor-
of the coverage to domestic news, and tourism is ships of a travel journalist’s visit will
treated more like international reports to inform compromise or jeopardize the credibility of the
the public about the ▶ Other (Fursich and publications. Additionally, future research can be
Kavoori 2001). In so doing, journalism is closely directed toward the role played by international
linked to tourism through destination ▶ image advertising agencies in producing tourism tele-
formation, with news reports and television vision commercials and their influences on des-
▶ travel shows enjoying higher credibility tination image.
(Gartner 1993).
Similar to news gathering and editing, it is See also ▶ Advertisement, ▶ destination mar-
inevitable to frame a destination in the process keting organization, ▶ image, ▶ media, ▶ public
of image creation (Entman 1993). To frame is to relation.
514 Journalism
Journalism, Figure 1 Research agenda for tourism and media frame analysis
References Fursich, E., and A. Kavoori 2001 Mapping a Critical

Framework for the Study of Travel Journalism. Inter-
Deuze, M. 2005 What Is Journalism? Professional Identity national Journal of Cultural Studies 4:149-171.
and Ideology of Journalists Reconsidered. Journalism Gartner, W. 1993 Image Formation Process. Journal of
6:442-464. Travel & Tourism Marketing 2:191-215.
Entman, R. 1993 Framing: Toward Clarification of a Fractured Harcup, T. 2009 Journalism: Principles and Practice. Thou-
Paradigm. Journal of Communication 43:51-58. sand Oaks: Sage.
K
Kazakhstan investment, international advertising, and the

hosting of the VII Asian Winter Games in 2011.
João Sarmento1 and In the same year, Kazakhstan had four million
Askar Mukashev Serikboluly2 international arrivals, an increase of 20 % from
1
University of Minho, Guimarães, Portugal 2010 (UNWTO 2012). Reflecting sustained per
2
AEO, Nazarbayev Intellectual Schools, Astana, capita growth and an emphasis on social welfare
Kazakhstan and security, the number of domestic tourists
rose by 10.3 % to 4.5 million in the same period.
Tourism’s contribution to GDP was 5.2 % in
Kazakhstan is the ninth largest country in the 2012 (WTTC 2013). Income from tourism
world (2.7 million km2). Located in Central Asia increased by 56 % to $1.2 billion and invest-
(Figure 1), with a population of 16.57 million ments also grew by 58.3 %. From 2006 to
(2011 census), it is bordered by ▶ Russia, 2012, the number of tourism jobs (393,000 or
▶ Uzbekistan, ▶ Kyrgyzstan, ▶ Turkmenistan, 4.7 % of total ▶ employment) expanded consid-
and ▶ China. Its economy is heavily dependent erably. The country’s vast natural landscapes
on the oil sector (over 11 % GDP and nearly 57 % containing steppes and mountains, together
of total exports in 2010) and on uranium, textiles, with its nomadic people, are its main appeals.
wheat, and livestock (Gleason 2003). The two main urban attractions are the former
During Soviet times (1922–1991), the econ- capital Almaty and the present futuristic capital
omy was centrally planned (Jeffries 2003), and Astana. Despite oil revenues tourism ▶ infra-
▶ social tourism was promoted. Since its indepen- structure is poor.
dence in 1991 and during the transition to a mar- The Ministry of Tourism and Sport was
ket economy in 2000, tourism ▶ development reorganized in 2012, with its tourism functions
was unplanned. A first 5-year strategic plan was now housed in the Ministry of ▶ Industry and
published in 2000, with a new Ministry of Tour- New Technologies. A ▶ tourist cluster is being
ism and Sport established in 2006. Research on established along the “Western Europe-Western
▶ national tourism and on the position of Kazakh- China” corridor. Five tourism megaprojects are
stan in the world tourism market was conducted also underway. A collaborative government ini-
during 2005–2007. The 2007–2011 tourism tiative will enhance ▶ sustainable tourism devel-
development program supported an increase in opment along the historic Silk Road route. The
public funding, participation in international exhi- government has implemented professional ▶ cer-
bitions and fairs, ▶ attraction of foreign tification for tourism offered in more than

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
516 Kazakhstan
Kazakhstan, Figure 1 Map of Kazakhstan
30 institutions. Ten universities have postgraduate See also ▶ Dark tourism, ▶ ethnicity, ▶ mass
tourism degrees. One bachelor degree program tourism, ▶ space tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
has the ▶ UNWTO TedQual accreditation.
▶ Future tourism ▶ facilitation measures
include easier ▶ visa procedures, a Central Asia References
visa-free zone, and reduction of ▶ transportation
prices. Potential attractions include ▶ space tour- Gleason, G. 2003 Markets and Politics in Central Asia.
New York: Routledge.
ism at the Baikonur Cosmodrome, ▶ dark tourism
Jeffries, I. 2003 The Caucasus and Central Asian Republics
based on the Stalin-era camps around Karaganda, at the Turn of the Twenty-First Century. New York:
and event tourism. Routledge.
Kenya 517
UNWTO 2012 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- However, in recent years, the industry is
ism Organization. confronted with serious problems including
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism. Economic Impact 2013.
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. declining ▶ visitor arrivals and decreasing reve-
nues resulting from post-election violence in
2007, increased competition, insecurity, terrorist
attacks, undiversified products, and inadequate
infrastructure.
The government has continued to encourage
Kenya the growth of tourism through direct ▶ invest-
ment, financing local investors, and enactment of
Tom G. Ondicho friendly policies. Tourism receives a high priority
Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African in the five yearly National Development Plans and
Studies, University of Nairobi, Nairobi, Kenya operates within a liberalized economic environ-
ment, characterized by a strong partnership
between the public and private sectors. While
Located in East Africa (Figure 1), the Republic of the private sector plays an important role, the
Kenya has an estimated population of 42 million overall responsibility for tourism ▶ development
and has English and Kiswahili as its official lan- rests with the Ministry of East African Affairs,
guages. Kenya is one of the poorest countries in Commerce and Tourism. The Ministry’s respon-
the world and agriculture is the mainstay of the sibilities include policy formulation and imple-
economy. Tourism is also an important ▶ industry mentation and coordination of ▶ planning, K
in its national economy and a major ▶ foreign promotion, and ▶ marketing. The Ministry has
exchange earner, contributing approximately devolved some of the responsibilities to quasi-
10 % to GDP, 10–12 % of total wage employment, government bodies, including Kenya Tourism
and 19.2 % of export earnings (Kenya 2013). The Development Corporation which lends and
country is the seventh most popular destination in advises investors in tourism, Kenya Wildlife Ser-
▶ Africa (UNWTO 2013) and is known for vices which is responsible for ▶ conservation and
▶ ecotourism which features a game safari and ▶ management of wildlife, Kenya Tourism Board
viewing of wildlife in pristine natural environ- which does promotion and marketing, and Utalii
ments. About 10 % of the country has been set College which trains manpower for the industry.
aside for wildlife conservation and promotion of Several private and public institutions and ▶ uni-
tourism; however, human-wildlife conflicts and versities offer degree programs, with their faculty
poaching are major challenges. engaged in tourism research and scholarship.
Tourism in Kenya has experienced a steady Kenya has forecast that tourism will be bene-
growth in volume, revenues, and investments ficial to the country socioeconomically. To
since its independence. The number of arrivals enhance its competitiveness, the country must
has increased steadily from 65,000 in 1964 to therefore develop new products, increase invest-
over one million in 2010 with a corresponding ment, address insecurity concerns arising from
increase in revenues. In 2012, Kenya earned violent crimes and terrorist activities, deal with
US$935 million from 1.6 million tourists, problems of human-wildlife conflicts and
making tourism the third largest foreign exchange poaching, intensify marketing and promotional
earner after tea and horticulture. Nearly half of the campaigns, and develop ▶ infrastructure to facil-
tourists visiting Kenya come from the ▶ United itate easy movement of tourists.
Kingdom, the ▶ United States, ▶ Germany,
▶ Italy, ▶ Switzerland, and ▶ France (KNBS See also ▶ Africa, ▶ cultural tourism, ▶ eco-
2013). ▶ Domestic tourism is underdeveloped. tourism, ▶ wildlife tourism.
518 Kenya
Kenya, Figure 1 Map of Kenya (Ondicho 2010)
References Ondicho, T. G. 2010 Tourism, Power and Politics: The

Challenges of Maasai Involvement in Tourism Devel-
Kenya 2013 National Tourism Strategy 2013-2018. Nai- opment. Unpublished PhD Dissertation, Massey
robi: Department of Tourism, Government of Kenya. University, New Zealand.
KNBS 2013 Kenya Sectoral Data. Nairobi: Government UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
Printer. ism Organization.
Kiribati 519
ports. In the past, Kiribati was a port for cruise

Kiribati liners; however, this declined steeply between
2004 and 2009 due to poor infrastructure and
Glen Hornby coordination (KNTO 2009). Both Tarawa and
University of New South Wales, Sydney, Kiritimati have a major hotel and numerous
Australia guest houses, and each of the islands in the Gilbert
group has guest houses run by the local council.
The National Tourism Office administers a quality
Kiribati straddles the equator from north of Fiji accreditation scheme Mauri Mark; however, most
through to south of Hawaii, the United States facilities remain basic.
(Figure 1). Around half of 103,000 population There is no dedicated tourism ▶ training pro-
live on urbanized South Tarawa (KNSO and SPC gram in Kiribati. The National Tourism Office
2012). It is a lower-middle income country, with a provides tour guide training, while some hospital-
GDP of US$175 million (World Bank 2013). ity workers have been trained through the
While a majority of visits to Tarawa are for Australia-Pacific Technical College. The Marine
business, major attractions on Kiritimati Island Training Center, a facility for training seafarers,
include saltwater fly-fishing, bird-watching, and also offers courses in ▶ hospitality.
surfing. Tarawa offers cultural experiences and In 2009 the Kiribati National Tourism Office
World War II heritage. Robert Louis Stevenson released a 5-year development plan focusing on
lived in the Gilbert Islands and they feature in his the Line and Phoenix groups (KNTO 2009). In
book: In the South Seas. 2008, the country adopted regulations that made K
Kiribati has less than 5,000 annual arrivals the Phoenix Islands the largest marine protected
(SPTO and EU 2014). Of these, 34 % are from area in the world, which in 2010 was listed as a
Australia and New Zealand. Arrivals to Kiritimati UNESCO heritage site. Currently, there is no infra-
are mostly from the United States (36.3 %). Kiri- structure on these islands; however, work is under-
bati has international airports in Tarawa and in way to develop a wharf and airstrip on Kanton
Kiritimati, and these islands also host major Island, which could open the area to tourism.
170 180 170 160 0 200 400 km

150
Kingman Reef (U.S.)
MARSHALL 0 200 400 mi
Palmyra Atoll (U.S.)
ISLANDS
Teraina
NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
GILB
Tabuaeran
Butaritari Makin
LIN
Abaiang Marakel Kiritimati (Christmas Island)

Tarawa
TARAWA
ER
Howland Island (U.S.)

Maiana Abemama Baker Island (U.S.) Equator
E
Kuria
T
0 Aranuka 0
Banaba Jarvis Island
NAURU Nonouti Beru
IS
Tabiteuea Nikunau (U.S.)

Onotoa International Date Line
LA
IS
Tamana Arorae Mckean Kanton Enderbury

D
N
S Bimie Rawaki
LA
Nikumaroro Malden
Manra
Orona
PHOENIX ISLANDS Starbuck
ND
International Date Line
SOUTH PACIFIC OCEAN

S
TUVALU
Tokelau
(N.Z.) Caroline
10 10
Vostok
C o o k I s l a n d s Flint
SOLOMON Rotuma American (NEW ZEALAND)
Wallis and
ISLANDS FIJI Futuna SAMOA Samoa
170 180 (FRANCE) 170 (U.S.) 160 150
Kiribati, Figure 1 Map of Kiribati

520 Knowledge
In 2013, tourism directly contributed 10.3 % of destination management organizations and

GDP, 81.8 % of which was domestic spending, developers as they engage with various stake-
and supported 2,500 jobs (WTTC 2014). As well holders or the indigenous or local knowledge).
as challenges of geographic isolation and having Indigenous or local knowledge refers to the
few natural resources, the Government of Kiribati knowledge which is unique to a given culture
is preparing for challenges associated with ▶ cli- or society, and it is the basis for local-level
mate change. decisionmaking in many sectors such as agri-
culture, food preparation and gastronomy, or
See also ▶ Birdwatching tourism, ▶ fishing natural resource management, among others.
tourism, ▶ island tourism, ▶ warfare tourism. The destination is in fact a repository of com-
petence and knowledge which is crucial for the
development of products and services (Hjalager
References 2010). Thus, new knowledge can bring about
changes that lead to innovations, and these
KNSO and SPC 2012 Kiribati 2010 Census:
volume 2 Analytical Report. Tarawa: Kiribati National
changes can be originated at the firm level or
Statistics Office and Secretariat of the Pacific at the ▶ destination level. This suggests that
Community. they can be business changes and/or those
KNTO 2009 Kiribati National Tourism Action Plan: 2009- induced by destination management organiza-
2014. Kiribati National Tourism Office www.
kiribatitourism.gov.ki (10 Febuary 2014).
tions or stakeholders.
SPTO and EU 2014 Kiribati Tourist Survey: January 2014. Firm-centered knowledge can be incorporated
Suva: South Pacific Tourism Organization and Euro- in technology, infrastructure, standards, routines,
pean Union. methods, and more (Hjalager 2002). Intellectual
World Bank 2013 East Asia and Pacific Data http://data.
worldbank.org/country/kiribati (26 February 2014).
capital can be defined as a set of intangible
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Kiribati. resources and capabilities related to different cat-
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. egories of knowledge, which can provide a com-
petitive advantage to firms. In other words,
intellectual capital refers to all knowledge that is
of value to a firm or organization. It is divided into
Knowledge human capital (knowledge, skills, experience, and
motivation deeply embedded in a firm’s
Marta Jacob and Margarita Payeras employees), structural capital (methods, capabili-
Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de ties, competences, routines, practices, and proce-
les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain dures embedded in the organization), and
relational capital (knowledge, capabilities, and
procedures enclosed in the organization which
Information and knowledge are key elements arises from relationships with external agents:
for firm profitability and survival in a changing suppliers, customers, partners, or other
environment. Research creates new knowledge, stakeholders).
which is transmitted and transformed through
education into innovations. There are various
types in tourism: knowledge-based aspects of Developments in knowledge
organizations (what is created by firms in their
everyday activities, known as intellectual capi- Knowledge is embedded in a firm’s employees
tal) and tacit knowledge (what is gained by (human capital), in the organization itself
Knowledge 521
(structural capital), and in interorganizational rela- production in tourism journals in four main
tionships. The latter arises from the relationships categories: demand; firm, industry, and market;
maintained with external agents, including cus- macroeconomics of destinations; and environ-
tomers, suppliers, partners, or allies such as uni- mental issues. Tribe et al. (2012) describe six
versities (relational capital), all of which are subject categories where new knowledge was
important for the competitiveness of tourism published in Annals of Tourism Research during
firms. The exchange of interorganizational infor- 2010–2011.
mation enriches organizational knowledge and
encourages the creation of new ideas (Baggio
and Cooper 2010).
The creation of networks with customers, sup- Trends and future directions
pliers, allies, and other partners or clusters
increases the capacity of firms to develop innova- The concept of knowledge is broadly used due to
tions (Baggio and Cooper 2010; Novelli increasing importance of the knowledge-based
et al. 2006). Management practices in tourism economy, knowledge triangle, and innovation.
highly rely on the efficiency and effectiveness of The knowledge triangle refers to the interaction
the information and knowledge exchanges which of three sides: research, education, and innova-
take place among different organizations that coop- tion. In the last 15 years, there has been a growing
erate with each other to provide products (Baggio interest in research in order to understand the
and Cooper 2010). Actually, the incorporation of phenomenon of innovation and its types, but pro-
enterprises into business chains and networks are gress has been slow. There is little evidence K
very important prerequisites for knowledge trans- concerning public-private collaborations in
fer processes in tourism (Hjalager 2010). The research, development, and innovation activities
knowledge and technology are transferred from or regarding the channels of knowledge transfer
general headquarters to affiliated units together and innovation. These will be important areas of
with, and embedded in, capital and managerial investigation in the future as organizations will
capacities, practices, routines, and systems. need to innovate to deal with numerous challenges
The explicit knowledge generated by universi- in the twenty-first century, such as climate change,
ties and research or technological organizations, aging of population, changes in consumer behav-
available for the firms, destination management ior, or rising competition.
organizations, and other stakeholders, can also be Future research may examine the generation of
an important source for generating innovations. tacit knowledge produced by destination manage-
Tourism has become institutionalized as a ment organizations or stakeholders. It is equally
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary field. In important to understand its ▶ impact on the inno-
terms of the advancement of knowledge, there vation capacity of firms, the role of the three cate-
is now a significant body of literature, as gories of intellectual capital (human capital,
evidenced by the ▶ supply of tourism journals, structural capital, and relational capital) in the inno-
books, conference proceedings, and electronic vation capacity building of tourism firms and their
publications. There is an important body of internationalization strategies, or the most efficient
literature analyzing the knowledge produced channels of knowledge transfer for tourism firms.
in tourism journals; the research topics in
doctoral theses; or the contributions of different See also ▶ Innovation, ▶ multidisciplinarity,
fields to destination planning and development. ▶ network, ▶ organizational learning,
Song et al. (2012) classified the knowledge ▶ stakeholder.
522 Korea, Democratic People’s Republic
References were reported (KTO 2013). From 1998 to 2008,

a number of inter-Korean tourism projects, devel-
Baggio, R., and C. Cooper 2010 Knowledge Transfer in a oped under the “Sunshine Policy,” were finan-
Tourism Destination: The Effects of a Network Struc-
cially supported by the Republic of Korea. The
ture. The Service Industries Journal 30(10):1-15.
Hjalager, A. 2002 Repairing Innovation Defectiveness in number of outbound tourists was about 88,000 in
Tourism. Tourism Management 23:465-474. 1996 (KTO 2013). There is essentially no record
Hjalager, A. 2010 A Review of Innovation Research in of ▶ domestic tourism, because most residents
Tourism. Tourism Management 31:1-12.
have limited freedom and, further, ▶ transporta-
Novelli, M., B. Schmitz, and T. Spencer 2006 Networks,
Clusters and Innovation in Tourism: A UK Experience. tion is not widely available.
Tourism Management 27:1141-1152. Tourists visiting the country are usually on an
Song, H., L. Dwyer, G. Li, and Z. Cao 2012 Tourism organized ▶ tour, accompanied by a guide
Economics Research: A Review and Assessment.
throughout the itinerary. There are three types of
Tribe, J., H. Xiao, and D. Chambers 2012 The Reflexive attractions (PATA 2003). The first are politically
Journal: Inside the Black Box. Annals of Tourism or ideologically based sites. In Pyongyang, this
Research 39:7-35. includes the Tower of Juche Idea, the birthplace of
Kim Il-Sung, the Kumsusan Memorial Palace, the
Revolutionary Martyr’s Cemetery, the Victorious
Fatherland Liberation War Museum, the
Mansudae Grand Monument, and the Panmunjom
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic truce village, which is located on the border of the
demilitarized zone. The second type consists of
Seongseop Kim and Kaye Chon historical cities, such as Pyongyang and Gae-
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, seong; each has been the capital of previous
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Korean dynasties. In addition, mountains and
Hong Kong, China beaches form the third type of attractions of the
country. All hotels are owned and managed by the
state (PATA 2003).
North Korea has no attempt to further expand
The Democratic People’s Republic of Korea, its inbound market. Probably this is because the
122,762 km2 or 47,398 mi2 in size, is located in ▶ leadership wants to protect its citizens from
East Asia (Figure 1). Also known as North Korea, being influenced by incoming foreigners. The
with a population of 24,720,000 (49th in the country considers inter-Korean tourism projects
world), its GDP per capita in 2011 was as a way of obtaining foreign currency. From
US$1,800, the 198th place in the world (CIA 1998 to 2008, 1.95 million tourists from the
2015). Republic of Korea were attracted to
In the 1960s and 1970s, the country started to Mt. Kumgang Resort, and between 2007 and
attract small groups of tourists from other com- 2008, 110,549 tourists visited Gaeseong. The
munist countries with the aim of maintaining present political sanctions continue to inhibit
friendship with them, as well as Koreans living tourism growth in North Korea. Future research
overseas. In 1984, ▶ inbound tourism was recog- could look into issues such as how tourism could
nized as a means to earning foreign currency, and possibly contribute to the (re)structuring of its
a ▶ law was passed allowing foreign companies market economy and to reunifying the Korean
to invest in North Korea. In 1987, it joined the peninsula.
World Tourism Organization and opened nine
national regions to tourists. From 1991 to 1997, See also ▶ Heritage, ▶ ideology, ▶ Korea,
between 120,000 and 130,000 annual arrivals Republic.
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic 523
Korea, Democratic People’s Republic, Figure 1 Map of Democratic People’s Republic of Korea
References KTO 2013 Information on North Korean Tourism. Korea

Tourism Organization http://kto.visitkorea.or.kr/kor/
CIA 2015 World Factbook–North Korea. Central biz/north/tour/ (15 October).
Intelligence Agency www.cia.gov/library/ PATA 2003 DPR Korea Task Force Report: New Direc-
publications/the-world-factbook/geos/kn.html (20 tions through Tourism. Bangkok: Pacific Asia Travel
January). Association.
524 Korea, Republic
natural beauty, the island is also planned as a

Korea, Republic special district for international education. Jeju
Island has recently become popular among main-
Kaye Chon and Seongseop Kim land Chinese leisure tourists including honey-
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, mooners. Busan has traditionally been preferred
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, by Japanese tourists as it is geographically close to
Hong Kong, China this neighboring country, and hence a short-haul
destination.
The main natural attractions of Korea are its
The Republic of Korea is located in Far East Asia 20 national parks, with Jirisan Mountain as the
(Figure 1). With a land area of 99,392 km2 first to be so designated in 1967. These are of
(38,375 mi2) and a population of almost 49 million diverse types, including mountain, marine, and
(25th in the world), its GDP per capita was US regional environments. The latter, Gyeongju, is a
$33,200 in 2013 (42nd in the world). representative ▶ historical tourism city that
Korea’s early tourism ▶ industry was severely embraces heritage resources and is situated within
affected by the Korean War 5 years after libera- a national park. Intangible assets recognized as
tion from ▶ Japan in 1945 and its subsequent valuable tourism resources include traditional cui-
poverty. ▶ Inbound tourism has traditionally sine and music performances found in Jeonju
been dependent on demand from Japanese tour- City. Recently, appearances of Korean destina-
ists, but the number of mainland Chinese arrivals tions in movies, TV dramas, and performing arts
surpassed that of the Japanese in 2013. have led to their increased popularity among tour-
A significant milestone in ▶ outbound tourism ists from nations where Hallyu (Korean wave) is
was the removal of travel bans in 1989, 1 year in vogue.
after the 1988 Seoul Olympic Games. Important In 2012, Korea attracted over 11 million
events that have positively influenced the volume of inbound tourists, ranked as the 23rd in the
annual arrivals include the normalization of diplo- world (UNWTO 2013). Japanese (31.6 %),
matic relations with Japan in 1965; the Asian Games Chinese (25.9 %), and Americans (6.3 %)
in 1986, 1999, and 2002; the Olympic Games in were major source markets. In 2012, almost
1988; the FIFA World Cup in 2002; the Korean 14 million outbound tourists visited ▶ China
financial crisis in 1997–1999; and the declaration (29.6 %), Japan (14.9 %), and the ▶ United
of 1994, 2002, 2010, 2011, and 2012 as the “Visit States (9.1 %). The balance of expenditure by
Korea Year.” inbound and outbound tourists has been in
▶ deficit since 2003. In 2012, inbound tour-
ism receipts totaled $14.2 billion (ranking
Significance of tourism Korea 21st in the world), whereas outbound
Korean tourists spent $20.1 billion (16th in
The most popular destination cities are Seoul, the world) (UNWTO 2013). The tourism
Jeju, Busan, and Gyeongju. As the capital, Seoul industry accounts for 2.4 % of all Korean
attracts international tourists visiting historical GDP; the total number of tourism employees
sites such as the Joseon Dynasty palaces, is estimated to be 617,000 (Korea Tourism
Jongmyo shrine, and shopping districts of Knowledge Information System 2013).
Myeongdong and Dongdaemun. Gangnam dis- There are 65 superdeluxe (five-star) hotels
trict attracts young tourists and meeting or exhi- and 85 deluxe (four-star) hotels (Korea Hotel
bition delegates. In the far south, Jeju Island is Association 2013). Korea has two national flag-
internationally known as the first place in the carrying airlines (Korean Air and Asiana Air-
world to gain UNESCO designations in all three lines) and five low-cost carriers (Jeju Air, Jin
natural sites and is also one of the world’s “New Air, Air Busan, Eastar Jet, and Tway Air). The
Seven Wonders of Nature.” In addition to its number of travel agencies totals 15,000. There
Korea, Republic 525
Korea, Republic, Figure 1 Map of Republic of Korea (Source: Korea Tourism Organization 2014)
are Convention and Visitor Bureaus in Seoul, organizing annual conferences and publishing
Busan, Jeju, Daegu, Daejeon, Gwangju, academic journals.
Incheon, and Gyeonggi Provinces. The number The Korean government has established four
of duty-free shops has reached 187. In terms of practical directions to promote inbound
tourism ▶ education, there are 37 2-year colleges demand. The first is to expand tourism
and 40 4-year ▶ universities offering tourism or ▶ accommodation to meet demand from 12 mil-
▶ hospitality undergraduate and postgraduate lion international tourists and improve ▶ ser-
degree programs. About ten societies are vice quality. The plan to achieve this goal is to
526 Kuwait
▶ supply 38,000 hotel guest rooms and 8,000 Korea Tourism Knowledge Information System 2013 Con-
guest rooms in low-cost housing in Seoul and tribution of hotel industry to GRP www.tour.go.kr
(10 October).
its satellite cities. This is expected to create Korea Tourism Organization 2014 Map of Korea http://
30,000 new jobs. The second direction is to english.visitkorea.or.kr/enu/AK/AK_EN_1_1_1.jsp
develop intangible attractions (music, ▶ perfor- (18 August).
mance, dance, folklore) and tangible cultural UNWTO 2013 World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World
assets (traditional houses, antiques). Third, the
Korean government has targeted new high-
value-added markets including ▶ MICE and
medical, shopping, and food tourism. For Kuwait
example, the government is trying to expand
the ▶ medical tourism market to Arab and Cen- Garret Maher
tral Asian countries, beyond the Chinese and Humanities and Social Sciences Department, Gulf
the Japanese markets. Additionally, to promote University for Science and Technology, Mubarak
▶ national tourism, the central and local gov- Al-Abdullah, Kuwait
ernments are promoting special regional prod-
ucts such as ▶ ecotourism, local foods, slow
cities, and local festivals. Kuwait is a relatively small Arab country
(17,820 km2; 6,880 mi2), located in Southwest
Asia (Figure 1), with a population of 4.01 million
Future prospect (PACI 2014). It is bordered by ▶ Iraq to the north
and ▶ Saudi Arabia to the south. It is a wealthy
Piggybacking on global popularity of the Korean country with vast oil and gas reserves, one of the
wave, tourists who are exposed to Korean visual top ten global oil producers and exporters of
media would want to visit the country (Kim petroleum liquids in the world. Oil and gas
et al. 2010). The 2014 Asian Games and 2018 account for close to 60 % of GDP and over 90 %
Pyeongchang Winter Olympic Games are expected of total export revenues in 2013. Its other notable
to contribute to an increase in the number of sectors include finance and agricultural fertilizer
inbound tourists. To keep pace with demand, the (OPEC 2013).
government has attempted to develop new prod- Following the first Iraq War in 1991, the gov-
ucts such as medical, convention, casino, food, and ernment focused on rebuilding the oil infrastruc-
performing arts tourism, as well as winter sporting ture and increasing export revenue. This led to
resources. With steady development of the Korean other sectors of the economy being neglected,
economy, the number of outbound tourists is including tourism. Arabs traditionally pride them-
expected to increase to over 18 million by 2020. selves on being hospitable; however, Kuwait is
not high on the list of international ▶ leisure des-
See also ▶ Film, ▶ image, ▶ medical tourism, tinations in the ▶ region. For example, there were
▶ MICE, ▶ shopping tourism. a total of only 269,000 arrivals in 2011. In com-
parison, ▶ Qatar, a smaller country than Kuwait,
received over 2.5 million inbound tourists in
2011. Income from tourism accounted for
References US$319 million in 2011 (UNWTO 2013). Tour-
ism is not prioritized with very little government
Kim, S., H. Lee, and K. Chon 2010 Segmentation of Dif- input or promotion. A ban on the sale and impor-
ferent Types of Hallyu Tourists Using a Multinominal tation of pork and alcohol severely restricts its
Model and its Marketing Implications. Journal of Hos-
pitality and Tourism Research 34:341-363.
desirability as a destination for non-Muslims,
Korea Hotel Association 2013 Number of Hotel in Korea and Kuwaitis themselves regularly depart in
www.hotelskorea.or.kr (10 October). order to enjoy a less restrictive ▶ holiday.
Kuwait 527
Kuwait, Figure 1 Map of Kuwait
International tourists mainly consist of visits and multinational retail outlets. Numerous multi-
by the family of the more than 2.7 million national hotel chains and franchises operate in
non-Kuwaiti nationals who reside in the country. Kuwait, and the number of jobs in tourism con-
These expatriates are mainly Arabs or Asians, as tinues to increase, with approximately 41,000
well as a small number from ▶ Europe and the employed in tourism in 2013 (WTTC 2014).
▶ United States (PACI 2014). Business arrivals The main attractions in urban areas are the
are significant, particularly from those involved in Kuwait Towers, located on the promenade
the growing oil and gas sectors and from finance overlooking the Arabian Gulf, the Scientific Center,
528 Kyrgyzstan
and the numerous shopping malls. Other attractions terms of GDP (US$6.5 billion in 2012). Agricul-
include Failaka Island, located off the Kuwaiti ture (19.8 % of GDP) and the services (52.5 % of
coast. In the ▶ future the government plans to entice GDP) are the main economic sectors. Gold pro-
one million tourists a year by aiming to host and duction provided more than half of the country’s
attract regional exhibitions and events. There are no exports in 2011 and accounted for 12 % of GDP,
educational/▶ training courses in ▶ hospitality/ but production has declined since 2012.
tourism offered anywhere in Kuwait; the majority Pre-1991, under Soviet rule, tourism in Kyr-
of staff working are unqualified non-Kuwaiti gyzstan was dominated by trade union-sponsored
nationals. In the future there is a scope to increase ▶ health tourism around the Issyk-Kul (Ysyk-
▶ tourist numbers, provided that the government Köl) region in the northeast of the country
invests in new ▶ infrastructure projects such as a (Werner 2003). Lake Issyk-Kul remains a key
metro rail network and a new airport. area (an estimated 70 % of all tourists to Kyrgyz-
stan visited the area in 2007), but there have been
See also ▶ Business tourism, ▶ career, ▶ desert attempts to diversify the country’s tourism focus.
tourism, ▶ family tourism, ▶ Middle East. Ecological tourism emerged as a priority under the
national-level “Comprehensive Development
Framework of Kyrgyzstan 2002–2012.” The
References priority later shifted to recreational tourism
around Lake Issyk-Kul, ▶ adventure tourism,
OPEC 2013 Annual Statistical Bulletin. Vienna: Organiza- Silk Road tourism, and ▶ business tourism.
tion of the Petroleum Exporting Countries. There have been four national government tour-
PACI 2014 Kuwait Government Statistical Reports. ism ▶ development strategies since indepen-
Kuwait: Public Authority for Civil Information.
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- dence, but reductions in state budgets for
ism Organization. tourism have affected policy implementation. Fol-
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism: Economic lowing government restructuring in 2011, the
Impact – Kuwait. London: World Travel and Tourism Tourism Department moved out of the Ministry
Council.
of Economic Regulation into the Ministry of Cul-
ture, Information and Tourism.
Tourism contributed 9 % to GDP and it is
estimated that there were 3.1 million arrivals in
Kyrgyzstan 2011 (UNWTO 2012). The main markets are
highly seasonal: beach tourists around Lake
Nicola J. Palmer Issyk-Kul, mountain adventure tourism, and ski
Department of Service Sector Management, tourism. There is a reliance on tourists from the
Sheffield Business School, Sheffield Hallam former Soviet states and ▶ Russia. In 2009, there
University, Sheffield, UK were 6,200 registered tourism enterprises.
▶ Community-based tourism has developed
from initial funding of nongovernment organiza-
This landlocked state, bordering ▶ China, tion projects. The Kyrgyz Community-Based
▶ Kazakhstan, ▶ Uzbekistan, and ▶ Tajikistan Tourism Association was established in 2003
(Figure 1), is a post-Soviet centrally independent and this, together with a small number of univer-
state that has a democratic government. The coun- sity tourism programs offered in the country, has
try has an area of 198,500 km2 (76,641 mi2) and a contributed to the provision of skills training. The
2012 estimated population of 5.6 million (World main tourism ▶ investment has come from
Bank 2013). It is one of the poorest Central Asian Kazakhstan (67 % of foreign direct investment
countries and is classified as “low income” in in Kyrgyz tourism). Outside investment is
Kyrgyzstan 529
70 72 74 76 78 80
KAZAKHSTAN BISHKEK
Kara- Tokmok(Tokmak) Karakol
Talas Balta Balykchy Ysyk-Köl Jengish
Choklusu
42 42
Kara-Köl
yn Naryn Naryn
r
Na N
UZBEKISTAN lley Jalal-Abad SHA
Va (Dzhalal-Abad)
N
Dar
ya a
an kara-D Özgön TIE
r rg
Sy Fe aryy
a
Osh
40 Isfara
Kyzyl-Kyya CHINA 40
(Kyzyl-Kiya)
Valley So’x
Sary-Tash
0 50 100 km
70
TAJIKISTAN 72 74 76 0 50 100 mi 80
Kyrgyzstan, Figure 1 Map of Kyrgyzstan
challenged by laws preventing the foreign owner- See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ community-
ship of land. based tourism, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ ethnicity, K
Over 90 % of the land area is mountainous and ▶ mountain tourism.
this affects ease of accessibility. A lack of invest-
ment in infrastructure and ongoing political
and economic instability, ethnic tensions, and vol- References
atile borders restrict ▶ international tourism
growth. Kyrgyzstan joined the UNWTO in 1993 UNWTO, 2012, Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
and the World Trade Organization in 1998. The ism Organization.
Werner, C. 2003 The New Silk Road: Mediators and
country has hosted a wide range of interregional
Tourism Development in Central Asia. Ethnology
tourism events and collaborates in tourism initia- 47(2):141-159.
tives with countries from within and outside World Bank 2013 Kyrgyz Republic. Washington DC:
of Asia. World Bank.
L
Labor relation provoked legislatures to establish legally

protected rights to bargain collectively and strike,
William B. Werner coupled with a mutual obligation to bargain in
Harrah College of Hotel Administration, good faith toward a legally enforceable contract.
University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA While there is wide disparity among the legal,
social, and economic impacts of union represen-
tation among countries, relations between man-
A declining minority of workers in tourism world- agement and labor unions are similar. Labor
wide are represented by labor unions. The portion relations generally describe the establishment,
of represented workers varies widely among lead- maintenance, and administration of the rules
ing destinations: less than 10 % in the United governing workers represented by labor unions.
States, one quarter to one third throughout most In comparison to the management of
of Europe, and 20 % in Australia (International unrepresented workers, the relationship between
Labor Organization 2014). Although the percent- the employer and the worker is distinguished by
age of workers represented by unions has declined several important characteristics.
steadily worldwide in recent decades, labor
unions maintain effective social and political
influence and continue to develop new union Job security
organizing methods, targets, and agendas.
Represented workers remain a significant portion Among the myriad obligations in a typical labor
of the tourism workforce, and their unions con- contract, often the most valuable to workers, and
tinue to influence labor policy and relations in the the primary benefit offered in a union’s organizing
tourism industry (Blanpain 2010). effort, is the employer’s commitment to disciplin-
Labor unions gained legal protections in most ing and discharging workers only for good, fair, or
countries in the early part of the twentieth century, sufficient cause. In many countries, workers with-
a time when workers themselves enjoyed very few out a labor contract (or some other individual
legal rights in the workplace. Before unions won agreement to the contrary) enjoy no right to the
the legal right to organize and bargain collec- continuation of the employment beyond the
tively, the workers’ only substantial legal protec- employer’s will to terminate it subject to no
tion from workplace abuse and danger was their restrictions on the time, manner, or grounds for
ability to collectively demand concessions and the action. The vast majority of labor contracts
withhold their work if not satisfied. Economically supersede otherwise applicable employment laws,
devastating and often violent labor strikes requiring the employer to demonstrate a fair and
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
532 Labor relation
legitimate basis for actions adverse to a Strikes, pickets, and boycotts

represented worker.
The union worker’s right to continued employ- Legal recognition and protection of the workers’
ment is enforced in many labor contracts by some right to withhold their work for a collective pur-
extrajudicial procedure for resolving contractual pose is one of the most significant aspects of any
disputes. Typical procedures begin with the inter- labor relations law. The right provides the eco-
cession of union representatives and, if not nomic incentive to agree with labor unions’ con-
resolved, end in binding arbitration by private tract proposals, subject to the workers’ ability to
third parties. The aggrieved worker, assisted by inflict some economic harm on the employer. The
union representatives, can challenge the tourism industry is particularly vulnerable to labor
employer’s action and obtain redress while strikes due to the high numbers of workers
avoiding the costs and delays of the legal system. employed in the industry and the interdependence
Worker security is further protected in many con- of multiple industrial sectors from travel to lodg-
tracts by restrictions on the employer’s elimina- ing and dining (Flanagan and Gould 2003).
tion and reassignment of work, thereby protecting While occasional strikes have occurred in the
the workers from the loss of their work for reasons tourism industry, particularly hotels, the industry
other than their conduct or performance. Other as a whole is not known as being a regular target.
provisions may also guarantee each worker a min- Picketing and demonstrations outside hotels,
imum number of hours per week or minimum however, are especially effective in places where
wage per day. all of the customers must pass from public prop-
erty into the business. In many countries, the
workers maintain the right not just to strike and
Collective bargaining picket but also to be reinstated to their jobs at the
conclusion of the dispute.
All workers enjoy some level of legal protection Despite the consistent decline in the
in the workplace. The hallmark of union represen- represented portion of tourism workers, unions
tation is the addition of a labor contract providing continue to influence tourism operations and pol-
workers rights not otherwise extended. In addition icy and may be expected to continue their efforts
to job security, these may include increased min- to increase membership and seek out new ways to
imum wages, retirement and healthcare benefits, impact the tourism workforce (Ladkin 2011).
and superior rights for the most senior workers. Existing research is inadequate to reliably mea-
These additional provisions are obtained by col- sure the true effects of labor organization on work-
lective bargaining between the employer and the force performance and labor costs, but tourism
union as representative of the workers. Employers operators should expect those effects to evolve
in most countries are required by law to negotiate as unions shift their goals from increased mem-
over the terms and conditions of the employment bership to increased influence (Hayter 2011).
with labor unions that represent their workers
(Woods 2006). See also ▶ Employment, ▶ human resource
The employer’s incentive to agree to union management, ▶ work.
demands lies not only in the union’s threat or
capacity to strike but also the establishment of
normal and predictable policies and compensa- References
tion; the union’s ability to cooperate in employee
recruiting, training, and development; and the Blanpain, R., ed. 2010 Comparative Labor Law and Indus-
efficiency of contract dispute resolution. The trial Relations in Industrialized Market Economies.
Frederick: Aspen.
union’s promise not to strike during the term of Flanagan, R., and W. Gould, eds. 2003 International Labor
the contract, however, remains the primary benefit Standards: Globalization, Trade, and Public Policy.
of the contract to the employer. Stanford: Stanford Law & Politics.
Landscape 533
Hayter, S., ed. 2011 The Role of Collective Bargaining in (Landmark 2013, 2014). Landmarks can be natu-
the Global Economy: Negotiating for Social Justice. ral (such as Table Mountain in ▶ South Africa) or
Geneva: International Labor Office.
International Labor Organization 2014 ILOSTAT it can be built structures (such as the Ruins of
Database www.ilo.org/ilostat/faces/home/statisticaldata?_ Machu Picchu in South America).
adf.ctrl-state=ba92u191q_4&clean=true&_afrLoop= The second aspect pertains to a more figurative
2452756016503822 (12 February). meaning, where the word refers to an important
Ladkin, A. 2011 Exploring Tourism Labor. Annals of
Tourism Research 38:1135-1155. event (like the World Cup or the Olympic Games)
Woods, R.H. 2006 Managing Hospitality Human (OED 2013). In this sense, a landmark can also be
Resources. Lansing: AHLA. seen as an achievement that literally marks a turning
point in the history of the tourism ▶ industry (such
as the development of air and rail transportation or
Landmark when the 2006 tsunami wreaked havoc). Thus, a
tourism landmark, either built or natural, can have
Mathilda van Niekerk its origin from a positive or negative event. The
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, definition of the word, tourism landmark, therefore
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA includes anything that can assist in identifying
where the ▶ tourist is in space, history, or time.
Very few studies have been conducted on tour-
The term landmark is derived from the Old ism landmarks. Future research could benefit from
English landmearc, which is a combination from exploring the influences of landmarks on the
land and mearc (mark) (Harper 2013). Originally, travel patterns, their role in increasing the com-
a landmark literally meant a geographical feature petitiveness of destinations, and how landmark
used by explorers to identify their location. By the events influence the industry and destinations. L
1560s, the word was commonly used to identify
conspicuous or noticeable objects (such as a stone See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ festival and event,
or tree in the landscape). It was also used to define ▶ marker, ▶ semiotics.
objects that marked the boundaries of an estate, a
kingdom, or a piece of land.
Therefore, a landmark can be an object, a feature References
of a town, or a landscape that is recognized easily
Harper, D. 2013 Landmark www.etymonline.com/index.
from a distance (such as the Great Wall of China). php?term=landmark&allowed_in_frame=0(11January
A landmark therefore functions as a point of refer- 2014).
ence for a person’s location. From around 1859, the Landmark 2013 MacMillan Dictionary (2nd ed.) www.
word has been used in a more figurative sense and macmillandictionary.com/us (16 January 2014).
Landmark 2014. Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary
expressed as an event, a peak where something is at (11th ed.) www.m-w.com/dictionary/landmark (11 January).
its greatest or highest level, a climax, a change OED 2013 OEECD www.oed.com/view/Entry/105499?rskey=
marking, or a discovery of something important sktJj2&result=1&isAdvanced=false (12 January 2014).
(Harper 2013). In this sense, it refers to a stage or
turning point in history, a watershed moment, a
milestone achieved, a crossroad decision taken, a
breaking point, or the moment of truth. Landscape
A tourism landmark can be defined in view of
these two meaning variants, with the first as the Jie Zhang
more literal meaning. It can be an object (such as Nanjing University, Nanjing, China
the Finger of God in ▶ Namibia), a building (like
the Taj Mahal in ▶ India and the Hagia Sophia in
Istanbul), a place (Bora Bora Island), or a structure Tourism landscapes are portions of a region com-
(Eiffel Tower in Paris) that is easily recognized posed of tourism elements or attractions that
534 Language
together comprise an integrated visual-spatial dis- social representations, discourse analysis, and
play and form. Landscapes represent the attributes iconography.
resulting from the interaction between humans Interdisciplinary methods of analysis and con-
and their natural environments. The ▶ tourist ceptual frameworks, including landscape ecology
gaze reorients this relationship and may add and geo-heritage, are used. Meinig (1979)
more subjectivity to landscape. The term “land- presented various versions of the same scene of
scape” used to mean a parcel of land under an an ordinary landscape using different conceptual
identifiable ownership. Influenced by the Dutch and methodological approaches. Daniel (2001)
school of painters concerned with the aesthetic classified landscape evaluation methods into eco-
attributes of rurality during the sixteenth and sev- logical, formal aesthetic, psychophysical, psycho-
enteenth centuries, the meaning changed to logical, and phenomenological models. Analysis
denote picturesque, rural settings. Carl Sauer, an has also covered the economic value, which is
early cultural geographer, used the term to denote especially pertinent to tourism studies. Iconogra-
the human-induced morphological change in the phy provides a reasoned way of understanding
forms and functions of naturescapes. and interpreting the meanings of landscape
Landscapes can be attractions. Visually beyond their mere appearance (Cosgrove 1998).
appealing settings, both natural and cultural, Landscape analysis has considerable potential for
form the basis of tourism; soundscapes, tourism research. In this era of neoliberalism and
smellscape, and therapeutic landscapes may glocalization, new ways of understanding tourism
relate to perceptual senses beyond vision, exud- landscapes are needed.
ing additional appeal to attractions and destina-
tions. Tourism landscapes can also refer to See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ gaze, ▶ geography,
services and functions that physically character- ▶ image, ▶ place attachment.
ize destinations, such as enclaves, tourism-
induced urbanization or gentrification, specially
constructed facilities, ▶ transportation systems, References
and spatio-physical development. Tourism
Cosgrove, D. 1998 [1984] Social Formation and Symbolic
may have negative impants on landscape in the Landscape. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press.
▶ destination, while positive impacts may form Daniel, T. 2001 Whither Scenic Beauty? Visual Landscape
with tourism-induced ▶ conservation of tradi- Quality Assessment in the 21st Century. Landscape and
tional cultures, built heritages, or natural Urban Planning 54:267-281.
Meinig, D. 1979 The Beholding Eye: Ten Versions of the
surroundings. Same Scene. In The Interpretation of Ordinary Land-
Landscape research involves several traditions scapes, D. Meinig ed., pp.33-48. New York: Oxford
that approximate the evolutionary stages of devel- University Press.
opment. These traditions include description and
classification, perception and cognition, appraisal
and evaluation, and experience and creation,
reflecting different paradigms, ontologies, and Language
epistemologies in research. Empiricism, positiv-
ism, phenomenology and humanism, Marxism Graham M. S. Dann
and structuralism, and modernism and postmod- UiT Arctic University of Norway, Alta, Norway
ernism have all left their philosophical marks in
the tourism landscape researches. Many method-
ological approaches to landscape analysis have Today, the language of tourism relates to the ways
benefited from diverse theories and/or concep- that tourism is paradigmatically conceptualized as
tions, such as symbolism, semiotics, sense of a special type of promotional communication
place, place attachment, metaphor, tourist gaze, whereby messages are, respectively, sent and
place image, social identity, collective memory, received to and from the three parties to this
Language 535
unique sociolinguistic encounter: the tourism However, since the digital revolution and the
▶ industry, the ▶ tourist, and the touree (Van den advent of the internet, there are now many signs
Berghe 1994). on the horizon that such a monological situation
However, at the time when a corresponding has begun to change, even if it has not entirely
volume entitled The Language of Tourism first disappeared (Dann 2012). The modernist project,
appeared in the mid-1990s (Dann 1996) and was while still principally existing as the preserve of a
accordingly included as an abridged entry in the decreasing number of out-of-touch, target-driven
first Encyclopedia of Tourism (Dann 2000), politicians and dictators, has mainly surrendered
much of the West, whence the majority of to a postmodern ethos of people who reject
▶ international tourism originated, was still authoritarianism and rigid scientific distinctions
under the political influence of a prevailing mod- based ideologically on capitalist, positivist, func-
ernist ideology. Tourism, too, tended to be struc- tionalist, and consensual hierarchies of class, gen-
tured in a similar modernist fashion for over a der, and age. At this juncture the previous
century in such highly supervised ▶ holiday verticality of knowledge is being, or has been,
environments as the package ▶ tour, the holiday substituted by horizontal egalitarianism, and the
camp, and Club Méditerranée. Block bookings, proverbial human in the street is at last able to
charter flights, and standardized all-inclusive have his or her say.
resorts constituted the order of the day, and This replacing of political voicelessness with
such order was in turn issued as orders by tour voice has now reached the domain of infotain-
operators and their uniformed representatives as ment. In this regard, how tourism is currently
a form of social control over the “tourist as handled by television can be gauged from the
child.” British Broadcasting Corporation’s long-running
Under this quasi-dictatorial, total institutional Watchdog program. Here issues are often taken up L
system, ▶ mass tourism proliferated and with it on behalf of vacationers, and those responsible
came its own version of monological communi- (e.g., tour operators, airlines) are confronted on a
cation. Here there was a unilateral, unidirectional live show about the non-fulfillment of their prom-
conveying of messages from a typically anony- ises. Typically, matters such as the inadequate
mous transmitter, thought to possess a monopoly pitch of plane seats, the misrepresentation of a
on truth, to a correspondingly faceless and homo- hotel by a brochure, unanticipated construction
geneous public, through a variety of publicity work at a resort, food poisoning, or any other
vehicles at every stage of the ▶ vacation experi- relevant experience belonging to the language of
ence. There was hardly any feedback and scant tourism are highlighted. Often these vignettes of
interaction between transmitters and receivers. It disappointment and frustration are accompanied
was thus an asymmetrical process in which an by consumer video and mobile phone coverage of
often unidentified persuader provided selective the alleged service failures with voiceovers by the
information for viewers or listeners cast in the aggrieved parties. TV holiday shows, too, incor-
passive mode of persons with enviable wants. porate some of this Schadenfreude material into
The largely promotional text was a euphoric, ideo- their popular transmissions, again using video
logically laden, cliché ridden discourse whose footage supplied by the viewer on equipment
prophetic utterances became tautologically self- often provided by the broadcaster.
fulfilled. Depending on the medium, one party In relation to the internet, and for the past
wrote, spoke, or performed, while the other, decade and a half, there have been several avenues
respectively, read, listened, or observed. In those for word of mouth to assume the digital features of
days, the ex cathedra pronouncements of the tour- “Word of Web.” Here the voice of satisfaction
ism industry were imparted from on high without (“word of wish”) can be registered, as also that
fear of challenge, safe in the knowledge that there of dissatisfaction (“word of whinge”). The chan-
was a negligible chance of the addressee nels for such communication via the language of
answering back. tourism are also quite varied, as instanced in
536 Language
e-guidebooks (e.g., the ▶ travel forums provided industry (e.g., written complaints); tourist-tourist
by the likes of Lonely Planet and Rough Guide). (e.g., slide shows); tourist-touree (e.g., orders
There are additionally plenty of online locations issued to subordinate employees); touree-industry
that feature travel diaries or travel “blogs,” (e.g., letters to local newspapers); touree-tourist
wherein tourists (both actual and potential) with (e.g., xenophobic notices); and touree-touree
similar interests can communicate with one (e.g., essays of schoolchildren about tourists in
another (Dann and Liebman Parrinello 2007). In Kandy (Crick 1989)).
this instance, the “travel(bl)og” is a sort of ama- In model two, the language of tourism as dia-
teur, interpersonal e-travelogue using such fre- logue, it should be noted that the major difference
quently visited sites as My Trip Journal, Travel between dialogue and monologue is that two of
Pod, and I GoUGo. However, perhaps the most the three key players, instead of being considered
influential of all is Trip Advisor. This no-holds- exclusively as either senders or addressees, can
barred site can make many hotelier extremely now be regarded as operating both roles. For
nervous on account of its candid evaluations and instance, there is industry-tourist-industry com-
critical reviews, which like its print media munication (e.g., managerial responses to
counterpart – the Travelog – can promote or ▶ visitor complaints on hotel websites), touree-
demote. The same applies to such social network- industry-touree communication (e.g., radio call-in
ing sites as Twitter and Facebook, more recent reactions by Barbadian residents to postcolonial
sources of participant feedback. Since all these tourists (Dann 2004)), and tourist-touree-tourist
interactive channels provide collective evidence communication (e.g., visitor-beachboy encoun-
of the greater democratization of the language of ters (Karch and Dann 1981)). There is even
tourism (Dann 2012), surely the time is now ripe intra-party dialogue as, for example, between
for investigating updated models that incorporate past and future (potential) tourists (e.g., “virtual
the change from one-way (monologue) to tourist communities”).
two-way (dialogue) and three-way communica- Finally, in model three, the language of tourism
tion (trialogue) among the tourism industry, the as trialogue, three types of communication are
tourist, and the touree. Here it is not just the envisaged according to the originator of the dis-
theoretical frameworks that are new but so also course combined with the responses of the
are their data. In this regard there are vast amounts remaining two parties. In many instances, too,
of unanalyzed emails, digital photographs, and the direction of the dependency is typically
text messages that tourists send to one another reversed, as in the role switching and turn-taking
and/or which they transmit to such tourists to be between sender and addressee. The first case of
as friends and relatives. trialogue is industry-driven where dialogue is
envisaged between it and either tourists or tourees
(e.g., “meet the people” initiatives in ▶ Jamaica
Remodeling the language of tourism that begin with local families coming on board
cruiseships before the vessel arrives); the second
In order to become aware of the opportunities for is tourist initiated dialogue as, for instance, in
exploring dialogue and trialogue in the language “▶ volunteer tourism” in developing countries;
of tourism, it is necessary to provide a brief out- the third is touree-centered (e.g., Grass Route
line of three models that encapsulate the transition tours of townships in Cape Town).
from monologue to more open forms of commu-
nication. In the initial (old) model, the language
of tourism as monologue, there were/are nine Future developments
instances of monological communication:
industry-industry (e.g., in-house training); Although it can sometimes be a hazardous exercise
industry-tourees (e.g., a priori check-list question- to predict future trends in tourism and parallel
naires); industry-tourists (e.g., brochures); tourist- developments in theory and method, a general
Language 537
attempt in this direction has already been under- tourism” – one denying change and the other
taken in relation to one recent paradigm – that of promoting it. The former is pessimistic; the latter
tourism as language. However, while several sce- is optimistic. The first signifies even more control
narios of likely change have been outlined, along by the industry over those who gaze, tourists, and
with their implicit potential in research, it should be those who make a spectacle of themselves,
evident that not every possibility has been envis- tourees. The second heralds greater liberation for
aged by the three models. Nor have the specific the visitor and the visited as they free themselves
social conditions been identified which relate to via resident-responsive tourism from the shackles
how the transition is effected from monologue to of monological publicity to greater dialogical and
dialogue and trialogue, surely an area for further trialogical employment of self-imagery.
inquiry. Ontologically, these two positions are, respec-
Furthermore, if one takes an instance of tively, rooted in the perennial tension between one
traditional monological communication from the and many. Epistemologically they are, respectively,
industry as sender to the tourist as addressee – the grounded in the a priori innate ideas of Plato or in
package tour brochure – can it be predicted that the a posteriori, sensory-derived concepts of Aris-
this type of textual discourse will continue in its totle. This entry, if nothing else, should act as a
present format when there have been transforma- constant reminder that the meanings structuring
tions in similar media (e.g., the interactive nature tourism as a facet of contemporary existence rep-
of Web-based guidebooks and the digital transi- resent an ongoing struggle between these two
tion from travelogue to travel blog)? Alternatively dichotomous worldviews. However, they can
stated, and even though preliminary steps have only be fully revealed by stripping off the manifest
been taken in this direction, it could be meaning- content of messages in “the language of tourism”
fully asked why there should not be a respondent- and by exposing their latent layers of connotation L
friendly, fully interactive brochure that allows and the ideologies that underpin them.
potential tourists to take virtual 3D tours of
resorts, listen to what previous visitors have to See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ ideology, ▶ internet,
say about a given place, and even include the ▶ paradigm, ▶ sociolinguistics.
voices of destination people indicating the extent
to which they relish having outsiders in their
midst. It is this all-important last area where the References
least progress has been made, but it is one where,
if the foregoing trends to dialogue and trialogue Crick, M. 1989 The Hippy in Sri Lanka: A Symbolic
develop as outlined, the greatest transformation Analysis of the Imagery of Schoolchildren in Kandy.
Criticism, Heresy and Interpretation 3:37-54.
can be expected. Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism:
That said, it should be remembered that it is A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Wallingford: CABI.
also possible that some of the old monological Dann, G. 2000 Language of Tourism. In Encyclopedia of
ways of tourism promotion may be perpetuated Tourism, J. Jafari, ed., pp.348-349. London: Routledge.
Dann, G. 2004 (Mis)-representing the Other in the Lan-
on account of vested interests and lack of open- guage of Tourism. Journal of Eastern Caribbean Stud-
ness to change. Whereas it is evident that there are ies 29(2):76-94.
now several enlightened sectors of the industry Dann, G. 2012 Re-modelling a Changing Language of Tour-
that see the advantages of adequately and publicly ism: From Monologue to Dialogue and Trialogue. In
special issue of Pasos dedicated to Palabras y Cultura
responding to their customers, there are still a few en la Lengua del Turismo (Language and Culture in
diehards who prefer to remain silent. Apparently Tourism Communication), M. V. Calvi, ed., 10 (4):59-70.
they do not see the need to reply to complaints at Dann, G., and G. Liebman Parrinello 2007 Od Putopisa do
all, justifying their myopic position in terms of ‘Putobloga’: Redefiniranje Identiteta Turista (From
Travelog to Travelblog: (Re)-negotiating Tourist Iden-
unnecessary expense. tity). Acta Turistica 19:7-29.
Thus, there seem to be two possible scenarios Karch, C., and G. Dann 1981 Close Encounters of the
for the future development of “the language of Third World. Human Relations 34(4):249-268.
538 Laos
Van den Berghe, P. 1994 The Quest for the Other: Ethnic colonial and Laotian architecture and urbanism
Tourism in San Cristóbal, Mexico. Seattle: University and is a principal focus of tourism. Vang Vieng
of Washington Press.
and the capital city of Vientiane are also tourism
hubs. Other popular attractions include the Plain
of Jars (Xieng Khouang) archeological site, the Si
Phan Don Islands in the Lower Mekong River,
Laos and the Viengxay Caves, which housed an under-
ground city and communist army base during the
Wantanne Suntikul
Vietnam War (Suntikul et al. 2009).
School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
Participatory ▶ ecotourism, designed to con-
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
tribute to economic development and poverty
Hong Kong, China
alleviation through ecologically sustainable prac-
tices, is a priority of the Laotian government
(LNTA 2005). The first such project began in
Laos is a landlocked country in Southeast Asia,
Luang Namtha in 2000. There are currently par-
with a population of 6.6 million and an area of
ticipatory ecotourism projects throughout Laos. In
236,800 km2 (91,400 mi2). It is classified as a
part by virtue of such programs, the European
“least developed country” with a GDP of
Council on Tourism and Trade named Laos the
US$9.3 billion in 2012. It was part of French
2013 World Best Tourism Destination (ECTT
Indochina from 1893 to 1953, but was practically
2013).
devoid of tourism during the mid- to late twentieth
The Lao National Institute of Tourism and
century due to its entanglement in the Vietnam
Hospitality in Vientiane is the main provider of
War (1956–1975) and the isolationist policies of
tourism ▶ education, offering two-year diplomas
the postwar communist government. Laos again
and shorter training programs. There is still a lack
opened up its borders to tourists in 1989. Between
of tourism research on the country. A few exam-
1990 and 2012, tourism income rose by over 20 %
ples of potential topics include community-based,
annually. Tourism has become the country’s sec-
pro-poor, and cultural heritage tourism as well as
ond highest-earning industry, bringing annual rev-
impacts of tourism in landlocked countries.
enue of over $400 million by 2011 (LNTA 2012)
and generated 119,500 jobs in 2013 (WTTC
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
2014) (Figure 1).
▶ pro-poor tourism, ▶ world heritage.
In 1990, 14,400 tourists arrived in Laos,
increasing to over 3.3 million by 2013. Primary
source markets are its neighboring Southeast
References
Asian nations (2.7 million), particularly ▶ Thai-
land (1.9 million). Vientiane’s Wattay Airport is ECTT 2013 European Council on Tourism and Trade
the country’s primary international air hub. Air- Elects Laos as World Best Tourist Destination for
ports at Luang Prabang, Savannakhet, and Pakse 2013. European Journal of Tourism 8:5-6.
receive some regional international flights. The LNTA 2005 Lao PDR Tourism Strategy 2006-2020. Vien-
tiane: Lao National Tourism Authority.
national carrier, Lao Airlines, has operated LNTA 2012 2011 Statistical Report on Tourism in Laos.
since 1976. Vientiane: Lao National Tourism Authority.
The country’s ▶ cultural tourism assets include Suntikul, W., T. Bauer, and H. Song 2009 Pro-poor Tour-
classical Laotian relics and temples, French colo- ism Development in Viengxay, Laos: Current State and
Future Prospects. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism
nial structures, and the traditional lifestyles of Research 14:153-168.
indigenous people. The UNESCO-listed historic WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2014.
center of Luang Prabang presents a synthesis of London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
Laos 539
Laos, Figure 1 Map of Laos

540 Latvia
economic activities include timber and wood

Latvia processing, agriculture and food products,
manufacturing of machinery, electronics industry,
Dirk Reiser and transit services.
Cologne Business School, European University A country in transition, Latvia is yet to be
of Applied Sciences, Koeln, Germany explored by ▶ mass tourism, but it has the poten-
tial to become a popular destination. This is
reflected by the fact that the government considers
Latvia is the 124th largest country in the world tourism as one of the country’s prime ▶ economic
(64,589 km2) with a population of over 2.2 mil- development opportunities, a key contributor to
lion in 2014. It is located in Eastern Europe GDP, and an important source of ▶ export
between the other two Baltic states ▶ Estonia revenue.
and ▶ Lithuania, sharing borders with ▶ Russia, Tourism ▶ planning responsibilities are
▶ Belarus, and the Baltic Sea (Figure 1). Its main located within the Ministry of Economics.
Latvia, Figure 1 Map of Latvia

Law 541
According to the tourism ▶ law of 1998, its References

responsibilities include the ▶ development and
implementation of a ▶ national tourism policy Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa, eds. 2013 Insight Report: The
and the representation of the state’s interest in Travel andTourism Competitiveness Report. Geneva:
World Economic Forum.
the industry (OECD 2014). A particular focus is European Commission 2014 Latvia Country Report
to make it competitive. In 2013, Latvia was http://ec.europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/tourism/tourism-
described as the 29th (out of 42) competitive business-portal/documents/business/internationalisation/
destination in ▶ Europe (49th competitive global latvia__country_report.pdf (22 May).
OECD 2014 Latvia. Tourism Trends and Policies, Organi-
tourism ▶ destination out of 140) (Blanke and zation for Economic Cooperation and Development
Chiesa 2013). One of the main issues is the lack http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/tour-2014-50-en (14 May).
of strategic planning of tourism ▶ education. WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact,
While there are a large number of knowledge- Latvia. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
oriented courses in the education sector, there is
no cooperation between educational institutions
and employers in the industry. Presently, the edu-
cation sector cannot fulfill the human resource Law
requirements of tourism (European Commission
2014). Phil Cameron
Latvia’s main attractions are based on nature King AbdulAziz University, Tourism Institute,
and ▶ culture. Additional target segments Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
include ▶ MICE, medical, and wellness tourism.
These segments boost ▶ tourist numbers from
the main source markets that generate 70 % of Tourism law utilizes aspects of contract law, L
all overnight stays: Russian Federation, ▶ Lith- employment issues, tourism and hospitality pro-
uania, ▶ Sweden, ▶ Germany, ▶ Estonia, and cedures, antitrust rules, regulatory and agency
▶ Finland. Overall, the number of international compliance mechanisms, and substantive areas
overnight arrivals grew from 1.3 in 2009 to 1.4 of aviation, maritime, innkeeper, transportation,
million in 2012, the number of same-day inter- and public charter laws. It also spans the areas of
national excursionists from 3.4 to 4.1 million, tort, criminal, contract, corporate, administrative,
and the number of domestic tourists from 3.4 to and constitutional law. Tourism law is found in
3.8 million (OECD 2014). Furthermore, tourism national and local, common, and civil traditions,
was directly responsible for 25,500 jobs (2.9 % customs, and international treaties. Jurisdiction
of total ▶ employment) with a total contribution and procedural rules often determine the outcome
of 70,000 jobs (7.8 % of total employment) and of tourism lawsuits based on purchase locations,
directly contributed US$894.1 million (€ 665.8 contract formation, places of service provided,
million, about 2.9 % of total GDP) with a total forum nonconveniens, and the application of
contribution of $2,491.8 (€ 1,855.5, or 8.1 % of choice of law rules (Dickerson 2011).
total GDP) (WTTC 2014). In the ▶ future, the
tourism ▶ industry is expected to grow, in par-
ticular, as the country became a member of the Legal issues in tourism
Eurozone in 2014 and its capital Riga was clas-
sified as the “Cultural Capital of Europe” in the Airline legal issues include overbooking, lost lug-
same year. A further advantage is the many gage, frequent flyer mileage disputes, delays and
low-cost carriers to Riga and the good flight cancellations, unlawful restraint of passengers,
connection to Europe (OECD 2014). passenger air rage, flight attendant air rage, crash
and collision, death and injuries, and airline ticket
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ medical tourism, price fixing. International air travel is frequently
▶ nature tourism. governed by the agreement between States Parties
542 Law
known as the Montreal Convention for the Unifi- caused by third parties. These regulations typi-
cation of Certain Rules for International Carriage cally penalize the tour operator when it makes
by Air (1999). The treaty was sponsored by the changes in the itinerary. Motorcoach legal prob-
United Nations International Civil Aviation Orga- lems include crash and collision, death and inju-
nization and has been ratified by states that seek to ries, and being lost in a foreign country because
replace the Warsaw Convention (1929). the driver is untrained (Anolik 1995).
Hoteliers are frequently in court for issues Rail issues involve deregulation, privatization
involving overbooking, bait and switch schemes, and state support, sexual harassment, crash and
rape, theft, hotel safes, fire, lifeguard, and pool collision, and death and injuries. The rental car
safety. Restaurant lawsuits result from coat check industry faces legal issues with bait and switch
liability, food poisoning, and misuse of alcohol. schemes, unbundling price schemes, negligent
Hotel and restaurant legal issues are generally entrustment, GPS tracking devices, airport service
governed by municipal, local, or national statutes, charges, rental car theft, and destruction of
cases law, as well as the contract between the property.
guest and the innkeeper. Hotel law harmonization The seller of travel is a person, business entity,
governing hotelier-guest liability has been or other legal entity that sells, provides, contracts
drafted, but not ratified, in the Convention on the for, represents, or arranges travel services as an
Hotelkeeper’s Contract of the International Insti- intermediary between the provider and the con-
tute for the Unification of Private Law (Barth sumer. An agent is a person or company autho-
2011). rized to act on authority of and on behalf of the
Cruise law includes port skipping, ticketing, principal. The agent remains under the control of
discrimination, food poisoning, onboard virus, principal in dealing with third parties, and all the
typhoid fever, SARS, rape, child safety and super- authorized acts of the agent are imputed back to
vision, and many other issues governed by hotel the principal as if they were done by the principal
and restaurant law. Cruise industry law encom- and not the agent. Many courts find that travel
passes admiralty, ocean, and corporate law, as agents owe a fiduciary duty to the customer. In
well as international and ocean laws, and the other words, the travel agent is the legal agent of
contract of passage. The Athens Convention, the customer, as well as being the legal agent of
relating to the Carriage of Passengers and their the provider of travel. This is a dual agency status
Luggage by Sea (1974) and the Protocol (2002), of being an agent for both the consumer and the
provides that carriers can be held liable for loss or provider. Agents may be company employees,
damage suffered by a passenger resulting from duly authorized individuals, or even independent
fault or negligence of the cruise line. The Athens contractors acting on behalf of suppliers of
Convention also limits cruise line liability and, travel.
depending on its nationality, may include insur-
ance, financial security, and jurisdiction require-
ments (Gore 1995). Future research
Tour operators face liability for negligent hir-
ing, personal injuries, breach of contract, and par- The rights of the traveler are increasingly being
ticularly with adventure tours, snorkeling, recognized. The legal classification of the traveler
skydiving, hang gliding, and the failure to warn often entails third-party beneficiary rights that
of hazardous conditions. Tour operator liability is may be important to a particular case to distin-
generally governed by state common and statu- guish the tourist, consumer, and traveler in con-
tory laws which vary greatly depending on the tractual disputes with a provider or seller. General
jurisdiction. Public charter regulations typically cases that apply to many tourism transactions
state that the tour operator is the “principal” and, include fraud, misrepresentation, bankruptcy,
as such, is liable for all defaults in the tour, regard- theft of deposits, and illegal ticket sales (Anolik
less of fault, except when physical injuries are 1995).
Leadership 543
Hosts are the locals that have rights regarding service. As such, a great deal of research has been
tourism when they receive the travelers. The conducted to learn about the nature and impact of
hosts’ connection between culture and tourism is leadership in highly interactive, service-focused
protected under international law as evidenced in settings.
treaties and agreements such as the UNESCO
World Heritage Convention (1972) to protect
host peoples’ cultural landscapes, historic towns Approaches to leadership research
and town centers, heritage canals and routes, and
intangible heritage such as food, song, and dance, The topic of leadership has been examined
the Statement on the Prevention of Organized Sex through a variety of disciplinary lenses, including
Tourism (1995), and the Convention on the Pro- managerial and organizational studies, sociology,
tection and Promotion of the Diversity of Cultural public policy, and economics. Within the hospi-
Expressions (2005). tality and tourism domain (as in many other indus-
Tourism law, procedures, and remedies depend trial and organizational contexts), one of the three
largely on domestic state-based laws, and there- distinct though complementary approaches has
fore jurisdiction issues dominate many lawsuits. been used to explain the roles and influence of
Future harmonization of tourism laws will be felt leaders. The first approach utilizes a trait explana-
with increased ratification of international treaties tion, which argues that effective leadership is
and domestic codification of industry standards. based on an individual’s intrinsic personal quali-
ties, such as personality, values, and beliefs.
See also ▶ Heritage, ▶ international tourism, Although no single trait appears to be universally
▶ internet, ▶ policy and policymaking. relevant, qualities such as charisma, emotional
intelligence, and the ability to thrive in turbulent L
and ambiguous settings are among the character-
istics that appear to be consistent with successful
References
leaders across a variety of hospitality and tourism
Anolik, A. 1995 The Law and the Travel Industry. San contexts.
Francisco: Anolik Law Offices. A second approach to understanding effective
Barth, S. 2011 Hospitality Law: Managing Legal Issues in leadership focuses on individual behaviors. These
the Hospitality Industry. Hoboken: Wiley. explanations are grounded in “middle range” the-
Dickerson, T. 2011 Travel Law. New York: Law Journal
Press. ories (Yukl 2012) which describe specific actions
Gore, L. 1995 Current Legal Issues in the Cruise Industry. that leaders can take to promote superior individ-
Northumbria: University of Newcastle Press. ual and organizational performance. For example,
Testa and Sipe (2012) advanced a “service lead-
ership” model which included a number of task-
oriented behaviors (such as planning and moni-
Leadership toring) and people-oriented behaviors (such as
supporting and team building) that were specifi-
J. Bruce Tracey and Alec Sherman cally linked to creating and sustaining a climate
School of Hotel Administration, Cornell for exceptional service delivery, enhancing cus-
University, Ithaca, USA tomer loyalty, and developing personal connec-
tions with guests. This type of framework offers a
very useful reference for identifying key behav-
Leadership is an essential function in all ▶ hospi- iors and competencies that are necessary for suc-
tality and tourism organizations and businesses. cess in many types of hospitality and tourism
Leaders can have a substantial ▶ impact on a wide organizations, especially operational environ-
range of critical processes and outcomes, espe- ments that involve frequent interactions among
cially those that have a direct impact on customer leaders, employees, and customers.
544 Leadership
The third approach utilizes a contingency or leadership, such as participatory styles, have
process-based explanation, which includes trait much more limited utility. As such, additional
and/or behavioral elements, but also accounts for research is needed to examine the relative impact
contextual factors that may enhance or mitigate a of various cultural characteristics, such as
leader’s effectiveness. One of the more popular ▶ power distance, individualism, and uncertainty
and useful process explanations is the transforma- avoidance, on the use and utility of various lead-
tional leadership model, which focuses on the ership traits, behaviors, and processes. Other
interactions among leaders and their followers. important environmental factors that may have a
This particular framework purports that effective profound influence on leadership effectiveness
transformational leaders are those who can pre- include changes in employee values and needs
sent a compelling vision of the future, display that stem from increasing workforce diversity
enthusiasm and optimism, share risks with their and the growing use of technology which has
followers, and promote new and creative solutions redefined the nature and structure of work in
for advancing the organization’s objectives. In many hospitality and tourism settings. Thus,
turn, these behaviors have been shown to engen- research is needed to learn more about the nature
der follower support, trust, respect, and a host of and relative impact of these and related environ-
individual- and firm-level outcomes that are mental factors that may influence leadership in
important for hospitality and tourism organiza- hospitality and tourism settings throughout the
tions (Tracey and Hinkin 1996). Other process world.
models have been developed to explain the col- A complementary area of inquiry that
lective efforts of leaders from multiple organiza- would advance the current base of knowledge is
tions (for profit, nonprofit, government, and so on) the examination of various leadership
who work in a collaborative manner to support profiles – combinations of traits, behaviors, and
regional hospitality and tourism organizations and processes – that may be utilized when responding
businesses. These types of multilevel explana- to the specific environmental factors noted above.
tions have extended our understanding about the For example, in addition to service-based models
boundary conditions that define the requirements which outline the leadership requirements for
for leadership effectiveness. achieving consistently high-quality customer ser-
vice, there may be additional leadership profiles
that may promote ethical employee behavior, cor-
Emerging issues and implications porate social responsibility, innovation, and other
strategically important initiatives. Moreover, in
As noted above, while current conceptualizations light of the substantive increase in the corporati-
have accounted for some of the contextual vari- zation of the hospitality and tourism ▶ industry,
ables that may influence the effectiveness of var- more attention is needed to “strategic leadership”
ious leadership traits, behaviors, and processes, and the traits, behaviors, and processes that enable
there is a need for broader explanations that hospitality and tourism organizations and busi-
account for factors outside the organization set- nesses to respond quickly and effectively to
ting. One key variable that deserves additional highly dynamic and competitive conditions.
consideration is national culture. For example, A great deal of theoretical and practical value
there is evidence that some types of leadership, can come from efforts to link specific leadership
such as those associated with charisma or value- competencies, behaviors, and processes to spe-
based leadership and team-oriented leadership, cific contextual contingencies within and outside
may be effective in almost any cultural context hospitality and tourism organizations and
(House et al. 2004) including hospitality organi- businesses.
zations (Shay and Tracey 2009). However, there is
growing evidence that other approaches to See also ▶ Management, ▶ power, ▶ strategy.
Leakage, economic 545
References Another challenge is that there is a difference

among destinations as to what constitutes the tour-
House, R., P. Hanges, M. Javidan, P. Dorfman, and V. Gupta. ism ▶ industry when making the calculation while
2004. Culture, Leadership, and Organizations: The
▶ statistics on external leakages are often excluded
GLOBE Study of 62 Societies. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Shay, J., and J. Tracey. 2009. Expatriate Adjustment and due to the difficulty in data collection. A further
Performance: The Mediating Role of Managerial Prac- problem is the lack of available information on
tices. Journal of International Management 15: “northern-based” ▶ tour operator income and the
401-412.
different estimation methods used, especially in
Testa, M., and L. Sipe. 2012. Service-leadership Compe-
tencies for Hospitality and Tourism. International destination countries not using Tourism Satellite
Journal of Hospitality Management 31: 648-658. Accounting systems. These challenges make it dif-
Tracey, J., and T. Hinkin. 1996. How Transformational ficult to keep track of leakages, which in turn affect
Leaders Lead in the Hospitality Industry. International
the development of repair strategies.
Journal of Hospitality Management 15: 165-176.
Yukl, G. 2012. Leadership in Organizations, Critics of global tourism argue that it leaves
8th ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. insignificant revenue in destinations (Mbaiwa
2005) and as a result is a poor development
choice. Mitchell and Ashley (2007) are of the
opinion that leakage pessimists confuse the matter
Leakage, economic using unclear thinking and poor arithmetics to
generate confusing propositions regarding the
Cristina Jönsson leakage and how to reduce it through policy inter-
Department of Management Studies, ventions. Exaggerated claims take the focus away
The University of the West Indies, Cave Hill, from an important challenge of boosting the link-
Barbados ages between tourism and the rest of the local L
economy (Mitchell and Ashley 2007). Enhancing
such linkages between this industry and the local
Leakage occurs in many industries. In the case of economy is one of the best ways to enhance eco-
tourism, the causes for economic leakage depend on nomic benefits at destination levels.
the ▶ destination and its ▶ development. In gen- To minimize leakages, it is imperative for des-
eral, tourism leakage takes place when revenues tinations, especially in small island developing
from its economic activities are not available for states, to strengthen linkages with the local econ-
reinvestment or consumption of goods and services omies. Linkages between tourism and ▶ other
within the same destination. As a result, economic industries is an under-researched topic. More spe-
resources are “leaked away,” which predominantly cifically, research topics such as legal and institu-
occurs when tourism companies are foreign owned tional factors constraining the linkages between
and/or when they are based in another country. tourism and other local industries could fill a
Large-scale leakage has been associated with major gap and add to current discussion on leak-
▶ mass tourism and high-end, ▶ luxury tourism ages and repair strategies.
(Scheyvens 2002), both of which tend to be exter-
nally controlled. Leakage also occurs when See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ centrally
tourism-related goods, services, and labor are planned economy, ▶ community development,
imported. Thus, it is difficult to avoid leakage, ▶ dependency theory, ▶ development.
especially in small island developing states that
depend on the import of skilled staff (Mbaiwa
2005) and goods and services (Torres 2003).
References
Due to the complexity of leakages, there are
Mbaiwa, J. 2005 Enclave Tourism and its Socio-economic
challenges with its calculations, especially in cases Impacts in the Okavango Delta, Botswana. Tourism
where there is insufficient data on profit repatriation. Management 26:157-172.
546 Lebanon
Mitchell, J., and C. Ashley 2007 “Leakage” Claims: Mud- 2012, accounting for 25.1 % of Lebanon’s GDP
dled Thinking and Bad for Policy? London: Overseas (WTTC 2012). The industry directly and indi-
Development Institute.
Scheyvens, R. 2002 Backpacker Tourism and Third World rectly supports 322,500 jobs, or 24 % of total
Development. Annals of Tourism Research employment (WTTC 2012) .
29:144-164. In the 1960s and early 1970s, Lebanon was the
Torres, R. 2003 Linkages between Tourism and Agricul- only country in the region to offer skiing and other
ture in Mexico. Annals of Tourism Research
30:546-566. winter activities. Cultural diversity, archaeologi-
cal riches, and a unique blend of East and West
have made the country earn worldwide recogni-
tion as a ▶ destination, with its capital Beirut
Lebanon nicknamed “The Paris of the Middle East.” The
industry experienced devastation during the Leb-
Guy Assaker anese Civil War (1975–1990). However, it has
School of Business, Lebanese American grown relatively steadily in the last two decades
University, Beirut, Lebanon by attracting a record number of tourists to the
country: 2.2 million in 2010, or 39 % growth over
the previous year (UNWTO 2011). But during the
Lebanon, with a population of about 4.1 million last 2 years, the war in ▶ Syria and political insta-
and area of 10,452 km2 (4,014 mi2), stretches bility have caused a major decline in arrivals.
about 210 km along the eastern coast of the Despite setbacks, tourism investments never
Mediterranean Sea. It borders Syria to the north stopped, with approximately US$3 billion in pro-
and east and Palestine and ▶ Israel to the south jects being implemented and some 1,200 hotel
(Figure 1). Its competitive and free-market econ- rooms being added, resulting in 21,000 rooms in
omy of about US$42 billion GDP in 2012 has total, according to the Tourism Ministry figures.
historically relied on tourism, which remains a The industry also benefits from more than
major source of growth and ▶ employment. Tour- 100 tourism-related programs offered by 16 ▶ uni-
ism contributed US$11.19 billion to the GDP in versities and 113 technical and vocational training
institutes. The industry-specific qualified labor
force contributes to the Lebanese people’s posi-
35 36
tive attitude toward international tourists, ranking
Lebanon first in its affinity for tourism (WEF
El Mîna
2013).
Tripoli
Although investments from the private sector
S
Chekka
I N
Qornet es El
Batroûn
Saouda
Hermel are growing, government funding falls short.
A
T
Roads to some of the most popular and scenic

N
Mediterranean
y
e
U
Jbail
N
Sea sites are poorly maintained, limiting access. The

ll
O
O
AN
a
booming ▶ tourist numbers strain water supplies,

M
EB
Joünié
V
34 34
-L
Baalbak
TI
BEIRUT
N
especially during summer months, and many

AN
Zahlé
O
N
hotels, resorts, and attractions operate on their

a
A
SYRIA
a
own electricity. Yet tourism ▶ development in

B
k
E
e
B
L
Sidon
Jezzîne Lebanon is still constrained by persisting instabil-
ity and security issues that confine growth as well
Shab'a
Farms as deter arrivals (Issa and Altinay 2006).
Tyre UNDOF
Zone Lebanon seeks to improve its image through
En Golan Heights
Nâqoûra (Israeli occupied) 0 10 20 km
the establishment of a promotional board to
35
ISRAEL
36 0 10 20 mi enhance future visits, stage proper infrastructure
planning and obtain needed funds to improve
Lebanon, Figure 1 Map of Lebanon infrastructure and road networks, and diversify
Legislation 547
its tourism portfolio by developing eco-based promotion of human rights. Ethical standards
activities and budget facilities to entice Europeans are, however, purely voluntary and can only
and Americans to compensate for the drop in Arab serve as a model for lawmakers.
tourists. Through these efforts, Lebanon expects Depending upon the history, research, and pur-
to increase contribution of tourism to its economy. pose leading up to enactment, a piece of legisla-
tion might apply general principles to a broad
See also ▶ Infrastructure, ▶ media, ▶ Middle range of industries. By way of illustration, the
East, ▶ safety and security. Americans with Disabilities Act (1990) applies
generally to ensure equal opportunities for people
with disabilities in many aspects of their lives
References including, but not limited to, employment, gov-
ernment services, public accommodations, com-
Issa, I., and L. Altinay 2006 Impacts of Political Instability
on Tourism Planning and Development: The Case of
mercial facilities, and transportation. Included
Lebanon. Tourism Analysis 12:361-381 within the sweeping reach of the act would be
UNWTO 2011 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World the specific application to accessibility in tourism.
Tourism Organization. In contrast, legislation might target tourism
WEF 2013 The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness
Report. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
more directly and can largely be divided into
WTTC 2012 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact - Leb- three identifiable categories: laws intended to pro-
anon. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. mote tourism, laws intended to regulate entry into
a country by noncitizens, and laws intended to
impose business licensing requirements upon
operators within the industry. Occasionally, these
Legislation categories will have crossover benefits. For exam- L
ple, in the ▶ United States, the pending Jobs Orig-
Stephanie Morris inated through Launching Travel Act (JOLT
The Emirates Academy of Hospitality 2013), a bipartisan bill strongly supported by the
Management, Dubai, UAE US Travel Association, would allow visa-free
entry from allied countries, reduce visa waiting
periods, and facilitate visa interviews via secure
Legislation can be defined as the designing and teleconferencing. Whereas its primary aim is to
enacting of laws by a governmental body regulate entry, one of the beneficial by-products
entrusted with that responsibility. It also refers to would be the dynamic ▶ impact on and resultant
the encoded body of enacted laws themselves. promotion of the country’s number one service
Tourism itself presents more of a challenge in export: travel and tourism. Examples of legisla-
terms of arriving at a universally acknowledged tion specifically aimed at tourism can also be
definition. For the purposes herein, where legisla- found in the bylaws promulgated by Dubai’s
tion affecting tourism is addressed, a comprehen- Department of Tourism and Commerce Marketing
sive interpretation is employed. UNWTO (1995) (2012), whose reach maintains the force of law by
defines tourism as the activity of people traveling virtue of Dubai Law No. 1 of 1997 which
to and staying in places outside their usual envi- established the department. Included within its
ronment for not more than one consecutive year jurisdiction are the responsibilities of classifying
for ▶ leisure, business, and other purposes. hotels and licensing tourism operators.
Through its Global Code of Ethics, UNWTO Legislation ultimately depends on region-
(2001) has established universal standards specific considerations such as cultural norms,
addressing divergent aspects such as economic governmental objectives, and political influences.
growth, environmental and developmental sus- Prospective global legislative concordance in
tainability, accessibility, reduction of poverty, tourism will require examination into the feasibil-
self-education, cross-cultural tolerance, and ity of reconciling these divergencies.
548 Leisure
See also ▶ Accessibility, ▶ ethics, ▶ law, ▶ visa. both individual tastes and cultural prescriptions
(camping, visiting friends) and proscriptions
(pornography, gambling). Finally, leisure may be
References regarded as a personal feeling or condition of
mind where the meaning attributed to the activity
Americans with Disabilities Act 1990 www.ada.gov/pubs/ by a participant is its most critical feature.
adastatute08.htm (1 April 2014).
DTCM 2012 Dubai Department of Tourism and Com-
merce By-Laws www.dubaitourism.ae/legislation/
bylaws (7 April 2014). Free time
JOLT 2013 Jobs Originating through Launching Travel
Act http://beta.congress.gov/bill/113th/house-bill/
Tourists typically take time off from their normal
1354/text (11 November).
UNWTO 1995 Technical Manual: Collection of routines in order to ▶ travel. While the amount of
Tourism Expenditure Statistics http://pub.unwto.org/ time that individuals can devote to leisure, includ-
WebRoot/Store/Shops/Infoshop/Products/1034/1034-1. ing tourism, does vary, recent research suggests
pdf (7 April 2014).
that average free time availability may not differ
UNWTO 2001 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism www.
unwto.org/ethics/full_text/en/pdf/Codigo_Etico_Ing. greatly both individually and cross-culturally.
pdf (11 November 2013). Rubin et al. (1986) found that adults in four Ama-
zonian tribes spend approximately the same
amount of time in both work and leisure. This
was the case despite the fact that two of them
Leisure lived in substantially degraded environments
while the situations of the other two afforded
Garry Chick relative plenty. Rather than spending more time
Pennsylvania State University, Pennsylvania, working, members of the two tribes living in the
USA degraded environments chose to use fewer calo-
ries by spending more time in passive leisure,
while members of the other two spent relatively
Like many social science concepts based on terms more time in active leisure. Chick and Shen
from natural languages, leisure can be considered (2011) compared time spent in leisure across
with regard to its definition and its meaning. 12 traditional groups located in South America,
Scholars are concerned with the former, inasmuch ▶ Africa, and Oceania. They found that while
as a clear and precise definition of a concept is these groups differed widely in variables such as
necessary for proper study of it. They are also subsistence method and population density, they
interested in the meaning of leisure but usually spend very similar amounts of time in productive
in terms of understanding how members of par- and nonproductive activities.
ticular social or cultural groups experience it. Whether free time is increasing, decreasing, or
With respect to the definition of leisure, staying the same in modern societies has been
scholars commonly regard it as having three qual- disputed. The post-2008 economic downturn
ities, each necessary but none sufficient to fully resulted in enforced free time for many, while
characterize it. First, leisure requires time that is corporations and governments, particularly in
relatively unobligated and where freedom of ▶ Europe, have sought to reduce guaranteed
choice is available. Second, certain kinds of activ- ▶ vacation time for workers. In May 2011, for
ities, usually without external reward but intrinsi- example, German Chancellor Angela Merkel
cally pleasurable, are commonly associated with asserted that countries heavily in debt, such as
leisure. These include play, games, sport, resting, ▶ Greece, ▶ Spain, and ▶ Portugal, should sub-
participating in festivals or the arts, watching tele- stantially reduce government-mandated vacation
vision, or engaging in other forms of social and time and raise the minimum age for retirement.
individual entertainment. But choices vary with The Center for Economic and Policy Research in
Leisure 549
Washington DC indicates that the ▶ United States For many, both time and activity are irrelevant
is the only country with an advanced economy and leisure should be considered only in terms of
that fails to mandate a minimum paid vacation its meaning to those experiencing it. This position
time or ▶ holiday to all employees. In contrast, holds that the subjective experience of leisure is
▶ Austria and ▶ Portugal guarantee workers with both a necessary and sufficient condition for its
a minimum 22 paid ▶ vacation days and 13 annual existence. Those taking this position usually
paid holidays. ▶ Japan, the least generous next to regard subjective feelings, including freedom of
the ▶ United States, guarantees 10 paid vacation choice, intrinsic motivation, and enjoyment, as
days and 15 national holidays per year. Changes necessary for leisure. However, freedom of choice
in mandated vacation time and retirement age is almost always relative and even the same activ-
have obvious social and economic implications ities can be more or less enjoyable, depending on
for tourism, including tourists and tourism context. Playing a round of golf with a friend can
providers. be very different than a round with one’s boss.
In an effort to synthesize these perspectives,
Purrington and Hickerson recently defined leisure
Leisure as an activity and state of mind as “behavior that differs from culture-specific
behaviors closely related to immediate survival
Anthropologists have claimed that leisure activi- and other practical necessities of life” (2013:
ties, such as art, dance, music, games, play, toys, 130–131). However, some scholars insist that lei-
sport, and socializing are common to all humans. sure, again like numerous other concepts in social
▶ Travel for pleasure and tourism has not typi- science, implies so many things to different peo-
cally been included as a human universal, but ple that it cannot be given a single, encompassing
visiting others has been common in history. Travel definition and that understanding its meanings to L
required in order to seek mates outside of one’s those experiencing it is the more appropriate
own social group is typical. Hadza hunter- research goal.
gatherers of northern ▶ Tanzania, for example,
usually live in groups of about 25. While marriage
sometimes occurs between individuals living in Meaning of leisure
larger camps, people frequently travel to other
camps to visit, socialize, and learn about marriage The English “leisure” derives from the Latin
possibilities. licere, meaning “to be allowed.” In contrast, the
The most famous anthropological example of Mandarin term Xiu xian (休閒 in traditional Chi-
expressive travel is the ceremonial Kula ring nese) is very different etymologically but still has
wherein shell necklaces were traded in a clock- a meaning quite similar to that of English (Liu
wise fashion around the islands of the Milne Bay et al. 2008). Relatively few languages have terms
Province of present-day ▶ Papua New Guinea, with the same meaning as the English word. In
described by Bronislaw Malinowski in 1922. many, leisure is translated as “free time” (tempo
While shell armbands circled in a counterclock- libero in Italian or Freizeit in German). Others are
wise direction, Kula exchange often required more creative. In Hocąk, a Siouan language spo-
participants to navigate hundreds of miles of ken by members of the Ho-Chunk Nation of Wis-
open water for visits to their trading partners. consin and the Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska in
Similarly, the potlatch was a form of ritual the United States, leisure is translated primarily as
exchange among members of indigenous tribes haizo’ une or “take it easy.” In Dholuo, a Nilo-
of the northwest coast of North America that Saharan language spoken in ▶ Kenya, leisure
involved visitation between communities. translates either as raha, a loan word from Swahili
Therefore, travel for utilitarian and ceremonial meaning “having fun” or “enjoying oneself,” or
activities as well as leisure may have been com- chamo ngima, which translates literally as “eating
mon in human history. life” (Chick et al. 2013).
550 Leisure
Examining the roots of and translations for Future directions

terms whose meaning is the same or similar to
leisure is not a mere etymological exercise. Leisure scholars commonly regard leisure to
A significant school of thought holds that literally involve free time, certain kinds of activities, and
no one can think about things for which there are particular types of feelings associated with the
no words; thus, language both describes and con- experience, although none of these features is with-
structs reality. The evidence for this strong form of out conceptual challenges. Moreover, how leisure
linguistic relativity is dubious, however. For is expressed in various languages around the world
example, in a scholarly meeting on sexuality, a is little studied despite the possibility that differ-
cultural anthropologist once declared that people ences in how it is conceptualized may well have
whose language lacks a word for “orgasm” would consequences for both the host and guest popula-
be unable to experience orgasms. Some of the tion of destinations. In a review of 1,891 articles
natural scientists in the audience then began to published in leading leisure studies journals
circulate little notes with questions such as “With- between 1990 and 2009, Ito et al. (2014) found
out a word for ‘oxygen’, can people breathe?” that only 4.1 % examined leisure in non-Western
This is reminiscent of Sebastian de Grazia’s settings or were cross-cultural/national in nature.
well-known claim that “leisure cannot exist With ever-increasing numbers of tourists from the
where people don’t know what it is.” East traveling to the West, as well as from the West
Nuances of meaning are important not only for to the East, knowledge of how leisure is denoted, as
theory but also for tourists who come into contact well as the meanings attached to it, in all of its
with speakers of languages that lack a term that cultural settings is more critical than ever for satis-
directly translates as “leisure” or that may have fying and rewarding ▶ tourist experiences.
connotations that differ from the English word. Tourism, as a form of leisure experience, pro-
For example, the Japanese term rejaa, a phonetic duces positive emotions but how such emotions
transliteration of the English leisure, has an eco- link to aspects of the ▶ tourist experience is
nomic connotation, as in spending money on largely unknown. Nawijn et al. (2012) found that
entertainment, including betting, traveling, or individuals on 1- to 2-week vacation experienced
going to amusement parks. Rekurie-shon, another substantial emotional changes over their trips.
phonetic transliteration, is used in reference to While they had very positive emotions at the
inexpensive diversions, such as group games and beginning and midpoints of their vacations, these
dancing, and education and community service. declined at the end. Other research indicates that
Yoka also denotes leisure. The first syllable, yo, things such as jet lag and culture shock may lead
means “leftover” while the second, ka, refers to to less positive emotions at the beginning of trips.
“spare or free time.” Here, language does not The specific emotions experienced over the
create reality but directs attention to particular course of trips as well as how they are produced
characteristics of it. are largely unknown, however, and represent
Finally, meaning is important to those who important areas for future research.
are, or are not, experiencing leisure. Shaw In addition to emerging topics, methods used in
found that married or couples living together in other fields, such as cultural consensus analysis,
Halifax, ▶ Canada, distinguished leisure and have recently been introduced to leisure and tourism
non-leisure based on “enjoyment, freedom of research. Cultural consensus analysis, developed in
choice, relaxation, intrinsic motivation, and the anthropology, allows determination of the degree to
lack of evaluation” (1985: 1). For residents of which beliefs, values, and other aspects of culture
Hong Kong, “freedom, happiness, enjoyment, are shared. Paris et al. (2014), for example, provided
and health are shared elements in participants’ the first evidence of cultural differences between
perceptions of leisure” (Chan et al. 2012: 311) in backpackers from different countries using cultural
both tourism-related and non-tourism-related consensus analysis. Future research using cultural
activities. consensus analysis might be directed at differences
Lesotho 551
between host and tourist cultures at destinations, the 27 28 29

degree to which emotions produced by leisure travel
SOUTH AFRICA
are shared, or other issues involving tourism culture
differences or comparisons. Maputsoe
Butha-
Buthe
Leribe
29 29
Teyateyaneng
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ park tourism, ▶ recre- Katse
Reservoir
ation, ▶ tourism, ▶ travel. MASERU
Thaba-
Mokhotlong
n
o
ed Thabana
C al Tseka
Ntlenyana
g
le n
ha
Mafeteng
ak
M
References 30
O ra
n ge 30
Mohale’s
Hoek Qacha’s
Nek
Chan, N., H. Xiao, C. Chau, and H. Ma 2012 The Meaning
e
ng
of Leisure for Residents in Hong Kong. Journal of O ra Quthing
Hospitality Marketing and Management 21:311-329. SOUTH AFRICA

Chick, G., R. Makopondo, and W. Winneshiek 2013 Lex- 0 20 40 km
27 28
icons of Leisure: An Ethnographic Approach to Repre- 0 20 40 mi
sentations of Leisure in Three Cultures. Unpublished

Manuscript: Department of Recreation, Park and Tour- Lesotho, Figure 1 Map of Lesotho
ism Management, The Pennsylvania State University.
Chick, G., and S. Shen 2011 Leisure and Cultural Com-
plexity. Cross-Cultural Research 45:59-81. It covers a land area of approximately
Ito, E., G. Walker, and H. Liang 2014 A Systematic Review 30,350 km2, 11,718 mi2 (UNWTO 2000). Land-
of Non-Western and Cross-Cultural/National Leisure locked and completely encircled by ▶ South
Research. Journal of Leisure Research 46:226-239. Africa, Lesotho is one of the smallest and least
Liu, H., C. Yeh, G. Chick, and H. Zinn 2008 An Explora-
tion of the Meanings of Leisure: A Chinese Perspec- developed countries in the world (Figure 1). Its L
tive. Leisure Sciences 30:482-488. population is about two million. There are two
Nawijn, J., O. Mitas, Y. Lin, and D. Kerstetter 2012 How official languages, English and Sesotho (Lesotho
Do We Feel on Vacation? A Closer Look at How
Government 2009). It is divided into ten districts
Emotions Change over the Course of a Trip. Journal
of Travel Research 52:265-274. and further subdivided into 129 community coun-
Paris, C., G. Musa, and T. Thirumoorthi 2014 cils, with the capital Maseru as its city council.
A Comparison between Asian and Australasia Back- The “Mountain Kingdom” is home to the largest
packers using Cultural Consensus Analysis. Current and most ambitious civil engineering project in
Issues in Tourism doi:10.1080/13683500.2014.920771.
Purrington, A., and B. Hickerson 2013 Leisure as a Cross- the whole of Africa, the Lesotho Highlands Water
Cultural Concept. World Leisure Journal 55:125-137. Project, which has harnessed and commercialized
Rubin, J., N. Flowers, and D. Gross 1986 The her upstream surplus water resources – often
Adaptive Dimensions of Leisure. American referred to by the Basotho as their “White Gold”
Ethnologist 13:524-536.
Shaw, S. 1985 The Meaning of Leisure in Everyday Life. (Lesotho Government 2009).
Leisure Sciences 7:1-23. The tourism ▶ industry in Lesotho is consid-
ered to have great potential for attracting ▶ for-
eign exchange and creating ▶ employment
(Lesotho Government 2009). It now employs
Lesotho around 21,000 people and has potential to gener-
ate more jobs, particularly in the highland
Reginah Marankopane Thetsane ▶ region where poverty is greatest (CIA 2011).
Department of Business Administration, National Although tourism contributes only 2.1 % of the
University of Lesotho, Roma, Lesotho GDP compared with a regional average of 7 %
(Lesotho Government 2009: 39–40), there is con-
siderable potential for increasing its share in the
Known as the “Mountain Kingdom,” Lesotho economy. Lesotho is characterized by mountain
is situated in the southern region of ▶ Africa. ranges, soaring peaks, clear streams, waterfalls,
552 Liberia
rich cultural ▶ heritage, latent economic potential UNWTO 2000 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
contained in the rivers, and a rich variety of ism Organization.
endemic plants and animal species. Mountains,
valleys, and rivers provide memorable scenery
for tourists. This is where Lesotho gets its crystal
clear water as well as green pastures for livestock. Liberia
Minerals such as diamond are found in the
mountains. Tometi Koku Gbedema
Lesotho’s small but expanding tourism indus- Department of Human Ecology, University of
try has a natural ▶ comparative advantage, both California, Davis, USA
regionally and internationally, and has shown
consistent growth over the years. Its major fea-
ture is altitude: the only country in the world Liberia is nestled among ▶ Sierra Leone,
which lies entirely above 1,000 m above sea ▶ Guinea Conakry, and Cote d’Ivoire in West
level. In fact, the lowest point in Lesotho is Africa (Figure 1). With an area of 111,369 km2
1,400 m above sea level. Thus, Lesotho is an (43,000 mi2), the country began as a settlement of
ideal ▶ location for high-altitude sports ▶ train- freed slaves from the ▶ United States repatriated
ing facilities (Thahane 2008). There has been a to the region by the American Colonization Soci-
steady increase in the number of private-owned ety in the early 1800s. Hence the capital city
tourism enterprises, driven by the 2010 World Monrovia was built as a modern city (Mongrue
Cup hosted by neighboring South Africa. The 2011) and named after US President James Mon-
leading tourism markets are ▶ Germany, the roe during whose reign (1817–1825) the repatria-
▶ United Kingdom, the ▶ Netherlands, South tion of freed African slaves to populate this West
Africa, and ▶ Zimbabwe. African region began.
Despite the growing industry, there are a Liberia is one of the two African countries that
number of challenges. Lesotho does not have a evaded European colonization and was the conti-
well-developed infrastructure, including ▶ edu- nent’s first independent republic. It benefitted from
cation and training. Related programs are foreign investments and migration of people from
offered at diploma level by only two higher different parts of the world and has become a center
learning institutions. For tourism to thrive, of robust economy in West Africa (Mongrue 2011).
improvement of infrastructure, ▶ marketing, With a population of just above four million, its
and involvement of the private sector are natural resources include iron ore, timber, dia-
needed in Lesotho. monds, gold, and hydropower. The country is
known for its “blood” diamond mined in the
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ attraction, ▶ mountain counties of Lofa and Bomi which became targets
tourism, ▶ nature tourism. for rebels during the civil war from 1989 to 2003.
Tourism, a small part of the national economy,
was damaged by the civil war (World Travel
References Market 2010). The industry is also heavily affected
by the recent Ebola virus outbreak in Liberia and a
CIA 2011 The World Factbook: Lesotho www.cia.gov/ number of other West African countries. Attrac-
library/publications (30 March 2014).
Lesotho Government 2009 Review: An Overview of the tions include tropical beaches and rainforest. Sapo
Kingdom of Lesotho’s Economy. Maseru: Lesotho National Park is the country’s largest protected area
Government. of rainforest and its only national park. Gazetted in
Thahane, T. 2008 National Dialogue for the Development 1983, the park consists of lowland rainforest cov-
of Long Term Vision for Lesotho www.Lesotho.gov.ls/
articles/vision%2020%20-Executive%20summary.htm ering an area of 1,308 km2. Liberia’s strong ties
(8 December 2013). with countries such as the United States and some
Liberia 553
Liberia, Figure 1 Map of Liberia
European countries remain a key to its tourism potential in “ancestry” and “root” tourism exists
promotion and economic development. due to Liberia’s unique history as the first black
The United States is believed to have contrib- African republic and also as a haven for freed black
uted more than US$1 billion in bilateral assistance American slaves during the nineteenth century.
since the end of the civil war in 2003 (World
Travel Market 2010). Other international aid See also ▶ Africa, ▶ crisis management, ▶ dias-
donors include ▶ Germany, ▶ China, and pora, ▶ protected area tourism.
▶ Ghana. Like Ghana, the Liberian government
could turn the country to a popular ▶ destination
among the African diaspora (Teye et al. 2011). References
But it will require the development of basic infra-
structure, education, and the continued support Mongrue, J. 2011 Liberia: America’s Footprint in Africa.
Bloomington: iUniverse.
from the international community.
Teye, V., E. Turk, and S. Sönmez 2011 Heritage Tourism in
Tourism receipts in 2010 and 2012 were $12 Africa. Tourism Analysis 16:169-185.
million and $232 million, respectively (World World Bank 2014 World Tourism Organization, Compen-
Bank 2014). Factors behind the increase, however, dium of Tourism Statistics and Data Files, World Devel-
opment Indicators. Washington DC: The World Bank.
are not known but may be attributed to the seem-
World Travel Market 2010 Travel and Tourism:
ingly political stability that the country has enjoyed Liberia www.wtmlondon.com/library/Travel-and-Tourism-
since the end of the civil war. An unexploited Liberia (1 December 2014).
554 Libya
▶ Mediterranean Sea to the north, ▶ Tunisia and

Libya ▶ Algeria to the west, and ▶ Chad and ▶ Niger to
the south (Figure 1). The Libyan economy dis-
Galal M. H. Afifi plays a clear lack of economic diversification, as
College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan the country depends heavily on oil revenues,
Qaboos University, Al-Khoudh, Muscat, Oman which account for 50 % of the GDP (AFDB
2014). Successive governments have been
searching for alternative revenue sources, includ-
Libya is a Northern African country, with a pop- ing agriculture, fishing, and tourism.
ulation of 6.5 million, bordering ▶ Egypt to the Tourism is a relatively underdeveloped
east, ▶ Sudan to the southeast, the ▶ industry. In 2007, before the political unrest,
12° 18° 24°

Tarabulus
Tunisia Zuwarah
Mediterranean Sea
(Tripoli) Al Bayda
Darnah
Az Zawiyah Al Khums Al Marj Tubruq
32° Al’Aziziyah
Tarhunah Misratah
Banghazi
Yafran (Benghazi)
Bani
Walid Surt Gulf of Sidra
(Sidra) Ajdabiya
Ghadamis Egypt
Ash Shuwayrif Marsa al
Burayqah Al Jaghbub
Waddan
Hun
Adiri Brak
Libya
Sabha
Awbari Maknusa
26° Tmassah
Marzuq Tazirbu
Ghat
Al Jawf
Algeria
N
Niger
Chad
20°
Sudan
0 200 km
©1997 MAGELLAN Geographix SM
(805) 685-3100 www.maps.com 0 150 mi
Libya, Figure 1 Map of Libya

Liechtenstein 555
there were 180,000 international arrivals and one References

million same-day tourists, but this contributed less
than 1 % to the country’s GDP (Hoteliers 2008; AFDB 2014 Libya Country Re-engagement Note 2014-
UN-ESCWA 2007). In 2013, ▶ travel and tourism
Hoteliers 2008 Tripoli, Libya: A Prosperous Prospect.
directly supported 31,000 jobs (1.8 % of total www.4hoteliers.com/features/article/3375 (9 July
employment). This is expected to fall by 2.8 % 2014).
in 2014 and rise by 3.4 % pa to 42,000 jobs (1.8 % UNESCO 2014 World Heritage List http://whc.unesco.
org/en/list/ (4 July).
of total employment) in 2024.
UN-ESCWA 2007 Annual Review of Developments in
The country is best known for its ancient Greek Globalization and Regional Integration in the Arab
and Roman ruins, Sahara desert landscapes, long Countries. Beirut: United Nations Economic and Social
▶ Mediterranean coastline, ethnic and social Commission for Western Asia.
UNWTO 2013 Compendium of Tourism Statistics, Data
diversity, and traditions. There are five ▶ world
2007 – 2011. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
heritage sites: the archaeological sites at Cyrene,
Leptis Magna, Sabratha, Tadrart Acacus (rock
art), and the Old Town of Ghadames (UNESCO
2014). Tourism ▶ infrastructure and services are
generally limited; English and Italian are spoken Liechtenstein
among tourism ▶ service providers.
Libya has two international airports in Tripoli Harald Pechlaner1, Michael Volgger2 and
and Benghazi. However, a major drawback hit the Martina Hoch3
1
Libyan air transport when a trade embargo was Catholic University of Eichstaett–Ingolstadt,
imposed by the United Nations between 1992 and Eichstaett, Germany
1999, which included the delivery of new aircraft
2
Institute for Regional Development and Location L
or spare parts. During that period, Libyan airlines Management, European Academy Bozen,
were denied any landing or overflight rights of Bolzano, Italy
3
third-party countries (UNWTO 2013). Nowadays, Liechtenstein Marketing, Vaduz, Liechtenstein
Libya is not well linked by air to other countries,
but access is available through seaports on the
Mediterranean Sea. Similar to other areas of The Principality of Liechtenstein, the sixth
higher education, the study of tourism is a rela- smallest country in the world (160 km2, 61 mi2),
tively new domain with related programs offered is located in the Alps in Central ▶ Europe, bor-
by only one public university and less than 10 pri- dering ▶ Switzerland and ▶ Austria (Figure 1).
vate institutions. The population of Liechtenstein, which is not
Tunisia, ▶ Italy, and a handful of African coun- part of the European Union, is 37,000 (2013). It
tries represent the major source markets of Libya, is also the smallest German-speaking country. Its
and the main purpose is to visit friends and rela- economy is characterized by strong financial and
tives, as well as for attending events. There are no industrial sectors. With a nominal GDP of US$5.2
official ▶ statistics available regarding Libyan billion, Liechtenstein has the second highest GDP
outbound tourism between 2000 and 2010 per capita in the world (measured in purchasing
(UNWTO 2013), although Libya is listed among ▶ power parity). Its unemployment rate and for-
the most important markets for several destina- eign debt are among the lowest worldwide.
tions, including Egypt and Tunisia. The UNWTO Tourism flows to Liechtenstein mainly concen-
(2013) estimates that international tourists spent trate in mountainous parts and the Rhine Valley.
more than US$2 billion overseas in 2010. Liechtenstein is known as a winter sports ▶ des-
tination. Malbun (Triesenberg), with particular
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ airline, ▶ cultural tourism, appeal for families throughout the year, was pre-
▶ world heritage. viously known as a climatic spa. It is now the only
556 Liechtenstein
9°30⬘ 9°40⬘
Ruggeller Riet
Ruggell
III
Mauren
ne
Eschen
Rhi
AU S TR I A
Schaan
46°30⬘ 46°30⬘
ina
VADUZ
Sam
SWITZERLAND Triesenberg
Triesen
Balzers Vorder-
Grauspitz
0 1 2 3 km
0 1 2 3 mi 9°30⬘ 9°40⬘
Liechtenstein, Figure 1 Map of Liechtenstein
relevant ski resort, since the establishment of product development, as well as coordinating six
hotels and funiculars in the 1960s. local tourism associations. In 2012, Liechtenstein
The major tourism ▶ region is the Rhine Valley, Tourismus was integrated into a broader ▶ loca-
where business and cultural appeals dominate. tion management and place marketing organiza-
Central to both types of tourism is the capital city, tion (Liechtenstein Marketing), subdivided into
Vaduz. It is characterized by the castle (residence of three areas (business location, tourism, events).
the princely family), government district, art exhi- It now comprehensively coordinates the country’s
bitions, museums, and traditional and modern communication.
architecture. Vineyards and restaurants are also Liechtenstein has limited tourism education or
among Liechtenstein’s tourism appeals. training centers of its own but collaborates inten-
In 2012, Liechtenstein recorded 65,000 sively with the bordering states. Topics of partic-
arrivals and 141,000 overnight stays. Switzerland ular research interest include reputation and image
and ▶ Germany are the most important source management (Passow et al. 2005), peculiarities of
markets, accounting for almost 60 % of overnight tourism in small states including strong integra-
stays, while other countries and ▶ domestic tour- tion of destination with location management
ism contribute minor percentages. Arrivals and (Jenner and Smith 1993), the high proportion of
overnight stays have been declining since the same-day tourists, and the role of borders in des-
1980s, although since 2000 the decline has tination management.
slowed down (Amt f€ur Statistik 2012a). With
about 90 ▶ accommodation establishments, tour- See also ▶ Border tourism, ▶ governance,
ism accounts for about 4 % of the national GDP ▶ image, ▶ location, ▶ mountain tourism.
and offers employment to about 600 residents and
400 inward commuters or 3 % of total employ-
ment (Amt f€ ur Statistik 2012b). References
In 2000, Liechtenstein Tourismus was
established as a ▶ national tourism office. Its Amt f€ur Statistik 2012a Tourismusstatistik 2012:
main tasks include brand management and Jahresheft. Vaduz: Amt f€
ur Statistik.
Lifestyle 557
Amt f€ur Statistik 2012b Besch€aftigungsstatistik 2012: George Kelly through his more individual-
Jahresheft. Vaduz: Amt f€
ur Statistik. oriented development of the notion of lifestyle as
Jenner, P., and C. Smith 1993 Europe’s Micro-states:
Andorra, Monaco, Liechtenstein and San Marino. a set of “personal constructs.”
EIU International Tourism Reports 1:69-89.
Passow, T., R. Fehlmann, and H. Grahlow 2005 Country
Reputation from Measurement to Management: The Concept and definition
Case of Liechtenstein. Corporate Reputation Review
7(4):309-326.
While the term “lifestyle” is a widely used yet
ambiguous concept, there has been sufficient pro-
gress in the literature to enable the formulation of
a definition in a ▶ leisure/tourism context. In a
Lifestyle review of the concept, Veal (1993) outlines a
spectrum of possible theoretical approaches,
Michael J. Gross including Weberian, subcultural, psychological,
School of Management, University of South market research and psychographics, leisure/tour-
Australia, Adelaide, Australia ism styles, spatial, socialist lifestyles, consumer
culture, ▶ gender, and miscellaneous. Veal also
identifies several themes that play roles in defin-
The topic of lifestyle is informed by a number of ing lifestyle in a contemporary context. First, it
disciplines, such as consumer behavior, health, involves activities that span the full range of
▶ marketing, psychology, retailing, and sociol- day-to-day activities of consumption patterns, lei-
ogy. Origins of the concept can be traced to The sure, domestic practices, and paid work activity.
Theory of the Leisure Class (1899) by Thorstein Second, it comprises values and attitudes that L
Veblen, a work that is in part both sociology and influence purchasing/consumption behavior.
▶ economics. According to Veblen, humans con- Third, while it is often ascribed to groups of
stantly strive for the attainment of honor, ▶ pres- people, any definition should not exclude the pos-
tige, and status, and guiding this pursuit are three sibility of individual as well as group analysis.
processes: pecuniary emulation, conspicuous lei- Fourth, individuals can share a common lifestyle
sure, and ▶ conspicuous consumption. He iden- as part of subculture with or without having social
tifies a wide range of ▶ attitudes and behaviors contact with each other. Fifth, the bundle of activ-
that make up the way of life that incumbents or ities that define a person’s lifestyle does not nec-
aspirants to the “leisure class” adopt in search of essarily exhibit coherence, and it is possible to
esteem. Set against the backdrop of the industrial have lifestyles that are characterized more by
revolution and the rapid growth of the middle inconsistency than consistency. Sixth, there is a
classes in developed countries, Veblen’s work tendency to artificially label others’ lifestyles into
was intended as a warning against the excesses stereotypical subgroups (North Shore set, punks,
of capitalism. Nonetheless, it has served as the yuppies), an activity that is not necessarily useful
source of seminal ideas which others have, over in actually identifying the defining feature of the
the course of the twentieth century, extended to particular lifestyle. Finally, lifestyle involves
social stratification, psychographics, consumer choice, with groups and individuals determined
behavior, market segmentation, and product by the degree of choice available to them and the
differentiation. economic conditions within which they live. Pov-
Lifestyle began to emerge as a central concept erty constrains the choices available, while afflu-
of social behavior through psychologist Alfred ence expands them. All people have lifestyles
Adler in his book The Science of Living published whether they have been conditioned by wide or
in 1929. The concept was further developed in a limited choice.
social context by psychologists Max Weber via A definition of lifestyle emblematic of the
his class-focused work on group behavior and above considerations and reflecting the
558 Literary tourism
consumption aspects representative of a tourism tourism research on this topic will need to develop
context (Lawson et al. 1999) may be expressed as a greater understanding of how people perceive
the pattern of individual and social behavior char- the broad range of offerings through destinations,
acteristic of an individual or a group that both travel marketing, and the relationships among
influences and reflects consumption behavior. tourism and consumption, individual, and group
behavior.
Lifestyle in a tourism context See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ consumerism, ▶ psy-

chology, ▶ segmentation, ▶ sociology.
The predominant methodological approach to
lifestyle in the context of tourism research has
been application of data reduction techniques to
identify segments and/or clusters. Exemplified
References
by studies, such as Gonzalez and Bello (2002) Gonzalez, A., and L. Bello 2002 The Construct “Lifestyle”
on the behavior of Spanish tourists, lifestyle is in Market Segmentation: The Behavior of Tourist Con-
used as a segmentation tool through the attitudes, sumers. European Journal of Marketing 36(1/2):51-85.
interests, and opinions method, generating five Gross, M., C. Brien, and G. Brown 2008 Examining the
Dimensions of a Lifestyle Tourism Destination. Inter-
clusters. In an edited book intended to provide an national Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
overview of the significance of the lifestyle con- Research 2(1):44-66.
cept for the management of service quality and Lawson, R., M. Thyne, T. Young, and B. Juric 1999 Devel-
customer satisfaction in the ▶ hospitality and oping Travel Lifestyles: A New Zealand Example. In
Consumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism, A. Pizam
tourism ▶ industry (Thyne and Laws 2004), the and Y. Mansfeld, eds., pp.449-480. Binghamton:
chapters collectively cover four main areas of Haworth.
research: the match between the tourism provider Shaw, G., and A. Williams 2004 From Lifestyle Consump-
and the guest/▶ tourist, the tourism business tion to Lifestyle Production: Changing Patterns of
Tourism Entrepreneurship. In Small Firms in Tourism:
operator/supplier, various types of lifestyle seg- International Perspectives, R. Thomas, ed., pp.99-113.
mentation, and methodological issues related to Oxford: Elsevier.
▶ segmentation. Thyne, M., and E. Laws (eds.) 2004 Hospitality, Tourism,
Key stakeholder perspectives adopted in the and Lifestyle Concepts: Implications for Quality Man-
agement and Customer Satisfaction. Binghamton:
literature in a tourism context are first from the Haworth.
supplier focusing on the lifestyle aspects of oper- Veal, A. 1993 The Concept of Lifestyle: A Review. Leisure
ating a tourism-related enterprise, such as entre- Studies 12(4):233-252.
preneurs who wish to connect aspects of their
personal lifestyle with their work. Examples of
this would be a dentist who quits his practice to
open a bed-and-breakfast inn or a diving enthusi- Literary tourism
ast who opens a dive attraction in order to inte-
grate her hobby interests with work. This supply- Mike Robinson
side perspective recognizes the emergence of an Ironbridge International Institute for Cultural
important sociological trend. The second is the Heritage, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston,
demand perspective of the tourist which seeks to Birmingham, UK
classify behaviors into groupings that can be
applied to understanding special interests or
niche markets (Gross et al. 2008; Shaw and Wil- Literary tourism refers to the production and con-
liams 2004). sumption of places, landscapes, museums, his-
As tourists engage in increasingly complex toric houses, and graves associated with
travel behavior, research methodologies must published creative writings and/or their authors.
become more sophisticated as well. ▶ Future This form of tourism has a long history in literary
Lithuania 559
societies but expanded in the nineteenth century literatures of the Anglophone world generating a
with the rise of democratized ▶ travel (Watson transnational literary tourism predicated upon
2009). The range of tourist visiting sites associ- translations into “Other” languages and distribu-
ated with literary works or figures varies from tive networks that parallel historic, cultural, and
self-identified, dedicated, and knowledgeable colonial relations and trading patterns. Future
“pilgrims” as fans of an author or novel, to those research could examine the various mechanisms
who have more moderate passing interests by which books and authors crossover into differ-
(Robinson and Andersen 2003). The boundaries ent cultures, contexts, and languages. This would
between literary tourism and travel writing are involve examining not only translation and distri-
fine, with the former marked more by imagination bution but also the adaptation of books into films
rather than direct experience (Robinson 2004). and associated vehicles through merchandising
The commodification of literature for tourism and video gaming.
extends from the authentic writer’s home with a
direct connection between an author and the text See also ▶ Film, ▶ imaginary, ▶ interpretation,
itself to attractions inspired by literary works or ▶ narrative, ▶ special interest tourism.
sites and landscapes that inspired authors or are
featured in their novels. Associations with writers
have long attracted tourists and have also acted as References
markers of local, regional, and national identities.
Sometimes imaginative geographies are created, Robinson, M. 2004. Narratives of being elsewhere: Tour-
ism and travel writing. In A companion to tourism
such as “Shakespeare’s England” or
geography, ed. A. Lew, A. Williams, and M. Hall,
“Wordsworth’s Lake District.” The extent of liter- 303-315. Oxford: Blackwell.
ary tourism links with the popularity of the writings Robinson, M., and H. Andersen (eds.). 2003. Literature L
of the author. Some works retain their currency and tourism. London: Thompson Learning.
Watson, N. (ed.). 2009. Literary tourism and nineteenth-
while others fade, reflecting shifting levels of rec-
century culture. Houndmills: Palgrave.
ognition among tourists. Certain genres of writing
also undergo shifts in status among the reading
public. The adaptation of a book on to the screen
can invigorate interest in a novel and its associated
locations. The phenomenon of ▶ film tourism is Lithuania
closely aligned with literary tourism, both engag-
ing the “reader” with narratives of place. Darius Liutikas
Places that are featured in novels and/or films Lithuanian Social Research Centre, Vilnius,
draw upon the power of association to attract Lithuania
tourists. Dublin trades upon its connections to
the ways in which the city was carefully portrayed
in James Joyce’s Ulysses, with tourists retracing Lithuania is a central European country located at
the steps of the novel’s lead character. Similarly, the eastern shore of the Baltic Sea, covering an
the small towns of Maine on the US East Coast area of 65,302 km2 (25,213 mi2) and containing
that provided thinly disguised settings for Stephen almost three million inhabitants (Figure 1). At the
King’s horror stories have generated popular lit- beginning of the fifteenth century, the territory of
erary trails. the Grand Duchy of Lithuania stretched from the
Literary tourism is shaped by the language of Baltic to the Black Sea and was an important
the works produced and published. Some associ- political ▶ power in Eastern and Central
ated sites are important within a national context ▶ Europe from the fifteenth to sixteenth centuries.
but largely inaccessible for tourists outside of the Lithuania was occupied by tsarist and Soviet
language. However, the pervasiveness and hege- ▶ Russia regimes, but nowadays has an emerging
mony of the English language has privileged the economy and tourism.
560 Lithuania
22 24 26 country and has a number of significant pilgrim-

age destinations (Liutikas 2013), such as the Hill
Baltic
Sea
LATVIA of Crosses near Šiauliai; miraculous and
crowned images of Virgin Mary in Vilnius,
Mažeikiai Šiluva, Trakai, Pivašiūnai, and Samogitian Cal-
56 Šiauliai 56
Bütinge' vary; and four Calvaries located in open land-
Klaipe'da Paneve'žys
scape (Liutikas 2009).
Utena
The Ministry of Economy is responsible for the
Ke'dainiai
Ne Nemunas Jonava
formulation and development of tourism policy,
ma
n and the Lithuanian State Department of Tourism
Kaunas VILNIUS under the Ministry of Economy is responsible for
RUSSIA
(Kaliningrad Oblast) Marijampole'
Alytus Aukštojas the implementation of tourism policies. Various
non-governmental associations such as the Lithu-
54 54 anian Tourism Association, Lithuanian Country-
POLAND BELARUS
side Tourism Association, and Community of
0 30 60 km
N yo m
an Lithuanian Pilgrims are active. During Lithuanian
24 26
0 30 60 mi independence period in 1918–1940, various orga-
nizations also were active developers of tourism.
Lithuania, Figure 1 Map of Lithuania
The Union of Lithuanian Tourism established in
1929 organized trips, prepared tourism specialists,
and published various publications. Today, tour-
In 2014, around more than 2 million over- ism ▶ management-related ▶ education and
night trips were made to Lithuania (1.5 million ▶ training is popular in colleges.
in 2007) with over 50 % from neighboring The main challenges for Lithuanian tourism
countries: ▶ Belarus, ▶ Russia, ▶ Poland, and policy are to identify more specific national devel-
▶ Latvia (Statistics Lithuania 2015). The most opment priorities and actively promote tourism
popular destinations are cities of Vilnius, Kau- products abroad. Other important issues are
nas, and Klaipėda. In 2012, the tourism improvement of infrastructure (especially
▶ industry generated a 2.9 % of the country’s regional areas), along with the reduction of sea-
gross value added. sonality as well as promotion and development of
Tourism in Lithuania includes both cultural high-quality services.
and natural attractions. The Baltic Sea coastline
stretches for over 100 km. Along the coastline, See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ nature tourism,
well-known resorts such as Palanga and Neringa ▶ pilgrimage tourism, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ spa
are located. Other popular resorts such as tourism.
Druskininkai, Trakai, and Anykščiai are located
in various parts of the country. They offer spa
services and other health-related activities. There References
are a large number of rivers, lakes, forests,
Liutikas, D. 2009 Piligrimystė. Vertybių ir Tapatumo
meadows, and small hills in Lithuania, leading to Išraiškos Kelionėse. Vilnius: Lietuvos Piligrimų
the ▶ development of ▶ rural tourism. Around Bendrija.
16 % of the country is protected territory of Liutikas, D. 2013 Experiences of Pilgrimage in Lithuania:
national, regional parks and reserves. Expressions of Values and Identity at New Destina-
tions. Journal of Tourism Consumption and Practice
The main cultural attractions are historic 5(2):43-60.
towns of Vilnius, Kaunas, Kėdainiai, Klaipėda, Statistics Lithuania 2015 Tourism in Lithuania 2014.
and the Castle of Trakai. Lithuania is a Catholic Vilnius: Statistics Lithuania.
Location 561
Tourism management-oriented location

Location research is concerned with competitive
advantages and focuses on the governance and
Harald Pechlaner1, Michael Volgger2 and development of locations. Thus, a number of
Christof Pforr3 cross-links to destination management can be
1
Catholic University of Eichstaett–Ingolstadt, noted. A central tenet is that spatial units need to
Eichstaett, Germany be managed in an integrated manner (Bieger
2
Institute for Regional Development and Location 1999). Such location management refers to the
Management, European Academy Bozen, consideration of diverse sets of stakeholders as
Bolzano, Italy well as the synergies that can be created based
3
School of Marketing, Curtin Business School, on regional competences. Adopting a common
Curtin University, Perth, Australia location-based brand might be a suitable tool.
The concepts of location and destination have
contributed to a stronger appreciation of the spa-
Location refers to a spatial entity characterized by tial dimension in economics and management.
a particular combination of geographical, ecolog- Future challenges concern organizational
ical, sociocultural, and infrastructural features (the issues. Should the governance of territorial units
so-called location factors). Strongly influenced in be unified and be responsible for attracting tour-
particular by nineteenth-century German econo- ists, firms, and residents, or is it useful to maintain
mists, the concept underscores the spatial dimen- sector-specific location-based organizations (such
sion of the economy. as destination management organizations) that
Location entails place-dependent advantages operate under a shared umbrella brand
that lead to considerations regarding the optimal (Pechlaner et al. 2012)? It is necessary to find L
spatial positioning of an enterprise. Attempts were out whether rigid geographical concepts, such as
made to structure these complex choice problems locations, need to be replaced by more flexible
by distinguishing various location factors, the ones like multiple geographies and interregional
three most basic ones being land, labor, and cap- networks.
ital. More recently, the focus has shifted from
“hard” and quantifiable location factors, such as See also ▶ Destination, ▶ destination competi-
infrastructure, to “soft” ones, including culture tiveness, ▶ geography, ▶ governance, ▶ region.
and social features. Translating considerations
regarding the strategic management of firms to a
particular location has led to the concept of loca- References
tion management (Porter 1990).
In tourism studies, location research has Bieger, T. 1999 Integrierte Standortstrategien: Konzept
– Erfolgsfaktoren – Management of Change. In
influenced the description and evaluation of des- Jahrbuch der Schweizerischen Tourismuswirtschaft
tination attributes driving competitiveness. The 1998/99, T. Bieger and C.Laesser, eds., pp.1-20.
concepts of destination and location underscore St. Gallen: IDT.
that both firms and spatial units with their spe- Gross, M., and G. Brown 2008 An Empirical Structural
Model of Tourists and Places: Progressing Involvement
cific combinations of location factors compete
and Place Attachment into Tourism. Tourism Manage-
with each other for guests (Gross and Brown ment 29:1141-1151.
2008), capital, and labor (Szivas et al. 2003). Pechlaner, H., M. Herntrei, S. Pichler, and M. Volgger
Paralleling the discussion between “hard” and 2012 From Destination Management towards Gover-
nance of Regional Innovation Systems–The Case of
“soft” factors, there is an increasing tourism
South Tyrol, Italy. Tourism Review 67(2):22-33.
research attention to less-tangible attributes, Porter, M. 1990 The Competitive Advantage of Nations.
such as quality of life. New York: Free Press.
562 Locational analysis
Szivas, E., M. Riley, and D. Airey 2003 Labor Mobility Among noteworthy applications, Smith
into Tourism: Attraction and Satisfaction. Annals of (1995) provides an overview of locational anal-
ysis techniques applied to tourism settings. In a
planning application, Formica and Uysal (2006)
use multivariate methods to characterize tourism
Locational analysis supply for regions in US Virginia and then link
these quantitative measures to ▶ destination
Wesley S. Roehl attractiveness. Similarly, Fesenmaier and Roehl
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, (1986) model the relationship between camp-
Temple University, Philadelphia, USA ground demand and supply for US Texas
counties and then make prescriptive develop-
ment recommendations based on anticipated
Locational analysis addresses the position of population growth. Meanwhile, Lucas
tourism units and the distribution of flows et al. (2004) evaluate the performance of slot
among them. The tourism units in question can machines as a function of their characteristics
range from individual facilities to geographic and the geography of their distribution on a casi-
regions. Locational analysis can be used to eval- no’s floor.
uate the observed ▶ performance of existing In addition to its appearance in published
tourism units and provide prescriptive guidance research, locational analysis is frequently used
when locating new ones. It can also be used in the in proprietary studies. Work in both settings
regional analysis of ▶ resources. Making good would benefit from, one, a more explicit
decisions about ▶ location is a key criterion incorporation of space, perhaps through the
which drives accessibility and exposure to poten- application of spatial econometrics or geo-
tial tourists, interacts with management strategy, graphically weighted regression; two, applica-
aids product differentiation, and contributes to tion of techniques such as stochastic frontier
service quality. analysis or data envelopment analysis; and,
The context and method draw upon central three, a more nuanced approach to the deci-
place theory, Reilly’s law of retail gravitation, sion rules used to identify oversupplied and
quantitative economic geography, regional sci- undersupplied units.
ence, and spatial econometrics. Locational analy-
sis can be thought of as the spatial expression of See also ▶ Demand modeling, ▶ feasibility
tourism demand and ▶ supply. Typically, these study, ▶ gravity model, ▶ model, ▶ simulation.
studies share a methodology that relates depen-
dent variables that measures success (number of
References
establishments, revenue, sales, number of cus-
tomers) to independent variables that describe Fesenmaier, D., and W. Roehl 1986 Locational Analysis in
market characteristics and tourism unit attributes. Campground Development Decisions. Journal of
Predicted and observed values of success are com- Travel Research 24(3):18-22.
pared, with attention focused on units observed to Formica, S., and M. Uysal 2006 Destination Attractiveness
Based on Supply and Demand Evaluations: An
have substantially lower performance than Analytical Framework. Journal of Travel Research
predicted by the model. In studies at the individual 44:418-430.
facility level, underperformance may represent Lucas, A., W. Dunn, W. Roehl, and G. Wolcott 2004
poor management. When the unit of analysis rep- Evaluating Slot Machine Performance: A
Performance-Potential Model. International Journal of
resents geographic areas, underperforming areas Hospitality Management 23:103-121.
may represent good locations for further tourism Smith, S. 1995 Tourism Analysis: A Handbook. Harlow:
▶ development. Longman.
Low-carbon tourism 563
purpose is forecasting arrivals, ▶ expenditure, or

Longitudinal study nights of stay. They may also pursue a further under-
standing of tourism demand determinants or elastic-
Juan L. Eugenio-Martin1 and Alvin HungChih Yu2 ities. However, these are usually better understood
1
Departamento de Análisis Económico Aplicado, with cross-sectional studies. Longitudinal methods
Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, have also been used for a wide range of purposes,
Las Palmas, Spain such as for the understanding of the link between
2
Department of Geography, St Cloud State tourism and economic growth with Granger causal-
University, St Cloud, USA ity tests. They have also been employed to analyze
impacts of tourism ▶ development, including influ-
ences on host community, event tourism effects
Longitudinal studies represent an examination of (Ritchie and Smith 1991), tourism crises, ecotour-
correlated phenomena over a period of time. Its ism effects, or casino consequences. Further, they
analysis stresses changes over time. The relevance have proven to be useful for other issues where time
of variables that do not vary over time cannot be matters, such as tourism ▶ sustainability, ▶ educa-
captured by such studies. However, their set can tion, ▶ service quality, crowding, or changes on
be explored by cross-sectional studies, where the preferences for ▶ vacation and sense of wellbeing.
analysis is carried out for a specific time. Addi- Hence this study approach is employed to gauge the
tionally, both kinds of studies may be combined transition of tourism-related phenomena and trace
with panel data sets. the elongated economic growth.
There are three different study designs,
depending on the research participants, including See also ▶ Causal model, ▶ demand modeling,
▶ trend or time series studies with the same pop- ▶ econometrics, ▶ forecasting, ▶ time. L
ulation, cohort studies on specific subpopulation,
and panel studies evaluating changes of the same
References
individual over time. It may involve retrospective
or prospective studies. The former moves back in Ritchie, J., and B. Smith 1991 The Impact of a Mega-event
time to analyze any change in patterns, especially on Host Region Awareness: A Longitudinal Study.
in tourist behaviors. The latter investigates past Journal of Travel Research 30(2):3-10.
and present to foresee future patterns. Song, H., and G. Li 2008 Tourism Demand Modeling and
Forecasting: A Review of Recent Research. Tourism
Qualitative, quantitative, or mixed methods Management 29:203-220.
can be utilized to collect data or information for Song, H., and K. Wong 2003 Tourism Demand Modeling:
a ▶ longitudinal study. A technique has been the ATime-varying Parameter Approach. Journal of Travel
time series approach developed by ▶ economet- Research 42:57-64.
rics, where data are collected on the variables of
interest at equally spaced time intervals in order to
isolate trends, ▶ seasonality, cycles, and random Low-carbon tourism
events. In tourism, the longitudinal method has
been widely utilized on various topics. Its appli- Paul Peeters and Eke Eijgelaar
cation is not straightforward and cautious analysis Centre for Sustainable Tourism and Transport,
is required. Longer series provide more observa- NHTV Breda University of Applied Sciences,
tions, but they are subjected to structural changes; Breda, The Netherlands
thus time varying parameter techniques have been
suggested (Song and Wong 2003).
Tourism demand analysis has utilized this kind of Low-carbon tourism is a ▶ phenomenon that
methods prominently (Song and Li 2008). One includes any form of tourism with a low energy
564 Loyalty
intensity, ensuring carbon dioxide emissions pro- change toward more low-carbon products
duced by transport, ▶ accommodation, and activ- (Peeters et al. 2009). This is amplified with
ities are kept to a minimum. Low-carbon tourism discussions on slow ▶ travel and ▶ slow tourism
is generally associated with rail- or coach-based as a conceptual framework for sustainable,
transport, short- to medium-haul distances, low-carbon tourism development (Dickinson and
▶ domestic tourism, longer stays, and Lumsdon 2010), including a volume dedicated to
low-carbon accommodation. ▶ Energy and carbon management in tourism (Gössling 2011).
carbon-intense forms involve air, car, or Low-carbon tourism is an essential forward
cruiseship transport, combined with long-haul strategy for the tourism industry to become more
distances and high-energy accommodation (Scott sustainable and mitigate its impact on climate
et al. 2010). change, but its implementation will develop
Low-carbon tourism is an emerging topic and slowly if current barriers persist. More preferably,
linked to the term low-carbon future, which interdisciplinary research is needed on how to
humanity will need to aim for by mid-century in break these barriers down while taking the per-
order to avoid dangerous climate change (Scott spective of tourism players into account.
et al. 2010). The impacts of ▶ climate change
have made the tourism ▶ industry more aware of See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ mobility, ▶ slow
its contribution to climate change and responsibil- tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
ity toward reducing its emissions. In 2005, tour-
ism contributed around 5 % of all anthropogenic
carbon dioxide emissions, and growth scenarios References
see the further development of tourism carbon
dioxide emissions in stark contrast to global emis- Dickinson, J., and L. Lumsdon 2010 Slow Travel and
sion reduction needs (Scott et al. 2010). High-
Gössling, S. 2011 Carbon Management in Tourism: Miti-
▶ energy tourism, particularly ▶ air transport, gating the Impacts on Climate Change. Abingdon:
contributes a large and growing share of tourism’s Routledge.
emissions, though it is only used in a relatively Peeters, P., S. Gössling, and B. Lane 2009 Moving towards
Low-carbon Tourism. In Sustainable Tourism Futures:
small share of all tourism trips. Dickinson and
Perspectives on Systems, Restructuring and Innova-
Lumsdon (2010) see widespread implementation tions, S. Gössling, C. Hall and D. Weaver, eds.,
of low-carbon tourism as a prerequisite for the pp.240-257. New York: Routledge.
industry to become sustainable. Scott, D., P. Peeters, and S. Gössling 2010 Can Tourism
Deliver Its “Aspirational” Greenhouse Gas Emission
The implementation of low-carbon tourism is
Reduction Targets? Journal of Sustainable Tourism
hampered by several barriers. Low-carbon tour- 18:393-408.
ism products are generally relatively expensive,
whereas high-carbon products are often rela-
tively cheap (culminating in low-cost air trans-
port). Air-based tourism still enjoys strong Loyalty
backing from many actors, despite decreasing
profits due to rising fuel costs and looming Xiang (Robert) Li
climate policies. These developments have School of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
made a change in ▶ travel behavior toward Temple University, Philadelphia, USA
low-carbon products difficult. Government reg-
ulations, carbon trading, or taxes on kerosene or
carbon could stimulate the tourism industry to For decades, researchers have been interested in
engage in low-carbon development (Peeters the bond between individuals and different
et al. 2009). objects, ranging from one’s commitment to his
The recent literature covers innovative ways family, to loyalty to a political party, to attachment
for tourism stakeholders to achieve behavioral to places. A number of distinct yet related
Loyalty 565
concepts, such as attachment, interpersonal com- two-dimensional construct. Over time, the com-
mitment, organizational commitment, fan loyalty, posite loyalty approach has received the most
place attachment, and involvement, have been support. Many early studies in tourism and
studied in different fields, largely independently. related fields adopted this view (Dick and Basu
In marketing contexts, the bond between con- 1994).
sumers and brands/service providers is aptly Some recent studies argue that the
termed consumer (brand) loyalty. Oliver defines two-dimensional conceptualization provides
loyalty as “a deeply held psychological commit- inadequate guidance for practitioners to foster
ment to rebuy or repatronize a preferred product/ customer loyalty. In exploring other aspects of
service consistently in the future, thereby causing loyalty, some scholars expanded the construct to
repetitive same-brand or same brand-set purchas- incorporate what was traditionally identified as
ing, despite situational influences and marketing the antecedents or consequences of loyalty. For
efforts having the potential to cause switching instance, Oliver (1999) posited that loyalty build-
behavior” (1999:34). ing goes through the cognitive ➔ affective ➔
Consumer loyalty has always been one of the conative ➔ action loyalty phases. This and sev-
most fundamental research subjects of the market- eral other multidimensional conceptualizations
ing discipline. Most researchers credit Copeland have been tested repeatedly, yet no consensus
(1923) for pioneering the idea, although the term has been reached.
“brand loyalty” was coined much later. There has Although applying marketing thoughts to tour-
been a renewed interest in consumer loyalty ism contexts remains the mainstream, some recent
recently, reflecting marketers’ change of focus studies have explored new perspectives on loyalty
from delivering quality products and satisfying that are more “tourism specific.” For example,
customers to establishing and maintaining long- McKercher and Denizci-Guillet (2010) argue L
term relationships with them. In tourism, people that at the individual level, tourists rarely demon-
questioned the utility of studying loyalty initially, strate high-level ▶ destination loyalty, yet at the
as many viewed ▶ travel as a novelty-driven source market level overall arrivals from mature
behavior. Nevertheless, studies on ▶ tourist loy- source markets to selected destinations are rela-
alty to destinations or service providers emerged tively stable, implying some form of collective
in the mid-1980s, when the importance of loyalty.
revisitation or repeat purchase started being rec- Numerous factors have been identified as
ognized. In marketing and tourism literature, two loyalty or repeat purchase drivers. Satisfaction,
topics have drawn extensive research attention: quality, value, and switching costs are among
the conceptualization and measurement of loyalty, the most common ones, albeit the specific role
and factors and processes affecting loyalty of these factors in loyalty building and their
building. interrelationships remain debatable. Chal-
lenged by a lack of systemic, theory-based
frameworks, tourism scholars have developed
What is loyalty and what determines it? loyalty formation models grounded in
established theories, such as Foa and Foa’s
Traditionally, there are at least three schools of resource theory (Morais et al. 2004), Rusbult’s
conceptualization and measurement of loyalty: investment model (Li and Petrick 2008), and
the “behavioral” perspective, viewing loyalty as economic behavior theories (Alegre and
customers’ repurchase consistency; the “attitudi- Juaneda 2006). Still, some scholars argue that
nal” perspective, considering loyalty as cus- it is naïve to assume loyalty as the direct out-
tomers’ attitudinal predisposition toward a come of tourists’ rational, economic calculation
brand purchase; and the “composite” perspec- on a brand/service provider’s performances.
tive, which simultaneously considers attitudinal Rather, many seemingly irrelevant factors
and behavioral loyalty and operationalizes it as a could play a role in loyalty formation.
566 Luxembourg
Future prospects References
Nearly a century’s research on consumer loyalty Alegre, J., and C. Juaneda 2006 Destination Loyalty: Con-
sumers’ Economic Behavior. Annals of Tourism
has generated a large, somewhat fragmented
Research 33:684-706
body of knowledge. As a result, what loyalty is Copeland, M. 1923 Relations of Consumers’ Buying
and how tourists develop loyalty remain contro- Habits to Marketing Methods. Harvard Business
versial, and the line between loyalty and its Review 1:282-289.
Dick, A., and K. Basu 1994 Customer Loyalty: Toward an
antecedents or consequences is blurred. Yet,
Integrated Framework. Journal of the Academy of Mar-
researchers and practitioners have increasingly keting Science 22:99-113.
agreed that loyalty is more than repeat pur- Li, X., and J. Petrick 2008 Examining the Antecedents of
chases, and loyalty building is critical for rea- Brand Loyalty from an Investment Model Perspective.
sons beyond marketing and financial
McKercher, B., and B. Denizci-Guillet 2010 Are Tourists
considerations. or Markets Destination Loyal? Journal of Travel
▶ Future tourism studies on loyalty may Research 50:121-132.
advance in multiple fronts. Conceptually, many Morais, D., M. Dorsch, and S. Backman 2004 Can Tourism
Providers Buy Their Customers’ Loyalty? Examining
studies thus far have reported conflicting find-
the Influence of Customer-provider Investments on
ings, suggesting a need for more theory integra- Loyalty. Journal of Travel Research 42:235-243.
tion (Li and Petrick 2008). In the age of Oliver, R. 1999 Whence Consumer Loyalty. Journal of
globalization, mobility, and social media, how Marketing 63:33-44.
loyalty is developed, nurtured, and shifted is
undergoing profound changes, calling for new
insights and innovative approaches. For
instance, because many consumers today hold Luxembourg
polygamous loyalty to multiple brands, some
long-held assumptions on monogamous relation- Ágnes Raffay and Alan Clarke
ship building need to be revisited. Meanwhile, Department of Tourism, Faculty of Economics,
although the loyalty-building process has been University of Pannonia, Veszprém, Hungary
well studied, the dissolution of loyalty or why
consumers become less loyal or disloyal stays a
largely untapped area. Grand Duchy of Luxembourg is neighboring
Moreover, future research could be more con- ▶ Belgium, ▶ France, and ▶ Germany
text driven, by emphasizing the contextual char- (Figure 1). Located at 49 360 000 N, 6 70 000 E, it
acteristics of tourism phenomena. To this end, the is the world’s sixth smallest country, with only
moral, societal, and environmental aspects of loy- 2,586 km2 or 998 mi2. In 2013, the country’s
alty in tourism deserve more attention. Finally, population was about 5.1 million. With its 2012
most previous loyalty studies were conducted to GDP about US$ 41.86 billion and a per capita
help businesses retain customers, whereas studies figure of $ 78,000, Luxembourg is one of the
focusing on improving tourist and employee richest countries in terms of per capita income
wellbeing and business-consumer relationships (133 % of the ▶ United States).
should be encouraged. Overall, researchers could Luxembourg is an important financial and
benefit from breaking free from the traditional political center. ▶ Business tourism is important
marketing perspective and cast a wider theoretical and the capital city has excellent conference facil-
net to better understand the social and relational ities. It also provides opportunities for city breaks,
roots of ▶ loyalty in tourism. with a diversity of rural landscapes for many
sporting activities.
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ destination branding, The volume of ▶ international tourism arrivals
▶ frequent flyer program, ▶ image, ▶ social in Luxembourg in 2011 was 871,000 (UNWTO
media. 2012). This number reached a maximum of
Luxury tourism 567
0 5 10 km 6°00′ 6°30′
tourism in their areas within the national frame-
0 5 10 mi
Buurgplaatz work. This has helped introduce quality systems
and sustainable development approaches (Clarke
2014). There is a strong network of professional
50°00′ 50°00′ and sectoral organizations which are regularly
Wiltz
consulted by both the national and local govern-
Süre
GERMANY ment departments. The policy for the future is to
Lac da la
Haute Süre
Diekirch
ensure the continuous improvement of the quality
of tourism.
BEL.
Mertert See also ▶ Business tourism, ▶ Europe, ▶ inter-

national tourism, ▶ quality of life, ▶ world
LUXEMBOURG heritage.
lle
se
Mo
Pétange
Differdange
49°30′ Esch 49°30′ References
FRANCE Dudelange
6°00′ 6°30′
Clarke, A. 2014 Luxembourg: Quality is the Key. In Euro-
pean Tourism Planning and Organization Systems: The
Luxembourg, Figure 1 Map of Luxembourg
European Union Member States, C. Costa, E. Panyik
and D. Buhalis, eds., pp.432-444. Bristol: Channel
917,000 in 2007 and was at its lowest when it View.
dipped to 724,000 in 1996. Given the small size of ism Organization.
the country, no figures are collected for ▶ domes- WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism. Economic Impact 2013. L
tic tourism. The tourism ▶ industry represented London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
about 8.3 % of GDP in 2009, employing some
25,000 people or 11.7 % of the workforce (WTTC
2013).
▶ Luxembourg City is the country’s largest Luxury tourism
and busiest center and main attraction for most
tourists, with the UNESCO world heritage old Antonia Correia1 and Metin Kozak2
town and the modern downtown Plâteau du 1
Faculty of Economics, CEFAGE, University of
Kirchberg. Specific traditional niche markets Algarve, Faro, Portugal
2
(such as viticulture, natural environment, and School of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
▶ recreation) have been recognized by the Minis- Dokuz Eylul University, Foça-İZMİR, Turkey
try of Small and Medium-Sized Businesses, Tour-
ism and Housing which has implemented research
and development incentives for small- and Luxury, according to Merriam-Webster’s Dictio-
medium-sized businesses. Tourism in the nary, is a state or condition of abundance or great
▶ development of the transborder natural parks ease and comfort; it is something adding to pleasure
in the northern parts (Petite Suisse) and the or comfort but not absolutely necessary. Luxury is
Moselle valley (in the east) represents specific an abstract concept as its meaning is determined by
and unique niches. personal and interpersonal dimensions. Under a
There are vocational, degree, and Master level multidimensional perspective, scarce and rare
degree programs available in tourism and ▶ hos- products are considered luxuries (Nueno and
pitality, many of which are run in collaboration Quelch 1998). Conspicuous consumption means
with international partners. Government policy is expenses that are used solely for honorific purposes
set by the ministry responsible for tourism. Local to raise ego, not for expenditures that are made for
authorities are in charge of the development of comfort or utilization (Veblen 1899).
568 Luxury tourism
Despite the democratization of leisure market, resort or destination presents a heightened social
tourism might be a privilege of minorities. Fur- self-image to others and may enhance one’s posi-
thermore, Riley (1995) claims that luxury tourism tion within the society.
is in the ▶ destination that is perceived as unique, The luxury phenomenon or practice may be
but it is also on the manner individuals choose to more meaningful to some and not to all tourists.
▶ travel. This means that tourism is also allied Those who place great value on improving social
with luxury, whether it is by tourists’ ▶ attitudes standing and demonstrating social status through
or by the destination they visited. In one way or acquisition and consumption of products or ser-
another, defining what constitutes luxury tourism vices will be more likely to visit destinations that
is critical to reinforcing this niche market. How- are more prestigious, noticeable, and conspicu-
ever, it is not easy to understand the meaning of ous. The conspicuous tourism is still a subject
luxury due to its subjective nature. The subjec- that deserves more attention from the
tiveness of this construct relies on the nature of researchers, in particular, attentions to deriving
▶ tourist motivations. a scale to measure the level of luxury attained to
Generally speaking, products are regarded as each destination, and the prestige that is attained
symbols more than a bundle of utilities. Yet it may to the social and cultural backgrounds of such
also be assumed that luxury takes different forms tourists.
for different people and is dependent on the spec-
ificities of consumers themselves (Wiedmann See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ conspicuous consump-
et al. 2009). Previous research has considered tion, ▶ marketing, ▶ motivation, ▶ product.
the sociodemographic characteristics of con-
sumers and their attitude and preferences for lux-
ury. Other studies have examined consumers’ References
luxury buying motives, people’s opinions of lux-
Nueno, J., and J. Quelch 1998 The Mass Marketing of
ury, and consumers’ attitudes towards the con- Luxury. Business Horizons 41(6):61.
cept. Furthermore, the notion of conspicuous Riley, R. 1995 Prestige-worthy Tourist Behavior. Annals of
consumption can explain a tourist’s desire to Tourism Research 22:630-649.
show off their economic success and status to Veblen, T. 1899 The Theory of the Leisure Class. New
York: Vanguard Press.
impress others by taking a trip to luxury destina- Wiedmann, K., N. Hennigs, and A. Siebels 2009 Value-
tions such as Dubai, Paris, or London. Demon- based Segmentation of Luxury Consumption Behavior.
strating the economic ability to visit a prestigious Psychology and Marketing 26:625-651.
M
Macedonia of GDP). This primarily reflects the economic

activity generated by hotels, ▶ travel agencies,
Ace Milenkovski and Sashko Gramatnikovski and airlines. The industry has created 28,500 jobs
University of Tourism and Management Skopje, in 2012, representing 4.4 % of total employment.
Skopje, Macedonia There were about 663,000 tourists in 2012, of
whom 47 % (or 351,359) are domestic and 53 %
(or 312,274) are international. In the same year,
The Republic of Macedonia is located in the south- overnight stays were 2,152,000 (approximately
west of the Balkan Peninsula. It is bordered by 62 % domestic and 38 % international), of which
▶ Bulgaria, ▶ Serbia, Kosovo, ▶ Albania, and a significant segment roamed from ▶ Turkey
▶ Greece (Figure 1). The country’s area of (Government of Macedonia 2013b).
25,713 km2 (9,927 mi2) is home to 2,058,000 inhab- The construction of the new Balkans airport,
itants, with a density of 80 people per km2 (Stojmilov 15 km from the country’s capital and largest city
2011). The economy is heavily dependent on agri- Skopje, has seen an increase in ▶ tourist arrivals.
culture. Basic economic indicators for 2013 include a In 2012, the number was about 913,000, an
GDP of US$10.2 billion (€7.5 billion), a GDP per increase of 64 % over the previous year
capita of US$4,916 (€3,616), a 3.3 % growth rate for (Government of Macedonia 2013a). There are
the period of 2012–2013, and a foreign direct three state universities offering tourism and
investment of US$284 million (€208.8 million) ▶ hospitality programs. The University of Tour-
(Government of Macedonia 2013a). ism and Management in Skopje is the first and
For centuries, the country was considered “the only private university and is also the only Mac-
heart of the Balkans” since its geographical posi- edonian affiliate member of the ▶ UNWTO.
tion straddles the West and the East. The stormy The country has excellent tourism ▶ develop-
historical events of this territory have left a legacy ment potential, which is reflected in its array
of material and spiritual culture, including cultural- of cultural heritage, natural beauty, and
historical monuments, ethnographic artifacts, undiscovered regions. The most feasible develop-
museums, galleries, and Macedonian cuisine. The ment approach consists in an integrative regional
country is rich with natural beauty. The diversity of tourism offer in collaboration with other Balkan
lakes, high mountains, folklore, and music makes it countries (Bulgaria, Serbia, Kosovo, and ▶ Mon-
a peculiar and unique ▶ destination for hunting, tenegro). Tourism in Macedonia also offers
religious, and ▶ sustainable tourism. numerous possibilities for research, namely, by
The direct contribution of tourism to GDP in developing alternative touristic modalities and
2012 was US$136 million (€102 million or 1.3 % through compulsory implementation of the notion
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
570 Madagascar
0 20 40 km 22 23 45 50
0 20 40 mi Glorioso Islands
SERBIA (FRANCE)
KOSOVA COMOROS
Antsiranana
BULGARIA
Kumanovo
Tetovo Nosy Be
42 SKOPJE 42
Mayotte
(administered by FRANCE.
claimed by COMOROS) Maromokotro
Golem Gostivar Stip
Korab Veles Va
Kicevo
rd a
r 15
Mozambique 15
Strumica Channel
Prilep Mahajanga
Lake
Doiran
Lake
Ohrid Nosy
Lake
Prespa Bitola Chesterfield
41 41 Nosy
Sainte
Amparafaravola
Marie
ALBANIA
GREECE Aegean Toamasina
Sea
21 22 23
NOSY ANTANANARIVO
BARREN
Macedonia, Figure 1 Map of Macedonia Antanifotsy
Antsirabe
20 20
of sustainable tourism in order to achieve long- Morondava
term positive social economic results. Mananjary
Fianarantsoa
See also ▶ Nature tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ sus- Manakara

tainable tourism. INDIAN
OCEAN
Toliara
References
Government of Macedonia 2013a Tourism www.vlada.

mk/?q=node/266&language=en-gb (25 January 2014).
Government of Macedonia 2013b Macedonia in 25 Ambovombe 25
TÔlanaro
Figures www.stat.gov.mk/PrikaziPublikacija_1_en.
aspx?rbr=414 (25 January 2014).
Stojmilov, A. 2011 Geography of the Republic of
0 50 100 km
Macedonia. Skopje: University of Tourism and 45 50
0 50 100 mi
Management.
Madagascar, Figure 1 Map of the Republic of

▶ Madagascar
Madagascar
Fy Rasoamananjara1 and Bernardin

Solonandrasana2
1
University of Antananarivo, Betongolo Tana, Africa by the ▶ Mozambique Channel (Figure 1).
Madagascar Among African countries, it is the world’s fourth
2
University of Perpignan, Perpignan, France largest island with an area of 592,000 km2
(228,572 mi2) and a population of 22.1 million.
While an island of the Indian Ocean, it is also an
The Republic of Madagascar is an island located African country, as far as its ▶ culture or its econ-
in the Western Indian Ocean, separated from East omy is concerned. The ▶ development of tourism,
Malawi 571
given its economic and social externalities, is a References

crucial issue for the country.
Madagascar has nearly 5,000 km of coastline Malagasy Tourism Ministry 2005 Les TIC et le tourisme
pour le développement: cas de Madagascar http://r0.
and a number of small islands, such as Nosy
unctad.org/ecommerce/event_docs/etour2005/presenta
Boraha or Sainte-Marie (200 km2) and Nosy Be tions/rasolofoniaina.pdf (6 April).
(320 km2). The country’s average altitude is Peypoch, N., R. Randriamboarison, F. Rasoamananjara,
1,600 m and the mountainous hinterland divides and B. Solonandrasana. 2012. The Length of Stay of
Tourism in Madagascar: A Multivariate Fractional Sur-
it into two distinct regions. Often described as a
vival Analysis. Tourism Management 33: 1230–1235.
▶ paradise by botanists, paleontologists, and pri- Randriamboarison, R., F. Rasoamananjara, and
matologists, Madagascar has an impressive fauna B. Solonandrasana. 2013. Tourism Return Frequency
and a spectacular flora. It has 5 national parks and Demand in Madagascar. Tourism Economics 19:
943–958.
11 wilderness areas, hosting a huge population of
lemurs and endemic species (amphibians, reptil-
ians, and rare species of butterflies)
(Randriamboarison et al. 2013).
The average length of ▶ tourist stay is 20 days Malawi
(Peypoch et al. 2012). The most common ▶ des-
tination is the arid southern ▶ region (38 % of Felix Gasten Bello1, Brent Lovelock2 and
tourists), then the northern part of the island with Neil Carr2
1
21 %, followed by the eastern and western Department of Tourism, Mzuzu, Malawi
2
regions, and finally the highlands (Hautes Terres) Department of Tourism, University of Otago,
with only 7 % of the tourist population. The coun- Dunedin, New Zealand
try has over 700 hotels (of which 120 were
established in 2005) and a total of 10,850 rooms.
Revenue from tourism generated US$162 million Malawi is a landlocked country in southern M
in 2005 and tourists spent nearly $943 (without air ▶ Africa, with an area of 118,484 km2
▶ travel) per person during their stay (Malagasy (45,746 mi2), bordering ▶ Zambia, ▶ Tanzania,
Tourism Ministry 2005). and ▶ Mozambique (Figure 1), and has a popula-
The ▶ industry is organized by the Ministry of tion of 15.8 million. Malawi was ruled by the
Tourism. Promotion and organization are ▶ United Kingdom from 1891 until independence
privatized and run by the National Tourism in 1964. The economy is mainly agriculture, which
Board, since 2003. This organization has repre- represents 37 % of GDP and accounts for 82.5 % of
sentation in the majority of the country’s destina- foreign exchange earnings (ADB 2013).
tions through regional boards. Since 2008, the There is limited information on tourism from
regional boards act as platforms between the pri- the pre-independence era, but the industry was
vate and public sectors. It works closely with the recognized in the colonial era. Lake Malawi (the
State through the presence of the ministry on the third largest lake in Africa), wildlife, and cultural
board of directors. Tourism ▶ education is jointly heritage are the main attractions. International
managed by the private and public sectors. The arrivals have grown from about 51,000 in 1973
future challenges for Madagascar is to promote to 770,000 in 2012 (Malawi Department of Tour-
tourism while preserving the ▶ flora and fauna. ism 2013). The major markets are ▶ South Africa,
This promotion must be accompanied by the the United Kingdom, the ▶ Netherlands, and
strengthening of the tourism education system, ▶ Germany. In the same year, the industry directly
as well as a transformation of its attractions as an contributed 4.7 % of total GDP and directly
island destination. supported 135,000 jobs, or 3.9 % of total employ-
ment (WTTC 2013).
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ biological diversity, The first comprehensive tourism ▶ develop-
▶ ecotourism, ▶ environment, ▶ flora and fauna. ment plan for the 1980–1990 period was published
572 Malawi
Malawi 33 36 within the Ministry of Commerce and Industry.

The portfolios of National Parks, Wildlife, and
Culture were later added to the newly designated
Ministry of Tourism and Culture, responsible for
Karonga TANZANIA policy formulation and coordination of planning,
Chilumba development, and marketing.
The Tourism and Hotels Board has statutory
powers to license, classify, grade, and enforce stan-
dards of tourism enterprises. The Malawi Tourism
ZAMBIA Laké Association is the main nonprofit organization for all
Mzuzu
Malawi
Nkhata Bay
operators and represents the industry’s interests and
Chisumulu Island
provides government with professional input to pol-
12 (MALAWI) 12 icy development. The human resources develop-
Likoma Island
(MALAWI) ment in the industry is relatively undeveloped in
terms of capacity and skills. There are three
government-accredited tertiary institutions offering
Nkhotakota
MOZAMBIQUE tourism and ▶ hospitality management programs,
from certificate to bachelor degrees.
Research on Malawi tourism remains underde-
LILONGWE veloped. Like the country’s economy, the industry
Chipoka has the potential to generate revenue, create new
Monkey jobs, improve infrastructure, as well as conserve
Bay
Lake wildlife and culture (Rogerson and Rogerson
Malombe 2011). To promote the industry, the Malawi gov-
15 15 ernment is working on improving the tourism
Zomba ▶ investment climate, developing supporting
jre
MOZAMBIQUE
Sh
Lake
Chitwa
infrastructure, restocking wildlife reserves and
Blantyre parks, intensifying marketing, and simplifying the
Sapitwa system of visa issuance for tourists.
Za
m
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ Africa,

be
zi
▶ cultural tourism, ▶ wildlife tourism.

ZIMB. 0 50 km
33 0 50 mi 36
References
Malawi, Figure 1 Map of Malawi
ADB 2013 Malawi Country Strategy Paper 2013-2017.
African Development Bank. www.afdb.org/fileadmin/
uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/2013-
in 1980. This was followed by the 2002–2006 2017%20-%20Malawi%20-%20Country%20Strategy%
20Paper.pdf (27 February 2014).
strategic tourism development plan which was
Malawi Department of Tourism 2013 Malawi Tourism
revised in 2008. The 2011–2016 Malawi growth Report 2012. Lilongwe: Department of Tourism.
and development strategy, a national medium-term Rogerson, C., and J. Rogerson 2011 Tourism Research
development strategy, identifies tourism as a prior- within the Southern African Development Community:
Product and Consumption in Academic Journals
ity to lead the development of wildlife, cultural,
2000-2010. Tourism Review International 15:213-224.
and ▶ adventure tourism. The ministry responsible WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism, Economic Impact
for tourism was established in 1995, but earlier the 2013: Malawi. London: World Travel and Tourism
industry had been represented by a department Council.
Malaysia 573
economic development plan: “Vision 2020.”

Malaysia Adopted in 1990, and as the leading policy docu-
ment, it highlights economic development and
Azwin Aksan1 and Carla A. Santos2 endorses tourism as a primary socioeconomic
1
Universiti Teknologi MARA, Selangor, Malaysia ▶ activity for the country (Musa 2000). Tourism
2
Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, ▶ planning and policy has primarily focused on
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, sustainable development and is influenced by
Champaign, IL, USA three tiers of government: federal, state, and local
(Hamzah 2004). Policy formulation, which is
undertaken by the Ministry of Tourism and ▶ Cul-
Located in the heart of Southeast Asia, Malaysia is ture, is aided by each of the states’ tourism council.
made up of the Peninsular and East Malaysia
regions, with a combined land size of
329,758 km2 (127,350 mi2). The Peninsular Tourism development
region shares its border with ▶ Thailand to the
north and links through two bridges to ▶ Singa- Tourism has proven to be a catalyst for the
pore in the south (Figure 1). The East region, also country’s development and a key driver for eco-
known as Borneo, has Brunei and ▶ Indonesia as nomic growth. In fact, tourism was identified as
its neighbors. With a population of over 29 mil- one of the 12 national key economic areas under
lion, Malaysia is a federation of 13 states and the Economic Transformation Program (Ministry
3 federal territories. Its climate is tropical, with of Tourism Malaysia 2012). This aligns the
hot and humid weather throughout the year. Its country’s economic growth with the Malaysia
economic performance owes much to its com- Tourism Transformation Plan for achieving a
modities, which include crude oil, natural gas, targeted 36 million tourists by 2020. Moreover,
rubber, and palm oil. arrivals to Malaysia in the last 10 years have
M
Malaysia has experienced significant tourism shown a substantial rise, with a reported growth
▶ development over the past 20 years. A central from 13.3 million in 2002 to 25 million in 2012
contemporary driver of this is the national (Tourism Malaysia nd). The 1999 marketing
Malaysia, Figure 1 Map of Malaysia

574 Malaysia
campaign, “Malaysia Truly Asia,” is largely con- housekeeping, front office management, and food
sidered Malaysia’s most successful campaign. In services, as well as in ▶ travel areas such as
2014, Malaysia launched “Celebrating 1 Malay- ticketing and ▶ tour guiding. While these programs
sia, Truly Asia.” were initially designed to provide vocational skills
Singapore remains a major ▶ inbound tourism required to address the immediate needs of the
market, followed by Indonesia, Thailand, and industry, the growing demand for formal tourism
▶ China. In 2012, tourism’s direct contribution to education led this university and other public insti-
GDP was US$21.2 billion or 7.0 %, supporting tutions to develop diplomas and undergraduate
811,500 jobs (6.5 % of total employment), and programs in hospitality and tourism.
was the second largest ▶ foreign exchange earner By 2000, both public and private institutions
after manufacturing and the seventh largest contrib- began to offer undergraduate and postgraduate
utor to the economy (WTTC 2013). As a result of level programs. Today, formal tourism and hospi-
the growth of tourism, various ▶ development pro- tality education and training is considered one of
jects have been implemented. In particular, develop- the most important fields of study, with a growing
ments, such as lodging, transportation, shopping number of scholarships offered at both the under-
centers, food services, as well as the beautification graduate and postgraduate levels. Additionally,
of public spaces, have been given the highest prior- tourism programs and their faculty are increas-
ity in the country’s planning strategies. ingly engaged in research, as well as planning
Malaysia is best known for its amenable cli- and development through local and national con-
mate, scenic natural attractions, and rich cultural sultation on policy formulation, project develop-
heritage (Hassan 2009). In 2000, UNESCO ment, and ▶ destination planning.
granted Malaysia world heritage status for Gunung
Kinabalu in Sabah and Gua Mulu in Sarawak nat-
ural heritage sites. Malaysia’s efforts in preserving Future directions
its rich cultural heritage have also resulted in
UNESCO’s inscriptions of two cultural heritage As Malaysia continues to strive to become a major
sites: Melaka-Georgetown in 2008 and Archaeo- ▶ international tourism destination, the need to
logical Heritage of the Lenggong Valley in 2012. further contextualize the industry’s economic,
Moreover, homestay is one of the government’s environmental, sociocultural, and political
most encouraged tourism programs. It is a dynamics is crucial. Indeed, given its planning
community-based product that aims to rejuvenate and policy focus on sustainable development,
the rural economy (UNWTO 2013). In 2012, the Malaysia’s research community must continue to
program attracted 325,258 participants, with about explore opportunities and challenges surrounding
20 % participation from international tourists, and its growing development and ▶ marketing of
received the Ulysses Award for Innovation in Pub- ▶ ecotourism and ▶ heritage tourism as it pertains
lic Policy and Governance (UNWTO 2013). in particular to issues regarding preservation and
The need for formal tourism ▶ education and protection, market competitiveness, strategic alli-
▶ training has understandably become of utmost ances, and new ▶ technology applications.
importance. Over the past three decades, the num-
ber of formal tourism and ▶ hospitality education See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ ecotourism,
and training programs has increased significantly, ▶ heritage, ▶ sustainability.
both at public and private institutions. Universiti
Teknologi MARA was the first public higher edu-
cation institution to offer formal hospitality pro-
References
grams and training in 1967 and in tourism
administration in 1975. This institution started by Hamzah, A. 2004 Policy and Planning of the Tourism
introducing certificate courses and one-year pro- Industry in Malaysia. Proceedings of The 6th ADRF
grams in hospitality areas, such as catering, General Meeting. Bangkok, Thailand.
Maldives 575
Hassan, H. 2009 Ten Years after Asian Financial Crisis

1998: Tourism Growth in Malaysia. Integration & Dis- Maldives
semination 4:51-56.
Ministry of Tourism Malaysia 2012 Malaysia National
Key Economic Area 2011. Kuala Lumpur: Ministry Aishath Shakeela
of Tourism Malaysia. Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel
Musa, G. 2000 Tourism in Malaysia. In Tourism in South Management, Griffith University, Queensland,
and Southeast Asia, C.M. Hall and S. Page, eds.,
pp.144-156. Oxon: Butterworth-Henemann. Australia
Tourism Malaysia (nd) Facts and Figures: Tourist Arrivals
& Receipts to Malaysia. http://corporate.tourism.gov.
my/research.asp?page=facts_figures (17 January The Republic of Maldives, comprised of 1,192
2014).
UNWTO 2013 Malaysia Country Report. Madrid: World coralline islands formed as 26 atolls, is located
Tourism Organization. south of the Indian subcontinent (Figure 1). The
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2013. islands are dispersed on an exclusive economic
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. zone of 859,000 km2 (331,661.75 mi2). The land
Maldives, Figure 1 Map of the Maldives

576 Mali
area is 298 km2 (115.06 mi2), which on average is MTAC 2013 Tourism Year Book. Malé: Ministry of
less than three meters above sea level. Its popula- Tourism, Arts and Culture.
Shakeela, A., and S. Becken 2014 Understanding Tourism
tion of 331,000 reside on 194 islands (DNP 2013). Leaders’ Perceptions of Risks from Climate Change:
Tourism was introduced in 1972. Today, An Assessment of Policymaking Processes in the
105 islands operate as enclave resorts, with an Maldives Using the Social Amplification of Risk
additional 74 being developed (MTAC 2013). Framework. Journal of Sustainable Tourism
doi:10.1080/09669582.2014.918135.
The resorts are self-contained with their own Shakeela, A., L. Ruhanen, and N. Breakey 2011 The Role
▶ power generators, water desalination plants, of Employment in the Sustainable Development
sewage treatment system, and transport facilities. Paradigm – The Local Tourism Labor Market in
Two international airports receive arrivals, who Small Island Developing States. Journal of Human
Resources in Hospitality and Tourism 10:331-353.
are then transferred via domestic seaplanes or Shakeela, A., and D. Weaver 2012 Resident Reactions to a
speedboats to the resorts. Tourism in the Maldives Tourism Incident: Mapping a Maldivian Emoscape.
embodies classic pleasure periphery dynamics Annals of Tourism Research 39:1337-1358.
and has steadily grown over the past 40 years,
replacing the traditional fishing economy.
Since the inception of tourism, Europeans rep-
resent the largest market segment (52 %), Mali
followed by Asia-Pacific (23 %), and the
▶ Americas (16 %) in 2012. The average duration Kelly Virginia Phelan
of stay is 6.7 days. Due to limited data, details School of Business, The University of
about ▶ domestic tourism are unavailable. Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, Australia
Maldivian tourism is purported to be an example
of successful sustainable development, an aspect
contested by researchers (Shakeela et al. 2011). Reg- The Republic of Mali is a landlocked country in
ulations require operators to employ 50 % locals; West Africa, bordered by ▶ Algeria to the north,
however, due to a lack of tourism education and ▶ Niger to the east, ▶ Burkina Faso and Cote
suitable skills, meeting this requirement has been a d’Ivoire to the south, ▶ Guinea to the southwest,
challenge. The industry has also created an “enclave and ▶ Senegal and ▶ Mauritania to the west
paradox”: tourism is unsustainable from the (Figure 1). French is its official language and is
employees’ perspective but sustainable from the used in all business and tourism transactions,
broader residents’ perspective (Shakeela and though it is only spoken by approximately 30 %
Weaver 2012). Climate change is a key threat to of the country’s 15 million citizens. Islam is the
both tourism and local communities (Shakeela and dominant religion in Mali and practiced by nearly
Becken 2014). These opportunities and challenges 90 % of the population. Though it is considered a
are of relevance to researchers and practitioners. secular state which allows for freedom of religion,
Future research areas include changes in core market according to its constitution, it has experienced
segments and product mix and alternative forms of significant outbreaks of violence from Islamic
tourism for ▶ development, ▶ sustainability, cli- extremists across the country. Mali’s economy is
mate change risks, and local employment. heavily dependent upon agriculture, with 80 % of
workers employed in food production (Cavendish
See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ enclave tourism, 2007).
▶ island tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism. Tourism in Mali has suffered considerably in
recent years, despite having four UNESCO heri-
tage sites located within its borders: Timbuktu, the
Tomb of Askia, the Old Towns of Djenne, and the
References
Cliff of Bandiagara or Land of the Dogons
DNP 2013 Statistical Year Book of Maldives http://plan (UNESCO nd). Until recently, Timbuktu was a
ning.gov.mv/yearbook2013/yearbook.html (5 August). popular tourism ▶ destination due to its historical
Malta 577
12 6 0 200 400 km ▶ hospitality and tourism services. Similarly, no

0 200 400 mi
research is currently being conducted as the tour-
24 ALGERIA 24 ism ▶ industry is effectively immobilized
Taoudenni throughout the nation. Until peace is restored to
S A H A R A
the country, most Western countries have advised
against ▶ travel to Mali.
MAURITANIA
Kidal See also ▶ Africa, ▶ archaeology, ▶ heritage,

18 18
Timbuktu
▶ religion, ▶ terrorism.
r Goa
ge Hombori
SENEGAL Ni Tondo
Kayes Mopti
NIGER
References
Se
Ségou
Kita
ne
BAMAKO Ni
ga
ge
BURKINA FASO
l
12 Koutiala r 12
Cavendish, M. 2007 World and Its Peoples: Middle East,
GUINEA Sikasso Western Asia, and Northern Africa. New York:
BENIN
Cavendish Square Publishing.
CÖTE D’IVOIRE GHANA Geoghegan, T. 2012 Who, What, Why: Why Do We Know
12 6 0 TOGO
Timbuktu? www.bbc.co.uk/news/magazine-17583772
(12 January 2014).
Mali, Figure 1 Map of Mali UNESCO nd Mali http://whc.unesco.org/en/statesparties/
ml/ (16 January 2014).
significance as the center of Islamic learning UNWTO, 2013, Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
ism Organization. http://dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/
between the thirteenth and seventeenth centuries sites/all/files/pdf/ unwto_highlights13_en_lr_0.pdf
and the references to the city made in popular (16 January 2014).
culture and literature (Geoghegan 2012). WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2013:
In 2011, Mali hosted 160,000 international Mali. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. M
arrivals, a 5.3 % decrease from the previous year
(UNWTO 2013). This decline was reflected in tour-
ism ▶ employment, direct contribution to GDP, and
▶ investment. In 2012, tourism spending contrib- Malta
uted 10.4 % of total GDP; however, forecasts antic-
ipate tourism spending to attribute only 9.3 % of Vincent Zammit
GDP in 2013 (WTTC 2013). Tourism employment Centre for Cultural and Heritage Studies, Institute
is expected to suffer similarly, dropping from 3.8 % of Tourism Studies, St Julian’s, Malta
of total employment in 2012 to 2.8 % of total
employment in 2013 (WTTC 2013).
Since early 2012, northern Mali has been the The Republic of Malta is one of the world’s
scene of constant fighting between insurgent smallest countries. Located in the Mediterranean
groups and the government. Mali’s president was Sea, about 93 km to the south of Sicily and 288 km
overthrown during a coup d’etat in March 2012 north of ▶ Libya, the archipelago covers a surface
with the Islamist group Ansar Dine taking control area of 316 km2 or 121 mi2 (Figure 1). With a
of Mali’s three main northern districts. Ansar Dine population of about 421,000 people, it is one of
imposed strict Sharia law on the region and the most densely populated countries (NSO 2013).
ordered the destruction of several shrines, includ- In 1964, Malta was granted independence by
ing Timbuktu’s Djingareyber Mosque. Given the the ▶ United Kingdom, and in 1979, all foreign
instability in the region, many hotels and ▶ tour military bases were closed. Malta eventually
operators have closed their operations. As such, became a full member of the European Union in
there are no educational institutions or profes- 2004 and adopted the Euro in 2008. During the
sional organizations currently offering training in British period, with the establishment of the
578 Management
1410 1420
0 4 8 km industry with less dependence on the major
0 4 8 mi
▶ tour operators.
With Valletta, the capital city, together with six
Gozo
Mediterranean prehistoric sites on the UNESCO world heritage
Victoria
Sea list, the authorities are putting more emphasis on
dex
GhawKemmuna
II-F
lieg
u ta attracting tourists interested in culture, heritage,
3600 Kemmuna 3600
Kemmunett II-Fliegu ta and religion. Trekking, diving, and sport activities
Mellieћa
are being promoted (Ministry for Tourism 2012).
San Pawl The need to have qualified employees is met by a
il-Baћar
Mosta
general degree program offered by the University
VALLETTA
Rabat
Birkirkara of Malta Hospitality Programs, while the Institute
Malta Qormi Zabbar of Tourism Studies offers other courses covering
Malta
International
Airport Marsaxlokk all aspects and operations of ▶ hospitality.
TaDmejrek
3550 Zurrieq
Birzebbuga
▶ Future tourism plans aim to solidify the
Mediterranean II-Bajja
▶ MICE sector and to introduce new niche mar-
Fitfla
Sea ta Marsaxlokk kets while encouraging visits to the rural areas.
1410 1420 1430 With Valletta chosen as the European Capital of
Culture for 2018, new initiatives are being intro-
Malta, Figure 1 Map of Malta duced, helping to create a unique vibrant cultural
and festive atmosphere throughout the year.
British Navy in Malta, the dockyard facilities See also ▶ Cruise tourism, ▶ cultural tourism,
became one of the mainstays of the Maltese ▶ heritage, ▶ Mediterranean, ▶ religion.
economy.
After the end of World War II, manufacturing
industries were established. With the eventual References
rundown of the British services, diversification
of the economy was initiated and tourism became Ministry for Tourism 2012 Tourism Policy for the Maltese
an important mainstay (Spiteri 2002). The Islands 2012-2016. Malta: Ministry for Tourism, Cul-
143,748 arrivals in 1969 increased to more than ture and the Environment.
NSO 2013 Malta in Figures 2013. Malta: Government
1,400,000 in 2012. This number continued to Printing Press.
increase with the cruise market bringing more Spiteri, E. 2002 Malta: From Colonial Dependency to
than 600,000 tourists in the same year (NSO Economic Viability. Malta: Interprint.
2013). This growth has been sustained through
government support, including the development
of a number of hotels and other ancillary facilities.
There are more than 150 hotels and other types of Management
▶ accommodation, providing about 40,000 beds.
The economic ▶ impact of tourism tallies to Abraham Pizam and Valeriya Shapoval
12.3 % of GNP, rising up to 29.5 % at full impact Rosen College of Hospitality Management,
level. The full employment impact is of 29 % of University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA
the local workforce. The introduction of
low-budget airlines has changed the tourism sce-
nario. Between 2006 and 2011, there was a 100 % Tourism management can be analyzed at four
increase in independent tourists, making neces- levels: scope, ownership, industry sector, and
sary a review of national policy. This has led to management function. In terms of scope, those
an increase in tourists visiting Malta during the who are concerned with the macro-effects of the
shoulder months and to a more diversified industry have analyzed its consequences on the
Management 579
economy, the ecology, and the sociocultural motel enterprises and is concerned with managing
milieu of the host community. Economists have customer demand, ensuring customer service,
developed mathematical models to estimate the protecting assets, aiming at quality, improving
direct and indirect impacts of the industry on the employee performance, increasing productivity,
physical environment. Tourism can have negative and achieving satisfactory levels of return on
▶ impact on the ▶ destination by overusing and investment. The internal organization of this sec-
depleting natural resources. Therefore, environ- tor includes front office, food and beverage, guest
mental quality is increasingly important to insure services, maintenance and engineering security,
future existence of destinations. Maintaining reservations, human resources management,
environmental quality is essential not only to sav- accounting, and marketing (Morrison 2013).
ing resources but also to maintaining quality and Second, the restaurant sector provides tourists
competitiveness of the environment and destina- with food and drinks while away from home. But,
tion (Mihalic 2000). Regional planners have not all food service properties are restricted to
attempted to develop models of physical planning tourists with a majority of them serving local
and design of tourism regions that minimize the residents. Food service operations can be divided
negative impacts and preserve the quality of life of by type and ownership, and the latter can be either
the local community. In addition, sociologists and independent or franchised. The most important
anthropologists have examined the real and per- aspects of management of food operations relate
ceived consequences of tourism on host commu- to service delivery system, production planning,
nities as a result of host-guest interactions. consumer food preference, menu planning, phys-
At the ownership level, the provision of goods ical design, nutrition, purchasing, cost control,
and services for tourists away from home is nor- and marketing (Barrows et al. 2009).
mally done by both public and private enterprises. Third, transportation, as another sector,
With the exclusion of some centrally planned includes only those passenger services which
economies where the state owns and operates transport tourists between their origins and desti-
M
tourism enterprises, public organizations nor- nations, as well as those used by tourists at the
mally devote most of their efforts to the function destination for ▶ sightseeing and internal
of marketing and promotion of this industry in ▶ travel. Commercial ▶ transportation services
their region. Public organizations can be found can be divided into land, sea, and air. The former
at the national, regional, and local levels. In consists of ▶ rail, motor coach (buses), rental cars,
many destinations, public organizations also taxi, and limousines. The relative magnitude of
invest significant funds and efforts in crisis plan- each of the above and their importance to tourism
ning and disaster management and recovery, since varies from country to country. Rental cars are by
tourism is highly susceptible to the occurrence of far the fastest growing commercial land transpor-
these events. It is private enterprises that make the tation mode in most destinations. Limousines are
bulk of the industry and specialize in the provision used mostly by business tourists to and from air-
of commercial services to tourists. They range ports, while taxi services are utilized by tourists as
from large multinational firms who own hundreds a mode of the intracity transportation as well as
of properties throughout the world to family coming from or going to airports, seaports, and
owned and family operated hotels and restaurants. railway stations.
Commercial sea transportation services are
dominated by cruise lines, a mode which is cur-
Industry sectors rently experiencing a phenomenal growth. Major
cruises operate in the ▶ Caribbean, ▶ Mediterra-
The tourism industry is composed of several sec- nean, Northern Europe, Alaska, and the Far East-
tors. Some of them have grown to industries in ern regions. Most modern ships are floating
their own right, and seven are outlined here. First, luxury resorts which provide every conceivable
the accommodation sector includes hotel and amenity or service. These vessels can
580 Management
accommodate anywhere between 100 and 4,000 numbers have declined in the last two decades.
passengers. River cruises have also grown in pop- Still within this sector, tour operators
ularity, and the majority of them operate in Euro- (wholesalers) combine various tourism compo-
pean and North American waterways. nents, goods, and services and sell these through
Fourth, the next mode, ▶ airline operations, their company, retail outlets, and travel agents.
can be singled out as one which has totally revo- The most important managerial aspects related to
lutionized the tourism industry and made ▶ travel these ▶ tour businesses are selection of destina-
to long-haul destinations accessible, inexpensive, tions, planning and preparing, and marketing
and comfortable. The typical airline organization vacation tours (Page 2011).
consists of the line functions of engineering and Online tourism (eTourism) has completely
maintenance, flight operations, marketing, and transformed the management of numerous tour
services. Airline staff functions consist of finance operations and created new opportunities and
and property, information, services, personnel, challenges. Today, ever more customers are rely-
corporate communications, economic planning, ing on the internet for planning their trips and
and legal and medical services (Goeldner and choosing hotels, car rentals, and destinations.
Ritchie 2012). Customers are also more knowledgeable in seek-
Fifth, the ▶ travel agency and tour operation ing bargains and special value for their time and
sector is comprised of those intermediary busi- money. This, in turn, has created the need to
nesses which sell individual and combined tour- constantly find new ways to gain a competitive
ism goods and services. Travel agents sell, among advantage and differentiate the suppliers’ prod-
other things, airline and cruise tickets as well as ucts and services. The internet has enabled most
hotel rooms and are rewarded through commis- producers to be more efficient in their cost man-
sions received from suppliers. To illustrate, the agement by removing intermediaries and increas-
sector supplies information and advises on desti- ing their online presence. The internet has also
nations, itineraries, and facilities; sells tickets on helped these businesses to mass customize their
any mode of transportation; makes available products and target niche markets (Buhalis and
insurance policies for passengers and luggage; Law 2008).
provides clients with accommodation reserva- Sixth, the convention and meeting sector is
tions; arranges for excursions and visits to various concerned with meetings, conventions, con-
attractions; and assists with or supplies a range of gresses, trade shows, and exposition businesses.
miscellaneous services such as visas, money These gatherings, which vary in size from a few
orders, tickets to theaters and museums, and the dozen participants to tens of thousands, can be
like (Angelo and Vladimir 2010). regional, national, or international in scope. The
Most travel agencies around the world are actors in this sector are meeting planners and
small and employ less than ten individuals. Their managers, trade shows, hotels, convention cen-
critical management aspects involve marketing ters, convention and tourist bureaus, exhibitions,
and sales, delivery of service, human resources exhibit designers, transportation services, exposi-
management, accounting, budgeting, and office tion service contractors, destination management
automation. In business travel where process is companies, and food service companies (Walker
somewhat different from traditional travel agen- and Walker 2013).
cies, customers are more time sensitive but less Seventh, themepark and attraction enterprises
price sensitive. Reservations are generally made constitute one of the trendiest sectors of the indus-
on short notice, often outside of regular hours, and try at present. They represent particular built loca-
include other services with travel documents. In tions where for a single admission fee tourists are
most developed countries, the internet has offered a mix of recreation and entertainment
replaced the functions of travel agencies whose opportunities. Today, most of these attractions
Management 581
are centered on a unified theme or motif such as international relations. In most countries, tourism
history, future, culture, geography, fantasy, and operations have legal obligations to their guests
others. The most important issues in this sector such as receiving and accommodating them, pro-
relate to human resources management, consumer viding safe hotel rooms, and so on. To prevent the
behavior, forecasting, new product development, occurrence of legal problems, tourism enterprises
and maintenance and engineering (Barrows train their employees in the legal aspects of their
et al. 2009; Walker and Walker 2013). businesses.
To increase productivity, most enterprises own
and operate management information systems
Management function and/or property management systems. These sys-
tems are composed of computer hardware and
In addition to the scope, ownership, and industry special software that management uses to operate
sectors, the industry is characteristic of different their property in an efficient manner. Information
managerial functions. The most important of these systems are used for a multitude of tasks such as
functions in tourism management are marketing, reservation, guest registration, accounting, pur-
financial management, legal aspects, management chasing and inventory control, scheduling, energy
information systems, and human resource man- management, and manpower planning. Related to
agement. In principle, marketing as applied to the latter, the management of human resources
tourism enterprises is very similar to that of incorporates the functions of recruitment and
services. Tourism marketers are concerned selection of employees, orientation, motivation,
with segmentation, selection of target markets, communication, leadership, training and develop-
branding and branding strategies, pricing, ment, administration of wages, salary and bene-
marketing positioning, effectiveness of the profits, job analysis, job evaluation, performance
motional mix, market feasibility, consumer evaluation, promotion, health and safety, collec-
behavior, tourist decisionmaking, and customer tive bargaining, and other related concerns
M
satisfaction. (Goeldner and Ritchie 2012).
Financial managers are involved in the process The tourism industry will continue to increase
of making decisions by interpreting and analyzing in size and complexity at a rapid pace. Some of the
appropriate data. They are directly involved in future drivers of the change include issues such as
raising capital funds, are responsible for asset accessibility, advances in technology, environ-
management, and allocate funds through the prep- mental and economic impacts, aging population,
aration of capital and operation budgets. Those globalization, and perceptions of luxury and
who are involved in managerial accounting are quality. Space travel will gain in popularity and
responsible for recording, summarizing, and virtual reality will be widely used. Demographic
interpreting financial data. In most tourism busi- factors will continue to change dramatically and
nesses, the process of recording and summarizing economies will become more knowledge-based
is accomplished through the use of a uniform which in turn will change future tourism
system of accounts. This process offers a formal consumption patterns. Environmental concerns
structure within which financial data is accumu- will become more prominent in the future as
lated and organized for the reporting of financial climate change and increase in accessibility of
position and operation results (Goeldner and the destinations will lead to changes in peoples’
Ritchie 2012). travel patterns (Goeldner and Ritchie 2012;
Tourism enterprises of all types are affected by Page 2011).
the legal systems in which they operate. All legal
systems regulate, in varying degrees, supplier- See also ▶ Accommodation, ▶ destination,
consumer relations, commercial relations, and ▶ forecasting, ▶ museum, ▶ vacation.
582 Map
References reference contents, drawn up on even smaller

scales for regions and countries.
Angelo, R., and A. Vladimir 2010 Hospitality Today: An With regard to methods of publication, tourists
Introduction. Lansing: American Hotel and Lodging
use traditional hard copies and computerized dig-
Educational Institute.
Barrows, C., T. Powers, and D. Reynolds 2009 Introduc- ital maps. The former can be included in guide-
tion to Management in the Hospitality Industry. New books as foldable cartographic illustrations. The
York: Wiley. latter is connected with the increasing demand for
Buhalis, D., and R. Law 2008 Progress in Information
interactive multimedia maps making available
Technology and Tourism Management: 20 Years on
and 10 Years after the Internet - The State of eTourism integrative cartographic signs, texts, still images,
Research. Tourism Management 29:609-623. animations, and sounds. In this format, the level of
Goeldner, C., and J. R. B. Ritchie 2012 Tourism: Princi- interactivity between the tourist and the map is of
ples, Practices, Philosophies (12th ed.). Hoboken:
considerable importance. Low level concerns the
Wiley.
Mihalič, T. 2000 Environmental Management of a Tourist location of objects on the map according to their
Destination: A Factor of Tourism Competitiveness. geographical coordinates, while high level fea-
Tourism Management 21:65-78. tures advanced tools for virtual exploration,
Morrison, A. 2013 Marketing and Managing Tourism Des-
including individual route mapping and the addi-
tinations. New York: Routledge.
Page, S. 2011 Tourism Management: An Introduction tion of one’s own touristic objects with multime-
(4th ed.). Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. dia treatment. Currently, navigation maps based
Walker, J., and J. Walker 2013 Introduction to Hospitality on the Global Positioning System for mobile
Management (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River: Prentice
devices, which present information about the
Hall.
placement of markers and one’s locations in real
time on a display screen, are being advanced.
The majority of tourist maps are created for
public users, and hence they employ pictorial
symbols (Dent et al. 2009). These icons make it
Map possible for map readers to intuitively capture the
meaning of cartographical signs and focus on
Beata Medynska-Gulij
attractions (Medynska-Gulij 2008). Nominal
Department of Cartography and Geomatics,
point signs (such as architecture, monuments,
Institute of Physical Geography and
and hotels) are predominant, while linear signs
Environmental Planning, Adam Mickiewicz
highlight routes for hikers, cyclists, and others.
University, Poznań, Poland
Figure 1 is an example of a tourist map with
clearly marked visual signs providing information
in comparison with topographic content
Tourist maps present spatial information by using (Medynska-Gulij 2003). The pictorial point sym-
graphical symbols such as roads, rivers, and set- bols are divided into three thematic groups corre-
tlements, making it possible for tourists to locate spondingly colored. Cultural or historic buildings
significant objects. They are used at different are represented by red squares, nature by green,
stages of a trip, leading tourists to the main and recreational facilities by blue. Apart from the
sights/sites of an area visited. Depending on the number scale, tourist maps also contain a scale bar
degree of touristic exploration, maps are designed which proves useful when estimating actual dis-
on different scales with appropriate details. The tances. Future research should focus on the imple-
most detailed presentations of geographical space mentation of traditional cartographic knowledge
are found in hiking maps, which provide precise to mobile and web technology in order to deliver
topographic information. Maps with topographic current maps for tourists.
contents are also created for cyclists, though on a
smaller scale. Tourists traveling by car are the See also ▶ Guidebook, ▶ marker, ▶ recreation,
intended audience of road maps with general ▶ semiotics, ▶ sightseeing.
Mapping, perceptual 583
Map, Figure 1 Tourist map with pictorial symbols
References developing multidimensional spatial representa-

tion of underlying structure. This includes show-
Dent, B., J. Torguson, and T. Hodler 2009 Cartography: ing products (or services) as points in a
Thematic Map Design. New York: McGraw-Hill.
multidimensional space based on attitudinal, per-
Medynska-Gulij, B. 2003 The Effect of Cartographic
Content on Tourist Map Users. Cartography Journal ceptual, and behavioral data. Such spatial repre-
32:47-52. sentations are used to depict market structure,
Medynska-Gulij, B. 2008 Point Symbols: Investigating ▶ segmentation, design of products/services, and
Principles and Originality in Cartographic Design. Car-
positioning and to understand competitive influ-
tographic Journal 45:62-67.
ences and patterns and the relationships between
▶ tourist perception and choice (Manrai and
Manrai 1993; Manrai and Sinha 1989).
Two types of procedures are discussed in devel-
Mapping, perceptual oping perceptual maps, namely, ▶ factor analysis
and ▶ multidimensional scaling (MDS). The former
Ajay Manrai and Lalita Manrai helps in finding a reduced set of key dimensions that
Orchard Road and Amstel Avenue, Newark, USA represent the information contained in 20–30 tactical
needs, attributes, and/or benefits, on which tourists
evaluate ▶ product/▶ service options. These options
Perceptual mapping techniques assist researchers are depicted as points in the reduced
and managers in measuring perceptions by multidimensional space produced by factor analysis.
584 Marginality
The latter infers the key dimensions based on the Recent Developments in the Marketing and Psy-
tourists’ perceptions of proximity (similarity or chometric Literature. In Advanced Methods of Market-
ing Research, Bagozzi, ed., pp. 190-222. Cambridge:
dissimilarity) judgments among product/service Blackwell.
options. Like factor analysis, MDS maps also Manrai, L., and A. Manrai. 1993 Positioning European
depict product/service alternatives as points in Countries as Brands in a Perceptual Map: An Empirical
the multidimensional space. MDS procedures Study of Determinants of Consumer Perceptions and
Preferences. Journal of Euromarketing 2:101-129.
could also be used to produce spatial maps for Manrai, A., and P. Sinha. 1989 Elimination-By-Cutoffs.
representation of data such as dominance (e.g., Marketing Science 8:133-152.
preference ratings) or discrete choice. Carroll
and Arabie (1981) provide a taxonomy of the
various MDS methods based on data collected
and the associated forms of spatial display of the Marginality
structure derived from the data. DeSarbo
et al. (1994) provide a review of latent class Richard N. S. Robinson
multidimensional scaling developments in the Business School, University of Queensland,
▶ marketing and psychometric literature. Brisbane, Australia
In factor analysis, since tourists directly pro-
vide their evaluations of products/services on rat-
ing scales consisting of needs/attributes/benefits, Marginality is a relativist term, literally meaning
the spatial maps produced are usually easier to on the edge(s) or unimportant, vis-a-vis some
interpret than those generated by MDS. On the object or ▶ phenomenon. Thus, marginality has
other hand, since MDS is based on proximity no single disciplinary home but rather refers to a
judgments and is thus independent of tourists’ process occurring across social and spatial dimen-
stated needs/benefits/attributes, it is particularly sions. Tourism research used geography as a
useful when some attributes are difficult to be starting point, and marginality was appropriated
measured by scale (e.g., the charm of a ▶ destina- for investigating less developed and peripheral
tion) or if the attributes are latent or hidden and are destinations (Cohen 1982). The “pleasure periph-
thus hard for a tourist to clearly communicate. ery” (Turner and Ash 1975), as a physical entity
Factor analysis is more suitable if needs/benefits/ (on the margins), persists in tourism research. The
attributes can be described and measured behaviors of tourists, and those they encounter, in
accurately, while MDS is better if needs are diffi- the destinations dominate the recent literature.
cult for tourists to verbalize or if a researcher/ Marginal destinations are investigated in terms
manager is looking for additional creative inputs. of places “allowing” tourists (mostly from the
Availability of big data in tourism research developed world) to abandon their inhibitions.
offers a great opportunity to measure tourists’ The intersection of spatial and social dimensions
perceptions ever more precisely. A challenge of marginality is apparent. Spatiality also implies
would be to adapt traditional factor analytic economic, or even political, marginality. For
techniques and MDS to handle big data. example, the pro-poor and/or poverty alleviation
literature in tourism, predominantly set in less
See also ▶ Factor analysis, ▶ multidimensional developed countries, is a ripe setting for consid-
scaling, ▶ principal component analysis. ering the relationship between geographic and
economic marginality.
▶ Tourist abandonment often manifests in sex-
References ual licentiousness, and so ▶ sex tourism is a pro-
lific topic of research. Sex tourism destinations, in
Carroll, J., and P. Arabie. 1981 Multidimensional Scaling.
Annual Review of Psychology 31:607-649.
the ▶ Caribbean or Southeast Asia, for instance,
DeSarbo, W., A. Manrai, and L. Manrai. 1994 Latent Class exemplify geographic marginality. People com-
Multidimensional Scaling Approaches: A Review of prising the demand side for this form of tourism
Marine tourism 585
are often depicted as deviant, a term borrowed

from Durkheim’s (1951) sociological work. He Marine tourism
considered that deviance was a behavior that
marked an individual being different to the Mark Orams1 and Michael Lueck2
1
norm, or on the margins of conventions, rather School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland
than as an actual stigma. Nonetheless, once an University of Technology, Auckland,
individual, or group, is labeled deviant, it nor- New Zealand
2
mally is considered as bordering on the unaccept- School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland
able. Recent deviant, or marginal, tourism types University of Technology, Auckland,
investigated in the literature include illegal gam- New Zealand
bling, drug, and even bestiality tourism. Ques-
tions arise whether the workers and the practices
that govern their employment experiences might The sea has always been an important venue for
be deviant or marginal. For example, sex tourism recreation. However, its use for tourism has mirrored
relies on prostitutes, who are often coerced or the global growth of ▶ mass tourism during the
trafficked illegally. Indeed, tourism (and hospital- latter half of the twentieth century and on into the
ity) since Orwell (2001) has been considered an twenty-first century. According to Orams (1999: 9),
▶ industry that recruits its workforce from the marine tourism includes those recreational activities
margins of society, and this theme persists in which involve ▶ travel away from one’s place of
contemporary literature. residence and which have as their host or focus the
Finally, a marginality not stigmatized the same marine environment (waters that are saline and tide
way as some of the previous examples in tourism affected). Thus, marine tourism includes the many
studies is the case of liminality, a Turnerian (1974) activities that occur on, in, and under the sea, as well
concept meaning on the “threshold,” again the edge as those which are coast based but where the pri-
or margin. Liminality relates to being on the margin mary attraction is sea based.
M
of “communitas,” a positive energy generated by Clear trends in marine tourism are the growth in
the like-mindedness of a community, at a tourism diversity of activities, increasing geographical
event, for instance. While not comprehensive, spread, and growing popularity. These trends are
these interpretations presented provide a sense for strongly influenced by technological advances.
the many understandings the term marginal tour- Inventions and the availability of mechanisms for
ism might evoke and invite more integrated inter- accessing the sea for recreation have grown mas-
pretations of the complex interplay between the sively in the past half century. Important examples
social and spatial dimensions of tourism. include the self-contained underwater breathing
apparatus or scuba; robust, safe, and relatively
See also ▶ Developing country, ▶ deviance, affordable vessels (kayaks, surf craft, boats, per-
▶ lifestyle, ▶ Other. sonal watercraft); new activities which harness the
wind and/or waves (kite boarding, windsurfing,
References wakeboarding); and clothing, navigation, and
safety equipment (wet suits, dry suits, satellite nav-
Cohen, E. 1982 Marginal Paradises: Bungalow Tourism on igations systems, emergency position indicator
the Islands of Southern Thailand. Annals of Tourism radio beacons, survival suits). A further significant
Research 9:189-228.
Durkheim, E. 1951 Suicide: A Study in Sociology. New
area of growth has been the design, building, and
York: Free Press. operation of large cruiseships which have brought
Orwell, G. 2001 Down and Out in Paris and London. mass tourism to the open seas and remote marine
London: Penguin. destinations in an unprecedented way.
Turner, L., and J. Ash 1975 The Golden Hordes: International
The Spectrum of Marine Recreation Opportuni-
Tourism and the Pleasure Periphery. London: Constable.
Turner, V. 1974 Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic ties (Orams and L€uck 2013) is a model that cate-
Action in Human Society. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. gorizes marine tourism experiences relative to their
586 Marker
distance from shore and from human settlements. of interest for decades. Through the lens of tradi-
This model emphasizes the pattern of decreasing tional semiotics, MacCannell argues that attrac-
intensity and diversity of activities with increasing tions consist of a tourist, a sight, and a marker, a
distance from shore and areas of human habitation. piece of information about a sight (1976:41).
There is a growing focus on coastal and marine Markers form an essential component of attrac-
tourism as a specialist area within tourism studies tions, for they project meaning and signify it as a
(L€uck 2008). The International Coastal and Marine place worth visiting and create expectations about
Tourism Society (www.coastalmarinetourism.org), a place (Leiper 1990). Without markers, attractions
the academic journal Tourism in Marine Environ- would have no meaning and consequently be of no
ments, and regular World Congresses on Coastal interest to tourists. Culler defines them as “any
and Marine Tourism (first held in 1990) provide kind of information or representation that consti-
additional impetus for this field. tutes a sight as a sight” (Culler 1988:5).
As technological advances continue to Leiper (1990) identified three geographic loca-
increase, opportunities to access the sea for recre- tions of markers: in the source market (generating
ation will continue to grow, and previously remote markers), in transit (transit markers), or in the
and difficult to access locations will become a ▶ destination (contiguous markers). MacCannell
more frequent host for tourists. One of the most (1976) suggests a simpler classification based on
significant challenges is how this increasing rec- “on-site” and “off-site” markers. The former offers
reational use can be managed in a way that it explanations about the site or artifact. The latter can
becomes a force for conserving and enhancing be pieces of information that stimulate interest in
marine ecosystems as opposed to exploiting and the site or act as effigies of a site (such as a miniature
degrading these habitats. Eiffel tower), frequently kept as souvenirs to create
a direct link to a personal past experience. Some-
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ cruise tourism, times, the marker can be more important than the
▶ recreation, ▶ wildlife tourism. actual attraction (Pretes 1995). Taking the example
of the Arctic Circle, the actual site is invisible to the
tourist, but is transformed into a sight by an explan-
References
atory sign, which is often photographed as the main
L€
uck, M. (ed.) 2008 The Encyclopedia of Tourism and Rec- attraction. In this case, not the sight but the marker
reation in Marine Environments. Wallingford: CABI. is the object of tourist consumption.
Orams, M. 1999 Marine Tourism: Development, Impacts Subsequently, markers are increasing in com-
and Management. London: Routledge. plexity and diversity. As such, they can include
Orams, M., and M. L€uck 2013 Marine Systems and Tour-
ism. In A Handbook of Tourism and the Natural Envi- advertising, promotional brochures, other market-
ronment, A. Holden and D. Fennell, eds., pp.70-182. ing literatures, guidebooks, and signage. Other
London: Routledge. forms of information include common knowledge
that is not attributable to any single source,
movies, novels and magazines, intangible heri-
tage associated with destinations, and information
Marker provided by key informants. Additionally, staff at
tourist information centers, souvenirs that remind
Philipp Wassler and Bob McKercher individual tourists and others of the site, word of
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, mouth from other tourists, lifestyle television pro-
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, grams, and increasingly the web and social net-
Hong Kong, China working sites should be considered in light of the
rising intricacy of markers in the context of tour-
ism (McKercher and Wong 2013). As tourist
Understanding the ▶ tourist experience and con- experience is taking an increasingly central stance
sumption of products has been a challenging focus in the field, deepening the understanding of
Market 587
markers as intricate projectors of meaning will be exhibit its features. This includes sellers offering
crucial for future research. similar, sometimes identical, products or services
to buyers where both groups are in the position to
See also ▶ Destination, ▶ experience, ▶ market- get the same information on which to base their
ing, ▶ semiotics, ▶ sign. exchange decisions. Other markets, such as air
▶ travel, are often characterized by limited com-
petition, thus representing examples for monopo-
References lies, duopolies, or oligopolies.
Market in the sense of a place where products
Culler, J. 1988 The Semiotics of Tourism. In Framing the and services for tourists are bought and sold does
Sign: Criticism and its Institutions, J. Culler, ed.,
not necessarily reflect how products and services
pp.1-10. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press.
Leiper, N. 1990 Tourist Attractions Systems. Annals of are typically purchased. While traditionally travel
Tourism Research 17:367-384. agents and ▶ tour operators were the primary
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the distributors, the role of electronic media has
Leisure Class. Berkeley: University of California Press.
increased dramatically in importance. Today,
McKercher, B., and C. Wong 2013 Web Markers for Var-
ious Tour Products: The Case of Hong Kong. Tourism most tourists use the internet to search for infor-
Management Perspectives 8:126-130. mation, to undertake price comparisons, and even
Pretes, M. 1995 Postmodern Tourism: The Santa Claus to make bookings. As such, it can be argued that,
Industry. Annals of Tourism Research 22:1-15.
when interpreting market as a location of
exchange, the internet would have to be seen as
a primary market. Information technology has
significantly impacted the industry in many dif-
Market ferent ways (Sheldon 1997). It has become one of
the key ways in which tourists purchase products
Sara Dolnicar and services. Further, it is already a rich source of
M
UQ Business School, The University of information for travel ▶ planning, to which both
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia tourism providers and tourists contribute.
The term “▶ tourist market” is used both in ▶ eco- Mass market and market segments
nomics to denote a place of exchange and in
▶ marketing to signify the collectivity of tourists The tourist market refers to existing and potential
who currently consume or plan to consume tour- tourists who are interested in and able to purchase
ism products and services. Other disciplines, such goods and services relating to traveling and stay
as psychology, sociology, and geography, have at places away from their home for at least one
contributed to the framing and understanding of night, but not longer than 1 year. The tourist
this concept and its practice. market has been continually growing since the
middle of the last century and continues to do so,
especially with the recent increasing demand
A place of exchange from emerging markets. With domestic markets
dominating, by 2030, international arrivals alone
Markets refer to places where people go to buy, will reach 1.8 billion or a yearly increase of more
sell, or exchange goods and services. Markets than 3 % (UNWTO 2013).
differ in size, ▶ location, kinds, and number of The tourist market is treated by some destina-
sellers, buyers, and products or services being tions and businesses as a mass market; thus, their
exchanged. A key theoretical characteristic of a marketing messages are undifferentiated. Other
well-functioning market is perfect competition. destinations and businesses view the tourist mar-
While this is rare in reality, some markets may ket as being composed of a number of submarkets,
588 Marketing
which can either be geographical or characterized year – represents the demand side of the market. But
by other similarities among members of each when someone books their holiday home, the family
submarket. becomes the provider of a tourism ▶ service, thus
Geographical markets are commonly used by representing the ▶ supply side of the market. The
▶ national tourism organizations as distinct enti- peer-to-peer market is experiencing significant
ties for which marketing campaigns are developed growth and raises many research questions, includ-
and ▶ performance is measured. Geographical ing changes in consumer preferences, changes in the
tourist markets are practical submarkets to focus process that occur when tourists plan and book
on because each has specific characteristics. Such components of their vacations, increased risk for
characteristics may include languages spoken, both demand and supply arising from a lack of
specific travel preferences (such as the preference regulation of the peer-to-peer market, and the role
for individual or group travel), formal travel reversal of buyers and sellers and its social, eco-
requirements (such as visa requirements), and nomic, and environmental implications.
affordability of traveling to certain destinations
due to exchange rates and asymmetries of See also ▶ Economics, ▶ forecasting, ▶ market-
incomes. These characteristics have implications ing, ▶ segmentation.
on how best to serve the market.
Other submarkets frequently targeted include
segments sharing basic values, travel motivations,
References
or patterns of ▶ vacation activities, for example,
special interest tourist groups (Weiler and Hall Carrera, P., and J. Bridges 2006 Globalization and
1992), ecotourists (Dolnicar et al. 2008), city Healthcare: Understanding Health and Medical Tour-
tourists (Pearce 2001), adventure tourists ism. Expert Review of Pharmacoeconomics and Out-
(Swarbrooke et al. 2003), or health tourists comes Research 6:447-454.
Dolnicar, S., G. Crouch, and P. Long 2008 Environmentally
(Carrera and Bridges 2006). Friendly Tourists: What Do We Really Know about
Treating the market as a collection of submar- Them? Journal of Sustainable Tourism 16:197-210.
kets with the aim of catering to selected submarkets Pearce, D. 2001 An Integrative Framework for Urban
requires segmentation studies to be undertaken. Tourism Research. Annals of Tourism Research
28:926-946.
Such studies can provide insight into the nature of Sheldon, P. 1997 Tourism Information Technology.
the submarkets which either exist in actuality or Oxford: CABI.
have been created by managers and data analysts to Swarbrooke, J., C. Beard, S. Leckie, and G. Pomfret 2003
achieve an improved match between demand and Adventure Tourism: The New Frontier. Oxford:
supply and harvest marketing efficiencies through UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
focused marketing actions. ism Organization.
Weiler, B., and C. Hall 1992 Special Interest Tourism.
London: Belhaven.
Future research questions
The traditional tourist market is currently being

challenged by what is known as the sharing econ- Marketing
omy or the peer-to-peer market where the clarity of
traditional buyer and seller roles is lost. A substantial Josef A. Mazanec
number of tourism-related products and services are Department of Tourism and Service Management,
already available in the peer-to-peer market facili- MODUL University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
tated through specialized trading webpages. Peer-to-
peer ▶ accommodation, for example, means that a
family which owns a small beach shack can sell it as Over the last seven decades, marketing thought
a ▶ holiday home. This family – for most of the has matured in several stages. Its concepts
Marketing 589
developed in earlier stages have not all become Conceptualizing alone is not enough. Market-
obsolete and extinct. Hence, marketing research ing research and practice require a problem-
and practice face a variety of such concepts, each solving perspective which has convincingly been
having its strengths and weaknesses (Kotler and elaborated in the model-building approach coined
Keller 2009). Marketing evolved in a big leap “marketing engineering” (Lilien and
from a purely sales-oriented and mechanistic con- Rangaswamy 2002). It relies on business analyt-
cept (flow of goods and services from producer to ics and optimization methods for assisting mar-
consumer) to a market-oriented business and keting managers in their decisionmaking.
research philosophy (Franke and Mazanec
2006). The concept was extended to covering all
stakeholders and potential partners of a business Marketing planning
or company. These are not just people in their role
as consumers, but also as employees (internal Marketing as a discipline primarily fulfills an
marketing), job seekers on the labor market, explanatory function. It aims at systems of
investors, suppliers, or media users shaping public hypotheses positing cause-effect relationships.
opinion about the company. The concept even got Managers and policymakers may apply this
extrapolated to incorporating transactions knowledge as a base for their decisions. An orga-
between any sort of nonprofit organizations and nization’s marketing program implements a pro-
their clients. For example, this “generic concept of cess of purposefully influencing the behavior of
marketing” applies to the exchange relationships its transaction partners. Steering this process
among political parties, charities, or religious requires planning. Its recommended five stages
communities and the people supporting them. are best outlined with the classical example of a
They trade votes, money, or attendance against company operating on consumer markets.
the satisfaction derived from contributing to a First, the goal setting stage derives a marketing
common endeavor. objective from more fundamental corporate
M
A dynamic perspective of marketing regards it objectives. A top-level objective defined in terms
as a process by which a service provider matches of profit or return on investment gets translated
its own capabilities with the needs and desires of into economic (sales volume, market share) or
its customers (McDonald and Wilson 2011). In psychological (brand awareness, brand image)
this view, marketing represents a social and man- target variables that make up marketing
agerial process. It rests upon the premise that no objectives.
organization can survive unless it meets cus- Second, a marketing audit provides a status
tomer’s wants, thereby acquiring a competitive quo analysis of the company’s strengths, weak-
advantage over its rivals. The need for marketing nesses, opportunities, and threats. This analysis
arises once there are alternatives giving the client proceeds in a theory-guided manner by assuming
or customer the freedom of choice. Another key an explicit explanatory model of consumer behav-
element of marketing aims at overthrowing short- ior and market reaction (market response model).
term thinking focused on a single transaction. It A summary of the status quo benefits from using a
emphasizes the long-term objective of portfolio model that assesses the market prospects
establishing stable and mutually beneficial rela- and the competitive strength of a company’s indi-
tionships between an organization and its cus- vidual product brands or strategic business units.
tomers (relationship marketing). A search for a Popular versions of portfolio techniques are the
fundamental, compound but encompassing defi- growth-share matrix and more advanced multifac-
nition of marketing leads to viewing marketing as tor models. While the growth-share approach is
an assembly of theory-guided techniques limited to three assessment factors (market growth
exercised by an agent to influence the behavior rate, relative market share, importance value), the
of groups and individuals in a process of joint multifactor models consider a variety of market
value creation (Grönroos 2009). and company attributes that are weighted and
590 Marketing
condensed into three compound factors (market marketing principles than most other sectors of
attractiveness, competitive position, importance the world economy. Gradually, the transformation
value). The marketing audit includes market vol- from a seller’s to a buyer’s market made market-
ume forecasts and assumptions regarding the ing thought penetrate managerial processes in all
future market conduct of the major competitors. companies related to tourism, such as ▶ tour oper-
Third, the process moves on to strategic plan- ators and ▶ travel agencies, themeparks, the
ning which is based on the result of the audit. This ▶ hospitality sector, the transport sector, and the
implies decisions on such mutually dependent nonprofit organizations responsible for promoting
domains like product positioning and market seg- destinations (▶ destination management organi-
mentation. The former tries to optimize the attri- zations). Rather late, with the inaugural issue of
butes of an existing or newly developed product the Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing in
or service and the way it is presented to potential 1992, the tourism research community welcomed
customers. Segmentation classifies consumers the first academic journal specializing in this par-
into homogeneous groups according to their ticular field.
expectations and benefits sought. Again, position- Marketing managers in tourism businesses
ing and segmentation planning proceeds in a ratio- face specific challenges when implementing a
nal manner by relying on an explanatory model of program for market operation (Calantone and
consumer behavior. Mazanec 1991). ▶ Tourist products, such as a
Fourth, on the level of instrumental planning, package tour, are bundles of tangible and intangi-
the strategy is transformed into concrete mea- ble ingredients offered by a variety of service
sures, budgeting, and action with respect to prod- providers. None of these individual providers
ucts and services offered, pricing, distribution fully controls the product/service consumption
channels and sales force management, and market experience. A major part of tourism product com-
communication. The communications mix components, such as natural resources, are beyond
prises various sub-instruments, such as classical managerial intervention. Given the collaborative
media advertising, usage of social media, public character of tourism service production, the span
relations, or promotion on the point of sale. of control for each of the participating businesses
Fifth, control and measurement of results are is also limited for produced product attributes. In a
mandatory to continuously improve a company’s typical resort, harmonized action of independent
competitiveness. Being off target is but an encour- businesses on a voluntary basis is required to
agement to launch a systematic search for the compose and jointly promote a coherent bundle
reasons. Poor performance caused by strategic of products and services. Additionally, one must
misconception (a positioning strategy making an consider that the tourists themselves are expected
unrealistic claim or promise) entails much more to contribute to value co-creation during the con-
consequential adjustment in the next planning sumption experience.
cycle than instrumental failure (such as a From the promotional point of view, tourism
suboptimal choice of media). Effective marketing services lack autonomy and distinctiveness in
planning demands a learning organization. their respective markets. Despite some progress
in refining the techniques of ▶ destination brand-
ing, successful branding policy is neither easily
Marketing for tourism established nor maintained. The name of a com-
pany, business conglomerate, or destination usu-
Services have constantly gained weight in theo- ally fulfills the brand function, rather than
rizing about marketing and culminated in the individual tourist products or service packages.
service-dominant logic postulated by Vargo and In many destination countries, nonprofit organi-
Lusch (2004). Notwithstanding this tourism- zations are involved on all destination levels
friendly evolution of marketing thought, the (national, regional, local) in the marketing of tour-
industry was more hesitant in embracing ism. Typically, they are responsible for selected
Marketing 591
marketing functions, such as commissioning mar- operators’ traditional prefabricated offerings. It

ket research studies, representing a host country at lets the tourists construe their own idiosyncratic
fairs and exhibitions, running tourist centers and trip or ▶ vacation product from a range of product
online destination information systems, elements. So far, these attempts have not yet
conducting promotional campaigns, or giving dis- surpassed the stage of combining simple hotel
tribution support. However, they have no direct and transport services, plus perhaps a ticket for a
influence on other central marketing aspects like major event or attraction. More elaborate on-tour
product planning or the pricing strategies of indi- programming is in pipeline.
vidual businesses in the hospitality sector. Marketing strategies tailored for online cus-
tomer relationships will have to accompany the
tourist through the entire process, from the earliest
Challenges and outlook stages of trip decisionmaking (inspirational com-
munication), post-purchase period (suppressing or
As tourism marketing has become emancipated mitigating possible post-decisional regret and dis-
from its big brother, it has, driven by academic sonance effects), and trip consumption (experience
curiosity and industry problems, elaborated its enhancement) up to the after-trip phase (solidifying
own agenda of research priorities (Dolnicar and satisfaction, stimulating electronic word-of-mouth
Ring 2014). Examples are the controversial find- activities). Tourism marketing has hardly tapped
ings about trip satisfaction, intention to repeat the opportunities (or assessed the risks) of latest
visit and destination loyalty, and tourists’ ten- technological advances in the fields of virtual and
dency to novelty-seeking behavior. Another augmented reality. Virtual reality techniques may
largely unexplored area of tourism marketing be further refined to provide pre-trip pseudo-
knowledge is the role of emotions and their treat- experience for optimizing tourist choice and trip
ment within experiential tourism offerings. Tour- planning. Augmented reality techniques (via head-
ism marketing has not yet paid enough attention to set or smart phone) applied on the spot (while
M
changing value systems regarding environmen- visiting historical sites or museums) enhance the
tally conscious tourism and sustainable develop- tourists’ intake of information and experiential
ment strategies. By educating tourists, marketing benefit en route. At the same time, all of these
is expected to contribute more effectively to pro- informative-technology-driven innovations serve
moting green products and ▶ ecotourism as instruments for the service providers to learn
programs. about customers’ acceptance and usage of their
The tourism ▶ industry was among the first in offerings.
the global economy trying to master the opportu- A highly fascinating eTourism perspective for
nities offered by the internet. The concept of marketers is the immense size of fast-growing
▶ eTourism was born before e-marketing became data repositories of user-generated content. The
fashionable. The focus of online functionality social media, blog sites, and internet portals
evolved from information providing portals to collecting customer reviews represent market
internet travel agencies operating or linked to feedback free of charge. These sources hide pre-
booking engines. Future key elements of online cious information on the perceptions, attitudes,
tourism marketing are interactive destination rec- preferences, and reactive behavioral patterns of
ommendation and trip counseling systems the tourist consumer. Tourism marketers will
(Fesenmaier et al. 2006) that are adaptive and have to make themselves familiar with new
capable of autonomous learning from user-system advanced analytical tools to cope with the big
interaction. In the web economy, tourism mar- data revolution.
keters are given new and unparalleled instruments
for customizing trip products to individual cus- See also ▶ Conjoint analysis, ▶ destination
tomer needs. The strategy known as dynamic branding, ▶ information technology, ▶ manage-
packaging is expected to complement tour ment, ▶ market.
592 Marshall Islands
References Marshallese), a population of about 69,750, and

a per capita GDP of US$8,700.
Calantone, R., and J. Mazanec 1991 Marketing Manage- Marshall Islands tourism is not as well devel-
ment and Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
oped as that in the ▶ Americas, ▶ Europe, and
18:101-119.
Dolnicar, S., and A. Ring 2014 Tourism Marketing ▶ Asia and the Pacific. Annual arrivals to the
Research: Past, Present and Future. Annals of Tourism national capital Majuro by air peaked at just
Research 47:31-47. over 7,500 for 2004–2005, with about 4,600
Fesenmaier, D., K. Wöber, and H. Werthner 2006 Destina-
annual arrivals for recent years. Recently, tour-
tion Recommendation Systems: Behavioral Founda-
tions and Applications. Wallingford: CABI. ists come for ▶ leisure (45–50 %), business
Franke, N., and J. Mazanec 2006 The Six Identities of (20–40 %), and ▶ visiting friends and relatives
Marketing: A Vector Quantization of Research (12–15 %), while in earlier years, business trav-
Approach. European Journal of Marketing 40:634-661.
elers dominate (50 %). Average length of stay is
Grönroos, C. 2009 Marketing as Promise Management:
Regaining Customer Management for Marketing. Jour- 10–14 days for visiting friends and relatives and
nal of Business and Industrial Marketing 24:351-359. 4–6 days for business and leisure markets. Main
Kotler, P., and K. Keller 2009 Marketing Management. origins include the ▶ United States and other
Upper Saddle River: Prentice-Hall.
American countries, other Pacific Islands, and
Lilien, G., and A. Rangaswamy 2002 Marketing Engineer-
ing: Computer-Assisted Marketing Analysis and Plan- ▶ Japan, although the latter declines signifi-
ning. Upper Saddle River: Pearson Education. cantly after 2009 (USDOI 2013). Annual tourism
McDonald, M., and H. Wilson 2011 Marketing Plans, How receipts are US$3 million (UNWTO 2013),
to Prepare Them, How to Use Them. Chichester: Wiley.
representing only a small portion of the
Vargo, S., and R. Lusch 2004 Evolving to a New Dominant
Logic for Marketing. Journal of Marketing 68:1-17. economy.
The Marshall Islands faces a number of chal-
lenges and opportunities. First, air access is
limited to only three or four weekly flights
Marshall Islands from either Honolulu or Guam. Air Marshall
Islands provides domestic flights, generally
Fredrick M. Collison1 and Daniel L. Spears2 every other week to most outer atolls, making
1
School of Travel Industry Management, it difficult to develop outer atoll tourism. Sec-
University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI, ond, main activities of leisure tourists are fish-
USA ing and diving (snorkeling, scuba), but the
2
College of Merchandising, Hospitality country possesses significant cultural and heri-
and Tourism, University of North Texas, tage resources, especially for the outer atolls
Denton, USA where life tends to be traditional. Integrated
marketing efforts are needed to make any real
gains in attracting more tourists (Collison and
The Republic of the Marshall Islands lies within Spears 2010).
the subregion of Oceania known as ▶ Microne- Third, ▶ education and ▶ training is a serious
sia, which also includes the Federated States of problem hindering tourism development. Despite
Micronesia. The Marshall Islands lies approxi- high per capita spending on education, over half
mately halfway between Hawaii and ▶ Australia, of the youth (aged 15–24) are not in school, and
just north of the Equator (Figure 1), consisting of about 30 % of students do not complete secondary
two chains of coral atolls and five single islands, level of education (RMI 2013). Potential oppor-
with a land area of 181 km2 or 75 mi2, but a total tunities exist if education resources can be used
exclusive economic zone area (land and sea) of more efficiently and effectively (Spears
1.94 million km2 or 750,000 mi2. The country et al. 2002). At present, such opportunities are
has two official languages (English, undeveloped.
Marshall Islands 593
Marshall Islands, Figure 1 ▶ Location map of the Marshall Islands in the Oceania
594 Mass tourism
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ developing result of the increased spending power, personal
country, ▶ island tourism, ▶ Micronesia. mobility, development of public transport, and
internationalization in modern communities
(Bramwell 2004). The emergence of paid holidays,
References increased leisure time, and the development of
railway networks and air transport, most notably
Collison, F., and D. Spears 2010 Marketing Cultural and the jet engine, contributed to an increased number
Heritage Tourism: the Marshall Islands. International
of holidays (Manera et al. 2009). Most vacations
Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
4:130-142. were constructed as recreational experiences,
RMI 2013 Republic of the Marshall Islands National mainly at summer and winter leisure resorts.
Report for the Third (2014) International Conference Initially, the tourist flow was from industrial
on Small Islands States in Apia, Samoa.
regions to the seaside areas in France and the
Spears, D., F. Collison, and G. Ikeda 2002 Bikini Atoll
Tourism Development Plan 2003-2007. Honolulu: United Kingdom and to winter resorts in the
University of Hawaii at Manoa. Alps, but the massive development of many
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- coastal areas actually began in the postwar period
ism Organization.
with Spain and Italy in 1950s, followed by Malta,
USDOI 2013 Republic of Marshall Islands Economic Sta-
tistics 2012. Washington DC: US Department of the Cyprus, Greece, Portugal, and former Yugoslavia
Interior. in late 1970s and 1980s. The western Mediterra-
nean coastline is still the best example of mass
concentration of tourists, but new destinations
have also emerged, such as Egypt, Morocco,
Mass tourism Tunisia, and Israel. Eastern Europe is also a devel-
oping region with Croatia, Montenegro, and Bul-
Nikola Naumov and David Green garia, as well as Turkey, increasingly regarded as
Department of Geography, King’s College new mass markets. The development of air trans-
London, Strand, London, UK port and charter flights has popularized long-haul
destinations, including Thailand, Indonesia, Viet-
nam, Maldives, and Mauritius.
Mass tourism refers to the movement of a large
number of organized tourists to popular holiday
destinations for recreational purposes. It is a phe- Contemporary challenges and future
nomenon which is characterized by the use of perspectives
standardized package products and mass con-
sumption. Conceptually, this type of tourism fea- The development of mass tourism has been char-
tures standardized leisure products and acterized by continuity and change in the form of
experiences packaged for mass tourists (Poon new challenges, trends, and perspectives for
1993). development. The expansion of air transport and
the implementation of computer reservation sys-
tems and online bookings have largely changed
History and development the overall concept of mass tourism resulting in
new products and activities for tourist consump-
The beginning of mass tourism is largely related to tion. This rapid development, however, has
various changes, which occurred in the industrial brought both positive and negative consequences.
societies in the second half of the twentieth century. The economic benefits, such as job creation,
In fact, the history of mass tourism began in 1851 increased income, and foreign exchange earnings,
when Thomas Cook led a mass of tourists to the are often the rationale behind developing tourism
Great Exhibition in London (Page 2012). The facilities. However, its sociocultural and environ-
growth of leisure travel and its importance were a mental consequences can outweigh the potential
Masterplan 595
benefits. The sociocultural impacts tend to gener- mass tourism. It is by no means certain that vari-
ate negative effects and can lead to the loss of ous changes have emerged since the beginning of
culture, staged experiences, and overexploitation mass organized holidays in the postwar period,
of cultural resources for tourism purposes (Page which suggests that the meaning of the term
2012). Mass tourism is also blamed for a wide needs to be reexamined. Future research shall
range of negative environmental effects, such as also explore the decline of traditional tour opera-
overcrowding, air and water pollution, depletion tors’ market, the rise of tailor-made holidays and
and degradation of natural resources, and litter low-cost travel, and how these trends influence
(Poon 1993). Some notorious examples are the marketing and management strategies of tourism
extensive overbuilding in the Spanish coastal and destination management authorities.
resorts, land degradation in Egypt, child abuse in
India, and drug and alcohol distribution in Thai- See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ charter tourism,
land and Eastern Europe. These negative implica- ▶ holiday, ▶ leisure, ▶ package tourism.
tions have largely been discussed with the idea of
finding alternatives which follows the principles
of sustainable development.
References
Despite the negative consequences and the
increased popularity of individual travel book- Bramwell, B. 2004 Mass Tourism, Diversification and
ings, mass tourism is still the dominant form of Sustainability in Southern Europe’s Coastal Regions.
leisure activities and an important economic gen- In Coastal Mass Tourism: Diversification and Sustain-
erator. Its scale and significance suggest that it is able Development in Southern Europe,
B. Bramwell, ed., pp.1-31. Clevedon: Channel View.
unlikely to be replaced by any alternative forms Manera, C., L. Segreto, and M. Pohl 2009 The Mediterra-
like rural tourism, heritage tourism, nature-based nean as a Tourist Destination: Past, Present, and Future
tourism or ecotourism, and the like. Thus, the of the First Mass Tourism Resort Area. In Europe at the
focus should be on minimizing the impacts of Seaside: The Economic History of Mass Tourism in the M
Mediterranean, L. Segreto, C. Manera and M. Pohl,
mass expenditure, rather than promoting an alter- eds., pp.1-11. Oxford: Berghahn.
native (Page 2012). Increasingly, the concept of Page, S. 2012 Tourism Management: An Introduction .
“sustainable mass tourism” is gaining popularity, Oxford. Butterworth-Heinemann.
emphasizing that reducing the negative impacts is Poon, A. 1993 Tourism, Technology and Competitive
Strategies. London: CABI.
the key to long-term ecological and environmen- Weaver, D. 2007 Towards Sustainable Mass Tourism: Par-
tal sustainability (Weaver 2007). adigm Shift or Paradigm Nudge? Tourism Recreation
Mass tourism is a worldwide phenomenon Research 32(3):65-69.
closely linked with the history of the industry.
Often associated with sun, sand, and sea experi-
ences, this particular form of tourism has long been
considered as the dominant feature of international Masterplan
tourism. However, the development of interna-
tional tourism and the changing consumption and Chris Cooper
behavioral patterns of tourists have resulted in var- Business Faculty, Oxford Brookes University,
ious changes related to the nature and extent of Oxford, UK
mass tourism activities. Tourists now seek wide
and diverse products and new recreational activi-
ties and experiences. New destinations have also Tourism planning takes place in many forms, in
emerged attracting organized tourists not only to diverse settings, and at different scales. The nature
large resorts but also to small historical cities, urban of tourism as both an amalgam of suppliers and as
attractions, or rural areas. inseparable activities demands that planning is in
All these changes suggest that further research place to optimize its benefits to the destination.
is needed to revisit the conceptual framework of Tourism planning is an ordered and disciplined
596 Masterplan
sequence of events designed to organize the such as demand, access, infrastructure and super-
future. A dominant approach is the masterplan structure, and the scale and scope of tourism
which tends to be done at the national or development. At the regional level, this instru-
subnational level. Ideally, it is the first stage of a ment focuses more on investment and funding
blueprint representing a strategic, holistic, and strategies and coordination of activities such as
comprehensive destination management approach attractions, tour programming, marketing, and
with a timescale of anything from five (often education/training. Masterplans are characterized
meshed with national planning cycles) to upwards by two features: one, they are informed by
of 10 or 20 years. national tourism policy and the view of govern-
ment toward tourism and, two, the plans should
have a built-in process for effective implementa-
Master planning tion without which they can be of no value.
The tourism masterplan, in its comprehensive

sense, is an integrative approach to planning Effectiveness of master planning
whereby the supply and demand elements are
integrated into a single scheme. Such exercises Opinion is divided as to the effectiveness of mas-
are undertaken at infrequent intervals, due to the ter planning. Supporters point to integration of all
commitment of resources and expertise involved. the elements related to tourism development, the
For this reason, masterplans are generally led and logical, sequential approach and the comprehen-
funded by the public sector or international agen- sive consideration of its impacts. On the other
cies. They comprise a number of approaches and hand, detractors argue that as they are rooted in
stages but commonly will include defining goals, capitalist societies, masterplans fail to acknowl-
aims, and objectives, a research phase, strategy edge that there are both winners and losers in the
formulation and development, articulation of a process (Cooper and Hall 2012). In some respects,
physical plan (including zoning), and this instrument is out of tune with the maturing of
implementation. thinking in planning in the new millennium. It has
Masterplans emerged in the mid-to-late 1960s been overtaken by the need to involve communi-
as planners began to appreciate the complex inter- ties, to consider local sensitivities, and to adopt a
relationships involved in tourism development systematic, flexible, long-term, and continuous
and the need for an integrated approach that con- process of review rather than a rigid blueprint
sidered the whole picture, underpinned by clear approach. In other words, as tourism planning
objectives. In response, they attempt to design has moved from a physical planning approach to
approaches which incorporate not only external one based more on economic and social policy,
influences upon tourism development but also the focus has shifted from large and expensive master
national context and both indirect and induced planning exercises to local, destination-level
effects of this process. Masterplans focus on plans with sustainability and community involve-
development with goals often geared to national ment. In terms of involving the community and
economic and social ambitions. This “integrated other stakeholders, critics argue that in a pluralis-
approach” was first articulated by Lawson and tic society, masterplans only listen to the loudest
Baud-Bovy (1977). A defining feature is the voices. An example here is the masterplan for
movement away from traditional technical plan- wine tourism in ▶ Brazil where Tonini
ning approaches by the development of a feed- et al. (2011) cite the dominant influence of major
back and monitoring procedure and the overt players in the sector. In their attempt to be com-
inclusion of both products and markets into prehensive, the capacity to analyze every variable
the plan. renders them overly complex and unmanageable.
At the national level, masterplans are designed As a result, central approaches to tourism plan-
to frame the overall approach and include issues ning, of which the masterplan is the most well
Mauritania 597
known, have fallen out of fashion and been Kennett-Hensel, P., J. Sneath, and P. Hensel 2010 Devel-
replaced by contemporary destination visioning, oping Sustainable Tourism: Managers’ Assessment of
Jamaica’s Ten Year Master Plan. International
sustainability, and experience strategies. Burns Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality Research
(2003) has been particularly critical of the master 4(2):143-155.
planning approach, observing that they are often Lawson, F., and M. Baud-Bovy 1977 Tourism and Recre-
driven by the needs of bilateral or multilateral ation Development. London: Architectural Press.
Tonini, H., J. Lavandoski, and M. Barretto 2011 Public
assistance agencies and fail to deliver benefits to Policy and Wine Tourism: Master Plan in Vale dos
the local community or to develop a sustainable Vinhedos, South Brazil. Tourism and Management
approach to destinations. Here, Chapman and Studies 1:25-36.
Speake (2011) cite the negative influence of the
Maltese masterplan for tourism on the declining
resort of Bugibba, while Kennett-Hensel
et al. (2010) document the failure of the Jamaican Mauritania
tourism masterplan to take into account commu-
nity and environmental considerations. Joana Lucas
Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities,
Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Lisbon, Portugal
Future issues
Burns (2003) identifies four key problems with Mauritania with a population of about 3.9 million
masterplans. Notably they are complex, requiring in 2012 covers 1,030,700 km2 (397, 955 mi2) and
a major commitment of financial and human is located in West Africa bordering ▶ Algeria,
resources from government. Often they are unre- ▶ Senegal, ▶ Mali, and Western Sahara
alistic and grandiose, take undemocratic (Figure 1). Its economy is based on mining (iron
approaches, and are limited by national bound- represents 50.9 % of exports, gold 12.8 %, and M
aries resulting in countries competing against copper 8.7 %), fishing (20.5 % of exports), and
rather than cooperating with each other. Despite more recently oil (4.8 % of exports).
these criticisms, master planning exercises still
continue and rightly support the integrative
“whole of destination” approach. In contemporary 16 8
ALGERIA
tourism, masterplans will increasingly require an
effective institutional framework to deliver gov- NORTH
Bîr Moghreïn
ernance of the process and, with the authority, to ATLANTIC Western
OCEAN Sahara
coordinate inputs, support, and implementation. 24 24
Zouérat
A
See also ▶ Development, ▶ governance, ▶ plan- Kediet ljill
R
A MALI
ning, ▶ policy and policymaking. H
A
Nouâdhibou S
Atår
Sebkhet Te-n- Tidjikdja

References Dghåmcha
NOUAKCHOTT
Burns, P. 2003 Tourism Planning. A Third Way? Annals of Rosso Bogué kiffa Néma
Kaédi
Tourism Research 31:24-43. 16 16
Chapman, A., and J. Speake 2011 Regeneration in a Mass
Sè
né
Tourism Resort: The Changing Fortunes of Bugibba, SENEGAL 0 100 200 km

ga
16
l
0 100 200 mi
Malta. Tourism Management 32:482-491.
Cooper, C., and M. Hall 2012 Contemporary Tourism
(2nd ed.). Oxford: Goodfellow. Mauritania, Figure 1 Map of Mauritania
598 Mauritius
During the colonial period (1902–1960), Dakar” rally. The murders also led to the country
Mauritania was promoted as a ▶ destination being classified as “unadvisable” for ▶ travel by
package in the French West African colonies the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs. These
assemblage, primarily for its hunting and ethno- decisions led to the ending of charter flights and
graphic appeal. In 1987, Société Mauritanienne a corresponding stagnation in tourism that con-
de Services et Tourisme was established, and in tinues today.
1994 a general policy statement was published,
followed by the formation of a Ministry of Com- See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ charter tour-
merce, Crafts, and Tourism. In 2002, the struc- ism, ▶ desert tourism, ▶ heritage.
ture that currently governs the ▶ national tourism
industry, the National Tourism Office, was
founded.
References
In 1996 a French ▶ tour operator started to
boost the industry by organizing charter flights Bonte, P. 2010 La Sorbonne du Désert. La Production de
to Atar. From 1997 to 2007, the industry grew l’Authenticité Culturelle dans le Cadre du Tourisme
exponentially, largely based on these flights: Saharien. In Socio-anthropologie de l’Image au
annual passengers increased from 1,500 in Maghreb, K. Boissevain and P. Denieuil, eds., pp.89-
102. Paris: L’Harmattan.
1997–1998 to 12,000 during the 2003–2004 Boulay, S. 2009 Culture Nomade versus Culture Savante.
▶ tourist seasons. Further, from 1994 to 1999, Naissance et Vicissitudes d’un Tourisme de Désert en
the existing hotels increased from 21 to 41; the Adrar Mauritanien. Cahiers d’Études Africaines
number of hostels rose from 10 to 85; the total 49(1-2): 95-121.
Cardeira da Silva, M. 2010 Mauritanian Guestbook: Shap-
number of beds increased from 1,410 to 4,155; ing Culture while Displaying It. In Tourism and Visual
and local operators increased from 69 to 151. Culture, P. Burn, C. Palmer and J. Lester, eds., pp.181-
In 1996, UNESCO nominated Chinguetti, 190. London: CABI.
Ouadane, Tichitt, and Oualata as cultural heritage
sites, which assisted the country’s attraction
development, thus reinforcing its desert appeal
(Bonte 2010; Boulay 2009; Cardeira da Silva Mauritius
2010). In addition to the Sahara and the Villes
Anciennes, two natural parks constitute Patrick L’Espoir Decosta
Mauritania’s major attractions: the Parc National Faculty of Business, Government and Law,
du Banc d’Arguin, created in 1976 and classified University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
by UNESCO in 1989 as a natural heritage site,
and the Parc National du Diawling created
in 1991. Mauritius is a small volcanic island located in the
Available data on tourism ▶ activity in Mauri- Indian Ocean (Figure 1). It has a total area of
tania are rare and fragmented, which leads to a 1,860 km2 and a population of around 1.3 million.
certain fragility in the field of quantitative data. White sand beaches ring the entire island and
Information relating to job creation, foreign shallow lagoons separate the shores from the
exchange earnings, and revenues remains coral reefs. Situated in the path of the southeast
unknown. According to UN Conference on trade winds, the island temperature fluctuates
Trade and Development, approximate data indi- about 4 C between seasons, making the water
cate that in 2009 there were about 15,000 jobs warm enough to swim year-round.
linked to tourism. Private sector tourism ▶ investment began in
After a decade of growth and logistic consoli- the 1950s, stemming from the island’s natural
dation, the murder of four French citizens in 2007 attractions and its need to diversify from a
created a climate of insecurity which led to the mono-crop sugar economy. At independence in
cancelation of the 2008 edition of the “Paris- 1968, the private sector, led by Franco-Mauritian
Mauritius 599
Agalega Islands, Cargados

Carajos Shoals, and reef
Rodrigues are not shown.
Goodlands
0 2.5 5 km
0 2.5 5 mi Triolet
MALDIVES
Equator
Indian Ocean PORT LOUIS
MOMBASA SEYCHELLES
Centre
AR
de Flacq
A F R I C A
SC
Quatre Bomes
GA
MAURITIUS
DA
REUNION Curepipe
MA
Tropic of C
a pricon Tamarin
INDIAN OCEAN
CAPE TOWN
Mahébourg
Chemin reef
Grenier
Souillac
Indian
reef
Ocean
Mauritius, Figure 1 Location and Map of Mauritius
capital resources, sought to develop a high-quality Promotion Authority. This resulted in increased
enclave resort-based tourism ▶ industry in the arrivals, as compared to 2011, from Asia (+14 %)
M
face of the government’s ▶ anti-tourism stance and ▶ Africa (+15 %). In the same year, arrivals
(Dinan 1979). Education in hotel and tourism from the emerging markets of ▶ China and
began with foreign assistance in 1971. Today, ▶ India also grew by 38 % and 2 %, respectively.
hotel and tourism ▶ education is provided at sec- There were 120 registered hotels in operation,
ondary, vocational, and tertiary level institutions. with a capacity of 12,500 rooms and 26,000
The concept of a national air carrier also gained beds. Tourism receipts reached US$1.46 billion,
widespread support around this time. However, it and 28,000 people were directly employed in the
was not until the early 1980s that ▶ air transport industry (Statistics Mauritius 2012).
and hotel accommodations began to flourish. This Despite its success as a ▶ destination, chal-
is when development experts fully embraced tour- lenges remain in terms of competition from neigh-
ism as a core industry based on foreign currency boring islands, restrictive air access policies, an
and employment opportunities for an increasingly excess of high-end hotel capacity, a lack of market
literate population. diversification initiatives, and the sluggish imple-
In the 1990s, the country continued to position mentation of ▶ sustainable tourism initiatives. If
itself as an upmarket, sophisticated destination for Mauritius is to maintain its image as a flourishing
Europeans (Prayag 2009), who accounted for destination, it needs to revamp its blueprint based
about 58 % of the 965,000 arrivals in 2012. on a community- and sector-based synergy that
▶ France, as the island’s former colonizer, is the will help the country cope with these challenges
leading source market at about 27 %. The after- and the rapidly shifting global economic
math of the global economic downturn at the end environment.
of the last decade, along with the eurozone debt
crisis, forced Mauritius to diversify its source See also ▶ Colonialism, ▶ enclave tourism,
markets through the Mauritius Tourism ▶ image, ▶ island tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
600 Media
References shortly thereafter, cases were outlining the influ-

ence of guidebooks, movies, fiction books, and
Dinan, P. 1979 Dix ans d’économie mauricienne. Port- television on tourism. What is presented in the
Louis: Editions IPC.
media, how it is presented, and by whom, all
Prayag, G. 2009 Tourists’ Evaluations of Destination
Image, Satisfaction and Future Behavioral Intentions: influence tourism ▶ supply, demand, and the
The Case of Mauritius. Journal of Travel and Tourism ▶ destination (Crouch et al. 2005; Månsson
Marketing 26:836-53. 2011). Focuses of early investigations were visi-
Statistics Mauritius 2012 International Travel and Tourism
tation to media-depicted places and tourism rep-
Year 2012 http://statsmauritius.gov.mu/English/Publi
cations/Documents/ei1019/ (18 September 2013). resentations of people and places. These two
themes still dominate the tourism literature: a
functional perspective on the use of media for
▶ marketing and ▶ development and a critical
Media perspective on the use of media for representing
places and people in and for tourism.
Glen Croy Media’s importance to tourism is largely due to
Department of Management, Monash University, its role in the formation of destination ▶ image
Caulfield East, VIC, Australia and expectations (Moyle and Croy 2009).
Compounding the importance is increasing audi-
ence size and the number of destinations people
Tourism and the media have a close relationship, are exposed to through media. Each coverage is
with the former dependent on and utilizing the latter. based on stories somewhere, and such exposure
Media “comprise all those channels by which spe- results in awareness of and familiarity with these
cialized groups employ technological devices to places, leading to a more comprehensive image
disseminate symbolic content to their audiences” and thus a more complex evaluation of a destina-
(Burgess and Gold 1985: 4). It is a pervasive and tion and the decision to visit it.
invasive part of culture, regurgitating, reinforcing,
and disseminating the culture of its origins. As such,
it has a significant influence in the creation of images Tourism media
and perceptions of people, place, race, and country.
Equally, the media is also a force that modifies and A more specific category is tourism media. Tour-
challenges the norms of cultures. ism media are the formal methods employed by
Critiques have increased because of the repre- destinations and the ▶ industry to convey their
sentations of society and its specific groups and messages. Examples include destination bro-
consequent changing of peoples’ constructions of chures, tourist websites, travel guidebooks, and
the world, “generating new meanings and decoding promotional billboards. There is an industry
existing ones” (Anderson and Gale 1992: 3). developed around the design, production, and dis-
Examples of media include television, radio, film, semination of tourism media. In recent years,
books, advertising, comics, pictures, posters, there has been a shift from hardcopy tourism
music, databases, and journals. In addition, the media to a greater presence in electronic media,
media rapidly transmit information with potentially including websites and apps. The electronic pres-
dramatic impacts on tourism (Crouch et al. 2005). ence has shifted some control from destinations
and industry to information collation organiza-
tions. The shift also emphasizes a change of tour-
Media in tourism ism media from an information provider’s agent to
that of information channel controller, further
Butler (1990) discussed the influence of media in empowering and commercializing the sector. For
shaping international ▶ tourist patterns, and the tourist, this presence is wide reaching and
Media 601
engaging, across generating, transit, and destina- storyline in fictional media, books, and film and
tion regions, and is influencing tourist decisions at tourists as the derogatory external viewer bring-
all levels. ing associated impacts, through to the central
With the rise of electronic tourism media, gen- hero character. The increased feature in the
eral media and tourists also have a role in gener- media reflects in part the normalization of tour-
ating the messages being disseminated. Månsson ism, a starting social critique, as well as the
(2011) highlights the convergence of media in desirability to participate in touristic behavior,
generating tourism experience and the active role even if vicariously.
of the tourist in the interpretation and creation of Undeniably, tourism is dependent on the
the message. User-generated content via social media. It has a dramatic influence on how people
media has started to further move control of mes- and places are perceived, hence influencing desti-
sages from the destination and industry to the nation and experience decisions. The media is
tourist. While appearing to be spontaneous, there investigated as a functional tool and critically for
is great formality in some of these forums, created its representations. Tourism media has developed
and/or imposed by the site collators. Posting tour- alongside the broader activities and, with the
ists’ ratings, experience, and usefulness are noted development of electronic media, has greater par-
characteristics of such forums. These messages ticipation by the tourist and touree, diversifying
are increasingly tourist to tourist, bypassing the and empowering messengers and messages. Tour-
industry and destinations. Nonetheless, Dann ism also has a presence in the media reflecting its
(2012) identifies that the inclusion of the industry, greater role in society. Emerging research ques-
tourist, and touree, enabled by accessible elections are many, including user-generated content,
tronic media, extends the influence of tourism particularly in social media, as well as the conver-
media by providing opportunities for more bene- gence of multisource media and tourism
ficial interactions. With this inclusion, the variety experiences.
of participants can provide greater insights, and
M
posts can be reinforced or countered and are con- See also ▶ Critical tourism studies,
sequently perceived as being more credible. The ▶ decisionmaking, ▶ image, ▶ marketing,
interactions can be initiated by any of the three ▶ motivation.
groups in the “trialogue.” Many destinations and
businesses are now recognizing the need for tour-
ists’ and communities’ access and active involve-
ment in the new media and the influence of their References
posts.
Anderson, K., and F. Gale (eds.) 1992 Inventing Places.
Melbourne: Longman.
Burgess, J., and J. Gold 1985 Geography, the Media and
Tourism in the media Popular Culture. New York: St. Martin’s.
Butler, R. 1990 The Influence of the Media in Shaping
International Tourist Patterns. Tourism Recreation
Tourism also has a presence in newspapers, Research 15:46-53.
magazines, and television programs, fostering Crouch, D., R. Jackson, and F. Thompson (eds.) 2005 The
a balancing relationship among players. These Media and the Tourist Imagination. London:
include destination features, tourist experi- Routledge.
Dann, G. 2012 Remodelling a Changing Language of
ences, efforts to enhance cross-cultural under- Tourism: From Monologue to Dialogue and Trialogue.
standing, and successes and challenges of PASOS 10:59-70.
working in the industry. Furthermore, the Månsson, M. 2011 Mediatized Tourism. Annals of Tour-
media are bringing to the foreground negative ism Research 38:1634-1652.
Moyle, B., and G. Croy 2009 Media in the Pre-visit Stage
tourism impacts on communities and the envi- of the Tourist Experience: Port Campbell National
ronment. Tourism has also been featured as the Park. Tourism Analysis 14:199-208.
602 Medical tourism
the Organization for Economic Co-operation and

Medical tourism Development indicated that more than five mil-
lion patient-tourists traveled overseas for medical
Hwansuk Chris Choi treatment in 2009 (Lunt et al. 2011).
School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism Most medical tourists come from the ▶ United
Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON, States, ▶ Canada, and countries in Western
Canada ▶ Europe, while the most popular destinations
are ▶ India, ▶ Thailand, ▶ Malaysia, Korea, and
▶ Singapore. The recent growth of medical tour-
Medical tourism goes by many names, depending ism can be directly traced to healthcare issues in
on field: curative, health, wellness, and healthcare industrialized countries, including long waiting
tourism. Each field (health professionals, tourism periods and high costs of treatment. In a broad
officials, economists, government statisticians, sense, patients travel aboard for medical treat-
health service suppliers, hospitality service pro- ments for five major reasons: affordability,
viders) has its preferred term. The healthcare sec- ▶ accessibility, availability, additionality, and
tor prefers medical travel, but the tourism acceptability (Reisman 2010).
▶ industry and its marketers favor medical tour- Affordability: Many citizens of industrialized
ism, and healthcare professionals do argue that countries cannot afford certain types of treatment.
tourism generally implies ▶ leisure, and thus For example, in the United States, over 45 million
“travel” should be preferred to “tourism” are uninsured, while an additional 38 million hold
(Whittaker 2008). inadequate health insurance policy (USDHHS
Over the past three decades, however, tour- 2012). Additionally, healthcare costs have
ism has evolved into more than merely a plea- reverted to patients over time, and this trend is to
sure activity, converging with other sectors into continue (Deloitte 2008). In Western countries,
specialty tourism (business, meetings, or con- elective surgery (e.g., cardiovascular, plastic and
vention tourism). The common characteristics refractive surgeries) may not be covered at all. Not
of the definition of medical tourism, as having affordable healthcare and ▶ insurance at
published in technical reports and academic home has forced many patients to go abroad.
journals, show that it would be better defined Patient-tourists can receive the same quality or
as demand driven rather than supply driven. In even better medical services in countries like
this sense, as a subset of ▶ health tourism, med- India and Thailand for one-tenth of what they
ical tourism can be examined as a temporary would pay in their home countries (Lunt
move (up to a year) during which people et al. 2011).
▶ travel for either physical or mental treatment Accessibility: Moreover, with an overburdened
or seek to improve or change through either public healthcare system in many developed
surgical or nonsurgical (therapeutic) medical countries, patients may have to wait from
treatment (Choi 2010). 6 months to several years for surgery. In ▶ Can-
ada, patients wait from 2 to 6 years for a kidney
transplant (Picard 2011).
Global trends Availability: Many patients from both devel-
oped and developing countries travel to other
Medical tourism is not new. It has recently countries for healthcare because certain and/or
emerged as a convergent trend shaping both alternative facilities and treatments are simply
healthcare and tourism and has seen unprece- unavailable in their home countries. Many come
dented growth in the last two decades because of from the least-developed countries to developed
improvements in medical technology, physician countries because many treatments are not avail-
training, and standards of healthcare in both able, but some also travel to medical destinations
developed and developing countries. A report of for the types of surgery that require privacy (stem
Mediterranean 603
cell therapy, termination of pregnancy, and References

unlicensed medications) and confidentiality
(HIV/AIDS treatment, infertility treatment, gen- Choi, H. 2010 Promotion and Activation of Medical Tour-
ism as a New Growth Engine in Jordan. Unpublished
der reassignment surgery, and face lifts) (Lunt
Internal Report. Seoul: Korean International Coopera-
et al. 2011). tion Agency.
Additionality: Many patients travel overseas Deloitte 2008 Medical Tourism: Consumers in Search of
because of the benefits that they normally do not Value. Washington DC: Deloitte.
Lunt, N., R. Smith, M. Exworthy, S. Green, D. Horsfall,
have in their home countries. This includes better
and R. Mannion 2011 Medical Tourism: Treatments,
personalized care, advanced medical technology, Markets and Health System Implications: A Scoping
the latest medicine, medical treatments and pro- Review. Paris: Organization for Economic
cedures, high-quality facilities, and the option of Co-operation and Development.
Picard, A. 2011 Transplant Waiting Lists and Dialysis
guarding privacy (Reisman 2010).
Costs Grow as Kidneys Supply Lags Behind. The
Acceptability: This refers to such aspects as Globe and Mail www.theglobeandmail.com/life/
cultural, ▶ gender, and lifestyle sensitivity, ethical health-and-fitness/ (10 August 2013).
issues, and confidentiality. Certain medical pro- Reisman, D. 2010 Health Tourism: Social Welfare through
International Trade. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
cedures are not socially accepted or permitted in
USDHHS 2012 Health, United States, 2011 with Special
some countries, which may be another reason why Feature on Socioeconomic Status and Health.
patient-tourists travel to another country (Choi Hyattsville: Centers for Disease Control and Preven-
2010). For instance, before abortion became read- tion, US Department of Health and Human Services.
Whittaker, A. 2008 Pleasure and Pain: Medical Travel in
ily available in the United States, women who
Asia. Global Public Health: An International Journal
could afford to do so traveled to ▶ Sweden or to for Research, Policy and Practice 3:271-290.
Canada.
Research directions M
Mediterranean
Although still in its infancy, medical tourism
research has garnered increasing ▶ attention in Carles Manera
▶ hospitality and tourism ▶ management. The Department of Applied Economics, University of
need for theoretical models and theories to help the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
explain this ▶ phenomenon arises from the
unique nature of tourism and medical services.
Only a limited number of theoretical studies The Mediterranean Basin contains a total of
have been conducted in this area. 22 nations, but surprisingly few studies have
Obvious and immediate attention should go to been conducted on the Mediterranean as a whole
behavior, patient satisfaction, post-medical tour- as a ▶ tourist ▶ destination, although separate
ism experience, and destination choice, along analyses have been made of its sun and sand
with accreditation and risk (e.g., infection, anti- destinations (Morley 1992; Poon 1993). This
microbial resistance, or clinical malpractice, absence of general studies of an area of crucial
organ trafficking and trade, and possible litiga- importance can be explained by the lack of global
tion). The World Tourism Organization and the statistics for the area. Here the statistics refer to
World Health Organization could join forces to ▶ Albania, ▶ Algeria, ▶ Cyprus, ▶ Egypt,
foster such research to build a basic statistical ▶ Spain, ▶ France, ▶ Greece, ▶ Israel, ▶ Italy,
database and develop the principles of medical ▶ Libya, ▶ Lebanon, ▶ Malta, ▶ Morocco,
tourism ▶ development. ▶ Monaco, Palestine (not included in the data
given below since complete series of data were
See also ▶ Health tourism, ▶ lifestyle, ▶ spa not available), ▶ Syria, ▶ Tunisia, ▶ Turkey and
tourism, ▶ wellbeing. Bosnia-Herzegovina, ▶ Croatia, ▶ Slovenia and
604 Mediterranean
Mediterranean, Figure 1 Mediterranean Sea
▶ Serbia, and ▶ Montenegro (with Yugoslavia The importance of Mediterranean

being considered one nation up until 1991 and seaside for tourism
▶ Macedonia included in order to standardize
the data for the ex Yugoslavia), whose common Today, the Mediterranean offers a total of seven
characteristic is their border with the Mare Nos- million tourist beds in ▶ accommodation capac-
trum (Figure 1). ity, concentrated in France, Spain, and Italy.
The Mediterranean Basin is one of the world’s Despite this remarkable vigor, a series of trends
leading destinations. With revenue from tourism may be discerned (Alegre and Pou 2002, 2003).
of US$134 billion a year (28 % of the world’s As an international destination, the Mediterranean
tourist ▶ expenditure), the Mediterranean bases a is losing ground. Although the number of tourists
large part of its economic activities on tourism grew from 130 to 228 million (an increase of
services, with important repercussions. Annually, 76 %), the area’s market share of global tourists
tourism expenditure in these countries accounts fell from 36 % in 1987 to 32 % in 2002.
for about 3.7 % of the GDP (data as of 2002). In 1987, tourist expenditure accounted for
There can be little debate, however, about the 2.2 % of the GDP, while by 2002 it had risen to
variety of tourism. From traditional sun and sand 3.7 % (an increase of 67 %). Crucially, tourist
destinations (Spain, Turkey, and Tunisia) to those expenditure has remained stable, with a slight
with a high cultural and heritage-based compo- downward ▶ trend. In 1987, only seven countries
nent (France and Italy), the coastlines of this in the Mediterranean had a level of expenditure
closed sea form part of an area that is mainly that accounted for over 5 % of their respective
visited for ▶ holiday or ▶ leisure purposes, even incomes. In 2002, there were 12 countries in this
if ▶ other incentives are gradually gaining position. In contrast, France, Spain, and Italy have
ground, such as ▶ health tourism or ▶ travel for experienced moderate growth.
professional or business purposes, thereby help- A change can be observed in tourists’ choice of
ing to diversify destinations and tourist typologies destinations. European tourists, the Mediterra-
(Aguiló et al. 2005). nean’s main source market, are tending to opt for
Merger and acquisition 605
different Mediterranean tourist centers from the Fourth, with the shifting importance of the Med-
resorts that spearheaded the process of tourism iterranean’s destinations, the ▶ impact of tourism
▶ development in France, Spain, and Italy. In a (which was hitherto limited to a small number of
span of just a few years, the number of European countries) has extended geographically. In 2002,
tourists to other countries in the Mediterranean it affected more countries than in 1987, both in
has doubled. While in 1987, 23 million visited macroeconomic terms (tourism’s share of the
these other nations, by 2002 the figure had gone GDP) and from the perspective of negative envi-
up to 47 million. That is, a clear change in their ronmental externalities in the Mediterranean
choice of destination can be observed, because in coastal areas.
2002 the Mediterranean received 98 million more
tourists than in 1987. France, Spain, and Italy See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ France, ▶ Italy,
accounted for the major source of these new cus- ▶ mass tourism, ▶ Spain.
tomers (69 million tourists), but they were also
shared by Turkey, Greece, Egypt, and Tunisia.
▶ Mass tourism is gaining in importance from
a macroeconomic perspective, but its environ- References
mental ▶ impact is also on the increase. Popula-
Aguiló, E., J. Alegre, and M. Sard 2005 The Persistence of
tion congestion tends to be the main variable the Sun and Sand Tourism Model. Tourism Manage-
responsible for generating a gradual process of ment 26:219-231.
unsustainability, and the Mediterranean has a Alegre, J., and L. Pou 2002 The Determinants of the
high density of population. Between 1987 and Probability of Tourism Consumption: An Analysis
with a Family Expenditure Survey. DEA Working
2002, the number of touristt stays per square kilo- Papers, Issue 39. Palma: Department of Applied Eco-
meter of land doubled. This indicates that some nomics of the University of the Balearic Islands.
areas have reached their saturation. Alegre, J., and L. Pou 2003 La reducción del tiempo de
estancia en los destinos vacacionales: implicaciones M
sobre el gasto turístico y la estacionalidad en las Islas
Baleares, in G. López Casasnovas (director), Islas Bal-
Future directions eares. Serie Estudios Regionales. Madrid: BBVA
Foundation.
The Mediterranean countries are undergoing a Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of
Evolution: Implications for the Management of
change in position in the ▶ international tourism Resources. Canadian Geographer 24:7-14.
ranks. Four specific factors should be taken into Morley, C. 1992 A Microeconomic Theory of International
account. First, the market share of its leading Tourism Demand. Annals of Tourism Research
destinations (France, Spain, and Italy) is falling, 19:250-267.
Poon, A. 1993 Tourism, Technology and Competitive
which is also reflected by the Mediterranean as a Strategies. Wallingford: CABI.
whole. Second, in recent few years, the Mediter- Sakai, M. 1988 A Micro-analysis of Business Travel
ranean, which was primarily a destination for Demand. Applied Economics 20:1481-1495.
European tourists, has seen a big rise in tourists
from the ▶ Middle East and Southeast Asia.
Third, destinations in the southern and eastern
Mediterranean are gaining in importance at the Merger and acquisition
expense of others on the northern and western
shores of ▶ Europe (Butler 1980; Sakai 1988), Francis Kwansa
partly resulting from the change in European tour- University of Delaware, Newark, USA
ists’ choice of destinations. This reflects a world-
wide pattern of growing importance of new
destinations. Thus, in the early twenty-first cen- Mergers and acquisitions have continued to be a
tury, new hotel accommodation is mainly concen- very important vehicle for fast corporate growth
trated in the Mediterranean’s emerging areas. even though the level and volume of activity
606 Methodology
today have not matched what occurred in the Kwansa 1994). Evidence shows that shareholders
1980s. An acquisition can occur through a merger of target companies generally benefit significantly
or tender offer. A merger occurs when two com- more than the acquiring shareholders. More
panies combine and only one survives, with the research is needed to understand why some
target company ceasing to exist (Gaughan 2011). mergers work and many more do not.
This combination happens with the agreement and
support of the management and shareholders of See also ▶ Equity, ▶ financial management,
both companies. The survivor assumes all the ▶ globalization, ▶ investment, ▶ multinational
assets and liabilities of the target, and generally firm.
this combination is achieved under friendly cir-
cumstances. Where the target is not in favor of the
combination, then the acquiring company initiates References
the process of acquisition by making an offer to
Bradley, M., A. Desai, and E. Kim 1988 Synergistic Gains
the shareholders of the target company to buy from Corporate Acquisitions and their Division
their stock in the market at an attractive price or between the Stockholders of Target and Acquiring
for a number of stocks. If successful in purchasing Firms. Journal of Financial Economics 21:31-40.
51 % or more of the shares, then the acquiring Gaughan, P. 2011 Mergers, Acquisitions and Corporate
Restructurings (5th ed.). Hoboken: Wiley.
company would assume control. This process of Kwansa, F. 1994 Acquisitions, Shareholder Wealth and the
acquisition is referred to as a tender offer Lodging Industry: 1980-1990. International Journal of
(or sometimes the “takeover”) and it generally Contemporary Hospitality Management 6:16-20.
occurs under unfriendly circumstances without
the support and approval of the target
management.
There are several reasons why a company will Methodology
desire to combine with another. One is synergy,
where the companies believe that the combination Suzanne Ainley
would be more valuable and productive than each Research Analyst Program, Georgian College,
of the companies alone (2 + 2 = 5). Growth and Barrie, ON, Canada
expansion is another very popular reason for busi-
ness combination. A company that is looking to
grow and expand but does not have the human and As a system to collect and analyze data, method-
other resources to do so would acquire another ology refers to the tools, instruments, or proce-
company that can provide the desirable geo- dures designed by a researcher at the outset of a
graphic and product reach, thereby achieving study to conduct his/her inquiry. Methods and
growth much faster than would ordinarily occur methodology are used synonymously by many
through slow internal growth. in tourism. Methodology is the philosophical
In recent years, globalization has made most framework within which the research is
markets around the world accessible, thus conducted and is associated with particular para-
tourism-related companies have used acquisition digms. First and foremost, a researcher should use
as a strategy to expand overseas. Other companies a methodology most appropriate for achieving the
have engaged in acquisitions in order to diversify research objective. Methodology links the choice
their products and/or markets. For example, if a and use of methods to the desired outcome. For all
hotel chain has only luxury properties in its port- researchers, methodology guides the use of
folio, it may acquire a chain of extended-stay methods. As an emerging field, much of tourism
hotels in order to diversify its market. There are investigation has been dominated by positivism
many impacts when companies combine. The and quantitative approaches.
most commonly studied is the effect of acquisi- More recently, considerable debate and discus-
tions on shareholder wealth (Bradley et al. 1988; sion have occurred regarding methodological
Mexico 607
issues in tourism. This has resulted in its expan- References

sion from being based on methods employed in
research designs to methodology referring to and Ateljevic, I., N. Morgan, and A. Pritchard (eds.) 2012 The
Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Creating an Academy
embodying the ways which knowledge and
of Hope. London: Routledge.
understanding are established (Jennings 2012; Jennings, G. 2012 Methodologies and Methods. In The
Veal 2011). Likewise, acceptance of ways of Sage Handbook of Tourism Studies, T. Jamal and
knowing has allowed a focus on paradigms and M. Robinson, eds., pp.672-692. London: Sage.
Phillimore, J., and L. Goodson 2004 Qualitative Research
also an acknowledgement of positivism tradition-
in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and Method-
ally informing tourism inquiry. Although positiv- ologies. London: Routledge.
ism still dominates and guides the way most Veal, A. 2011 Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism:
tourism studies are conducted, there now exists a A Practical Guide. Essex: Pearson.
healthy and spirited embracing of other para-
digms, many of which are covered in more detail
elsewhere in this encyclopedia, including ▶ inter-
pretation (interpretivism), ▶ phenomenology, Mexico
▶ critical studies, and ▶ postmodernism.
The use of different methodologies in tourism Francisco Madrid
research has been supported by seminal tourism School of Tourism, Anáhuac University,
journals, conference proceedings, and specific Huixquilucan, Mexico
books (Ateljevic et al. 2012; Phillimore and
Goodson 2004), each source providing outlets
for disseminating scholarly work and furthering Mexico is the 14th largest country in the world
the methodological debate. The emerging breadth (2 million km2 or 1,221,000 mi2), consisting of
and acceptance of epistemological viewpoints and 31 states and the Federal District, also known as
philosophical frameworks in tourism research Mexico City. It is the 14th largest economy and
M
suggests a maturity is progressing. This transition has the 65th highest GDP per capita in the world.
is well underway as tourism moves beyond its Spanish is the official language, but more than
historical roots firmly planted in positivism. Fur- 60 indigenous languages are still spoken.
ther, the duality of merely characterizing tourism The country occupies a strategic geographical
research as either quantitative or qualitative is position close to the United States (Figure 1), has
drawing to an end. extensive cultural heritage – ranked fifth in the
The introduction and acceptance of methods number of world heritage sites and natural
more recently observed in tourism are encour- resources – ranked eighth in the natural resources
aging in opening up an exciting ▶ future for (WEF 2013), which combine to make Mexico the
tourism researchers. In the future, the embrac- 15th in the rank for international arrivals
ing of interdisciplinary or mixed methodologies (UNWTO 2014).
able to address the complexity of what tourism Before the arrival of the Spanish, Aztec hostels
research often investigates will be exciting called Coacallis, located near the entrance of cit-
developments. In addition, the pioneering of ies and close to markets, provided accommoda-
methodologies specific for use by and in tour- tion for travelers. During the Viceregal period of
ism will encourage the continued evolution of the sixteenth century, formal establishments were
tourism as a field rather than relying on alterna- founded to attract travelers (Romero 1987).
tive methodologies used in other established Starting in the late nineteenth and early twentieth
disciplines of study. centuries, public initiatives such as the creation of
a rail network boosted tourism. In 1929, a gov-
See also ▶ Epistemology, ▶ multidisciplinarity, ernmental authority was established for the devel-
▶ paradigm, ▶ qualitative research, ▶ quantita- opment of tourism. In the 1970s, state intervention
tive research. focused on the creation of resorts, while in the
608 Mexico
Tijuana Mexicali 110 100 90

120
Ensenada Laguna
Salada
UNITED STATES
30 Ciudad 30
Juarez
Isla Hermosillo
Guadalupe
Chihuahua
Gu
Morro
lf o
Redondo
Nuevo
fC Laredo
alif
or n Topolobampo Torreón Gulf of
Matamoros Mexico
ia
Culiacán Monterrey
CUBA
La Paz
Mazatlán
NORTH San Luis
Potosi Altamira
PACIFIC Aguascalientes Cancún
Tampico
OCEAN Puerto León
20 Querétaro Mérida 20
Vallarta Bahia de
Guadalajara
MEXICO CITY Campeche Caribbean
Morelia
Veracruz
ISLAS Toluca Sea
Manzanillo Puebla Volcan Pico
REVILLAGIGEDO
de Orizaba
BELIZE
Oaxaca
Acapulco
0 200 400 km Salina GUAT. HONDURAS
0 200 400 mi 110 100 Cruz 90 NIC.
Mexico, Figure 1 Map of Mexico
1980s a neoliberal approach was taken (Molina 16.2 % and 37.3 %, respectively (Secretary of
2007). Nowadays the National Tourism Policy Labor and Social Welfare 2013).
has four main principles: legislative and sectoral
transformation, innovation and competitiveness,
development and promotion, and sustainability Structure and operation
and social wellbeing.
Mexico is continually improving its tourism Mexico’s tourism depends, at least in the interna-
statistics, but there are current limitations regard- tional arena, on sun and beach products; approx-
ing the measurement of the domestic market. imately 65 % of its arrivals come through airports
Datatur, the official National Tourism Authority located in beach destinations. The markets of
platform, provides information concerning tour- North America have the most important part of
ists staying at hotels and data from other public the share, with 56.2 % for the ▶ United States and
sources. The Mexican National Institute of Statis- 13.3 % for Canada. Arrivals from South America
tics and Geography developed a Tourism Satellite have been rising rapidly; in 2013 Brazil was the
Account in 1999. In 2013, Mexico with US$13.9 fifth largest market, Argentina the sixth, and
billion in international tourism receipts was Colombia the seventh (Anáhuac University
ranked in the 23rd in the world (UNWTO 2014). 2014).
Domestic tourism accounts for 83 % of all tourism The main destinations in Mexico have well-
revenue (INEGI 2014). In 2012, revenues from developed infrastructure and involve private, pub-
tourism contributed 8.4 % to the GDP (INEGI lic, and civil society stakeholders. There are more
2014). In 2013, tourism directly supported 3.1 than 600,000 hotel rooms. As in many other coun-
million jobs, with youth and women accounting tries, the majority of tourism businesses consist of
for a higher proportion than average of the work- small- and medium-sized enterprises. The
force, with 52.3 % and 58.4 %, compared to country’s most recognized international
MICE 609
destinations are the beach resorts of Cancun, Rivi- flexible immigration policy of the United States
era Maya, Los Cabos, Puerto Vallarta, and Aca- and the creation of a single market in North Amer-
pulco; the cultural cities of Oaxaca and Mundo ica, and the ability of civil society to elect effec-
Maya; and the large business cities of Mexico tive, honest, transparent, and accountable
City, Guadalajara, and Monterrey. governments.
The country has a long tradition in tourism
education. Today over 990 programs with around See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ national tourism
110,000 places are offered at universities, 80 % by organization and administration, ▶ policy and
private institutions, with only 6 % of them fully policymaking, ▶ statistics, ▶ sun, sand, sea and
certified by the National Council for Accreditation sex.
of Tourism Education Quality. There are also a
limited number of basic training institutions,
although there are over 20 occupational standards. References
The federal, state, and local governments share
responsibilities for tourism. The federal govern- Anáhuac University 2014 México’s Tourism Outlook
ment defines the policy every 6 years, with its (September-December 2013). Mexico: Anáhuac Uni-
versity and National Tourism Business Council.
execution handled by the Secretary of Tourism. INEGI 2014 Tourism Satellite Account 2008-2012.
There are two federal governmental agencies that México: National Institute of Statistics and Geography.
serve as tools for policy implementation: The Molina, S. 2007 Tourism Policy in Mexico. México:
Mexico Tourism Board is responsible for promot- Trillas.
Romero, H. 1987 Mexican Encyclopedia of Tourism. Méx-
ing Mexico’s brand and the National Fund for ico: Limusa.
Tourism Development develops infrastructure Secretary of Labor and Social Welfare 2013 Labor Obser-
and promotes investment. A Tourism Cabinet has vatory www.observatoriolaboral.gob.mx (14 April
been created and is led by the President of Mex- 2014).
ico. Over the past 20 years, more than 70 local
UNWTO 2014 World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World M
destination promotion offices, assisted by public WEF 2013 The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness
and private partnerships, have been created. Report. Geneve: World Economic Forum.
Opportunities and challenges

MICE
The consolidation and growth of tourism in
Mexico depends on the ability of the government Jinsoo Lee and Kaye Chon
to put an end to, or at least reduce, the violence School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
and insecurity that afflicts parts of the country, as The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
well as decreasing the consequential negative Hong Kong, China
image. It is also necessary to develop infrastruc-
ture that can promote a real diversification of
products and destinations in a model that allows Event is a broad term to embrace MICE (meeting,
the promotion of natural and culture resources. incentive, convention, exhibition) markets, as
At the same time, it is necessary to strengthen well sports, concerts, festivals, among others
the competitiveness of destinations so that they (Getz 2008). From the perspective of attendees,
can increase average trip expenditure of its components are considered business events.
non-border international tourists. Association annual conventions and exhibitions
In a long term, the growth and optimization of (trade and public shows) account for the signifi-
tourism in Mexico will be conditioned by three cant segments of the growing MICE sector. Since
factors outside the industry: the reduction of pov- the 1960s, this market in Asia has been growing
erty and the expansion of the middle class, a more more rapidly than in other parts of the world (UFI
610 Micronesia
2007). Its rapid development has enabled parallel interrelationships among various stakeholders
increase in the number of convention centers. In such as organizers, service contractors, exhibitors,
2007, the number of convention centers in the and visitors, as well as based on marketing chan-
Asia Pacific region reached 131, with more than nels for buyers and sellers from ▶ marketing and
50 % located in China (UFI 2007). consumer behavior perspectives.
MICE-related associations also exist to aid its
development. They include Convention Industry See also ▶ Business tourism, ▶ convention and
Council, Destination Marketing Association visitor bureau, ▶ festival and event, ▶ globaliza-
International, International Association of Exhibi- tion, ▶ impact.
tions and Events, International Congress and Con-
vention Association, Meeting Professionals
International, and Professional Convention Man-
References
agement Association. They serve as platforms to
exchange ideas and information, to educate pro- Getz, D. 2008 Event Tourism: Definition, Evolution, and
fessionals, and to promote research and MICE Research. Tourism Management 29:403-428.
businesses. HKECIA 2008 Economic Impact Study Report – 2006.
The rationale for the boom of the sector is the www.exhibitions.org.hk/english/industry.php (29 August
2011).
belief that it brings important economic benefits to UFI 2007 The World Map of Exhibition Venues and Future
local destinations. MICE attendees are found to Trends www.ufi.org/pages/publicationspress/surveys.
stay longer and spend more than regular tourists. asp (6 May 2008).
For example, the Hong Kong exhibition sector
contributed US$3.9 billion (HK$30.2 billion) to
the local economy in 2008, an equivalent to 1 % of
its GDP (HKECIA 2008). Further, it led to a fiscal Micronesia
impact of $118.7 million (HK$920 million) and
the creation of 61,000 full-time equivalent jobs, Fred R. Schumann
revealing that exhibition visitors and exhibitors School of Business and Public Administration,
contribute more than overnight tourists. University of Guam, Mangilao, USA
Appreciating economic value of MICE tour-
ism, many destinations invest in related ▶ infra-
structure, offer incentives, and compete with other Micronesia extends from the Gilbert Islands on
destinations to attract this business. The growth of the Equator, northwestward to the Marianas in the
MICE tourism continues to prompt research in Pacific Ocean. The islands are scattered over 7.8
this field. Much of the literature has been dedi- million square kilometers (Figure 1) and have a
cated to examining convention aspects, including land area of about 2,600 km2 (1,003 mi2). The
site selection choices, convention destinations, country is politically divided into eight nation-
and attendee behaviors. As the society pays grow- states and territories, including Guam, ▶ Kiribati,
ing attention to environmental protection, there ▶ Marshall Islands, the Federated States of
have been attempts to explore green management Micronesia, ▶ Nauru, the Commonwealth of the
in this sector. MICE-induced traffic can lead to Northern Mariana Islands, ▶ Palau, and Wake
environmental degradation through CO2 emis- Island. Today, most of Micronesia (with the
sions, waste disposal, and water usage. Due to exceptions of Guam and Wake Island, which are
its huge economic impact on local destinations, US territories, and Mariana Islands, which is a US
MICE research now includes the exhibition busi- Commonwealth) are independent states.
ness, investigating attendee motivation, exhibi- It is with the advent of air transportation that
tion quality attributes, exhibition destinations, tourism began to take off in small island destina-
and relationship marketing. Future research is tions, including Micronesia. ▶ Decolonization
expected to explore exhibition, based on after the World War II was one of the most
Micronesia 611
140 Guam 145 150 155 0 200 400 km

(U.S.) 400 mi
0 200
Enewetak
Tamil
MARSHALL
Harbor
Ulithi ISLANDS
10 10
Fais
YAP Gaferut Ujelang
West
ISLANDS Namonuito Murilo
Faraulep Fayu
Ngulu Sorol Island
Pikelot CHUUK (TRUK) Minto Reef
Olimarao Satawal ISLANDS Oroluk
Woleai Elato
Lamotrek
Pollap Pohnpei PALIKIR
C Eauripik Ifalik Neoch Losap
A Houk Mokil Pingelap
R Namoluk
O L Lukunoch Ngatik Kosrae
0 4 8 km I
5 N Satowan 5
0 4 8 mi E
I S L A N D S
7º00′
PALIKIR Nukuoro
Pohnpei
Dolohmwar
NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN
Kapingamarangi
6º45′
158º15′
0 Equator 0
145 150 155 160
Micronesia, Figure 1 Map of Micronesia
favorable changes that resulted in promotion of main islands offer tourism courses. ▶ Palau pro-
international tourism development. Small island vides a good example of an island nation
territories or nations share a number of major sustained through tourism while continuing to
issues, including vast distances from source mar- preserve its natural and cultural resources. Deci-
kets, limited access to foreign investment, sions must be made by other island destinations,
M
overdependence on tourism, dependence on regarding the ▶ future of tourism and cultural
imports, economic leakage, and an overburdened preservation.
infrastructure (Harrison 2004). The population Guam currently has the largest economic share
spreads of Micronesia are substantially less than of tourism, making up 20.4 % of the GDP, gener-
the most inhabited Guam, which has 159,500 ating over 14,000 jobs that represent 29 % of total
persons (Bureau of Statistics and Plans 2014). employment (Pike 2012). Tourism research con-
Apart from Guam, Northern Mariana, the Fed- tinues to be pursued by scholars in the region and
erated States, and Palau, which now have the by faculty at the regional center of higher educa-
▶ infrastructure to welcome tourists for such tion, the University of Guam.
activities as diving, shopping, cultural tours, and
weddings, the majority of the surrounding islands See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ island tour-
have remained undeveloped. In 2013, Guam had ism, ▶ leakage, economic, ▶ sustainability.
the largest number of arrivals at 1.3 million
(UNWTO 2014), followed by Northern Mariana
at 433,000 (Saipan Tribune 2013). Tourists are References
primarily from major metropolitan areas such as
Bureau of Statistics and Plans 2014 Guam Census Popula-
▶ Japan, South Korea, Taiwan, and Hong Kong. tion Counts www.bsp.guam.gov/index.php?option=
Russian arrivals have begun to grow in recent com_content&view=article&id=130&Itemid=100008
years. (11 February).
Since 2003, the government has been meeting Harrison, D. 2004 Tourism in Pacific Islands. The Journal
of Pacific Studies 26: 1-28.
biannually to coordinate and implement strategies Pike, C. 2012 The Economic Impact of Tourism in Guam.
for tourism, environmental protection, and sus- Tourism Economics – An Oxford Economics Company
tainable development. Public schools in some www.guamvisitorsbureau.com%2Fdocs%2Fresearch-
612 Middle East
and-reports%2Fresearch%2Fvisitors-report%2Fguam- northeast Africa lying west of ▶ Afghanistan,

tourism-economic-impact-v2010.pdf (5 November ▶ Pakistan, and ▶ India. The ▶ UNWTO’s statistical
2014).
Saipan Tribune 2013 September Visitor Arrivals Jump 9% publications refer to the Middle East as the region
www.saipantribune.com/newsstory.aspx?newsID= which includes ▶ Bahrain, ▶ Egypt, ▶ Iraq, ▶ Jor-
151077 (28 February 2014). dan, ▶ Kuwait, ▶ Lebanon, ▶ Libya, ▶ Oman, Pal-
UNWTO 2014 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- estine, ▶ Qatar, ▶ Saudi Arabia, ▶ Syria, ▶ United
ism Organization.
Arab Emirates, and ▶ Yemen (Figure 1).
Based on this definition, the Middle East region
extends over 6.1 million km2 (2.3 million mi2),
Middle East 4.1 % of the globe’s land area, with a population
of 230.3 million or 3.2 % of the total world popula-
Ahmad Muhammad Ragab1 and Noel Scott2 tion. The Middle East has a variety of natural
1
Minia University, Minya, Egypt resources as well as the main trade passages over
2
Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, land and seas among Asia, Africa, and Europe. Most
Gold Coast, QLD, Australia of the countries in this region look to tourism as a
driver of economic growth and ▶ development.
The Middle East is a loosely defined geographic Significance of tourism

region at the crossroads of three continents
(▶ Africa, Asia, and ▶ Europe) as well as a modern The ▶ history of trade and ▶ travel within the Mid-
political term (Özalp 2011). The term traditionally is dle East can be traced back several 1000 years, and
applied to the countries of southwest Asia and tourism in the sense of ▶ leisure also has a long
Middle East, Figure 1 Map of the Middle East

Middle East 613
history due to its strategic position, religious signif- 52 million, corresponding to a share of 5 % of the
icance, and imagined mystique (Shackley 2006). world total (UNWTO 2014). By 2030, the
Thus, the region is well versed in providing the UNWTO forecasts that international arrivals to
essential structures and cultures of ▶ hospitality, the Middle East will reach 134 million with an
supported by religious and cultural values that per- annual average growth of 5 % (UNWTO 2011).
vade all aspects of everyday life in the region The Middle East region is a small, yet fast-growing
(Daher 2007). The basis for modern tourism in its tourist-generating region. Its ▶ outbound tourism
countries is its long history. Thomas Cook was one has more than quadrupled from 8.2 million in 1990
of the first pioneers to provide organized tours in to 36.2 million in 2010 (UNWTO 2012).
modern times. The countries of the Middle East
have encouraged tourism development as a way to
diversify their revenue streams resulting in an Opportunities and challenges
extraordinary diversity of tourism products.
Tourism ▶ resources and attractions of the Tourism higher ▶ education in the Middle East is
▶ region are extremely diverse, forming many well established dating back to the 1970s when
products, including summer and winter sun the Faculty of Tourism and Hotels was founded at
beach holidays, spas, ski resorts in the mountains, Helwan University, Egypt. Nowadays, tourism
adventure holidays in the desert, religious pil- and hospitality programs are widespread through-
grimages, and cultural tours. ▶ Cultural tourism out the region, although the quality of curricula
is important, as it is the birthplace of the world’s and graduates remains controversial. On the other
three monotheistic religions (Christianity, Juda- hand, tourism research in the region has recently
ism, and Islam) and has been the seat of, or bat- flourished, and many ▶ universities in the region
tleground for, many of the great empires of send scholars to obtain postgraduate degrees over-
antiquity, resulting in a surfeit of religious and seas and, especially in the Gulf, recruit key tour-
archaeological treasures (Shackley 2006). ism scientists in order to raise their profile.
M
Egypt is the dominant ▶ destination for inter- Each country in the Middle East has its own
national tourists in the Middle East which together policies and strategies for its tourism ▶ industry,
with Jordan and Lebanon has long focused on and there is no intraregional platform dealing with
▶ mass tourism due to its rich history and natural tourism ▶ planning, although the Arab Ministerial
attractions. Significantly, this includes religious Council for Tourism provides an umbrella organi-
tourism to Makkah in Saudi Arabia, zation among Arab countries. The Council encour-
encompassing the main ▶ Hajj and minor Umrah ages intraregional tourist flows among Arab
pilgrimage. The United Arab Emirates, especially countries and attracting international tourists to
Dubai, are investing heavily in tourism. the region. In order to achieve these aims, a tourism
The Middle East ranks among the world’s top ▶ strategy has been formulated with ten programs:
emerging destinations in the period 1950–2013. ▶ development, ▶ investment, promotion, ▶ mar-
▶ Inbound tourism to its countries achieved the keting, ▶ travel ▶ facilitation, quality, ▶ media,
highest average annual growth rate (10 %) during information and ▶ statistics, international and
this period. The Middle East was the fastest grow- regional cooperation, and human resources reha-
ing ▶ air transport market in the world over the bilitation (Arab Organization for Tourism 2014).
last decades (UNWTO 2014). One challenging issue facing tourism develop-
However the Middle East region accounts for a ment in the Middle East is its ▶ image as an
relatively small share of the world’s ▶ interna- insecure area for tourists to visit and for investors
tional tourism (3–5 %). Many countries in this to commit funds. However, the region’s and its
region have experienced political instability since countries’ potential for a successful tourism
2011. In 2013, the UNWTO reported that the industry is apparent; it needs more focus in devel-
Middle East continued to show some very mixed oping realistic tourism policies and formulating
trends. International ▶ tourist arrivals remained at definite tourism strategies.
614 Migration
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ Egypt, Migrants often move to ▶ work, to reunite with
▶ religion. families, or to flee from political persecution,
whereas tourists’ typical motivation for visiting
new places is ▶ leisure and not to engage in
employment. Migrants are supposed to engage
References
with various aspects of the social life in the receiv-
Arab Organization for Tourism 2014 The Tourism Strategy
ing countries and are expected to be somewhat
for Arab States www.arab-tourismorg.org/index.php/ integrated into the national and local society, but
fourth-strategy (11 April). tourists’ activities are generally predefined and
Daher, R. 2007 Tourism in the Middle East: Community, their interactions with the local society are limited
Change and Transformation. Bristol: Channel View.
Özalp, O. 2011 Where is the Middle East? The Definition
by their short stay and the number and types of
and Classification Problem of the Middle East as a places visited. Migration is much less frequent than
Regional Subsystem in International Relations. Turkish tourism. One may migrate once or twice through-
Journal of Politics 2(2):5-21. out a lifetime but can be a ▶ tourist regularly.
Shackley, M. 2006 Atlas of Travel and Tourism Develop-
ment. Oxford: Elsevier.
Finally, international migration is normally man-
UNWTO 2011 Tourism Towards 2030: Global Overview. aged by a ministry of home affairs, justice, or labor,
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. whereas tourism falls under the purview of separate
UNWTO 2012 The Middle East Outbound Travel Market administrative units, such as a ministry of tourism.
with Special Insight into the Image of Europe as a
Destination. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
In the social sciences, migration and tourism as
UNWTO 2014 UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, Janu- two forms of ▶ mobility have developed almost
ary 2014. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. entirely in isolation of each other (Bell and Ward
2000). Therefore, it is not surprising that their
scholarly foci remain different. Migration studies
are mainly concerned with issues related to labor
Migration market, social integration, and rights protection,
while studies on tourism are more likely to focus
Mika Toyota on cultural exchange, business development, and
College of Tourism, Rikkyo University, Niiza-shi, impacts on the natural environment.
Saitama, Japan
Tourism-led migration and migration-

Migration and tourism are two forms of human led tourism
mobility that are increasing in scope and fre-
quency worldwide. They have been predomi- The boundary between migration and tourism in
nantly treated separately in policy domains and reality is however blurring. In terms of temporal-
in academic research and are differentiated ity, short-term migration without the intention of
according to the temporal duration, purpose, asso- settlement, which is particularly evident in the
ciated activities, and outcomes of the movements. case of “circular migration,” is rising globally. In
Migration is defined as long-term (1 year) or per- terms of purposes and activities, lifestyle migra-
manent relocation to a new place of residence and tion, retirement long-stay tourism, second home
▶ employment (IOM 2011). By contrast, tourism arrangements, and the movements of “migrant
is considered to be short term and transient by tourist workers” or “working holiday makers”
nature. According to the World Tourism Organi- have challenged the conventional distinction
zation, tourism is “a social, cultural and economic between the two. In fact, most mobility involves
phenomenon which entails the movement of peo- multiple objectives. For instance, an increasing
ple to countries or places outside their usual number of Japanese retirees live part of a year in
▶ environment for personal or business/profes- Southeast Asia where they engage with various
sional purposes” (UNWTO 2007: no page). parts of the local life, receive as well as provide
Military tourism 615
care, and develop social networks. They move Studies recognize that transnational migration is
back and forth between Japan and Southeast taking place within fluid social spaces that are con-
Asia, as well as travel across Southeast Asia stantly reworked through migrants’ simultaneous
(Toyota 2006). They are simultaneously migrants embeddedness in more than one society. Likewise,
and tourists, or “migrant tourists.” Finally, the increasing volume and diverse forms of tourism
overstayers on tourist visas make up a significant bring about new relations between tourists and the
part of irregular migrants. For many people, tour- local society. Investigating and conceptualizing
ism and migration are simply different parts of the migration and tourism in an integrated manner
same continuum of population mobility. promises a productive and even necessary approach
A migrant may become a tourist, and a tourist in both policy thinking and academic research.
may become migrants over her/his life course.
Migration and tourism may mutually enhance See also ▶ Lifestyle, ▶ mobility, ▶ second
each other. Tourism may increase labor migration home, ▶ visiting friend and relative.
by generating new employment opportunities due
to the seasonality of the industry. Tourism-related
labor migration tends to be hierarchically seg- References
mented by gender and sectors (King 1995). In
return, migration may lead to significant growth Bell, M., and G. Ward 2000 Comparing Temporary Mobil-
ity with Permanent Migration. Tourism Geographies:
in tourism, especially by returning to home coun-
An International Journal of Tourism Space, Place and
tries for the purpose of visiting friends and rela- Environment 2:87-107.
tives (UNWTO 2009). It is estimated that the IOM 2011 Glossary on Migration, International Migration
value of migrants’ “home visits” counts for at Law Series No. 25. International Organization for Migra-
tion www.iom.int/cms/en/sites/iom/home/about-
least 15 % of total tourist revenue and in some
migration/key-migration-terms-1.html (28 January 2014).
cases (notably in Central America) it exceeds
70 % of total inbound tourists (UNWTO 2009).
King, R. 1995 Tourism, Labor and International Migration.
In European Tourism: Regions, Spaces and
M
Migration also encourages outbound movements Restructuring, A. Montanari and A. Williams, eds.,
pp.177-190. Chichester: Wiley.
when migrants’ friends and relatives from the
Toyota, M. 2006 Ageing and Transnational Householding:
home country visit the migrants’ new residency Japanese Retirees in Southeast Asia. International Devel-
countries as tourists. Furthermore, migrants play a opment Planning Review 28:515-531.
key role in establishing tourism enterprises in the UNWTO 2007 Understanding Tourism: Basic Glossary
http://media.unwto.org/content/understanding-tourism-
country of origin. Their remittance constitutes an
basic-glossary (28 January 2014).
important part in tourism-related investments UNWTO 2009 Tourism and Migration: Exploring the
(UNWTO 2009). Migration and tourism are inter- Relationship between Two Global Phenomena.
related because they are both sustained by trans- Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Urry, J. 1999 Sociology beyond Societies: Mobilities for
national and trans-regional networks in
the Twenty-first Century. London: Routledge.
important ways.
The blurred divide

Military tourism
The conventional divide between migration and
tourism has its roots in the early twentieth-century Adam Weaver
experience in which emigrants left their homeland School of Management, Victoria University of
with an intention of settling down at the destination. Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
However, recent global socioeconomic develop-
ments have significantly changed the patterns of
mobility and the nature of work, leisure, and family The relationship between tourism and war is var-
networks (Bell and Ward 2000; Urry 1999). ied and complex (Smith 1998).
616 Mobility
Military tourism is a term that can be applied to the ▶ novelty is the reach of militarized ideas and
commemorative trips to historical battlefields, war processes, their prominence, and their quantity.
monuments, and cemeteries. It also describes the Tourism and “rest and relaxation” are intertwined,
type of tourism undertaken by off-duty military and they both support the smooth functioning of
personnel seeking “rest and relaxation.” Its military forces. At the same time, the military
▶ development is, in some ways, consistent with shapes aspects of the tourism ▶ industry. This
the promotion of militarization. may happen, for example, through the technolog-
Military-oriented attractions and sites in the ical change it fosters and its connections with
▶ United States (such as the USS Arizona Memo- private-sector security firms. Exploring the vari-
rial at Pearl Harbor and the ▶ Vietnam Veterans ous intricacies of such two-way relationships is
Memorial in Washington DC) demonstrate that worthy of future research.
tourism helps to create a national ▶ narrative of
duty and sacrifice. Public displays that are part of See also ▶ Dark tourism, ▶ globalization, ▶ her-
military museums and war memorials help to con- itage, ▶ warfare tourism.
solidate support for the armed forces and, within
the US context, buttress the belief that the country
should maintain its ability to project its ▶ power
References
globally. However, tourism related to the com-
Ferguson, K., and P. Turnbull 1999 Oh, Say, Can You See?
memoration of past wars is also connected to The Semiotics of the Military in Hawai’i. Minneapolis:
expressions of grief and personal acts of University of Minnesota Press.
remembrance. Henderson, J. 2000 War as a Tourist Attraction: The Case
of Vietnam. International Journal of Tourism Research
Military tourism is by no means a new ▶ activity.
2:269-280.
Many countries have a ▶ history of establishing Smith, V. 1998 War and Tourism: An American Ethnogra-
and maintaining foreign military installations. US phy. Annals of Tourism Research 25:202-227.
military involvement overseas – during World
War II, the Korean War, the Vietnam War, and,
more recently, in countries such as ▶ Iraq and
▶ Afghanistan – has meant that there have been Mobility
widely dispersed groups of soldiers who have
needed “rest and relaxation.” For example, Kevin Hannam1 and Cody Morris Paris2
1
Hawai’i has been a staging ground for battles as International Centre for Research into Events,
well as a place where furloughed soldiers could Tourism and Hospitality, Leeds Beckett
▶ vacation and convalesce. The accelerated University, Leeds, UK
growth of tourism ▶ infrastructure after World 2
Department of Economics and International
War II in Hawai’i can be attributed, in part, to Development, Middlesex University, Dubai, UAE
US military expansion and spending (Ferguson
and Turnbull 1999). Countries where the
▶ United States has intervened militarily, such as Ostensibly tourism can be seen as a form of mobil-
Vietnam, have subsequently become destinations ity on a continuum where it involves a temporary
for American war veterans and others curious overnight stay in a ▶ destination that is not home,
about wartime heritage, several decades after the in contrast to ▶ migration as another form of
conflict ends (Henderson 2000). mobility that involves a more or less permanent
Tourism and the military exist in close concert. movement to another destination that is again
Examining the relationships between the two rarely seen as home. However, it is argued that
involves making visible the often hidden connec- tourism is not just a form of mobility like other
tions between otherwise disparate domains. forms (such as commuting or migration) but that
Similar to tourism, the international ubiquity of different mobilities, in the plural, inform and are
militarism is not a recent ▶ phenomenon; rather, informed by tourism (Sheller and Urry 2004).
Model 617
Such mobilities involve movements of people, of continue to be felt as emerging economies engage
a whole range of material things, of more intangi- with mobile technologies. Moreover, if the ontol-
ble thoughts and fantasies, and a range of trans- ogy of contemporary mobilities is to be ade-
port and communicative technologies both old quately understood, then mobile methodologies
and new. will also need to be developed.
Proponents of the mobilities ▶ paradigm argue
that the concept is concerned with a critical eval- See also ▶ Geography, ▶ imaginary, ▶ location,
uation of the large-scale movements of people, ▶ performance, ▶ transportation.
objects, capital, and information across the world
and the more local processes of daily ▶ transpor-
tation, movement through public space, and the
References
▶ travel of material things within everyday life
Hannam, K., M. Sheller, and J. Urry 2006 Editorial: Mobil-
(Sheller and Urry 2006; Hannam et al. 2006). ities, Immobilities and Moorings. Mobilities 1:1-22.
Tourism mobilities also entail the analysis of dis- Oswin, N., and B. Yeoh 2010 Introduction: Mobile City
tinct social spaces or “moorings” that orchestrate Singapore. Mobilities 5:167-175.
Sheller, M., and J. Urry, eds. 2004 Tourism Mobilities:
social and cultural life, including stations, hotels,
Places to Play, Places in Play. London: Routledge.
motorways, airports, and beaches. Sheller, M., and J. Urry 2006 The New Mobilities Para-
Tourism mobilities examine the embodied digm. Environment and Planning A 38:207-226.
nature and experience of the different modes of
travel, viewing them in part as forms of material
and sociable dwelling-in-motion and places of
and for various activities. These “activities” can Model
include specific forms of talk or ▶ work, but may
involve simply being connected, maintaining a Alexia Mary Tzortzaki
moving presence with others that hold the poten- Department of Accounting and Finance,
M
tial for many different convergences or diver- Technological Educational Institute of Crete,
gences of global and local physical presence Heraklion, Greece
(Hannam et al. 2006).
Indeed, places are significant for tourism
mobilities studies. Often a clear distinction is An abstract model is commonly defined as a sim-
made between places and those traveling to plified representation of a system which would be
them. The mobilities paradigm argues against otherwise hard to visualize and directly observe,
the ontology of distinct “places” and “people.” mainly due to its complexity and/or large scale.
Places are thus not so much fixed but are impli- Such a model depicts the form and the flow of
cated within complex networks through which relationships between and among concepts, ele-
hosts, guests, buildings, objects, and machines ments, or even other systems. Synonyms include
are brought together to produce mobile perfor- framework, construct, simulation, paradigm, the-
mances. Tourism mobilities thus enable the ory, archetype, prototype, and blueprint.
study of the “interrelationships of movements of The construction of abstract models has histor-
people, objects, capital and ideas in and through ical antecedents, most notably in mathematics,
the overlapping scales of the local, the bodily, the information systems, operations management
national, and the global” (Oswin and Yeoh research, and decision sciences. The increase of
2010: 170). interdisciplinarity in the 1960s, pioneered by the
There are many avenues to be explored in father of cybernetics Gregory Bateson, opened the
terms of future development of a critical research way for a revolution in soft system modeling
agenda for mobilities at different scales. Tourism within social sciences through the departure
mobilities have had significant impacts on the from the linear track of reasoning (Ivanovas
global ▶ environment, and these impacts will 2007). Model construction was introduced in
618 Modernity
tourism ▶ epistemology in the 1980s. Jafari’s References

seminal ▶ tourist model (1987) leads to the
▶ development of an expanded model of tourism Ivanovas, G. 2007 Still Not Paradigmatic. Kybernetes
36:847-851.
as a ▶ phenomenon, marking its significance in
Jafari, J. 1987 Tourism Models: The Sociocultural Aspects.
today’s megasystem: the global community. Tourism Management 8:151-159.
In a business environment that is highly Sterman, J. 2002 All Models are Wrong: Reflections on
unpredictable, the management of knowledge Becoming a Systems Scientist. Systems Dynamics
Review 18:501-531.
and continued learning become vital parts of
Tzortzaki, A., A. Mihiotis, and G. Agiomirgianakis 2011
long-term sustainability (Tzortzaki et al. 2011). The Quest for a New Multidisciplinary Tourism Model.
Consequently, the application of models in tour- Annals of Tourism Research 38:325-330.
ism can aid the mapping of recursive patterns and Xiao, H., J. Jafari, P. Cloke, and J. Tribe 2013 Annals:
40–40 vision. Annals of Tourism Research 40:352-385.
provide valuable feedback. This way, policies,
strategies, metrics, and controls lead to increased
adaptability, performance, and foresight. Tour-
ism models on behavior, ▶ destination choice,
community support, core-periphery, economic Modernity
approaches to demand, ▶ knowledge ▶ manage-
ment, neural ▶ network, and tourism-▶ leisure Keir Martin
continuum are only but a few examples of the Department of Social Anthropology, University
conceptualization of systems. Models relating to of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
research methodology are subdivided to models
for data collection and analysis (Xiao
et al. 2013). The idea of “modernity” as a distinct era became
New challenges lie ahead for researchers increasingly important in social sciences from the
eager to explore roads less traveled. One such late nineteenth century onwards. Although differ-
example is the construction of models attending ent theorists have concentrated on different social
to “embodied emotions, performances, and phenomena as modernity’s defining features, they
affects that are an integral part of being a tourist,” have all tended to stress aspects such as the disso-
falling under nonrepresentational theories, such lution of customary bonds and practices that alleg-
as sensory ethnography (Xiao et al. 2013: 373). edly characterized “traditional” small-scale
Tourism now being recognized as a subset of societies. Consequently, the move towards forms
global mobilities calls for simulations that of sociality that are at once more atomized and
encompass this relationship. Similarly, the individualized while being more mass-produced
design of models akin to the actor-network the- by widespread industrialization and mass-
ory remains unexplored. Under the consumed through the spread of market relations
performativity perspective, conventional under- took center stage for interested scholars.
standings of “destinations” and “attractions” also
await model representation.
Setting all these emerging research-oriented Tourism in social science
questions aside, one must not forget that a model
is merely “a simplification, an abstraction, and a Tourism tends to be analyzed in social science
selection” of a dynamic and complex system. research as an archetypally “modern” ▶ phenome-
Therefore, “an understanding is required that all non that relies upon the ▶ development of the kinds
models are wrong and humility about the limita- of large-scale infrastructures of transport and
tions of our knowledge” (Sterman 2002: 501). ▶ accommodation that are characteristic of the
Modern Age. Therefore, as an archetypally modern
See also ▶ Methodology, ▶ multidisciplinarity, phenomenon, tourism is often studied to reveal the
▶ paradigm, ▶ phenomenology, ▶ theory. dynamics of the modern condition more generally
Modernity 619
(Wang 2000: 9). Just as tourism can only be under- ways in which tourism helped to solidify a divi-
stood within the wider context of modernity within sion of the world into a modern (Western) world
which it is situated, so ▶ attitudes towards tourism that was the source of tourism in particular (as it
are often revealing of opinions about modernity was the source of modernity more generally) and a
more generally. One of the earliest influential non-modern, non-Western world that as an object
attempts to subject tourism to social scientific of consumption helped to heal the tourists’ mod-
enquiry was Boorstin (1964). He argued that the ern alienation. While the concept of authenticity
fake “pseudo-events” of the post-war ▶ United has been subjected to much critical discussion in
States of America were indicative of the shallow tourism studies, other concepts appear from time
consumer society that gave birth to it. For to time that fill a similar role, namely, the missing
MacCannell (1976), the expeditions of tourists pro- ingredients in modern life that tourism seeks to
vided “a multibillion dollar research project” that fill. Picard’s (2011) analysis of “magic” as the
provided “an ethnography of modernity.” other of modern rationalism that is provided by
Later research has eschewed the negative evalu- exotic tourism in the island of La Reunion in the
ation of some of the earlier studies. Today many Indian Ocean provides one example of this trend.
prefer to view tourism as an ambiguous and some- While the assumption that the distinction
times potentially positive expression of the complex- between modernity and ▶ tradition could be
ities of modern life. Some see tourism as a sign of largely mapped onto a geographical distinction
modernity’s failure to provide authentic social expe- between the West and the rest might have seemed
riences, while others take a more generous perspec- unproblematic to many at the time when social
tive that views tourism as a potentially successful scientific studies of tourism were first being devel-
sign of a modernity that is able to create social spaces oped in the 1960s and 1970s, the spread of glob-
that meet a desire for such experiences. Either way, alization in the subsequent decades has made such
the connection between tourism and modernity is a distinction increasingly hard to maintain. Urry’s
clearly made. Tourism is described as being modern, (1990) work on the “tourist gaze” is one of the
M
not only because mass tourism relies upon the mass more influential analyses of the industry’s alleged
production of modern society but also because it was objectification of local culture. Yet he is keen to
a means by which modernity attempted to satisfy point out, especially in later editions of his book,
longings for experiences that many feared had been that this gaze does not map neatly onto such
destroyed by modernity’s victory over tradition. geographical divisions and can apply to seem-
One’s evaluation of this phenomenon, positive or ingly archetypally Western or modern spaces
negative, alienated or liberating, more than likely such as airports. Taylor (1998), who conducted
reveals something about one’s evaluation of moder- research on the ways in which Maori heritage was
nity more generally. constructed as a tourism object in ▶ New Zealand,
argued that the way that ▶ tourist practices and
studies often maintained this division was politi-
Changing approaches cally problematic as it illustrated how tourism
became a central player in reinscribing modernist
Understanding the nature of the “authentic” expe- essentialisms of the non-Western Other. It also
rience that tourism could offer allegedly alienated failed to address questions of “tourism at home,”
Western moderns became central to analyses of whether that was within Western or non-Western
the relationship between tourism and modernity. societies, and in particular the ways in which
This was despite the warnings of Cohen (1974) tourism became the site for a struggle over the
and others that not all tourists were motivated by meaning of modernity inside local communities
the kind of quest for spiritual and cultural authen- that were divided by political and economic
ticity in opposition to alienated modernity that inequalities.
such analyses often presupposed. ▶ Authenticity While there was initially a struggle to establish
became one focal point for discussions of the tourism as a serious object of research, it is now
620 Moldova
part of the mainstream sociological and anthropo- covers a narrow part of the left bank of the Dnies-
logical analyses of modernity. The idea of the ter. The northern, eastern, and southern parts are
tourist as an exemplary figure of modernity has bordered by ▶ Ukraine, while the western part
crossed back from tourism studies to become an adjoins ▶ Romania (Figure 1). The population is
inspiration for sociological studies of modernity almost 36 million, and the capital Chisinau has
more generally, as in Zygmunt Bauman’s influen- over 800,000 residents. Romanian is the official
tial studies of late, “liquid modernity.” As the language. The dominant religions are Orthodox,
fixed divisions of the world that characterized Roman Catholic, and Baptist.
the colonial and Cold War eras become ever Moldova’s proximity to the Black Sea gives it a
more distant memories, the challenge for tourism mild and sunny climate. The country has a long
studies is to find ways to describe and theorize history of viticulture which dates back to several
contextually shifting modern identities that tour- millennia. At present, Moldova wineries includ-
ism will remain central to creating. ing Cricova, Milestii Mici, Branesti, and Purcari
grow more than 100 vine varieties, with over
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ consumerism, 30 centers open to ▶ wine tourism (Florek and
▶ gaze, ▶ globalization, ▶ sociology. Conejo 2007). Its history has been marked by
Greek, Roman, Turkish, and Hungarian influence
since the fifteenth century. There are more than
15,000 historical and cultural monuments
References representing the major cultures of Europe
(Glăvan 2000). The tourism potential of the coun-
Boorstin, D. 1964 The Image: A Guide to Pseudo-Events try also involves art and cultural establishments,
in America. New York: Harper and Row.
Cohen, E. 1974 Who is a Tourist?: A Conceptual Clarifi-
groups of folk and ethnographic study, folk art and
cation. Sociological Review 22:527-555. ▶ architecture, and ▶ handicraft centers. The ear-
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the liest visible remains of built heritage are Geto-
Leisure Class. New York: Shocken. Dacian sites and Roman fortifications. The
Picard, D. 2011 Tourism, Magic and Modernity: Cultivat-
ing the Human Garden. New York: Berghahn.
remains of medieval fortresses, archaeological
Taylor, J. 1998 Consuming Identity: Modernity and Tour- complexes such as Orheuil Vechi, cave monaster-
ism in New Zealand. Auckland: The University of ies, nobles’ mansions, and peasant houses offer a
Auckland, Department of Anthropology. diversity of attractions. The country also contains
Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in
Contemporary Societies. London: Sage.
a rich natural patrimony, represented by protected
Wang, N. 2000 Tourism and Modernity: A Sociological areas, landscape and scientific reservations, for-
Analysis. Amsterdam: Pergamon. ests, rivers, and lakes, which make up an attractive
▶ ecotourism offer.
Tourism is an important area for the govern-
ment and ranks high among the major ▶ eco-
Moldova nomic development initiatives. The legal and
regulatory framework relevant for development
Elena Turcov is available (UNDP/WTO 2005). The ▶ training
The Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova, of most specialists with higher ▶ education in
Chis‚ inău, Moldova tourism is concentrated at the Academy of Eco-
nomic Studies with some 2,500 people trained
from 1996 to present (Turcov 2006). Tourism’s
The Republic of Moldova is a small country share of the GDP has increased in recent years.
(33,800 km2), located in southeastern ▶ Europe. Over the last decade, the priority forms of experi-
Lying on the eastern bank of the river Prut, it ence in Moldova have been rural, wine, cultural,
Moldova 621
Moldova, Figure 1 Map

of Moldova
M
622 Monaco
health, and beauty tourism. The existing Turcov, E. 2006 Coordinating Tourism. Chisinau: Edition
balneoclimateric health resorts could become a of the Academy of Economic Studies of Moldova.
UNDP/WTO 2005 Sustainable Tourism Development
substantial ▶ tourist product internationally, pro- Strategy of the Republic of Moldova 2003-2015.
vided that a proper infrastructure would be cre- Chisinau: Edition of the Printing House.
ated. ▶ Future research on tourism in Moldova
includes elaboration of governmental programs
for health and beauty tourism ▶ development,
improving the national “wine road” program, Monaco
elaboration and promotion of wineries and invest-
ment projects in tourism ▶ infrastructure, and Anne-Marie d’Hauteserre
developing programs to identify, specify, and pro- School of Social Sciences, University of Waikato,
mote tourism ▶ investment opportunities. Hamilton, New Zealand
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ travel agency and tour

operation, ▶ wine tourism. Monaco is minuscule, covering only 195 ha. It has
been fully recognized by ▶ France as an indepen-
dent state since 1861 and the United Nations since
References 1993. Located in the extreme southeast of France,
it is only 12 km from the Italian border. Its mild
Florek, M., and F. Conejo 2007 Export Flagships in Brand- climate (300 days of sunshine per year) and easy
ing Small Developing Countries: The cases of Costa
Rica and Moldova. Place Branding and Public Diplo- access have made it a favorite ▶ destination, since
macy 3:53-72. the opening of its casino in 1878 (Gay 1998). Its
Glăvan, V. 2000 Tourism Resources on the Terra. Bucha- economy no longer relies solely on tourism and
rest: Economic Edition. gambling (Figure 1).
Monaco, Figure 1 Map

of Monaco 0 0.5 1 km
0 0.5 1 mi
FRANCE
Monte-
Carlo
casino
Port of
La Monaco
Condamine
MONACO
palace
Mediterranean
Fontvieille Sea
Port of
Fontvieille
Mongolia 623
Large-scale construction projects have been in its extension into the sea, and how ▶ cruise
used to boost the economy of the Principality. In tourism and/or ▶ business tourism can better sup-
2012, banking provided 16.7 % of the port Monaco’s economy.
Principality’s GDP (employing 7.3 %), retail
5.8 % (26.2 %), and hotels and restaurants 6.5 % See also ▶ Casino tourism, ▶ elite tourism,
(12.4 %) (Monaco Statistics 2013). ▶ Gaming ▶ Mediterranean, ▶ shopping tourism.
provided 7 % of the state revenue. Tourism’s
importance lies in retail sales, hotels, and gaming,
but it does not dominate the economy. Several References
million visit Monaco annually. Only 150,000 are
tourists, and 40 % of them are business tourists. d’Hauteserre, A-M. 2005 Tourism, Development and Sus-
▶ Business tourism was developed after the con- tainability in Monaco: Comparing Discourses and
struction of the Monte Carlo Convention Center in Practices. Tourism Geographies 7:290-311.
De Kerimel, M. 2012 The Best of Monaco. Monaco: Epi
1979 and the Forum Grimaldi in 2000. Monaco is Communication.
also now a gateway for luxury yachting and cruis- Gay, J-C. 1998 Nécessité Fait Loi. Le Développement
ing, following the construction of a large docking Touristique de la Principauté de Monaco. L’Espace
semi-floating jetty on the outside of its port in Géographique 2:169-182.
Monaco Statistics 2013 Rapport PIB 2012. Monaco:
2003. It received 246,000 passengers in 2012. Institut Monégasque de la Statistique et des Etudes
The Principality offers tourists and residents a Economiques <www.imsee.mc/Publications/
safe living ▶ environment with security cameras Rapports-PIB> (30 July 2014).
and a visible police presence. Elevators can be
used to negotiate the steep slopes and many
green spaces; moreover, a world famous Exotic
Garden and a Japanese garden adorn the Princi- Mongolia
pality. The first world famous oceanographic
M
▶ museum of tropical fish in ▶ Europe was devel- Amartuvshin Dorjsuren
oped in 1910 by Albert I. Monaco has since par- Department of Tourism, National University of
ticipated in the multinational protection of the Mongolia, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia
Mediterranean Sea (d’Hauteserre 2005). To
make Monaco more attractive, other projects,
including outdoor statues, private galleries, Mongolia, located between the Russian Federa-
museums, a ballet company, and a Philharmonic, tion and the Republic of China (Figure 1),
were introduced. The Monte Carlo Festival of occupies 1,564,000 km2 (603,743 mi2). Its popu-
Television and an International Circus Festival lation is over 2.86 million (NSOM 2013). The
have been staged annually since 1961 and 1974, economy is equivalent to US$ 9.5 billion
respectively (De Kerimel 2012). Other events (MNT13.94 trillion) in 2012 and is heavily depen-
include a yearly Formula One race through the dent on mining (over 21 % of GDP and 89.2 % of
streets of Monaco. total export), wholesale and retail trade (over
The International University of Monaco is a 16 %), and agriculture (over 14 %) including
private business school that offers a bachelor nomadic livestock (NSOM 2013).
degree in ▶ luxury tourism and international man- Mongolia’s appeal as a ▶ destination includes
agement. The Lycée Technique Hotelier offers a its nomadic culture and festivals (such as Naadam
technical diploma (2 years after completion of Festival, Golden Eagle Festival, and Thousand
high school) in hotel and cooking. Important Camel Festival), history, and unspoiled wilder-
areas of tourism research would include the role ness. Its main markets are the ▶ United States,
of Monaco in regional tourism ▶ development, ▶ Japan, and ▶ Germany. The number of interna-
the ▶ future of tourism in the Principality consid- tional arrivals increased nearly threefold from
ering the major works undertaken in transport and 197,000 to 475,000 between 2000 and 2012
624 Mongolia
90 96 102 Lake Baikal 108 114 120
Uvs Nuur
RUSSIA
Nayramadlin Ulaangom Hövsgül
Orgil Nuur Hüh Nuur
Ölgiy CHINA
Erdenet Darhan
48 48
Hovd Bulgan Choybalsan
Uliastay ULAANBAATAR
A
L
T
Altay
Bayanhongor 120
A
Saynshand
T
R
E
Dalandzadgad S
C HI NA D
E
B I
42 0 100 200 km 42
G O 0 100 200 mi
90 96 102 108 114
Mongolia, Figure 1 Map of Mongolia
(NSOM 2013). Although there is a growing Mongolian Tourism Association and the Sustain-
▶ domestic tourism, reliable data is unavailable. able Tourism Development Center.
The average growth rate of international ▶ tourist Tourism in Mongolia has been recognized as
arrivals from 2001 to 2012 was 7.8 %. one of the key economic activities since 1990. Its
The industry employs about 18,000 persons. In importance was strengthened after the enactment
2012, the tourism total revenue accounted for over of the tourism law and pursuant of several devel-
3 % of the GDP, valued at $286.5 million (NSOM opment plans. Present challenges include
2013). ▶ Rail and air transports handle the major- increased competition for skilled labor and a
ity of tourist arrivals. Over 375 hotels (including lack of strategic focus for tourism development.
international chains) and 390 ger (traditional In addition, tourism’s economic benefits and effi-
dwellings) camps are in operation. A total of ciency of international marketing spending and
35 public and private institutions offer undergrad- the positioning of domestic tourism require
uate tourism and ▶ hospitality management research attention.
courses, of which six offer postgraduate degrees
(Ministry of Education 2013). See also ▶ Domestic tourism, ▶ economic
In 1999, the National Tourism Development development, ▶ ethnic tourism, ▶ sustainable
Master Plan and the Strategic Tourism Develop- tourism.
ment Plan for Mongolia were commissioned
(JICA 1999). The “Tourism Law” was enacted
in 2000 and the Ministry of Culture, Sports and References
Tourism is currently responsible for implementa-
JICA 1999 Japan International Cooperation Agency. The
tion and promotion of tourism policy and strate- Master Plan on National Tourism Development in
gies. Key strategies include promoting the Mongolia, Draft Final Report, Volume I Current Situa-
country’s unique combination of land and people tion, Padeco and Nippon Koei.
and its unspoiled wilderness and culture while Ministry of Education 2013 Report on the Graduates from
Public and Private Institutions for the Academic Year of
improving tourism’s human resources 2012-2013. Ulaanbaatar: Ministry of Education.
and infrastructure development. The main NSOM 2013 Mongolian Statistical Yearbook 2012. Ulaan-
non-governmental organizations include the baatar: National Statistical Office of Mongolia.
Montenegro 625
of total employment), and total contribution to

Montenegro employment was 30,500 jobs (18.3 % of total
employment); ▶ tourist exports generated $942.5
Aleksa Vučetić1 and Rick Lagiewski2 milliard (51.4 % of total exports), and travel and
1
The Faculty of Tourism and Hospitality, tourism ▶ investment was $280.5 milliard
The University of Montenegro, Kotor, (28.0 % of total investment) (WTTC 2014).
Montenegro Tourism ▶ development in Montenegro dated
2
Department of Hospitality and Tourism back to the year 1864, when hotel “Grand” was
Management, Rochester Institute of Technology, open in the old capital of Cetinje (Martinović
Rochester, USA 2002). Significant growth of foreign (inbound)
tourism started from the end of the 1970s, and it
was more significant after the independence of
Montenegro has an area of 13,812 km2 Montenegro in 2006. In 2012 tourist arrivals by
(5,387 mi2), with a population of 620,000 people region were 89.1 % coastal region, 7.7 % central
(MONSTAT 2013). The country is located in region, and 3.2 % north region, respectively
southeast ▶ Europe, bordered by ▶ Croatia, (MONSTAT 2013). Due to this distribution,
▶ Bosnia and Herzegovina, ▶ Serbia, Kosovo, arrivals are seasonally concentrated into the
and ▶ Albania (Figure 1). In 2013, direct contri- months of May, June, July, August, and Septem-
bution of ▶ travel and tourism was 9.8 % of total ber (Bigović 2012).
GDP (US$469.6 milliard), and its total contribu- The present strategy favors diversification of
tion was 20.0 % of GDP ($961.9 milliard); travel selective tourism types in three regions. The
and tourism directly supported 14,500 jobs (8.8 % coastal region is characteristic of cultural, health,
M
Montenegro, 0 20 40 km
19
Figure 1 Map of the
a
in
0 20 40 mi
Montenegro
Dr
BOSNIA AND Pljevlja SERBIA

HERZEGOVINA
Bobotov
Bijelo
43 kuk Polje Li 43
Piv Ta m
a ra
Nikšic Berane
KOSOVO
Herceg PODGORICA
Novi
CROATIA
Tivat Cetinje
Lake
Budva Scutari
Bar rin
D
42 ALBANIA 42
Adriatic Sea
Ulcinj
19 20
626 Morocco
nautical, wine, and ▶ fishing tourism. The central

region features business, sports, religious, educa- Morocco
tional, and ▶ hunting tourism, while the north
region attracts tourists for adventure, ▶ ecotour- Fernando Almeida-García1 and Samia Chahine2
ism, ▶ agritourism, and ▶ culinary tourism 1
School of Tourism, University of Malaga,
(Vučetić 2010). The most important European Málaga, Spain
source markets for Montenegro are Serbia, ▶ Rus- 2
Government of Morocco, Rabat, Morocco
sia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, ▶ Poland, ▶ Ger-
many, ▶ Czech Republic, ▶ France, Albania, and
Italia. Long-haul origins from outside of Europe Morocco is located in the northwest part of
include the ▶ United States, ▶ Australia, and ▶ Africa, with an area of 172,413 mi2 or
▶ Canada. 446,550 km2 (710,000 mi2, including Western
Montenegro is in the process of transition and Sahara). The country is bordered by ▶ Spain,
EU accession. In this sense, the greatest chal- ▶ Algeria, and ▶ Mauritania (Figure 1). In 2011,
lenges in the future development of the tourism the population reached 32.3 million, with a 58 %
▶ industry will include internationalization and urbanization rate and US$ 5,300 GDP per capita.
globalization of its businesses; the application of Its economy depends on agriculture, mining
modern information technology in the creation, (phosphates), remittances sent by migrants, and
promotion, and distribution of ▶ destination tourism.
products and tourism services; strategic The number of international tourists rose from
approaches to the development of more compet- 4.3 million in 2000 to ten million in 2013, an
itive human resources; ▶ sustainable tourism average annual growth of 10.2 %. In the same
development of selective types or alternatives; year, Morocco was the 25th most popular ▶ des-
and harmonization of development goals tination worldwide and first in Africa (UNWTO
between ▶ hospitality and tourist mediation 2014). In 2012, there were about two million
from one side and other business sectors from domestic tourists and 4.4 million overnight stays
the other side. (UNWTO 2012). Tourists are mostly Europeans
(▶ France, Spain, and ▶ Belgium). Tourism pro-
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ Europe, ▶ marine vides 450,000 jobs (Ministère du Tourisme 2012).
tourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ seasonality. Its contribution to GDP was 9.1 % in 2011 and
22.2 % of the national current account. Tourism
receipts were $6.7 billion in 2012. In 2011, the
References number of beds was 184,125 (UNWTO 2011).
The government has implemented professional
Bigović, M. 2012 The Strength and Dynamics of Seasonal ▶ certification for tourism and most public uni-
Concentration in Montenegro in Tourism. Turizam versities have related postgraduate programs.
16(3):102-112. During the period of the Protectorate
Martinović, D. 2002 Razvitak Turizma i Ugostiteljstva na
Cetinju. In Turizam Crne Gore u Drugoj Polovini XX (1912–1956), cultural tourists often visited the
Vijeka, D. Martinović, ed., pp.30. Cetinje: Prijestonica old imperial cities of Marrakesh, Fez, and
Cetinje, Ekonomski Fakultet Podgorica and Fakultet za Meknes (Berriane 2009). After independence in
Turizam i Hotelijerstvo Kotor. 1956, tourism was not greatly developed as it was
MONSTAT 2013 Statistical Yearbook. Podgorica: Monte-
negro Statistical Office. not considered to be a productive industry (Hillali
Vučetić, A. 2010 Strategic Approach to Development of Selec- 2007). In the 1960s and 1970s, however, the state
tive Tourism Destinations. Selective Tourism 5:5-16. intervened more actively and the major seaside
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2014 - destination of Agadir was built. The government
Montenegro. London: Travel and Tourism Research
Council. also created a network of state ▶ tourist
Motivation 627
Spain
Atlantic
Ocean Rabat
Morocco
Canary Islands
Morocco
Algeria
ha n
Sa ster
ra
e
W
Mauritania
Km
0 400 Source: Fernando Almeida
Morocco, Figure 1 Location and Map of Morocco
▶ accommodation that remained in use until the References

mid-1990s. Subsequently, economic adjustment
has brought about its closure or privatization. Berriane, M. 2009 Tourisme des Nationaux, Turisme des
Between 1994 and 1997, there was a sharp decline Étrangers: Quelles Articulations en Méditerranée?
Rabat: Faculté des Lettres.
in the number of arrivals as a result of the 1994 Hillali, M. 2007 La Politique du Tourisme au Maroc:
terrorist attacks in Marrakesh and the effects of the Diagnostic. Bilan et critique. Paris: Harmatton.
M
first Gulf War (Berriane 2009). Since 2000 there Ministère du Tourisme 2012 Observatoire du Tourisme.
has been a steady increase in the number of inter- Rabat: Gouvernement du Maroc.
UNWTO 2011-2014 World Fact Book. Madrid: World
national tourists. Tourism Organization.
In 2001, the “2010 Vision Plan” was
announced, emphasizing tourism as the main fac-
tor in development policy. Its objectives were to
achieve ten million tourists in 2010, to reach an
accommodation capacity of 230,000 beds, and to Motivation
build six large seaside resorts. By 2010, the num-
ber of arrivals had reached 9.3 million and there Graham M. S. Dann
were 178,000 beds. The “2020 Vision Plan” aims UiT Arctic University of Norway, Alta, Norway
to ensure that Morocco is among the top 20 desti-
nations worldwide. At present ▶ cultural tourism
products (old cities, crafts) and natural attractions Motivation is derived from the Latin verb movēre,
(Atlas Mountains, Sahara), in addition to seaside to move. Many quotidian understandings of
tourism, are promoted (Ministère du Tourisme movement in general can be extended to the
2012). In prospect, an assessment of the achieve- realm of tourism in particular. Here there are sev-
ments of tourism policy and its economic, social, eral motivationally grounded expressions that
and environmental impacts is required. indicate a continuum-like transition through
space, either temporarily as a ▶ tourist or more
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ development, permanently as an expatriate or migrant. Tourist
▶ planning, ▶ policy and policymaking. motivation is thus multivocal. Exploring its many
628 Motivation
manifestations constitutes various ways of corresponding social interactive environments.

researching the why factor in tourism. Nevertheless, Jamal and Lee (2003) contend that
In a useful state-of-the-art paper, Jamal and many of these more nuanced conceptual frame-
Lee (2003) draw a fundamental distinction works sometimes lack an adequate empirical
between micro and macro approaches to the dimension and that, while the justifiable addition
study of tourist motivation. The former that relate of the social can compensate for the deficiencies
to individuals are closely identified with psychol- of an individual orientation, the two approaches
ogy; they focus on disequilibrium in the personal still require integration if scholars are to fully
need system, the use of approach/avoidance models, understand the linkages between the experiential
and the like. Their protagonists include such tourism worlds of home and away. Only in this manner
scholars as John Crompton, Philip Pearce, Marie can tourism as production (macro) be united with
Caltabiano, and Seppo Iso-Ahola. They rely on tourism as consumption (micro). Jamal and Lee
authorities within their discipline, though outside illustrate their point by referring to such classical
their field, classicists like Abraham Maslow, who thinkers as Thorstein Veblen on conspicuous con-
maintains that the satisfaction of lower needs neces- sumption and Dann (1977) on ego enhancement
sarily precedes the fulfillment of higher needs until as motivation and by calling for related multidis-
the pinnacle of self-actualization is reached. These ciplinary research.
psychology-oriented tourism academics also make
the intradisciplinary distinction between intrinsic
and extrinsic motivations, although some, like Different research approaches
Seppo Iso-Ahola, even go so far as to claim that
his is consequently the unique discipline for One approach to the study of tourist motivation is
researching tourist motivation. Jamal and Lee, how- via typology. However, the benefits of typologies
ever, differ from him on this last point since they feel are limited, since at best they are only heuristic
that many of his accompanying assertions and devices that describe, rather than explain or pre-
related hypotheses have been inadequately tested. dict, and hence do not and cannot adequately
They, along with psychologist Gianna Moscardo, answer the all important “why” question under-
who cite later more developed works of Abraham pinning causality. On the other hand, motivation
Maslow, also challenge the assumption that only that is extracted from the tourist narratives of
tourism can provide correlated need satisfaction, personal information sources like interviews and
when equally a factor such as religion could perform diaries can adopt a grounded theory approach to
the identical task. For this reason they maintain that the content and semiotic analysis of data. By using
it is necessary to include a social dimension in order computer programs such as Atlas.ti, categories
to gain a more complete understanding of why emerge that are uniquely founded on the words
people ▶ travel. They also argue that this essential of the subjects rather than those of the researcher.
goal can only be achieved within tourism research Sometimes pictures/photographs can act as
by recourse to socially grounded disciplines that go stimuli for projective tests that are able to reveal
beyond the limited individual-focused explanations latent motivation by asking respondents to
of psychology. In other words, they would agree describe what they see in relation to the time
with Max Weber that sociologically, motivation immediately prior to their visit (pre-trip) and
lies at the basis of understanding and hence of now that they are experiencing the ▶ holiday
explanation and prediction, of all social activity, (on-site). On other occasions, motives can be
which, a fortiori, would include tourism. imputed. This technique is fruitful in understand-
The foregoing observation is demonstrated ing situations of a delicate nature such as tourist-
by recourse to such sociologists of tourism as beachboy encounters. Here the dramaturgical per-
Erik Cohen, Graham Dann, Dean MacCannell, spective of Erving Goffman is worthwhile in
and Ning Wang, all of whom offer theoretical understanding the imputation of roles (and hence
insights into tourist motivation grounded in motives) between ego and alter, along with the
Motivation 629
dynamics of altercasting consequent upon such belonging in the society of tourist generation)
interracial experiences. According to this can lead in turn to the pursuit of one or more
Symbolic-Interactionist view, the key to grasp- compensatory pull motives in the host people
ing motivation is how given situations are defined, and their society (a happy and carefree, joie de
since if defined as real, they are also real in their vivre population liberated from behavioral con-
consequences. straint). A short list of destinations with this
From approaches to examining tourist motiva- motivational match between demand and supply
tion, it is but a short step to outlining variations in is then drawn up by the tourists to be. This pre-trip
the dimensions of motivation, from single and exercise of choice is subsequently transferred to
dual to multiple (three or more). The ensuing the holiday location where on-trip touristic expe-
examples do not claim to be exhaustive or repre- riences are evaluated in terms of the earlier delib-
sentative. Among single motivation hypotheses eration at the cognitive and affective levels.
are Dean MacCannell’s tourism as a search for Where this assessment is positive, the tourist is
authenticity, Graham Dann’s fantasy as one of said to be satisfied; where it is neutral or negative,
the leading motives for travel, and Nelson various degrees of equilibrium or dissatisfaction
Graburn’s tourism as a quest for the sacred. are, respectively, attained.
What these three examples have in common is The foregoing situation is perfect for the use of
reliance on a single factor, even though it is path analysis. In terms of tourist motivation, a
extremely unlikely that 100 % of the variance relevant push/pull path model is as follows:
can be social-scientifically explained. Dual moti-
vational hypotheses include Erik Cohen’s “insti- Push motiveðsÞ ! Pull motiveðsÞ
tutionalized/non-institutionalized” tourist (based ! Decision where to go
on Georg Simmel’s binary distinction of familiar- ! ExperienceðsÞ
ity/strangerhood), Stanley Plog’s “psychocentric/
allocentric” tourist, H. Peter Gray’s distinction
! Satisfaction M
between “sunlust” and “wanderlust” tourism, ! New motiveðsÞ ðpromotion
Seppo Iso-Ahola’s “escape and seeking” to potential touristsÞ
(personal/interpersonal) motives, Alma Gottlieb’s
“king or queen for a day”/“peasant for a day,” Here the direction of causality proceeds from left
Ning Wang’s “love” side and “dark” side of tour- to right. However, in terms of explanation, the
ism as modernity, and Dann’s “push/pull” factors model travels from right to left. From the “why”
of tourism. Of all these binary variants, the last is of the new motive, further “why” questions are
generally acknowledged as having the greatest asked regressively about satisfaction, experi-
empirical validation. Finally, there are examples ence, decision, pull, and push. Moreover, it is
of multi-motivational hypotheses, including Erik only by the constant questioning of the final
Cohen’s phenomenology of tourist experiences, stage of the push motives that the researcher can
Philip Pearce’s career ladder model grounded on begin to capture the fullness of meaning for any
Abraham Maslow, and John Crompton’s early individual or type of individual. A series of whys
multivariate study based on Dann’s (1977) push/ hence continues at each stage until saturation
pull model. point is reached and the investigator can then
proceed to the next lower level. On the other
hand, if the response is positive, a similar process
The push/pull framework ensues, though now the accent is on the equally
favorable dimensions of each regressive step.
According to this widely accepted binary frame- Finally, it is worthwhile looking at examples of
work of tourist motivation (Dann 1977), one or well-received studies on tourist motivation. Based
more hypothetically identified push motives (such on Google Scholar of 2 July 2013, the eight most
as meaninglessness, normlessness, and lack of frequently cited articles are, in decreasing order,
630 Motivation
Crompton (1979), Dann (1981), Yoon and Uysal goal of in-order-to-motivation (and hence expla-
(2005), Crompton and McKay (1997), Fodness nation) becomes possible and researchable.
(1994), Gnoth (1997), Mansfeld (1992), and The phenomenon of tourism is thus based on the
Kozak (2002). However, this order changes notion of individual and interpersonal incomplete-
when annual mean citations are calculated to con- ness. If people travel in order to escape their daily
trol for the time factor. It is also possible to find environment, for example, it means that there is
comparable citation counts of articles on tourist something missing in the human psyche that
motivation that do not contain such words in their requires experiential fulfillment in Erik Cohen’s
titles (Dann 1977). “center out there.” Because this vital motivational
ingredient awaits tourists there, rather than being
present here, spatial movement becomes necessary
Unresolved issues and conclusion in order to attain it. Equally, it follows that the idea of
human incompleteness must refer to a missing ele-
Nevertheless, and in spite of these key publica- ment which somehow straddles the individual and
tions, there are still some unresolved issues the social and the micro and the macro. It is a lack of
concerning (international) tourist motivation. For belonging predicated on the degree of anomie in the
instance, why do tourists, in seeking to “get away home society (Dann 1977, 1981), whereby relief
from it all,” spend so much of their time mixing from such a domestic condition is temporarily
with fellow nationals abroad, especially since part exchanged for another abroad. Indeed, it is only
of the “it all” from which they wish to escape when the conditions of home are contrasted with
comprises people who, to all intents and purposes, the real or imaginary conditions of away that one has
appear to be virtually the same as themselves? an attempted matching of push and pull factors, a
However, an even more important unresolved situation of motivational understanding, and a goal
issue is the most fundamental and unsatisfacto- much sought after by promoters of destinations.
rily treated of them all, namely, “why do people
travel (abroad)?” Indeed, the answer to such a See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ conspicuous con-
crucial question that has so far eluded genera- sumption, ▶ escape, ▶ satisfaction, ▶ symbolic
tions of researchers needs to be asked serially interactionism.
and exhaustively before it can ultimately provide
complete dialogical responses that are mutually
and meaningfully acceptable to both the investi-
gator and the investigated. Yet, strangely, few References
analysts attempt to peel back the layers of surface
Crompton, J. 1979 Motivations for Pleasure Vacation.
and manifest tourist motivation in their inter- Annals of Tourism Research 6:408-424.
viewees, in order to reveal the in-depth latent Crompton, J., and K. McKay 1997 Motives of Visitors
variety below. Attending Festival Events. Annals of Tourism Research
We are thus reminded that the (Weberian) rea- 24:425-439.
Dann, G. 1977 Anomie, Ego-enhancement and Tourism.
son for posing the question “why” is that it Annals of Tourism Research 4:184-194.
requires adequate answers at the level of meaning. Dann, G. 1981 Tourist Motivation: An Appraisal. Annals
These auto-defined acts of self-justification are of Tourism Research 8:187-219.
spelt out in terms of the degree of reasonableness Fodness, D. 1994 Measuring Tourist Motivation. Annals of
for a given like-minded individual or group, Gnoth, J. 1997 Tourist Motivation and Expectation Forma-
where such people imaginatively construct their tion. Annals of Tourism Research 24:283-304.
Schutzian personal projects according to their Jamal, T., and J. Lee 2003 Integrating Micro and Macro
mentally projected courses of action. Indeed, it is Approaches to Tourist Motivations: Toward an Inter-
disciplinary Theory. Tourism Analysis 8:47-59.
only by being aware of these reflective conscious Kozak, M. 2002 Comparative Analysis of Tourist Motiva-
states, articulated in the future perfect tense (as if tions by Nationality and Destinations. Tourism Man-
they had already taken place), that the ultimate agement 23:221-232.
Motor coach tourism 631
Mansfeld, Y. 1992 From Motivation to Actual Travel. with tour wholesalers to transcontinental jour-
Annals of Tourism Research 19:399-419. neys such as from London to Sydney, a tour
Yoon, Y., and M. Uysal 2005 An Examination of the
Effects of Motivation and Satisfaction on Destination package may consist of hotel rooms, meals,
Loyalty: A Structural Model. Tourism Management ▶ accommodation, and visiting attractions and
26:45-56. ▶ sightseeing. While some bespoke coaches car-
rying two people over a month may have a full
kitchen, bathroom, bedroom, and living room,
others may carry up to 50 tourists over a short
Motor coach tourism distance and duration.
While the motor coach sector has responded to
Michael O’Regan the shifting economic, environmental, technolog-
Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, ical, and demographic winds, knowledge of pas-
Poole, UK senger motivations and behaviors is scant, except
for very specific contexts (Hsu and Lee 2002).
While researchers have largely focused on seniors
Escorted motor coach tourism is often perceived and the retired as representing the core markets for
as a “poor relation,” with its continued role in the coach tourism, preliminary research points to var-
development of domestic and ▶ international ious new segments, behaviors, and motivations.
tourism understated, and overlooked in the devel- From students, the disabled, and backpackers to
opment of infrastructure and attractions by desti- those seeking time for independent exploration,
nation marketing organizations and city and slow travel experiences, and more sustainable
transport planners. Its heyday was between the mobility, indications show that motor coach tour-
two world wars and the early 1970s, after railway ism will remain a growing segment. Operators
dominance, but before airborne package tours have also been at the forefront of innovations in
(Walton 2011). During this period, motor coaches ▶ technology, products, and services by increas-
M
made an important contribution toward developing passenger legroom and adding Wi-Fi, per-
ing national and international tourism across the sonal entertainment systems, and headsets. As
▶ United States and ▶ Europe. Even with the the absence of regulatory frameworks hampers
development of airborne package tours, coach the ▶ development of the sector in many parts of
travel has continued to be an important compo- the world, future research at local and national
nent of ▶ package tourism and has developed levels needs to focus on building up comprehen-
strong links to tourism-related companies and sive and up-to-date statistical data, such as eco-
destinations. From pairing with airlines to orga- nomic impacts and spending categories (Chacko
nize transfers and acting with attractions to build and Nebel 1993).
access areas to working with destination market-
ing organizations, accommodation providers, See also ▶ Destination marketing organization,
food ▶ service organizations, shopping malls, ▶ package tourism, ▶ transportation.
cultural sites, and ▶ tour guides, motor coach
tourism retains maneuverability and flexibility
by taking people where they want to go at a References
relatively low cost.
Chacko, H., and E. Nebel 1993 The Group Tour Industry:
Primarily provided by small- to medium-sized
An Analysis of Motorcoach Tour Operators. Journal of
enterprises, the advantages of motor coach tour- Travel & Tourism Marketing 2(1):69-83.
ism include flexibility, price, safety, security, and Hsu, C., and E. Lee 2002 Segmentation of Senior
the convenience of not having to plan routes, Motorcoach Travelers. Journal of Travel Research
40(4):364-373.
drive, arrange accommodation, fly, or make
Walton, J. 2011 The Origins of the Modern Package Tour?
▶ car rental reservations. From domestic day British Motor-coach Tours in Europe, 1930-70. The
trips, bespoke private hire, and partnerships Journal of Transport History 32(2):145-163.
632 Mountain tourism
of mountain recreational land use and related

Mountain tourism resources demands that a long-term view be
taken, especially if these resources, much like
Glen Olivier Cousquer the mountains themselves, are to avoid being
Institute of Geography, University of Edinburgh, degraded.
Edinburgh, Scotland, UK The protection of mountain ecosystems and
cultural heritage made it onto the global agenda,
following their inclusion on Agenda 21 of the
The mountain environment is harsh and challeng- UNCED Rio Summit and the declaration, by the
ing, especially in winter. Come spring, mountains UN General Assembly, that 2002 was to be both
provide seasonal grazing for livestock; other the International Year of Mountains and of Eco-
resources including minerals, crystals, fossils, tourism (Godde et al. 2000). Recognition of
and wildlife such as chamois and deer have also mountain tourism’s potential for developing
been exploited. Tourists passing through or visit- some of the world’s most marginalized and
ing mountainous regions have also served as a remote communities has led to the recognition
resource to those living in, and from, the moun- that both human and nonhuman community
tains. The gradual development and cultivation of members are being exploited (Cousquer and
this last resource has allowed mountain tourism to Allison 2012) and excluded from
emerge as a multifaceted and increasingly com- decisionmaking. At the local level, zoning
plex phenomenon, with tourists demanding a (Nepal and Chipeniuk 2005), ethical codes, and
wide range of services, facilities, and inputs increasing professionalism are required to better
(Price et al. 1997). These, in turn, provide signif- manage the emerging conflicts among different
icant work opportunities and revenue for moun- tourism-related stakeholders.
tain communities.
The remoteness, fragility, and mystery of See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ alpine tourism,
mountains have thus become resources in their ▶ desert tourism, ▶ skiing tourism, ▶ spa
own right. The resulting “commodification” of tourism.
mountains and packaging of various products for
the “tourist gaze” have seen alliances form
between guiding and marketing specialists. References
Where serious mountaineering activities and wil-
Beedie, P., and S. Hudson 2003 Emergence of Mountain-
derness experiences remain specialist niche based Adventure Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
products, many other experiences are marketed 30:625-643.
to mass tourists who seek a mountain experience Cousquer, G., and P. Allison 2012 Ethical Responsibilities
and the cultural capital this represents, without towards Expedition Pack Animals: The Mountain
Guide’s and Expedition Leader’s Ethical Responsibili-
having to leave their “urban frame” behind ties towards Pack Animals on Expedition. Annals of
(Beedie and Hudson 2003). Tourism Research 39:1839-1858.
In seeking to grow the number of tourists and Godde, P., M. Price, and F. Zimmermann 2000 Tourism
the contribution they make to mountain econo- and Development in Mountain Regions. Wallingford:
CABI.
mies, providers and planners need to understand Nepal, S., and R. Chipeniuk 2005 Mountain Tourism:
how to appeal to the tourists and service their Toward a Conceptual Framework. Tourism Geogra-
needs. In the interests of sustainability, however, phies 7:313-333.
it is imperative that mountain communities look Price, M., L. Moss, and P. Williams 1997 Tourism and
Amenity Migration. In Mountains of the World:
beyond supply and demand issues and consider A Global Priority, B. Messerli and J. Ives, eds.,
how tourism can best be managed. Management pp.249-280. London: Parthenon.
Mozambique 633
32 40
Mozambique TANZANIA
Sam Jones
Lake
Department of Economics, University of Nyasa
Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark ZAMBIA
12
Pemba
Lichinga
MALAWI
Mozambique is a former Portuguese colony Cidade
de Nacala
located on the coast of Southeast Africa. It is the
Nampula
35th largest country in the world, with an area of 30
800,000 km2 (308,881 mi2) and 24 million inhab- Tete

Za
mb
itants. It is a low-income country and its main ez i
Quelimane
exports are aluminum, electricity, and agricultural
products (Figure 1). Chimoio
l
ne
ZIMBABWE
The country’s main attractions are its beach
an
Monte Beira
Ch
and marine resources: tropical archipelagos Binga
ue
(Bazaruto and Quirimbas) and coral reefs suitable
biq
for leisure diving. Sport fishing and whale
zam
Vila Eduardo
watching are popular. Large nature reserves cater Mondlane
Mo
to “big game” viewing. An initiative links the Inhambane
24 24
Limpopo National Park in Mozambique to
▶ South Africa’s Kruger Park. Other important
reserves include the Gorongosa National Park MAPUTO
and the Niassa Reserve (which covers over SWAZ.

M
42,000 km2). INDIAN
SOUTH
Internal conflict from the late 1970s to early AFRICA OCEAN
1990s decimated a once thriving tourism ▶ indus-
0 100 200 km
try. Today, Mozambique attracts mainly highly 32 40
0 100 200 mi
seasonal and relatively low-spending regional
tourists, especially South Africans who self- Mozambique, Figure 1 Map of Mozambique
drive to beaches in the south (Jones 2010).
Given its recent recovery from conflict, Mozam- 2012). Tourism has strong linkages to the domes-
bique is perceived as an “exotic” and “pristine” tic economy as compared to ▶ other industries
▶ destination that attracts a small European and (Jones 2010).
North American market. Business ▶ travel is sig- The government has identified tourism as an
nificant, but concentrated in the capital city or ▶ industry with growth potential. The Ministry of
around natural resource deposits. Tourism was established in 2000. In 2008, the
Data on ▶ tourist numbers and their economic National Institute for Tourism was established
contribution is not easy to verify (Jones 2007). for investor relations and international promotion.
Official figures reported about two million arrivals A number of tertiary educational institutions offer
in 2012 versus 500,000 in 2000. Estimates sug- undergraduate courses in tourism ▶ management.
gest that tourism contributes, directly and indi- Mozambique’s major challenges in developing
rectly, 7 % of national income (US$1 billion) tourism include a poor road and transport struc-
and provides around 500,000 jobs (WTTC ture, high ▶ air transport costs, absence of
634 Multiculturalism
effective ▶ conservation, environmental conse- peoples. In the ▶ United States, however, the con-
quences of natural resource extraction (e.g., off- cept often refers to disadvantaged groups, includ-
shore gas), inadequate human capital (Blanke and ing African Americans, women, gays and
Chiesa 2013), unnecessary government bureau- lesbians, and the disabled.
cracy, weak spatial ▶ planning, and security Multicultural societies are fair and tolerant,
tensions. protect minority communities and their dignity
(Trotman 2002), recognize group identities, facil-
See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ marine tourism, itate integration, give the best chance of
▶ safari, ▶ seasonality, ▶ South Africa. succeeding (Modood 2007), and offer standards
for resolving differences among all cultural com-
munities (Bhikhu 2002). According to the
References UNESCO, multiculturalism is a vector of ▶ iden-
tity, values, and meanings and a source of
Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa, eds. 2013 The Travel and Tour- exchange, ▶ innovation, and creativity contribut-
ism Competitiveness Report 2013: Reducing Barriers
ing to sustainable development and humanizing
to Economic Growth and Job Creation. Geneva: World
Economic Forum. ▶ globalization, hence vital for the long-term sur-
Jones, S. 2007 A Economia de Turismo em Moçambique: vival of humanity.
Tamanho, Impacto, e Implicações. DNEAP Discussion Multiculturalism is an official national policy
Paper 55P, Direcção Nacional de Estudos e Análise de
in ▶ Australia, ▶ Canada, and the United States.
Políticas. Maputo: Ministério de Planificação e
Desenvolvimento, República de Moçambique. Although adopted by many member states of the
Jones, S. 2010 The Economic Contribution of Tourism in European Union, some countries returned to
Mozambique: Insights from a Social Accounting monoculturalism due to evidence of segregation
Matrix. Development Southern Africa 27:679-696.
and racism (the ▶ Netherlands, ▶ Denmark) or
Mozambique. London: World Travel and Tourism questioning the benefits of multicultural poli-
Council. cies and the effectiveness of integrating immi-
grants (the ▶ United Kingdom, ▶ France,
▶ Germany, ▶ Norway, ▶ Spain, and ▶ Swit-
zerland). Critics argue that multiculturalism
Multiculturalism enhances differences rather than commonali-
ties, increases hatred, undervalues a nation’s
Yvette Reisinger unity, erodes the host culture, promotes desta-
College of Business Administration, Gulf bilization, and leads to social confusion and,
University for Science and Technology, Mubarak most importantly, causes human conflicts and
Al-Abdullah, Kuwait wars (Huntington 1996).
In tourism, multiculturalism represents a com-
plex debate and can only be achieved through
Multiculturalism arises as a government’s philo- multicultural education and promotion of cultural
sophical and political response to civilization diversity. Its importance will grow through
development. It promotes different cultures and a increasing ▶ migration (business, touristic, eco-
specific orientation toward a culturally different nomic, and political), growing international own-
population. This position advocates the inclusion ership, and changes in demographics. The global
of distinct cultural, ethnic, and religious groups, trend will be calling for cultural assimilation, and
with equal status, rights, and opportunities local trends will be encouraging diversity, differ-
(Reisinger 2009), because every ▶ culture and ences, and uniqueness and calling for self-
▶ race makes a substantial contribution to its soci- recognition. Cultural assimilation may not be pos-
ety. The term is usually used to describe society sible because there will not be one dominant cul-
consisting of ethnic and religious minority immi- tural model; the only solution will be cultural
grant cultures, minority nations, and indigenous adaptation and integration.
Multidestination trip 635
Only few multicultural studies exist in tourism factors which influence multidestination trip
(Pizam 1999; Reisinger 2009). Research should behavior and, two, the examination and modeling
examine the cultural impacts on ▶ tourist behav- of itineraries. In the former, spatial distribution of
ior; cultural background of immigrants (a growing tourists across destinations is influenced by a
multicultural tourist market and workforce); and number of factors, such as distance from the coun-
multicultural competence, ▶ education, and try of origin and distance between or among des-
▶ training in tourism. tinations, location of attractions, transport
network, individual characteristics of tourists,
See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ cross-cultural study, ▶ time, and budget availability. In the latter, sev-
▶ culture shock, ▶ immigration, ▶ international eral models of itineraries have been proposed.
tourism. McKercher and Lew (2004) group them into
four main types. Combined with three different
transit components and three destination touring
References components, they help to identify different itiner-
ary types.
Bhikhu, P. 2002 Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural From an empirical point of view, the study of
Diversity and Political Theory. Boston: Harvard Uni- multidestination trips and of itineraries presents
versity Press.
Huntington, S. 1996 The Clash of Civilizations and the
significant problems in collecting, interpreting,
Remaining of World Order. New York: Simon and and synthesizing data. First, official data on
Shuster. multidestination trips is often unavailable, both
Modood, T. 2007 Multiculturalism: A Civic Idea. London: at an international (visit to several countries) and
Polity.
Pizam, A. 1999 Cross-cultural Tourist Behavior. In Con-
at a national/regional (visit to several destinations
sumer Behavior in Travel and Tourism, A. Pizam and within the same nation/▶ region) levels. As a
Y. Mansfeld, eds., pp.393-411. Binghampton: main consequence, most research has been
Haworth. conducted through ad hoc surveys or through the
M
Reisinger, Y. 2009 International Tourism: Cultures and
Behavior. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
comparison of official data from different sources.
Trotman, C. (ed.) 2002 Multiculturalism: Roots and Real- Second, multidestination trips have an effect on
ities. Indiana: Indiana University Press. the interpretation of data on tourism flows, since it
generates a double counting effect of the number
of tourists (De Cantis et al. 2015). The higher the
number of visited destinations and the larger the
Multidestination trip geographical context of study, the greater the
effect will be.
Mauro Ferrante1 and Stefano De Cantis2 Third, synthesizing and documenting hundreds
1
Facoltà di Economia, Department of Culture and of thousands of individual travel routes is not an
Society, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy easy task, and it is still a major research challenge.
2
Department of Economics, Business and Some methodologies, often derived from different
Statistics, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy disciplines, have been proposed. These include
the ▶ network analysis or the sequence alignment
method derived from genetics, and the emergence
Multidestination trips are characterized by the of GIS (geographic information system) and of
movement from tourist-generating regions to tracking technologies (Shoval and Isaacson 2010)
more than one single destination during the same can address methodological issues related to the
trip. Implicitly, the definition is highly dependent analysis of spatial movement of tourists.
on the geographical range used to define destina- Expanding the ▶ knowledge on models and
tions (Hwang and Fesenmaier 2003). main determinants of tourist mobility at different
The literature on the subject can be grouped territorial levels and filling the tourism data gap
into two broad categories: one, the analysis of (Lam and McKercher 2013) on multidestination
636 Multidimensional scaling
trips represent major challenges for ▶ future tour- (metric). The number of similarity matrices and the
ism research. nature of models can also classify multidimensional
scaling types. This classification yields classical
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ destination, ▶ distance technique (one matrix, unweighted model), repli-
decay, ▶ mobility, ▶ region. cated model (several matrices, unweighted), and
weighted model (several matrices, weighted).
Multidimensional scaling has its origins in
References psychometrics where it was proposed to help
understand people’s judgments of the similarity
De Cantis, S., A. M., Parroco, M. Ferrante, and F. Vaccina of members of a set of objects. The work of
2015 Unobserved Tourism. Annals of Tourism
Torgerson (1958), evolving from that of Richard-
Research 50:1-18.
Hwang, Y., and D. Fesenmaier 2003 Multidestination Plea- son (1938), proposed the first method and coined
sure Trip Patterns: Empirical Evidence from the American the term. According to Schiffman et al. (1981),
Travel Survey. Journal of Travel Research 42:166-171. multidimensional scaling has become a general
Lam, C., and B. McKercher 2013 The Tourism Data Gap:
data analysis technique used in a wide variety of
The Utility of Official Tourism Information for the
Hospitality and Tourism Industry. Tourism Manage- fields. For example, Young and Hamer (1994) pre-
ment Perspectives 6:82-94. sent its applications in such diverse fields as mar-
McKercher, B., and A. Lew 2004 Tourist Flows and the keting, sociology, physics, political science, and
Spatial Distribution of Tourists. In A Companion to
biology.
Tourism, A. Lew, M. Hall and A. Williams, eds.,
pp.36-48. Malden: Blackwell. The potential use of multidimensional scaling
Shoval, N., and M. Isaacson 2010 Tourist Mobility and in tourism studies has been proved increasingly,
Advanced Tracking Technologies. London: Routledge. showing that it can provide more than a complex
technique for simplifying data sets. It can, and has
been, used to test hypotheses and conceptual argu-
ments in the tourism literature (Fenton and Pearce
Multidimensional scaling 1988). Further, multidimensional scaling has been
successfully used to help understand the behavior
Guilherme Castela and Eugénia Castela of tourists, to perform segmentations of the mar-
Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, ket, and to contribute to the development of
Faro, Portugal ▶ destination marketing and branding. It is also
a good tool to assess tourist’s perceptions of des-
tinations, to measure types of cultural landscapes,
Multidimensional scaling is a quantitative data to analyze destination images, and to evaluate
analysis multivariate technique. It provides a competitiveness.
visual representation of the pattern of proximities
(similarities or distances) among a set of objects, See also ▶ Cluster analysis, ▶ principal compo-
using a factorial approach, to simplify and reduce nent analysis, ▶ quantitative research.
data sets. With this method, an individual’s judg-
ments of similarity or preference are transformed
into distances and represented in a
multidimensional space or perceptual map. The References
resulting perceptual maps illustrate the relative
Fenton, M., and P. Pearce 1988 Multidimensional Scaling
positioning of all objects, helping to identify key and Tourism Research. Annals of Tourism Research
differences underlying respondents’ evaluations. 15:236-254.
Multidimensional scaling is a generic term Richardson, M. 1938 Multidimensional Psychophysics.
including many different specific types. They can Psychological Bulletin 35:659-660.
Schiffman, S., M. Reynolds, and F. Young 1981 Introduc-
be classified according to whether the similarities of tion to Multidimensional Scaling. New York: Aca-
data are qualitative (nonmetric) or quantitative demic Press.
Multidisciplinarity 637
Torgerson, W. 1958 Theory and Methods of Scaling. New of its parts (Choi and Pak 2007). For example, in a
York: Wiley. multidisciplinary team, tourism ▶ development in
Young, F., and R. Hamer 1994 Theory and Applications of
Multidimensional Scaling. Hillsdale: Eribaum. a ▶ destination may be studied independently by
economists, urban planners, historians, and soci-
ologists by using their own assumptions and
methodologies. At the end of the project,
researchers from each field provide their findings
Multidisciplinarity and recommendations independently from the
perspective of their own disciplines. However,
Fevzi Okumus and Mathilda van Niekerk the theories, methodologies, research findings,
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, and recommendations by economists may be dif-
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA ferent from those put forward by the sociologists.
In other words, multidisciplinary research does
not fully facilitate a thorough synthesis of two or
A discipline is defined as a detailed knowledge more disciplines to create and integrate new
area with distinct borders, a shared “language” knowledge. To achieve this, interdisciplinary
among its academic members, and widely shared research is required.
paradigms (Alvargonzalez 2011; Leavy 2011).
Specialization in one discipline may, however,
blind one to the broader context of a research Interdisciplinary research
problem and can create a tunnel vision. It can
also cause a lack of or limited appreciation of Although multidisciplinary research and interdis-
other perspectives (Leavy 2011). Creative break- ciplinary research are often used synonymously,
throughs often require knowledge from multiple they have different meanings. The latter refers to
disciplines (Repko 2012). As such, a single disci- an active collaboration between two or among
M
pline may fail to address complex problems; more disciplines to work together on a research
researchers are therefore encouraged to engage project. The researchers are expected to go
in multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies. beyond their disciplinary borders; question their
own methodologies, goals, and assumptions; and,
if necessary, learn and integrate new epistemol-
Multidisciplinary research ogies and methodologies to conduct investigation
(Leavy 2011; Repko 2012). In an interdisciplinary
Multidisciplinary research refers to collaboration research, the autonomy of each discipline is not
from two or more disciplines to work on a maintained (Choi and Pak 2007). Integration and
research project while each discipline maintains active participation among scholars from different
its own borders, epistemologies, methodologies, disciplines are expected during the research pro-
and values. Autonomy of these disciplines is cess and in writing the study findings (Choi and
maintained during the investigation process, and Pak 2006, 2007; Leavy 2011; Repko 2012).
integration is restricted only to the findings (Choi In reference to the above example, in an inter-
and Pak 2006; Leavy 2011). Multidisciplinary disciplinary research project, economists, plan-
approach can offer a broader multilevel view on ners, historians, and sociologists may jointly
research questions, and it can yield better results study tourism development in a destination. The
compared to a single discipline study, which lacks participating researchers can bring their own epis-
cross-fertilization. temologies and methodologies to the study, but
Disciplines represented in a multidisciplinary they are expected to also appreciate and learn
investigation tend to remain self-contained and from other disciplines and to utilize them. During
there is often a lack of synergy among them. In the investigation, there is an ongoing interaction
such a case, the results are not greater than the sum and collaboration in the study design, data
638 Multinational firm
collection, preparation of the findings, and benefits to engage in such endeavors. Tourism
recommendations. scholars should also share their experiences in
working with multidisciplinary and interdisciplin-
ary research teams.
Multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary
research in tourism
See also ▶ Epistemology, ▶ methodology,
Tourism is a complex ▶ phenomenon, and there ▶ paradigm, ▶ scholarship.
have been ongoing discussions on whether it is a
discipline or a field of study (Darbellay and Stock
2012), with numerous disciplines having contrib-
uted to its understanding for the past several
decades (Weiler and Moyle 2012). In general, References
tourism studies have been either single discipline
Alvargonzalez, D. 2011 Multidisciplinarity, Interdisciplin-
or multidisciplinary focused. Therefore, more
arity, Transdisciplinarity and the Science. International
interdisciplinary studies need to be encouraged Studies in Philosophy of Science 25(4):387-403.
(Darbellay and Stock 2012). However, this Choi, B., and W. Pak 2006 Multidisciplinarity, Interdisci-
requires that PhD students and scholars in tourism plinarity, and Transdisciplinarity in Health Research,
Services, Education and Policy: Definitions, Objectives
are educated and trained on how to carry out
and Evidence of Effectiveness. Clinical and Investiga-
multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary projects. tive Medicine 29(6):351-364.
Specific mechanisms, requirements, and incen- Choi, B., and W. Pak 2007 Multidisciplinarity, Interdisci-
tives are needed to facilitate such undertakings. plinarity, and Transdisciplinarity in Health Research,
Services, Education and Policy: Promoters, Barriers,
Administrators of ▶ universities and tourism pro-
and Strategies of Enhancement. Clinical and Investiga-
grams should encourage and incentivize multidis- tive Medicine 30(6):224-232.
ciplinary and interdisciplinary research projects Darbellay, F., and M. Stock 2012 Tourism as Complex
and value research outputs from such endeavors. Interdisciplinary Research Object. Annals of Tourism
Multidisciplinary and interdisciplinary studies
Leavy, P. 2011 Essentials of Transdisciplinary Research.
have advantages over those with single discipline Walnut Creek: Left Coast Press.
approaches. However, this does not mean that Repko, A. 2012 Interdisiplinary Research Process and
every tourism project requires involvement of Theory. Thousand Oaks: Sage.
Weiler, B., and B. Moyle 2012 Disciplines That Influence
multiple disciplines. Some projects may be simple
Tourism Doctoral Research: The United States, Can-
and easy to carry out by one or two scholars; some ada, Australia and New Zealand. Annals of Tourism
others may be too complex to be carried out by Research 39:1425-1445.
tourism experts alone, requiring experts from
multiple disciplines to join forces. In such circum-
stances, multidisciplinary or interdisciplinary
research teams are formed; collaborators are Multinational firm
briefed and trained about the project’s goals,
methods, timeline, and the expected outcomes, Eliza Ching-Yick Tse
as well as the backgrounds and roles of each Department of Hospitality Management,
researcher in the whole team. When the research University of Missouri, Columbia, USA
problem is complex, important insights into the
problem could be offered by more than one disci-
pline, and therefore, using a multidisciplinary or A multinational firm, also known as a multina-
interdisciplinary approach can be beneficial. tional corporation, is a corporation that has
Future research should focus on the advantages expanded its business internationally. Although
and disadvantages of multidisciplinary and inter- tourism activities have existed since the beginning
disciplinary research as well as the barriers and of civilization in its primitive forms, the early
Multiplier effect 639
twentieth century has witnessed the international- Additionally, the role of governments has signif-
ization of this industry as the world economy icant impacts on the globalization process of mul-
entered a new period of major development. tinational corporations. National policies are
As tourism matures domestically, it competes among the major drivers of multinational growth,
for expansion and profitability within the interna- enabling the ease of travel, providing financial
tional sphere. Major global players like Marriott incentives, offering tax “holiday,” and allowing
and Disney generate a substantial portion of their repatriation of foreign currencies.
revenues from international markets. The industry An array of issues requires attention in regard
is both unique and complex; it has a finite and to future research. For instance, applying existing
perishable nature, as its services cannot be expe- theories/models derived from developed countries
rienced from a distance or without direct social to developing countries as well as the creation of
interaction between the supplier and the consumer sustainable tourism policies to balance social
(Anastassopoulos et al. 2009). At the same time, impact with economic gain will be essential con-
its business facet is composed of large multina- siderations for continual growth of the industry as
tional corporations and a significant number of multinational businesses.
local small- and medium-sized enterprises. The
global expansion of US brands, emergence of See also ▶ Economic development, ▶ franchis-
budget airlines, diminishing political barriers, ing, ▶ globalization, ▶ international tourism,
and easy access to online information create ▶ investment.
great demands and bring a homogenous front to
tourists’ experiences. The impact of globalization
alters consumer lifestyles and also creates a chal- References
lenging and risky international environment for
multinational corporations to manage their busi- Anastassopoulos, G., F. Filippaios, and P. Phillips 2009 An
nesses across the various functional areas. These Eclectic Investigation of Tourism Multinationals. Inter- M
national Journal of Hospitality Management
are stemming from the major differences in legis- 28:185-194.
lative systems and socioeconomic and financial Andergassen, R., and G. Candela. 2013 Less Developed
conditions of various countries. Examples of such Countries, Tourism Investments and Local Economic
challenges include the level of maturity of the host Development. Review of Development Economics
17(1):16-33.
market, international hospitality consumers, cul- Teare, R., and M. Olsen, ed. 1992 International Hospitality
tural diversity, corporate culture, management Management: Corporate Strategy in Practices. London:
style, degree of marketing, and technology trans- Pitman.
fer (Teare and Olsen 1992).
To expand, multinational firms have a choice
of different entry modes. Management chooses
among direct ownership, franchising, manage- Multiplier effect
ment contract, strategic alliances, or consortia
and decides on the most viable business format. Emily Ma
Foreign direct investment is a leading economic Griffith Business School, Griffith University,
development strategy for a multinational firm, Brisbane, Australia
particularly for emerging economies. It is also an
effective means in the development of infrastruc-
ture and knowledge transfer, as well as for gaining An important component of research is to estimate
access to global marketing (Andergassen and the economic impacts of tourism. Input–output
Candela 2013). Oftentimes, the business model (I-O) models have been widely used to estimate
that multinational corporations choose would be tourism’s contributions to an economy (Crompton
country specific and may even be different from et al. 2001; Lee and Taylor 2005). The intent is to
the ones espoused in their domestic markets. estimate the increase in an economy by directly
640 Museum
calculating the increase in output and also by References

considering the growth in related industries, such
as suppliers of other goods and services (Kim Crompton, J., S. Lee, and T. Shuster 2001 A Guide for
Undertaking Economic Impact Studies: The Springfest
et al. 2003). A key concept in understanding I-O
Example. Journal of Travel Research 40:79-87.
models is the multiplier effect. Khan, H., C. Seng, and W. Cheong 1990 Tourism Multi-
A multiplier in economics is a ratio that mea- plier Effects on Singapore. Annals of Tourism Research
sures how much a dependent variable changes in 17:408-418.
Kim, S., K. Chon, and K. Chung 2003 Convention Industry
response to a change in the independent variable.
in South Korea: An Economic Impact Analysis. Tour-
Tourism multiplier effect, in simple terms, refers ism Management 24:533-541.
to how many times money spent by a ▶ tourist can Lee, C., and T. Taylor 2005 Critical Reflections on the
circulate in a country’s economy. Tourism can Economic Impact Assessment of a Mega-event: The
Case of 2002 FIFA World Cup. Tourism Management
directly contribute to the ▶ development of the
26:595-603.
economy by bringing in income and generating Vanhove, N. 2005 The Economics of Tourism Destina-
new ▶ employment opportunities (Khan tions. Burlington: Elsevier.
et al. 1990). More importantly, it can contribute
to economy through the growth of primary and
secondary sectors of the industry, which is known
as the multiplier effect. Museum
There are three types of multiplier effects:
direct, indirect, and induced impacts. The former Heredina Fernandez-Betancort1 and Agustín
refers to the first-round effect of spending by Santana-Talavera2
1
tourists (Vanhove 2005). The initial injection of Escuela Universitaria de Turismo of Lanzarote,
the money can provide revenues for hotels, air- University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
lines, ▶ travel agencies, restaurants, and attrac- Tahíche, Lanzarote, Spain
2
tions (Khan et al. 1990). It can also help create I.U. Ciencias Políticas y Sociales, University of
jobs in these sectors; this effect belongs to the La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
direct economic impacts of tourism. These
impacts, when put together, can further cause
indirect and induced effects (Vanhove 2005). Indi- Museums are “generally designed to select, study
rect impacts include the ripple effect of and display material and intangible evidence of man
recirculating the initial tourists’ expenditures. and his environment” (Desvallées and Mairesse
A hotel, for example, has to buy food from local 2010:56), representing the theoretical and practical
suppliers in order to meet its guests’ needs. This museological perspectives that exist at present.
could help the development of the farming indus- A museum encompasses not only “institutions but
try. Induced impacts are further ripple effects also places, territories, and experiences” (Desvallées
caused by employees of impacted industries and Mairesse 2010:58) for which it offers mediation
spending their earnings within a ▶ destination and interpretation. Thus, the concept is evolving
country. The total effects can be calculated through a process of constant reflections on its pur-
through different types of multipliers, including pose and functioning, moving towards higher com-
output, employment, income, value-added tax, plexity, expansion, and diversity.
and imports. ▶ Future research looking into mul- The social, economic, and cultural changes of
tiplier effects on emerging destinations can pro- the second half of the twentieth century substan-
vide valuable data and findings about tourism’s tially modified the mission and vision of museums
contribution to local economy and will be essen- and their relationship with society. If originally
tial to strategic decisionmaking. they all shared a given exclusivity to certain pub-
lics, they soon began to be part of the ▶ tourist
See also ▶ Economics, ▶ input-output analysis, offer and of the strategic planning of destinations.
▶ impact. Museums are characterized by the content of their
Museumization 641
collections (art, history, science), by their ▶ loca- References

tion (historical buildings, open air museums,
archaeological parks, site museums), by their Desvallées, A., and F. Mairesse 2010 Key Concepts of
Museology. Paris: ICOM/Armand Collin.
ownership (public, private, mixed), or by manage-
Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, B. 1998 Destination Museums. In
ment typology (state, community, entrepreneur- Destination Culture: Tourism, Museums and Heritage,
ial). Like tourism operators, museums have B. Kirshenblatt-Gimblett, ed., pp.131-176. Los
begun to focus their ▶ discourse and presentation Angeles: University of California Press.
Prentice, R. 2001 Experiential Cultural Tourism: Museums
on demand, moving from the object (content) to
and the Marketing of the New Romanticism of Evoked
the subject (visitors). Authenticity. Museum Management and Curatorship
Museums reproduce, moderate, and create 19:1, 5–26.
simultaneously the ▶ destination’s discourses on
its identity, history, and culture (Kirshenblatt-
Gimblett 1998:132). The twenty-first century tour-
ist feels increasingly motivated to search for expe- Museumization
riences and the enjoyment of heritage (Prentice
2001:22). This relationship between museums Amareswar Galla1 and Dália Paulo2
1
and tourism has been conditioned by coincidences, International Institute for the Inclusive Museum,
dependencies, and differences. It generates con- New Delhi, India
flicts when affected by overcrowding, degradation, 2
Municipal Museum of Loulé, Loulé, Portugal
homogenization, and trivialization of the values
exposed. The challenge is to reconcile the prepara-
tion for tourists’ visits with the protection of the Museumization is the phenomenon of presenting
social, cultural, and educational values of these and interpreting cultural groups and their repre-
heritage sites. Although tourism and museums sentative tangible and intangible heritage. It has
have different operational logics, both are faced produced stereotypes derived from the past con-
M
with the need to understand their role and their structions of the ▶ Other, such as the “fluffs and
involvement in sociocultural transformations. feathers” image of Native Americans or the
At present, even though museums are freezing of indigenous peoples and minorities
experiencing an unprecedented growth due to the in the old anthropological time frames. The
increase of ▶ cultural tourism and of global unraveling of this colonial discourse has been a
▶ mobility, they are also faced with a series of concern in ▶ heritage tourism and sustainable
issues that will prevail in the ▶ future. First, there ▶ development. Participatory democracy and
are technical matters, such as funding, load factor the imperative to accommodate multiple voices
management, and ▶ innovation so as to improve have been transformational (Ames 1992). The
the experience, including the integration of emerg- recognition of contextual worldviews based on
ing communication technologies. Other issues are mutual respect and cross-cultural understanding
the dialogue and effective participation of stake- provides positive examples in experiential
holders, in order to strike a sustainable balance tourism (West 2015). However, critiques of con-
between conservation and new uses for economic temporary reconfigurations of aesthetic consid-
reasons as well as for sociocultural and educational erations and rethinking of collections of the
purposes. Future efforts need to focus on improv- Other are contributing to new perspectives
ing stakeholder dialogues and the strategies for (Price 2007). Hence, appropriate capacity build-
managing these spaces, based on users’ experience, ing through accountability based on benefits to
and on generating shared solutions for current con- primary stakeholder communities has become an
flicts and potential future uses. integral part of sustainable development dis-
course (Galla 2012).
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ his- Tourism has become the main agency over the
tory, ▶ museumization, ▶ identity. past decades for museumization of local
642 Music tourism
community values. The process and its contesta- References

tion have been accentuated due to the rapid
growth of museums, heritage sites, and Ames, M. 1992 Cannibal Tours and Glass Boxes. Vancou-
ver: University of British Columbia Press.
themeparks in the recreational spectrum across
Galla, A. (ed.) 2012 World Heritage: Benefits Beyond
the world together with the demand for meaning- Borders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press and
ful ▶ tourist experiences. Such spaces mediate UNESCO.
multiple meanings, depending on the agency, dia- Price, S. 2007 Paris Primitive. Chicago: The University of
Chicago Press.
lectic between the host institution and source, or
Salazar, N., and N. Graburn (eds.) 2014 Tourism Imagi-
stakeholder communities of the cultural resource. naries. New York: Berghahn.
Examples of prominent sites of historic interpre- West, Jr., R. 2015 The Making of the National Museum of
tations include Colonial Williamsburg, ▶ United the American Indian. Champaign: Common Ground.
States; Sovereign Hill, ▶ Australia; and Pilgrim’s
Rest, ▶ South Africa. Ancient towns worldwide
like Hoi An, ▶ Vietnam; Kyoto and Nara,
▶ Japan; Bharatpur, ▶ Nepal; and Bruges, ▶ Bel- Music tourism
gium all provide “authentic” experiences through
interpretation and management strategies. The Chris Gibson
Smithsonian Institution is an example of an edu- Australian Centre for Cultural Environmental
cational and heritage tourism cultural space. Research, University of Wollongong,
Intersectionality of race, gender, class, faith, Wollongong, Australia
and power embedded in the hegemonic dis-
courses that continue to dominate cultural and
heritage tourism is also being interrogated. The Music tourism refers to the suite of practices, sites,
plurality of perspectives and multiplicity of and events for which people travel in the pursuit
meanings enrich the tourism ▶ discourse (Galla of music and sites of music history or for pure
2012). These are visualized in different contex- aural pleasure. Music and tourism are variously
tual spaces, including hotels in the tourism and related. Music may be a prime motivation for
▶ hospitality industries (Salazar and Graburn ▶ travel or provide an unconscious but vital
2014). ▶ UNWTO Global Code of ▶ Ethics for sound track to a holiday experience.
Tourism, UNESCO Conventions, ICOMOS Hundreds of destinations have emerged glob-
▶ Cultural Tourism Charter, and ICOM Cultural ally connected to musical heritages and reputa-
Diversity Charter provide aspirational frame- tions (Gibson and Connell 2005). In a few cases,
works so that museumization is not including Liverpool, the ▶ United Kingdom
disempowering. ▶ Responsible tourism in the (home of the Beatles), Nashville, and the southern
UN post-2015 Development Agenda could cities of Memphis and New Orleans, music has
ensure dignity and benefits to all stakeholders. come to form the basis of city-wide tourism
Future research directions include the ▶ marketing strategies (Cohen 2007). Music is
safeguarding of the first voice of primary stake- arguably the most important cultural asset in
holders as carriers and transmitters of living her- these cities. Some people benefit economically
itage (Galla 2012; West 2015), rigorous from growth in music tourism, including musi-
interrogation of the ▶ ethics of community cians themselves who find work playing for tour-
engagement in experiential tourism, and new ists, while others remain critical of stereotyping
models and modalities of interpretation manage- and ▶ commercialization. The risk is of music
ment to ensure the integrity of local narratives. becoming formulaic or predictable when
performed in tourism settings.
See also ▶ Aboriginal tourism, ▶ heritage, Other destinations, regions, and nations have
▶ interpretation, ▶ museum, ▶ representation, been marketed through iconic festivals, venues, or
cultural. styles of music and dance: Goa and trance techno,
Myanmar 643
Austin’s live rock music scene, flamenco in Gibson, C., and J. Connell 2005 Music and Tourism.
Andalucia, the Glastonbury Festival, and Ibiza’s Clevedon: Channel View.
Waitt, G., and M. Duffy 2010 Listening and Tourism
clubbing scene. Sometimes the link is with indi- Studies. Annals of Tourism Research 37:457-477.
vidual performers: places of birth, death, resi-
dence, or song lyrics (Gibson and Connell
2005). Hence, Montgomery, Alabama, has the
Hank Williams Museum, and Lubbock, Texas, a Myanmar
similar museum and cultural center named for
Buddy Holly. The most famous example is Don Hawkins
Graceland in Memphis, Elvis Presley’s mansion, School of Business, George Washington
now an attraction of national (if not global) sig- University, Washington, DC, USA
nificance that is simultaneously place of pilgrim-
age, celebration, nostalgia, and performance.
Music may be a key source of entertainment Myanmar, also known as Burma, with a popula-
(bars, clubs, and live music venues, ubiquitously tion of an estimated 60 million, is the second
listed in guide books) and as a means to vivifying largest country in Southeast Asia in terms of area
cruiseships or otherwise quiet tourism districts (261,227 mi2) and has borders with ▶ Bangla-
(Cashman 2012). Buskers are critical in New desh, ▶ China, ▶ India, the Lao PDR, and
Orleans’ French Quarter and on the boulevard at ▶ Thailand (Figure 1). Its main cities are Nay
Venice Beach, Los Angeles, generating a festive Pyi Taw (the capital), Yangon, and Mandalay.
atmosphere and marking space as ▶ tourist The official language and medium of instruction
friendly. Tourist motivations for music are deeply is Burmese. The educated urban elite speak
emotional and personal, their choice of sites English which is the second language learned in
specific. Graceland is again the most visible government schools (CIA 2013).
example, but others include the Mull of Kintyre, Elections in 2010 led to a peaceful transition M
Jimi Hendrix’s grave in Seattle, Père Lachaise from 60 years of military rule to a quasi-civilian
Cemetery in Paris, and Room 8 at the Joshua government headed by the president. The govern-
Tree Inn on 29 Palms Highway in California ment has initiated a series of reforms which have
(where Gram Parsons died). Therefore, music is resulted in opening up this long-isolated country.
an ingredient in creating unique destinations, in These include the release of political prisoners,
supporting new urban economies, and in defining cease-fire agreements with almost all non-state
a sense of self and ▶ identity. As scholars explore armed groups, greater freedom of the press, and
how tourism is sensed in the body via sound and parliamentary elections in 2012 in which
not just through a visual “▶ gaze” (Waitt and pro-democracy leader and opposition party
Duffy 2010), the role of music in shaping spaces gained approximately 11 % representation in par-
is increasingly recognized. liament (US Department of State 2013).
International arrivals totaled 900,000 in 2013,
See also ▶ Backpacker, ▶ cultural tourism, an increase of 51.7 % from 2012 (UNWTO 2013).
▶ festival and event, ▶ guidebook, The four main destinations in Myanmar are Yan-
▶ performance. gon, Bagan, Mandalay, and Inle Lake. Increas-
ingly, tourists are visiting other areas such as
Kyaing Tong, Monywa, Putao, Mrauk U, Lashio,
References Ngwe Saung, and Ngapali and Kyaikhto. How-
ever, there are still areas that require permission or
Cashman, D. 2012 Popular Music Venues on Cruise Ships access is restricted due to conflict.
as Touristic Spaces of Engagement. International Jour- In 2013, the Ministry of Hotels and Tourism
nal of Event Management Research 7:26-46.
Cohen, S. 2007 Decline, Renewal and the City in Popular
unveiled the Myanmar Tourism Master Plan
Music Culture: Beyond the Beatles. Aldershot: Ashgate. 2013–2020. The report forecasts that tourism
644 Myanmar
Myanmar, Figure 1 Map of Myanmar
receipts could increase from a baseline of US$534 bachelor’s degree program in Mandalay and Yan-
million in 2012 to US$10.8 billion by 2020. The gon. There are opportunities for future research
plan supports six strategic programs centered and training cooperation with academic institu-
around institutional development, human tions. The ▶ travel and tourism represents 1.6 %
resource development, ▶ destination safeguards of total GNP in 2013 (WTTC 2013).
and planning, developing quality products and
services, connectivity, and marketing (Ministry See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ human resource
of Hotels and Tourism 2013). management, ▶ masterplan, ▶ responsible
The masterplan calls for a gradual easing of tourism.
barriers to ▶ tourist entry, as well as the need to
expand visa on arrival services. Sustainability and
social responsibility are featured heavily in the
References
plan, which identifies the creation and coordina-
tion of regional and state tourism bodies as being CIA 2013 World Fact Book: Burma. Washington DC:
paramount to ensuring that economic and social Central Intelligence Agency.
benefits are distributed equitably. The importance Ministry of Hotels and Tourism 2013 Myanmar Tourism
of developing a trained tourism workforce and Master Plan 2013-2020. Nay Pyi Taw: Ministry of
Hotels and Tourism.
upgrading managerial capacity was particularly UNWTO 2013 World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World
cited as essential for growth, including a Tourism Organization.
Myth 645
US Department of State 2013 Fact Sheet. Washington DC: was in the beginning, before the fall into mundane
Bureau of East Asia and Pacific Affairs. experience” (1997:61). Thus, “creation myths”
WTTC 2013 Myanmar Travel and Tourism Economic
Impact. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. have a common function as they act as reminders
to one’s origins, enabling people to live in the
continual present and linking directly with the
“creator.” In this context, myth often applied
Myth anthropologically to “primitive cultures” has a
clear relationship with magic and the supernatu-
Elizabeth Carnegie ral. Strenski (1987) determines that Carl Jung and
University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK Joseph Campbell reject the origin elements of
such stories to argue that myth offers insights
into the collective human soul and psyche. Con-
Myth refers to a style of narrative discourse com- temporary, complex, disputably sophisticated,
monly understood as a story which has no basis in and modern societies no longer need myth and
truth or fact, yet has pervasive or persuasive pow- magic in order to develop, leading to arguments
ers to create and explain stereotypes or arche- about modernity and the “myths of mythlessness”
types, behaviors, and social values (Leeming (Coupe 1997: 50).
2002). It can be interpreted as logical or emotional
and prelogical, traditional, or primitive or viewed
as part of the value systems that shape contempo- Myth and tourism
rary ideology.
Myths can be deemed universal and inclusive Myth impacts on tourists and tourism affects it in a
or divisive reinforcing difference and “Othering.” number of ways. Barthes outlines the essential
They can form the foundation narratives of reli- paradox of how it functions in tourism when he M
gions, cultures, or nations and can serve as a notes that “what is to be seen is thus constantly in
rationale for actions against outside peoples, the process of vanishing” (2009: 87), forcing tour-
even helping political movements or nationalism ists to seek “mythological spaces” that meet their
take shape (Lincoln 1999). Myth understood thus imagined needs. This may partly reflect the desire
is centered around the creation of meanings that “to start the world again” (Coupe 1997: 57) within
have relevance in the present rather than offering a temporary utopia. While some tourists search for
factual representations of the past. Such narra- the authentic in the sacred, many come to experi-
tives, because they may appeal to the emotions, ence a mythological present where authenticity is
are unlimited in their potential to create links with neither expected nor sought. The “post-tourist”
the imagined past in order to make sense of the plays with notions of myth at the boundary
present. Lincoln argues that “myth is not just between imagination and reality.
taxonomy but ideology in narrative form” (1999: People need myths to make sense of the world.
147). Myths can be appropriated and “turned from Through myth, places and peoples are defined or
myth to history or history to myth” according to self-defined for tourists within the diversities of
the society and political environment (Leeming truth that such storytelling allows, but with an
2002:21). emphasis on links to past and the desire for myth-
Philosophers have long debated the role, value, ical “universal” or “traditional” values. Mytholo-
and meaning of myth. According to Coupe, Sir gies associated with place can result in
James George Frazer believed that myths have “Othering,” whereby generalized and often histor-
universal value as all cultures share the urge for icized or colonial accounts serve to freeze and
mythmaking and that “Éliade determined that mythologize cultures, shaping them to fit the
myth and ritual are the necessary means by Western imaginary. These mythical utopias,
which to reconnect with the world again, as it often rural or island states, offer dream
646 Myth
destinations but also serve to act as symbolic societies’ savior, depending on who is doing the
spaces that need to be preserved so that the links storytelling. In recent years, some scholars have
to the collective “imagined” past can be sought to develop a more reflexive and critical
maintained. Thus, there is the added mythology approach to examining such “mythological truths”
of tourism’s role to protect such spaces (Picard in the classroom and in their writings. For instance,
2011). This urge to seek and preserve mythical Selwyn (1996) has explored the ▶ impact that the
paradises may reflect a dystopic, even apocalyp- mythologizing of place for tourism consumption
tic, vision of the present and fear of an uncertain has on localities. In 2013, a conference devoted to
future which belies the playfulness of the “post- exploring the myths of tourism was held in Zadar,
tourist.” Equally, diaspora communities often ▶ Croatia, with myth emerging as one of the key
search for the imagined homeland where myth contemporary debates in critical tourism studies.
can merge with historical “truths” to recover a Notably, economic mobility and the often forced
sense of belonging. movement of peoples to large urban centers may
Idealized versions of the past or (re)created and result in mythologies of the “imagined” homeland
often commercialized versions of the present are replacing the search for authenticity in shaping
often developed specifically for tourism con- future ▶ tourist encounters.
sumption. Photography, postcards and guide-
books, television, and cinema representations of See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ film, ▶ Other.
people and places may shape destinations prior to
the trip and thus can become dominant narratives,
creating visual mythologies. Such “mythtopias”
consciously created and marketed as “real” places References
to visit can mask the actual historic identity of
place as in the rebranding of ▶ New Zealand as Barthes, R. 2009 Vintage Barthes: Mythologies. London:
Vintage.
“Hobbiton.” Coupe, L. 1997 Myth: The New Critical Idiom. New York:
Routledge.
Leeming, D. 2002 Myth: A Biography of Belief. New
Myth in tourism studies York: Oxford University Press.
Lincoln, B. 1999 Theorizing Myth: Narrative, Ideology,
and Scholarship. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Tourism as a fragmented and hard to quantify Picard, D. 2011 Tourism, Magic and Modernity: Cultivat-
global industry inevitably is subject to the mythol- ing the Human Garden. Oxford: Berghahn.
ogizing of its social, cultural, and economic Selwyn, T. 1996 The Tourist Image: Myths and Myth
Making in Tourism. Chichester: Wiley.
impacts, resulting in debates and the “creation Strenski, I. 1987 Four Theories of Myth in Twentieth-
myth” that it is the largest industry in the world. Century History: Cassirer, Éliade, Lévi Strauss, and
Tourism is variously viewed as social evil or Malinowski. Iowa City: University of Iowa Press.
N
Namibia developed and coexists with game meat produc-

tion. The game ranching sector is economically
Petri Hottola1 and Fritz Becker2 lucrative and has simultaneously managed to
1
FUNTS, University of Eastern Finland, increase wildlife populations. The Ministry of
Savonlinna, Finland Environment and Tourism has implemented tour-
2
Department of Geography and Environmental ism policies since 1994. The strategies promote
Studies, University of Namibia, Windhoek, wildlife and ▶ community-based tourism as key
Namibia activities for economic transition and ▶ develop-
ment. In 2010, Namibia received 1.2 million inter-
national ▶ tourist arrivals (MET 2010), of whom
Namibia is the 35th largest country in the world, 50 % were from South Africa.
with an area of 800,000 km2 (309,000 mi2) and a The capital, Windhoek, is the main interna-
population of 2.1 million (NPC 2012). Located in tional gateway. The most prominent destinations
Southern ▶ Africa, it is bordered by ▶ Angola, are the Namib Desert, with its red dunes at
▶ Zambia, ▶ Botswana, and ▶ South Africa Sossusvlei, and the Etosha National Park.
(Figure 1). Between 1884 and 1915, Namibia Swakopmund, a town with German colonial
was colonized as German South-West Africa, heritage, is the center of ▶ coastal tourism and
and from 1919 until its independence in 1990, it ▶ second home development. Other coastal desti-
was administered by South Africa. The enclave of nations include Walvis Bay, L€uderitz, and the
Walvis Bay was annexed in 1994. Skeleton Coast. Tourism is also attracted to East-
The country’s export economy is based on ern Caprivi (nature reserves), south of the Kunene
diamonds, uranium, and other minerals which River, between Khorixas and Otjiwarongo
account for 25 % of its total revenue (NID (Waterberg Plateau National Park), northeast of
2010). Tourism’s contribution to the GDP Usakos (Spitzkoppe), around Windhoek (game
amounts to 20.3 % (WTTC 2012) and is forecast ranches), on the edge of the Kalahari, and along
to rise by 6.3 %, underlining its role as a ▶ foreign the Fish River Canyon. Photogenic minority
exchange generator. The ▶ industry employs groups, the Ovahimba and the San people, play a
116,000 people (NPC 2012), which represents special role in Namibian tourism promotion
27.1 % of the total employment. Many of the imagery.
higher level jobs are occupied by foreign The ▶ future prospects of Namibian tourism
nationals. primarily depend on human capacity building.
The main attractions are landscapes and wild- The Polytechnic of Namibia provides some edu-
life. ▶ Hunting tourism is particularly well cation and ▶ training in tourism and ▶ hospitality.
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
648 Narrative
Namibia, Figure 1 Map

12 18 24
of Namibia
ANGOLA ZAMBIA
Za
Ok
mb
Katima
av
ez
Caprivi Zipel
an
i
Mulilo
go
(Caprivi Strip)
18
Oshakati Rundu 18
ti
Popavalle yan
Lin
Tsumeb (Popa Falls)
Khorixas
NA
Otjiwarongo
MI
Kônigstein
B
WINDHOEK
Swakopmund BOTSWANA
Gobabis
Walvis Bay
DESE Rehoboth K A LA H A R I
24 SOUTH D E S E RT 24
ATLANTIC Mariental
RT
OCEAN
Keetmanshoop
Lüderitz
SOUTH
Orange AFRICA
Oranjemund
30 0 100 200 km 30
12 18 0 100 200 mi 24
Future developments include rectifying the short-

age of skilled labor, diversifying ▶ safari tourism, Narrative
improving ▶ cultural tourism, and developing
transnational cooperation along the Kunene–Ka- Eric J. Shelton and Jundan Jasmine Zhang
vango–Zambezi borderlands. Department of Tourism, University of Otago,
Dunedin, New Zealand
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ coastal tourism, ▶ dias-
pora, ▶ hunting tourism, ▶ wildlife tourism.
Typically, narrative involves four elements:
situatedness, event sequencing, worldmaking/
world disruption, and “what it is like” (Herman
References 2009). Contemporary narrative analysis draws on
MET 2010 Tourist Statistical Report. Windhoek: Ministry
insights from gender studies, post-Saussurean lin-
of Environment and Tourism. guistics, the philosophy of language, and critical
NID 2010 Mining in Namibia. Swakopmund: Namibia theory. Ryan (2007) issues a challenge to narrative
Institute for Democracy. when she accepts its importance for social life,
NPC 2012 Population and Housing Census Results, 2011.
Windhoek: National Planning Commission.
intelligence, memory, knowledge, and sense
WTTC 2012 Economic Impact – Namibia. London: World of identity but challenges the importance of
Travel and Tourism Council. “conscious judgments of narrativity” for
National character 649
the processing of verbal or visual information. considering in more detail the nature and role of
Lay people are more interested in genre and qual- embodiment in “embodied performance” of tour-
ity, for instance, how well written the ▶ travel istic narrative, self and subject position.
book is.
Contemporary neoliberal thought claims each See also ▶ Interpretation, ▶ methodology,
individual is her/his own biographical author, in ▶ myth, ▶ postmodernism, ▶ worldmaking.
which case she/he narrates her/his own life and
constructs a narrative selfhood, for example, that
of a “▶ tourist.” There are various narrated subject References
positions hailing the individual. It is important to
ask who provides the available narratives and who Herman, D. 2009 Basic Elements of Narrative. Chichester:
Wiley.
controls the degree of freedom and agency within
Hollinshead, K. 2009 Tradition and the Declarative Reach
them. It is also relevant to know how individuals of Tourism: Recognizing Transnationality: The Articu-
might develop and present narratives that are linear, lation of Dynamic Aboriginal Being. Tourism Analysis
integrated, and coherent. Smith and Watson (2010) 14:537-555.
Ryan, M. 2007 Toward a Definition of Narrative. In The
offer 24 strategies for reading life narratives criti-
Cambridge Companion to Narrative, D. Herman, ed.,
cally. Deconstruction fits well when applied to the pp.22-35. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
narrated self, allowing textual analysis of the self- Smith, S., and J. Watson 2010 Reading Autobiography:
narrative as the individual engages with the social A Guide for Interpreting Life Narratives. Minneapolis:
University of Minnesota Press.
and material world. This worldly engagement may
include a performance of “being a tourist.”
The tourist, either as a narrated self or the
occupier of a discursively constituted narrative
subject position, takes on ideological and political National character
situatedness. One narrative form available to the
tourist, and capable of being analyzed, is the Hyung Yu Park N
quest, often a search for authenticity and involv- Business School, Middlesex University,
ing reported transformations of self-narration both London, UK
while traveling and after returning home. The
term “narrative identity” may be used to describe
the narrated personal identity formed as a result of National character has generally been used to
this transformational process. For such tourists, understand tourists’ behavior and their interaction
the search for authenticity is a moral and spiritual with local residents. It influences the way in which
quest. Within narrative epistemology, though, it is both “tourist gaze” (Urry 1990) (how tourists see
not possible to claim a concept such as authentic- things and surroundings) and “local gaze” (Maoz
ity that may exist outside of the language used to 2006) (stereotypical images of tourists) are
produce it; the “tourist subject” is formed within constructed and reconstructed at a ▶ destination.
the language. Hollinshead (2009), through his Smith (1978) makes a pioneering contribution in
notion of “worldmaking,” situates the narrated recognizing the significance of national character
tourist subject within an imaginary, a narrated, as an essential component in tourism. It is claimed
faux, language-constituted world, connected to that nationalities differ in their behavior as tour-
the material world through the embodied ▶ per- ists, and national cultural characteristics unmis-
formance of tourism. Herman’s (2009) notion of takably affect their behavior. National stereotypes
worldmaking as being central to narrativity, along are often used as the popular clichés in generaliz-
with Hollinshead’s (2009) exposition of the same, ing certain traits of tourists based on their nation-
inextricably links tourism with narrative and alities. But increasing attention has been paid to
offers fruitful opportunities for further theorizing. recognizing the individual characteristics of tour-
One such opportunity for furthering theory is in ists. Countries of origin cannot be regarded as a
650 National tourism
sole indicator for assessing ▶ tourist behavior or it is critical to note that national character, as part
characteristics. However, national character still of distinctive localities, still plays a central role
plays a significant role in categorizing and dis- in maintaining the appeal of individual countries.
seminating stereotypical perceptions and images In future studies, critical focus needs to be placed
of both hosts and guests. on enhancing the nuanced understanding of vary-
Importantly, the issues of national character are ing elaborations and differing evaluations of
not only implicated in examining behavior but national character in complex global tourism
also in shaping and maintaining national culture development.
and identity in tourism experiences. Given that
tourism facilitates both cultural production and See also ▶ Gaze, ▶ globalization, ▶ heritage,
consumption, it serves as a symbolic medium ▶ identity.
through which nation and nationhood are pro-
duced and consumed, both collectively and indi-
vidually. National character is communicated, References
sustained, and promoted, particularly within the
context of cultural and heritage tourism. Unique Maoz, D. 2006 The Mutual Gaze. Annals of Tourism
national character, often embodied in the presen-
Park, H. 2014 Heritage Tourism. Oxon: Routledge.
tations and representations of national culture and Smith, V. 1978 Introduction. In Hosts and Guests: The
heritage, is essential in establishing and promot- Anthropology of Tourism, V. Smith, ed., pp.1-14.
ing a distinctive identity and differentiation to Oxford: Blackwell.
Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage.
which tourists can be attracted. Each country
thus strives to develop and promote national sym-
bols and images embodying national character,
either physical, cultural, or a combination of
both in tourism planning and destination National tourism
marketing.
Tourism produces, reproduces, and reinforces Antonio Alcover Casasnovas
certain stereotypes of a country. In light of this, it Departament d’Economia Aplicada, Universitat
also distorts, exaggerates, or underscores certain de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Islas
elements of national character. The official and Baleares, Spain
hegemonic understanding of national character
could lead to suppressing and excluding the vary-
ing perceptions and interpretations of national National tourism consists of all tourism activities
culture and identity. Here, tourism can be practiced by residents of a particular country,
employed as a systematic tool in reinforcing the including domestic and outbound tourism. In
legitimacy of state-based and hegemonic presen- order to make it possible to compare, integrate,
tations and representations of a country. Heritage and share information among countries, the
tourism, for example, strategically promotes or United Nations sponsored a conference on travel
suppresses certain elements of national past in and tourism in Rome in 1963. This conference
order to legitimate the dominant ideologies or recommended definitions of “national tourism,”
agendas of a nation (Park 2014). Issues surround- among others (visitor, tourist, and domestic tour-
ing national character are further complicated in ism) for compiling international statistics. In
terms of repositioning of ▶ power in a country or 1968, the International Union of Official Travel
between countries in an era of globalization. Due Organizations (precedent of the World Tourism
to increasing interconnectedness on a global scale, Organization) approved the 1963 definitions and
national boundaries have become rather meaning- has since encouraged its use (Leiper 1979). Today,
less, and national character has increasingly most of these definitions are compiled by the
become hybrid, mobile, and flexible. However, UNWTO (2010a). National tourism is “domestic
National tourism organization and administration 651
and ▶ outbound tourism, that is, the activities of References

resident visitors, within and outside the country of
reference, either as part of domestic or outbound Leiper, N. 1979 The Framework of Tourism: Towards a
Definition of Tourism, Tourist, and the Tourist Industry.
trips” (UNWTO 2010b: 15). It covers “the
[national] tourism consumption of resident visi- IMF 2009 Balance of Payments and International Invest-
tors, within and outside the economy of reference” ment Position Manual. International Monetary Fund
(UNWTO 2010b: 15). http://unstats.un.org/unsd/publication/Seriesm/SeriesM_
83rev1e.pdf (10 March 2015).
In both definitions, the concept of residence is
UNWTO 2010a International Recommendations for
a central element, because it refers to the practice Tourism Statistics 2008 http://unstats.un.org/unsd/
by the residents of a country and not by the citi- publication/Seriesm/SeriesM_83rev1e.pdf (10 March
zens who may have their residence at home or 2015).
UNWTO 2010b Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended
abroad. Further, UNWTO uses the same concept
Methodological Framework, 2008 http://unstats.un.org/
of residence as it is used by many other interna- unsd/publication/Seriesf/SeriesF_80rev1e.pdf (10 March
tional organizations (such as IMF, OECD, 2015).
Eurostat, or ILO). “This concept is not based on
nationality or legal criteria, although it may be
similar to concepts of residence used for exchange
control, tax, and other purposes in many coun-
tries. The concept of residence is based on a National tourism organization and
sectoral transactor’s center of economic interest” administration
(IMF 2009: 20). This is the reason to impose a
limitation of a year in the definition of tourism and Douglas G. Pearce
the purpose of the visit. If a person stays in a School of Management, Victoria University of
country for more than 1 year, the IMF considers Wellington, Wellington, New Zealand
it as its new center of interest (and hence its
residence). In this case, the status of this person N
will change from tourist to resident. National tourism organizations (NTOs) or admin-
The need for a common definition of national istrations (NTAs) are country-level organizations
tourism relates to statistics. Many different docu- established to foster or guide the development of
ments (national accounts, balance of payments, or tourism. In some countries and studies, the term
Tourism Satellite Accounts) have adopted the def- NTA is reserved for national organizations
inition published by the IMF (2009). In some having mainly administrative functions, while
countries, estimation of national tourism becomes NTO refers to those having other national-level
problematic because local authorities lack the functions, particularly international marketing.
information about domestic tourism. Boundaries However, the usage of these terms does vary,
and visa controls permit them to have information and international comparisons must be made care-
about the international inbound tourism, but they fully as these organizations take various forms,
found it more difficult to estimate tourism activi- perform a range of functions, and evolve
ties of residents of a given country or region over time.
traveling to and staying in places inside that coun- A core function is to provide policy and strate-
try or region. Underestimation can affect to tour- gic advice to national governments. Other func-
ism planning and the allocation of tourism tions include international and domestic
investments leading to congestion and zoning marketing, planning, research, development, reg-
problems. ulation, and quality assurance (Pearce 1992). In
some instances, all or most of these functions are
undertaken by a single national organization. In
See also ▶ Domestic tourism, ▶ outbound tour- other cases, not all functions are performed, or
ism, ▶ statistics, ▶ tourist. functions are distributed among two or more
652 Nationalism
organizations. Policy and operational functions References

are often separated. Policy, strategic advice,
research, and planning are commonly the respon- Pearce, D. 1992 Tourist Organizations. Longman: Harlow.
Sepp€al€a-Esser, R., D. Airey and E. Szivas 2009 The
sibility of an NTA. NTAs may be structured as a
Dependence of Tourism SMEs on NTOs: The Case of
separate ministry, department, or secretariat. They Finland. Journal of Travel Research 48:177-190.
may also be combined with various other sectors Wight, A. 2013 Identifying Best Practice in National Tour-
such as economic development, culture, heritage, ism Organizations: Lessons for the United Kingdom.
Journal of Vacation Marketing 19:133-148.
or sports. Marketing functions are often carried
out by separate national tourism organizations,
funded by the central government, but with more
agile structures such as a board. The need for
coordination among multiple state agencies Nationalism
related to tourism, for example, transportation
and conservation, may result in the formation of Patrick Naef
other national-level organizations such as Department of Anthropology, University of
interministerial councils or commissions. Where California at Berkeley, Berkeley, USA
more than one national organization exists, it is
more appropriate to refer to a national tourism
system. In his founding work, Benedict Anderson (1983)
Due to their diversity, a major focus of research defines the nation as an “imagined community”
on NTOs and NTAs lies in establishing their and presents nationalism as a vehicle for its crea-
structure and function, accounting for why they tion. He identifies several institutions and instru-
have a particular form and set of responsibilities ments that contribute to the development of
and why these change over time (Pearce 1992). nationalism such as maps, censuses, and
Factors accounting for structure and function museums.
include the underlying administrative system of In the light of this concept, in which museums
the country, broader policies on the role of can be seen as vehicles of nationalism, an increas-
government, and the importance of tourism in ing number of scholars have demonstrated how
the national economy. As these contextual tourism can also constitute an important base for
factors change, tourism organizations evolve. the fabric of a nation and serve as a support for
Another research examines the links between nationalist productions. Numerous sites visited by
national- and lower-level organizations and the tourists, including museums, national parks, and
effectiveness of particular structures and memorials, but also events indirectly involving
functions. tourism, such as commemorative ceremonies and
The interconnection among structure, function, historical anniversaries, are increasingly viewed
and effectiveness, together with the impact of through the lens of nationalism.
changing external factors, creates the need for Nationalism tourism productions and experi-
ongoing research on NTOs and NTAs ences are highly dependent on the political, social,
(Sepp€al€a-Esser et al. 2009; Wight 2013). In par- and cultural contexts in which the industry is set.
ticular, more research is needed to establish their Nationalism can manifest itself through tourism
effectiveness in different contexts, to clarify the by way of museums or heritage sites, where ele-
roles of the public and private sectors, and to ments that are attributed to the greatness of a
identify the factors that drive change. nation, like famous historical figures, are
presented. Such is the case in Edinburgh, where
the Scottish National Portrait Gallery is located, or
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization, in South Dakota, where one can find Mount
▶ non-governmental organization, ▶ organiza- Rushmore, a monumental sculpture of four Amer-
tion and association. ican presidents. These types of museums and sites
Nature tourism 653
contribute to giving a nation its history and

displaying evidence of its existence (Pretes 2003). Nature tourism
In more contested contexts, such as in postwar
situations or in cases of new states, where legiti- Alexandra Coghlan
macy is still challenged by different groups or Centre for Tourism, Sport and Services Research,
communities, nationalism tourism can be seen as Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
problematic and as contributing to ongoing social
and political struggles. Some scholars in the area
of “▶ dark tourism” have demonstrated that the Nature tourism constitutes a significant proportion
production of a shared identity is often an official of the tourism ▶ industry, although the exact size
goal of countries, especially where there exists a depends upon which forms are included. Thus,
common urge to create a national identity (White there are no exact figures regarding its economic
and Frew 2013). In Croatia, Vukovar, a war-torn value. In the simplest sense, nature tourism
location, became a national symbol of martyrdom encompasses any form that features nature as its
and victimhood and was visited at the end of the primary setting or attraction. Its activities repre-
1990s by many Croatian tourists interested in sent a broad spectrum of passive to active behav-
paying respect to this site of pain. This form of iors and nonconsumptive to consumptive uses of
tourism, which was closely attached to the con- nature. Examples include passive enjoyment of
struction of the new nation, was nevertheless scenery, landscapes, geology, and flora and
viewed as provocative by some members of fauna; outdoor ▶ recreation and adventure; con-
the Serbian community (who still represent an sumptive uses such as hunting and fishing; and
important minority in this contested region) voluntary contributions to conservation or
and, above all, as a base for the diffusion of a research (Coghlan 2006).
hegemonic discourse on the past war. In this This broad conceptualization suggests that
sense, nationalism tourism may also be consid- nature can be essential, an enhancement, or inci-
ered as a vehicle that can enhance tension and dental to tourism (Valentine 1992). Nature-based N
contribute to the prolongation of conflict on a tourism may also overlap with adventure, wild-
symbolic level. life, and ▶ ecotourism and cultural or
Future research may examine the linkages eco-cultural, special interest, or ▶ alternative tour-
between tourism and nationalism, particularly ism (Buckley 2000; Coghlan 2006). It includes a
the conflicts that may be triggered by the interac- diverse range of products with different concep-
tions between these two dynamics. Notions such tualizations of the importance of nature within the
as ▶ identity, memory, and ▶ image are additional tourism experience, with a market that is equally
elements of interest for further inquiry. diverse in its origins, motivations, interests, and
behavior. A significant segment of its market has a
limited interest in nature itself, but may enjoy the
See also ▶ Dark tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ image,
sight of spectacular scenery.
▶ map, ▶ museum.
Studying nature tourist experience

References
Anderson, B. 1983 Imagined Communities: Reflections

To understand nature tourists, scholars have pro-
on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism. London: posed spectrums or categories based on demo-
Verso. graphics, activities, motivations, values, or
Pretes M. 2003 Tourism and Nationalism. Annals of psychographic characteristics (Acott et al. 1998;
Weaver 2001). They often make a distinction
White L., and E. Frew 2013 Dark Tourism and Place
Identity: Managing and Interpreting Dark Places. among deep or shallow tourists. A philosophical
London: Routledge. approach was adopted by Vespestad and Lindberg
654 Nature tourism
(2011) who identify four ways of being particularly those which are weather dependent
(or ontological approaches) in nature: genuine or rely upon wildlife sightings, are elusive and
experience, entertaining experiences, a state of highly uncertain, with operators and managers
being experience, and social experiences. Their having limited control over many of the key com-
approach specifically recognizes hybrid tourists ponents of the experience. In addition, due to the
and the various levels of engagement with nature diversity of nature tourism, the heterogeneity of
that can exist within this diverse sector. the market, and the diverse social constructions of
The above categories recognize that individual nature, ensuring ▶ tourist satisfaction is a highly
tourists may or may not be environmentally con- complex and difficult task.
scious, well informed, or highly selective when
choosing any particular type of nature-based
▶ tour (Buckley 2000; Meyer-Arendt 2004). The Challenges and future directions
desire to visit a natural attraction does not
necessarily indicate a willingness to protect bio- New models of understanding tourist satisfaction
diversity. This is an important consideration, as within natural settings often focus on the perfor-
the popularity of nature-based tourism can often mative, affective, and even spiritual components
lead to a (false) assumption that there is a con- of the experience (Meyer-Arendt 2004; Vespestad
comitant growth in concern for environmental and Lindberg 2011). These emotional responses
issues and that nature-based tourists, even soft to positive natural encounters are closely linked
or shallow types, will act with a certain level of to tourist outcomes of satisfaction, attitudinal
care and responsibility toward the natural and behavioral loyalty, and place protective
environment. behavior. Thus, nature-based tourism is linked
There appears to be little evidence that a nature to health benefits, increased sense of
or ecotourism experience will encourage “green” wellbeing, reconnection with the natural world,
behavior for tourists (Lee and Moscardo 2005). and physical benefits from being active outdoor.
Tourism that occurs within sensitive areas will Research in the area of biophobia (or fear of
require high levels of ▶ management to ensure nature) linked to the increasing prevalence and
sustainable use of the ▶ resources. Examples of reporting of extreme weather events and other
these practices include site hardening, erection of hazards.
barriers, use of education or interpretation, zon- Nature-based tourism is now firmly embedded
ing, accreditation of operators, demarketing and in the experience economy, where a diverse, often
price-based (dis)incentives, and so forth. Man- urban, tourism market expects to pick and mix
agers may only be able to influence certain aspects components and activities to form customized
of the experience, such as the aesthetic quality of holidays. Much of the current growth involves
the natural resource, the levels of biodiversity, or countries, languages, and social traditions very
access to sites. It is questionable whether invest- different from the developed Western Anglo-
ments in environmental protection may always phone nations which historically constitute the
lead to higher satisfaction, as tourists may not bulk of this market, adding to the complexity
differentiate between the biological or ecological surrounding the management of both natural
and aesthetic values. resources and the tourist experience. Further
Within nature tourism, the onus is upon com- research based upon which aspects, both tangible
mercial tour operators to devise means of boosting and intangible, of the tourism experience could be
satisfaction, while land managers focus on managed by whom may highlight the importance
ways to screen and improve the environmental of partnership approaches among land manage-
performance. Much of the experience cannot ment agencies, tour operators, and individual
be controlled in the same way as urban attractions tourists to deliver high-quality and low-▶ impact
or themeparks. Nature tourism experiences, nature-based tourism experiences.
Nauru 655
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ ecotourism, surrounding coral atoll. For the exploitation
▶ park tourism, ▶ recreation, ▶ wildlife tourism. of its marine resources, the country’s exclusive
economic zone is approximately 293,100 km2
(113,166.5 mi2), which is 14,000 times
greater than its land area (Sea Around Us Project
References 2013).
The predominantly Micronesian population of
Acott, T., H. La Trobe, and S. Howard 1998 An Evaluation over 9,000 speaks a distinct Nauruan language.
of Deep Ecotourism and Shallow Ecotourism. Journal
of Sustainable Tourism 6:238-253.
This micro-nation has been independent from
Buckley, R. 2000 NEAT Trends: Current Issues in Nature, Australia since 1968. During the twentieth cen-
Eco and Adventure Tourism. International Journal of tury, the economy was heavily dependent on
Tourism Research 2:437-444. phosphate mining; however, overexploitation,
Coghlan, A. 2006 Volunteer Tourism as an Emerging
Trend or as Expansion of Ecotourism? International
significant macroeconomic problems, financial
Journal of Nonprofit Volunteer Sector Marketing instability, and a lack of economic diversification
11:225-237. restricted economic growth. Since 2001, the
Lee, W., and G. Moscardo 2005 Understanding the Impact Australian government has funded offshore
of Ecotourism Resort Experiences on Tourists’ Envi-
ronmental Attitudes and Behavioral Intentions. Journal
asylum-seeker processing facilities. The Austra-
of Sustainable Tourism 13:546-565. lian dollar is the local currency. In 2011, GDP was
Meyer-Arendt, K. 2004 Tourism and the Natural Environ- US$72 million, or about AUD78 million
ment. In A Companion to Tourism, A. Lew, M. Hall (DataUN 2013).
and A. Williams, eds., pp.425-437. Oxford: Blackwell.
Valentine, P. 1992 Review. Nature-based tourism. In Spe-
Tourism is a low-intensity activity for Nauru
cial Interest Tourism, B. Weiler and C. Hall, eds., (Panakera et al. 2011), with two hotels and some
pp.105-127. London: Bellhaven. private accommodation units. No current data is
Vespestad, M., and F. Lindberg 2011 Understanding available on the share that tourism makes to the
Nature-based Tourist Experiences. Current Issues in
Tourism 14: 563-580.
national economy, but it is small scale. In 2012,
Weaver, D. 2001 Ecotourism as Mass Tourism. Cornell only 213 leisure tourists were reported, with 2,454 N
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly business tourists (SPTO 2013). Australians, Tai-
42:520-538. wanese, and Pacific Islanders are the primary
source markets. Key activities include game fish-
ing for marlin, yellowfin tuna, skipjack, and bar-
racuda, tours of phosphate mines and the
Nauru remnants from Japan’s occupation during World
War II, taming of frigate birds, and diving and
Steve Noakes snorkeling.
Department of Tourism, Leisure, Hotel and Sport While primary school enrolment is almost
Management, Griffith University, Queensland, universal, less than a quarter of adults (aged
Australia 15 and over) have completed their secondary
education and only 5 % have a tertiary qualifica-
tion. The University of the South Pacific, which
offers a range of tourism- and hospitality-related
Nauru is the world’s smallest independent courses, maintains an Extension Center in
republic. It is isolated in the central western Nauru.
Pacific Ocean, 4,528 km (2,814 mi) southwest of The country’s limited air and shipping trans-
Hawaii, the United States, and 2,400 km (1,491 port connections have hampered previous devel-
mi) northeast of Port Moresby, Papua New opment objectives and remain challenges to future
Guinea (Figure 1). It consists of a single coral development. It is reliant on imports and suscep-
island approximately 21 km2 (8.1 mi2), with a tible to climate change-related impacts. Tourism
656 Nautical tourism
South
Pacific reef
Ocean
phosphate
stockpile
phosphate
facilities Buada reef
Lagoon
Nauru
International
Airport
Parliament
House, in 0 0.5 1 km
Yaren District
0 0.5 1 mi
Nauru, Figure 1 ▶ Location and Map of Nauru
challenges include limited service providers

with the suitable resources, skills, and capacity Nautical tourism
and the inconsistency in most startup tour
services (SPTO 2013). In 2013, the demand on Marta Jacob1 and Carmen Florido2
1
the limited commercial accommodation was Department of Applied Economics, Universitat
due to business travels related to the Regional de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
2
Processing Center for asylum seekers and thus Department of Applied Economic Analysis,
limited commercial accommodation available for Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria,
tourists. Las Palmas, Spain
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ business tour- Nautical tourism’s main motivation centers
ism, ▶ island tourism, ▶ sustainability. around aquatic and subaquatic activities in seas,
rivers, or lakes for leisure or sport purposes. The
concept of nautical tourism encompasses several
References different pursuits undertaken in water environ-
ments, including cruises, sailing, canoeing, yacht
DataUN 2013 Nauru http://data.un.org/CountryProfile. charter, jet skiing, windsurfing, scuba diving, rec-
aspx?crName=Nauru (18 December). reational fishing, and fish or whale watching. It
Panakera, C., G. Willson, C. Ryan, and G. Liu 2011 Con-
siderations for Sustainable Tourism Development in
can also be defined as holiday engagements
Developing Countries: Perspectives from the South allowing various water activities, combining the
Pacific. Tourismos 6:241-262. practice of nautical activities with the enjoyment
Sea Around Us Project 2013 Exclusive Economic Zones of nature facilitated by tourism supply of coastal
www.seaaroundus.org/eez/ (18 December).
SPTO 2013 Presentation on Nauru at the Pacific Regional
regions.
Tourism Capacity Building Program. Nadi: South There are two main categories of nautical tour-
Pacific Tourism Organization. ism: cruise tourism and nautical-sports tourism.
Nearest neighbor analysis 657
The latter includes navigation activities on boats Dwyer, L., and P. Forsyth 1998 Economic Significance of
or yacht charters as well as privately owned ves- Cruise Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 25:393-415.
Hall, C-M. 2001 Trends in Ocean and Coastal Tourism:
sels (Alcover et al. 2011). Some similar and/or The End of the Last Frontier? Ocean and Coastal Man-
related terms are marine tourism or coastal tour- agement 44:601-618.
ism. The former comprises recreational activities L€
uck, M. 2007 Nautical Tourism Development: Opportu-
that involve traveling away from one’s place of nities and Threats. In Nautical Tourism: Concepts and
Issues, M. L€uck, ed., pp.3-13. New York: Cognizant.
residence and that have a focus on the marine Orams, M. 1999 Marine Tourism Development, Impacts
environment (Orams 1999). The latter includes and Management. London: Routledge.
tourism, ▶ leisure, and recreational activities that
take place in the coastal zone and offshore coastal
waters (Hall 2001).
Nautical tourism is a high value-added prod- Nearest neighbor analysis
uct. Tourists’ daily expenditure is higher than
other categories of international tourism Wayne W. Smith
(Alcover et al. 2011; Dwyer and Forsyth 1998), College of Charleston, Charleston, USA
and the length of stay of an average nautical
tourist is longer than that of other types of tourists.
However, while nautical tourism is one of the First proposed in 1954 by two ecologists, nearest
fastest-growing tourism sectors (L€uck 2007), its neighbor analysis was designed to analyze point
global economic, social, and environmental patterns in space (Clark and Evans 1954). The
effects are not clearly understood (Hall 2001). results provide estimations of whether a set of
Only in the last 15 years has there been a growing points is clustered, uniform, or random in distri-
interest in this topic. Most of the research has bution. The technique has been employed in a
focused on analyzing the physical impacts of nau- number of fields, including ecology, archaeology,
tical tourism on the marine environment. This and even in DNA research. Nearest neighbor anal-
growing trend is likely to continue into the fore- ysis is formulated as N
seeable future and will therefore impact coastal
ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r ffi
and marine resources, while at the same time a
placing demands and a challenge on those in dr ¼ ; (1)
n
charge of planning and managing the coastal envi-
ronment. Due to its unclear definition and scant where dr represents the theoretical average dis-
data on nautical tourism, there are many open tance. The coefficient C is calculated by the
areas for future research, including its economic relationship
impacts, the effects of tax policies on demand and
▶ supply, and residents’ attitude toward nautical ffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
r ffi
a
tourism and its future growth. C ¼ 0:497 þ 0:127 ;
n
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ cruise tourism, where a is the area of the proposed area of analysis
▶ marine tourism, ▶ recreation, ▶ yachting and n the number of point of exploration, and
tourism. X
do ¼ ðof the closest distanceÞ=n (2)
References with do being the observed average distance.

From Eqs. 1 and 2, the nearest neighbor ratio
Alcover, A., M. Alemany, M. Jacob, M. Payeras, can be estimated as
A. García, and L. Martínez-Ribes 2011 The Economic
Impact of Yacht Charter Tourism on the Balearic Econ-
omy. Tourism Economics 17:625-638. Rn ¼ do=dr
658 Nepal
where Rn is the statistical test of the nearest neigh- Wall, G., D. Dudycha, and J. Hutchinson 1985 Point Pat-
bor analysis (Ebdon 1976). tern Analyses of Accommodation in Toronto. Annals of
The most highly cited ▶ hospitality and tour-
ism ▶ work is by Wall et al. (1985). They used
▶ accommodation directories to examine whether
there had been changes in the distribution in rela-
tion to the number and type of accommodations in Nepal
Toronto, ▶ Canada. The results revealed that
larger accommodation properties were more Surya Poudel1 and Gyan Nyaupane2
1
likely to be clustered in downtown and around School of Community Resources and Development,
an airport. Further, this analysis revealed motels Arizona State University, Phoenix, AZ, USA
2
were on decline. In another study, Vasiliadis and School of Community Resources and
Kobotis (1999: 147) used the technique to model Development, Julie Ann Wrigley Global Institute
the “potentials of touristic ▶ development,” in of Sustainability, Arizona State University,
which they argue that this nearest neighbor anal- Phoenix, AZ, USA
ysis is a good technique for examining distribu-
tion of tourism-related products within a
geographic region. The research findings can sub- Nepal is a small Himalayan country (147,181 km2
sequently be used by planners to delineate critical or 56,827 mi2) in South Asia. It shares borders
mass within an area, as well as to identify areas of with ▶ India to the south, east, and west and the
both saturation and potential development. Tibet Autonomous Region of ▶ China to the north
Overall, the technique promises more, as it has (Figure 1). The country has a population of 26.5
yet to be employed to examine a series of layered million (Central Bureau of Statistics 2012), with
clusters over a ▶ destination as a whole. Further, GDP of US$42 billion (NPR of 1,557.03 billion)
this technique could also be used to model target in 2012 (IMF 2013). Tourism is an important
segments within a given population. For example, ▶ industry, as it accounts for 4 % of the country’s
it could also be employed to model social media GDP. The human resources required are produced
postings. Additional research could also apply it by Tribhuvan University and other public and
to hotel inventories (Li and Sun 2012) and/or private academic and training institutions.
attraction distributions. The country’s diverse geographical, biological,
and cultural resources are popular among interna-
tional tourists. Nepalese Himalayas are home of
See also ▶ Methodology, ▶ model, ▶ planning,
8 of the 14 peaks higher than 8,000 m, including
▶ region.
Mount Everest, the highest peak in the world.
Until the end of the first-half of the twentieth
century, Nepal was relatively unknown. The
References
opening of its border to foreigners in 1951 and
Clark, P., and F. Evans 1954 Distance to Nearest Neighbor
the successful ascend of Mount Everest in 1953
as a Measure of Spatial Relations in Populations. Ecol- unlocked mountain-based ▶ adventure tourism
ogy 35:445-453. opportunities. Tourists in the 1950s were predom-
Ebdon, D. 1976 On the Underestimation Inherent in the inantly dedicated adventurers aspiring to conquer
Commonly Used Formulae. Area 8:165-169.
Li, H., and J. Sun 2012 Forecasting Business Failure: The
the lofty mountains. Nepal experienced an influx
Use of Nearest Neighbor Support Vectors and of hippies in Kathmandu Valley in the 1960s and
Correcting Imbalanced Samples: Evidence from the Chi- 1970s. The Mount Everest region, Chitwan
nese Hotel Industry. Tourism Management 33:622-634. National Park, Langtang Valley, and Annapurna
Vasiliadis, C., and A. Kobotis 1999 Spatial Analysis:
An Application of Nearest Neighbor Analysis to Tour-
region gained popularity as nature-based ▶ desti-
ism Location in Macedonia. Tourism Management nation in the 1980s and 1990s. Chitwan National
20:141-148. Park is known for ▶ wildlife tourism, whereas
Nepal 659
80 84 88
30 30
li
CHINA
Kä
at
i G
rn RE
AT
Ka
B rah
maputra
HI
Mahendranagar M
AL
Dhangarhi AY
A
Ta
râ RA
i
i
Käl
NG
E
Sã
rd
a
Pokhara
Nepãlganj Mount
i
ul
28 Everest 28
Tris
Ta
râi
Ind Butwál i
KATHMANDU
o an Bhaktapur
- G Bhairãhawã rá y Bharatpur
Nã Pátan
an
ge Hetaudâ
IN D I A tic
Pla Bïrganj Dharân
in Tarã
Gh l Bâzâr
ag Janakpur BANGL.
Ga
har
a
Birâtnagar
nd
0 50 100 km
ak
80 84 88
0 50 100 mi
Nepal, Figure 1 Map of Nepal
other three destinations are epitomized as trek- rural areas outside of these popular destinations.
kers’ paradise. Nepal has enormous tourism prospects, but to
During the same period, Lumbini, the birth- foster economic vitality at its fullest potentials
place of Lord Buddha, allured thousands of Bud- without compromising the social-ecological N
dhist pilgrims, specifically from South Asia integrity, more research is needed to understand
(Nyaupane 2009). The decade of the 1990s is the complex tourism ▶ system that is influenced
considered as the golden period in Nepalese tour- by changing political, sociocultural, environmen-
ism ▶ history, as international arrivals peaked to tal, and economic conditions.
almost half a million in 1999 (MCTCA 2012).
Because of security threats from Maoist activities,
the visitation plunged to about 50 % in 2002. See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ heritage,
Since the Maoist rebels joined the peace process ▶ mountain tourism, ▶ protected area tourism,
in 2006, tourism has been experiencing exponen- ▶ wildlife tourism.
tial growth with over 736 thousand arrivals
(US$369 thousand in revenue) in 2011 (MCTCA
2012). References
Currently, tourism is concentrated in a few
destinations, including Kathmandu Valley, Central Bureau of Statistics 2012 National Population and
Pokhara, Lumbini, and four protected areas Housing Census 2011. Kathmandu: Central Bureau of
Statistics.
(Chitwan National Park, Annapurna Conservation IMF 2013 International Monetary Fund. World Economic
Area, Sagarmatha National Park, and Langtang Outlook Database www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/
National Park). Among them, Chitwan and 2013/01/weodata/index.aspx (1 January 2014).
Sagarmatha are designated as UNESCO natural MCTCA 2012 Nepal Tourism Statistics 2011. Kathmandu:
Ministry of Culture, Tourism and Civil Aviation.
world heritage sites, and Kathmandu and Lumbini
Nyaupane, G. 2009 Heritage Complexity and Tourism:
are cultural world heritage sites. The country The Case of Lumbini, Nepal. Journal of Heritage Tour-
needs to invest more in developing and promoting ism 4(2):157-172.
660 Network
object’s position may affect its behavior, the char-

Network acteristics of all the participants in the network
(systemic network) such as in the work by
Noel Scott1 and Rodolfo Baggio2 Granovetter (1973), or the flow of information
1
Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, within a network, as in the process of ▶ innova-
Gold Coast, QLD, Australia tion, or the establishment of synchronized opin-
2
Economics and Tourism, Bocconi University, ions. Baggio et al. (2010) provide an overview of
Milan, Italy the field as a whole. Important properties of a
network include cohesion (calculated by the num-
ber of actual links/number of possible links if the
A tourism ▶ system is complex and dynamic but network is fully connected), centrality (various
may be described as a network providing a means measures are used, such as the number of links
to representing the interactions among its different per node or how many times a node is a bridge on
components. In general, a network is a picture of the shortest path between two other nodes – called
the connections or relationships among a set of betweenness centrality), and connections bridging
objects (people, hence ▶ stakeholder network or different cliques (important in knowledge trans-
social network; organizations, hence organiza- fer). Furthermore, numerical simulations have
tional network; aviation routes, hence route net- been widely used to uncover structural character-
work). Formal analysis of networks (or network istics, such as modular or hierarchical organiza-
analysis) began in the mathematical field of graph tion or to study the unfolding of dynamic
▶ theory, a branch of topology. A graph is an processes such as information and knowledge dif-
abstract mathematical object composed of nodes fusion, consensus formation, or resilience
(vertices, actors) connected by relationships (capability to withstand external shocks) (Barrat
(links, edges) and can be represented by a matrix et al. 2008; Newman 2010). These processes can
(adjacency matrix), thus allowing the use of linear be optimized by adding redundant links between
algebra analysis methods. critical nodes or by rewiring existing links so as to
These methods were applied in sociology to maximize the efficiency of the network while
the study of social networks and the relations keeping the cost of link formation constant.
among sets of people (actors), predicated on the
belief that a person’s behavior is affected by that
person’s position and the structural properties of Stakeholder networks and data
the network. Examples of relationship links that collection
can be represented as a social network include
communication, friendship, or economic transac- Early tourism studies examined interorgani-
tions. Pairwise relationships among actors can be zational networks to determine the effectiveness
arrayed in a table (called a sociomatrix), and the of coordination of cooperative ▶ marketing asso-
network diagram drawn from this information is ciations (Palmer and Bejou 1995), in the same
often referred to as a sociogram. Sociomatrices way that political scientists studied policy net-
and sociograms feature centrally in sociometry, works (Dredge 2006; Rhodes 1990). Tourism is
an elaborate but simple form of analysis pioneered a networked ▶ industry where loose clusters of
by Jacob Levy Moreno in the 1940s and used to organizations within a ▶ destination, as well as
study social groups. Recently, physicists and networks of cooperative and competitive organi-
mathematicians, stimulated by developments in zations linking destinations, cooperate and com-
▶ information technology, have studied complex pete in a process of dynamic evolution. A mature
networks using tools from statistical physics destination may contain a central group of pow-
(Newman 2010). erful stakeholders surrounded by a diffuse cloud
Such studies may examine the network of a of less well connected organizations, forming a
single object (egocentric network) and how that core-periphery structure.
New Zealand 661
Destinations can be thought of as networks of interpret the quantitative outcomes of the analyses
enterprises, governments, and other organiza- conducted, and more quantitative studies are
tions. Studies conducted so far have highlighted needed to support the many and varied qualitative
the complex nature of the destination networks outcomes of tourism systems’ studies.
examined. Researchers have also demonstrated
the hierarchical composition of destinations by See also ▶ Actor-network theory, ▶ information
investigating the formation and composition of technology, ▶ social network analysis.
communities, finding varied patterns, different
from the usual subdivision in terms of business
types or geographical proximity. ▶ Knowledge
and opinion diffusion within networks have been References
modeled numerically, suggesting the possibility
of finding methods to optimize the network with Baggio, R., N., Scott, and C. Cooper 2010 Network
Science: A Review Focused on Tourism. Annals of
respect to these processes, typically by creating Tourism Research 37:802-827.
new connections or rearranging them in order to Barrat, A., M., Barthélémy, and A. Vespignani 2008
favor the formation of communities. Collabora- Dynamical Processes on Complex Networks. Cam-
tive and cooperative practices have been associ- bridge: Cambridge University Press.
Dredge, D. 2006 Policy Networks and the Local Organi-
ated with some structural characteristics of the zation of Tourism. Tourism Management 27:269-280.
networks, primarily the existence of well-defined Granovetter, M. 1973 The Strength of Weak Ties. Ameri-
modular structures or the presence of high clus- can Journal of Sociology 78:1360-1380.
tering of the links. Newman, M. 2010 Networks: An Introduction. Oxford:
Data collection for a network study must be Palmer, A., and D. Bejou 1995 Tourism Destination Mar-
performed carefully and conducted in a way that keting Alliances. Annals of Tourism Research 22:616-
guarantees the highest completeness of the 629.
data (nodes and links) for the network being Rhodes, R. 1990 Policy Networks: A British Perspective.
Journal of Theoretical Politics 2:293-317.
examined. In fact, the literature has highlighted a N
number of unexpected and anti-intuitive out-
comes, mainly due to the high skewedness of the
different properties that network elements pos-
sess. As a result, standard statistical methods New Zealand
mostly based on parametric analysis may not be
applied to network data. For the same reason, pure David Simmons
qualitative investigations, when not verified by Faculty of Environment, Society and Design,
a quantitative analysis, risk misinterpreting Lincoln University, Lincoln, Canterbury,
important features. New Zealand
Future developments New Zealand lies in the South Pacific Ocean,

1,600 km (994 miles) east of Australia. It com-
Network studies in tourism are still at an early prises a North Island and South Island and numer-
stage. A wider collection of cases is needed in ous smaller islands, with a total land area of
order to better understand similarities and differ- 270,500 km2 or 103,500 mi2 (Figure 1).
ences in structural characteristics. Moreover, lon- Although highly urbanized, its population den-
gitudinal (in ▶ time) studies are required for being sity is generally low, with 4.5 million people in
able to formulate more rigorous evolutionary 2013. Early Polynesian explorers first discovered
models that can help explain the structural char- and settled in Aotearoa (New Zealand) in the thir-
acteristics of a destination system. Finally, deeper teenth century. European immigration, primarily
qualitative analyses are needed in order to from the United Kingdom, over the last
662 New Zealand
New Zealand, Figure 1 Map of New Zealand (Source: NZ 1: 2 million, Crown Copyright Reserved (LINZ.govt.nz))
160 years, established New Zealand as a British multicultural society. Regarded as a first world
colony and member of the Commonwealth of country, the World Bank (2013) ranked it 26th in
Nations. Recent immigration from the Pacific and 2012 (an average income of US$32,200). The
Southeast Asia has today made the country a country is known for its agricultural produce
New Zealand 663
(historically sheep products, but more recently to some extent by a rapid rise in Asian arrivals,
dairy, 20.4 % export income) and other primary particularly Chinese (which overtook the
industries. ▶ United Kingdom into the second position in
Tourism contributed 15.4 % of export income 2012). Of all arrivals, 45 % originate from ▶ Aus-
in 2012. Scenic grandeur and Māori culture have tralia. In 2013, tourists from five key origins of
been recognized as core attractions since the Australia, ▶ China, United Kingdom, ▶ United
1900s, influencing the shape of early rail States, and ▶ Japan accounted for 70.5 % of all
routes and the establishment of the world’s second international arrivals, up from 65 % in 2003
oldest system of national parks. Major tourism (Simmons and Wilson 2013).
products include nature, ▶ adventure tourism, New Zealanders are prolific travelers with out-
and cultural experiences. In the more temperate bound departures exceeding 2.1 million in 2012
North Island, volcanic activity, indigenous Māori and 2013, associated with a strongly appreciating
culture, and water-based activities are major NZ dollar (+49 % against the US dollar over the last
attractions. The South Island, dominated by the 10 years). ▶ Inbound tourism has, however, a sig-
Southern Alps, offers considerable scope for trek- nificant growth in the New Zealand economy. The
king and skiing, along with a range of nature 2.6 million international arrivals in 2012 contrib-
experiences. Industry pioneers were strong advo- uted $7.8 billion (NZ$9.6 billion) in expenditure;
cates for the development of tourism, which leads when added with US$11.2 billion ▶ domestic tour-
to the establishment of the world’s first national ism expenditure, the total generates a direct contri-
tourism office in 1901. bution to GDP of US$5 billion, or 3.3 % of
GDP. Indirect value (of industries supporting tour-
ism) generated an additional US$7.9 billion, or
Market growth and development 5.2 % of the GDP. The industry directly employs
119,800 full-time equivalents, or 6.2 % of total
Early growth in ▶ tourist arrivals was slow due to employment (Statistics New Zealand 2012).
New Zealand’s isolated location. Initially, the num- N
ber of arrivals took 35 years to double from the
reported figure of about 12,000 in 1922. Significant Governance
development occurred in the mid-1950s. In 1955,
for example, entrepreneur Harry Wigley first A government-funded tourism board was
landed a ski-equipped aircraft on the glaciers. In established in 1991, to develop, implement, and
the same year, more formal government support for promote marketing strategies. This agency has
tourism development came with the establishment been particularly successful in generating growth
of the Tourist Hotel Corporation. It was, however, in demand and won numerous awards for its long-
the arrival of the jet-powered aircraft in the early term “100 % pure” New Zealand brand. The gov-
1960s that finally broke “comfort and time” bar- ernment policy platform has recently seen the
riers. With this development, arrivals have almost amalgamation of a previously separate Ministry
doubled over subsequent decades. of Tourism into a broader economic growth clus-
Continued growth during the 1990s and early ter as a “tourism, sectors, cities, and regions
2000s saw arrivals reaching two million for the branch,” within a much larger Ministry of Busi-
first time in 2003. The decade since then has ness Innovation and Employment. In the wider
produced mixed results. Starting 2008, growth in context, many other government agencies have
numbers has leveled and international expendi- direct and indirect roles in tourism. Important
ture and downstream economic impacts are among these are the Department of Conservation,
declining. This in part relates to market changes Transport, and Immigration and the country’s
as a result of the global financial crisis and partly 76 Territorial Local Authorities.
to the subsequent decline in traditional long-haul The industry is unified by a Tourism Industry
UK and US markets. This decline has been offset Association (www.tianz.org.nz), which has
664 Nicaragua
recently taken a lead role in planning with a

“national tourism framework 2025” (www.tour Nicaragua
ism2025.org.nz). This follows government-led
New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010 (MOT Carter A. Hunt
2001) and New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2015 Department of Recreation, Park, and Tourism
(MOT 2007). Common themes within these vari- Management, The Pennsylvania State University,
ous strategies are a search for ▶ sustainable tour- Pennsylvania, USA
ism development (especially noted because of the
strong product focus on the natural environment),
indigenous (Māori) engagement, and an evolution
away from volume to a broader consideration of Nicaragua is the largest country in Central Amer-
“high yielding” tourism. The latter has been the ica (130,370 km2; 509,336 mi2) with a population
focus of recent government-funded research of 5,788,531 (Figure 1). The 2012 GDP was
(Becken and Simmons 2008). US$27.1 billion. Along with coffee, beef, textiles,
In keeping with its first world status, New and gold, tourism is a principal export accounting
Zealand has a comprehensive education and for $421.5 million in foreign exchange (INTUR
training provision. Public and private institutions 2012). Natural amenities include Central
offer programs ranging from entry level to America’s largest lake, landscape-dominating
national certificates and diplomas and undergrad- volcanoes, highland forests, white sand beaches,
uate and postgraduate degrees. Because of and the largest neotropical rainforest outside of
its geography and ▶ destination status, interna- Amazonia. A Chinese company recently secured
tional students are a recognized tourism export rights to develop a transoceanic canal likely to
sector, generating US$2.3 billion in foreign drastically alter the country’s economic, environ-
exchange. mental, and geopolitical situation (Meyer and
Huete-Pérez 2014).
The 1978–1979 Sandinista Revolution ended
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ education, the 40-year Somoza dictatorship. The subsequent
▶ island tourism, ▶ nature tourism. decade of counterrevolutionary conflict brought
tourism to a halt. With the end of hostilities and
the Sandinista loss in the 1990 election, the gov-
ernment advocated tourism. Ley de Incentivos
para la Industria Turística and Ley General de
References Turismo (tourism laws passed in 1999 and 2004,
respectively) provide international and local
Becken, S., and D. Simmons 2008 Using the Concept of
Yield to Assess the Sustainability of Different Tourist developers exoneration from importation, sales,
Types. Ecological Economics 67:420-429. materials, equipment, vehicle, and property taxes
MOT 2001 New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2010. Welling- for tourism-related activities. With these policy
ton: Ministry of Tourism.
changes, international arrivals grew by 340 %
MOT 2007 New Zealand Tourism Strategy 2015. Welling-
ton: Ministry of Tourism. between 1997 and 2012 (from 358,000 to 1.2
Simmons, D., and J. Wilson 2013 State of the (New million), while revenues quintupled from $74.4
Zealand) Tourism Industry www.tianz.org.nz to $421.5 million. Ports in San Juan del Sur and
(30 September).
Statistics New Zealand 2012 Tourism Satellite
Corinto received up to 60 cruiseships per year
Account 2012: Contribution Made by Tourism to the (INTUR 2012). The country was one of few to
New Zealand Economy. Wellington: Statistics New experience tourism growth during the global eco-
Zealand. nomic recession in 2008 and 2009 (UNWTO
World Bank 2013 GDP Per Capita PPP http://data.
2010) and currently has the 2nd highest projected
worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.PCAP.PP.CD?order=
wbapi_data_value_2012+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_ growth in Latin America. According to WTTC
data_value-last&sort=desc (19 September). (2014), in 2013 the total contribution of tourism
Nicaragua 665
Nicaragua, Figure 1 Map 0 50 100 km

of Nicaragua 87
0 50 100 mi
15 15
HONDURAS Cayos
Miskitos
Puerto
Cabezas
Golfo de Mogoton
Fonseca
Caribbean
Estelí Sea
Matagalpa
Chinandega
ISLAS DEL
León Lago de
Corinto Managua MAÍZ
MANAGUA
12 El Bluff 12
Bluefields
Granada Lago de
Nicaragua
Rivas
San
NORTH Carlos
PACIFIC
OCEAN R io
S a n Ju a n
COSTA RICA
87 84
N
to Nicaragua was 9.1 % of GDP ($1.01 billion) Under-regulated development and sparse oppor-
and 3.3 % of employment (195,500 jobs). tunities for local residents remain key challenges
Outside the capital of Managua, tourism is to tourism’s ▶ sustainability. While research pros-
concentrated in the colonial city of Granada, on pects are many, the transoceanic canal will feature
Lake Nicaragua’s twin-volcano island of prominently in research undertaken in Nicaragua
Ometepe, and along the Pacific Coast. Surfing is in the coming years.
a popular activity near San Juan del Sur (INTUR
2012), where unregulated growth is driven by See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ community devel-
investments of internationals and elite opment, ▶ developing country, ▶ nature tourism,
Nicaraguans. Local residents thus question tour- ▶ rural tourism.
ism’s contributions to wealth disparities, human
wellbeing, and protection of nearby environments
(Hunt 2011). Yet immense natural resources, ram-
pant poverty, and perpetual underemployment References
provide Nicaragua with tourism-related ▶ conser-
vation and ▶ development opportunities. The Hunt, C. 2011 Passport to Development? Local Percep-
Universidad Centroamericana and Universidad tions of the Outcomes of Post-Socialist Tourism Policy
and Growth in Nicaragua. Tourism Planning and
Nacional Autónoma de Nicaragua offer tourism
Development 8:265-279.
degree programs. Tourism ▶ training is further INTUR 2012 Boletín de Estadísticas de Turismo. Mana-
supported by the non-governmental sector. gua: Instituto Nacional de Turismo.
666 Niger
Meyer, A., and J. Huete-Pérez 2014 Nicaragua Canal Could such as the Sahara Desert and Niger River, cul-
Wreak Environmental Ruin. Nature 306:287-289. tural diversity, and UNESCO world heritage sites,
UNWTO, 2010, Tourism: An Economic and Social Phe-
nomenon. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. including the trans-National Park “W” and
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact: Nica- Agadez, Niger has little tourism (2 % of GDP in
ragua. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. 2007) and is marked by the absence of infrastruc-
ture and formalized training for its tourism
▶ industry.
Tourism is concentrated in the north, with the
Niger Sahara Desert and Tuareg culture as the main
points of attraction. These became mythical in
Marko Scholze1 and Georg Klute2 ▶ Europe during the nineteenth century and rep-
1
Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany resent the main motivations for tourists to ▶ travel
2
Bayreuth International Graduate School of to Niger. The debut of modern tourism in the north
African Studies, University of Bayreuth, was marked by European ▶ tour operators who
Bayreuth, Germany organized trips starting from 1968. Some of their
Tuareg staff created their own travel agencies,
working together with European partners. Entre-
Niger (Figure 1), with a population of 17 million preneurs, like the late Mano ag Dayak, succeeded
people spread in 1,267,000 km2, consisting of in monopolizing Agadez’ tourism market,
nine different ethnic groups and languages, is catering for 2,000 foreign guests in 1988. This
one of the world’s poorest countries with a GDP development ended, when a Tuareg rebellion
per capita of US$800. Despite its natural assets, broke out in 1990. After peace was restored in
Niger, Figure 1 Map of

5 10 15
Niger 25 25
LIBYA
ALGERIA
S A H A R A
20 20
Arlit
ldoûkál-n-Taghès
MALI
Agadez
15 Tahoua 15
Ni
CHAD
ge
NIAMEY Maradi Zinder

r
Lake
Dosso Chad
BURK. Gaya
NIGERIA
BENIN CAMER.
10 0 100 200 km 10
TOGO 0 100 200 mi
5 10 15
Nigeria 667
1996, tourism regained its role and continues to

play an important part in the local economy. Nigeria
By 2007, there were 62 travel agencies in
Agadez. Their Tuareg owners employed around Onome Awaritefe
500 guides, drivers, cooks, and camel drivers for Department of Geography and Regional
3,000–5,000 European and US tourists traveling Planning, Delta State University, Abraka, Nigeria
either on Toyota Land Cruisers or on camel
back during the dry and cool seasons between
November and February. The fragility of tourism The Federal Republic of Nigeria is the 32nd larg-
in Niger was proven again in the 2007 upheaval est country in the world (923,768 km2). Located
which ended in 2009. Due to continuing in West Africa (Figure 1), with a population of
insecurity in the region through activities of ter- 140,003,524 (2006 census), it is bordered by
rorist groups like Al Qaeda, the tourism industry the Republics of Benin, ▶ Niger, ▶ Chad, and
has yet to fully recover. Current tourism ▶ Cameroon. Its economy is highly dependent
research thus focuses on crisis management by on oil (over 66 % GDP and 83 % total exports in
local actors. 2006), with little reliance on agriculture
Owners of the travel agencies and their staff (Awaritefe 2007).
belong to the social layers of the imajeghen British colonialists established public parks
(nobles) and imghad (vassals) within the hierar- and protected unique areas for tourism ▶ devel-
chical structure of Tuareg society. They conceive opment. Following independence in 1960, orga-
of their work as perpetuating traditional life as nized tourism started with the establishment of
pastoralists and caravan traders by modern Nigeria Tourist Association (1962). During the
means. They also act as cultural brokers between military era (1966–1999) and the early democratic
tourists and the host society (Klute 2012). dispensation (1990–2005), tourism development
Other players in the tourism scene are Tuareg was uncontrolled and yielded low gains.
inadan (craftsmen) who produce silver jewelry Tourism first witnessed public control when N
and handicrafts (Scholze 2010; Scholze and Nigeria Tourism Board was established in 1963,
Bartha 2004). Some have become wealthy entre- with state committees responsible for promotion
preneurs, thus dissolving their former dependency and infrastructure provision. Tourism subse-
of the nobles. quently developed under the guidance of National
Tourism Policy (first formulated in 1990 and
revised 2005) and control of Federal Ministry of
See also ▶ Desert tourism, ▶ ethnic tourism. Culture and Tourism, Nigeria Tourism Develop-
ment Corporation (NTDC 2006), and State Tour-
ism Boards. National Tourism Policy provided
References policy thrust, institutional framework, and
funding source for its development. The tourism
Klute, G. 2012 Semiotics and the Political Economy of
▶ masterplan (2006) emphasized ▶ employment,
Tourism in the Sahara. In African Hosts and
Their Guests: Cultural Dynamics of Tourism, W. van income generation, and citizen’s wellbeing as cen-
Beek and A. Schmidt, eds., pp.58-74. London: James tral to diversification and ▶ sustainability in the
Currey. country.
Scholze, M. 2010 Between the Worlds: Tuareg as Entre-
preneurs in Tourism. In Tuareg Society within a Glob-
Studies on ▶ national tourism and on Nigeria
alized World, A. Fischer and I. Kohl, eds., pp.171-188. in world tourism market were conducted in 2005
London: Tauris. as a prelude to the formulation of the master plan.
Scholze, M., and I. Bartha 2004 Trading Cultures: Berbers Its implementation attracted increased public
and Tuareg as Souvenir Vendors. In Between
investment, publicity and image building, project
Resistance and Expansion: Dimensions of Local
Vitality in Africa, P. Probst and G. Spittler, eds., monitoring, security and ▶ infrastructure, institu-
pp.71-92. Muenster: Lit. tional restructuring, and personnel training.
668 Nigeria
Nigeria, Figure 1 Map of MALI 6 12

Nigeria
NIGER CHAD
Lake
Chad
Sokoto
Katsina
12 Maiduguri 12
Kano
Zaria
Kaduna
BENIN Jos
CHAD
Ni
ge ABUJA
r Yola
Ilorin
e
nu
Ogbomoso Be
Chappal
Oshogbo Makurdi Waddi
Ibadan Benin
Enugu
City
6 Lagos 6
Warri
Bight of Calabar
CAMEROON
Bakasi
Benin
Peninsula
Port
Harcourt
Gulf of Guinea 0 100 200 km
EQUATORIAL
6 GUINEA 0 100 200 mi
International arrivals fluctuated from 0.6 mil- tourism are of special appeals to domestic tourists.
lion in 1997 to 1.5 million in 2010. Tourism Lagos, Abuja, Benin City, Jos, Kano, and Calabar
receipts staggered, with US$688 million in 2011, are important urban tourism centers. Infrastruc-
$47,000 in 1995, and $958 million in 2008. ture is poor and insecurity is high in the northeast-
▶ International tourism was 72 % of total exports ern and Delta regions.
in 2011, 136 % in 2009, and 24 % in 2005 Five tourism development clusters are cur-
(UNWTO 2012). rently established, with flagship projects pro-
Nigeria’s high population provided significant posed within each. Government and private
demand for ▶ domestic tourism. Although the sectors have implemented professional certifi-
exact revenue impact is unknown, domestic travel cate and bachelor’s degree programs in over
and hospitality by government workers is esti- 35 institutions. Postgraduate programs are avail-
mated at over $68 million (Nigerian Naira 8.8 able at 11 universities. ▶ Future tourism facilita-
billion). Government workforce, hospitality tions include easier visa procurement, image
VAT, and tax also make substantial revenue con- definition and promotion, funding SMEs, man-
tribution to transport and hospitality, with an power training, and data records. Potential prod-
unknown value of impact (NTDC 2006). ucts include religious tourism, festivals and
Main international tourism appeals are slave events, and heritage.
routes, historic sites, and festivals and events.
Parks and game reserves, unique landforms and See also ▶ Africa, ▶ festival and event, ▶ heri-
landscapes, rivers and beaches, and ▶ urban tage, ▶ image.
Non-governmental organization 669
References phase. In others, they remain involved as land-

owners or tour operators. These roles are not
Awaritefe, O. 2007 Modern Geography of Nigeria. Warri: always articulated clearly.
GOAL Publishers.
A number of NGO-based tourism initiatives
NTDC 2006 Nigeria Tourism Master-Plan. Abuja: Federal
Government. have yielded positive effects, notably human
UNWTO 2012 Yearbook of Tourism Statistics. Madrid: development and community empowerment,
World Tourism Organization. recognition and rescue of cultural heritage,
and contributions to biodiversity conservation.
Many, however, have failed through poor
understanding of tourism and/or local contexts.
Non-governmental organization In some cases, the problem originates in unre-
alistic expectations of immediate cash flow by
Tania Paola Romero-Brito local communities and NGOs or is due to con-
Griffith School of Environment, Griffith flict over economic opportunities and income
University, Gold Coast, Australia distribution.
Outcomes of NGO ecotourism projects depend
strongly on particular circumstances in individual
Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) are countries. Successful start-ups typically take
nonprofit groups established to pursue specific many years. Critical components include ade-
purposes. They raise funds from a range of public, quate and effective tourism ▶ infrastructure,
private, and community sources. Many of them ▶ marketing and distribution channels, and
are established to address human poverty, health, on-ground operations; mechanisms for commu-
and equity. Others aim to promote and assist in nity involvement; alliances and partnerships; and
biodiversity conservation. In tourism, some clear and transparent goals (Buckley 2003, 2010;
NGOs have established projects and used partner- Butcher 2007).
ships with commercial enterprises or community- The number and success of these NGO-based N
based ▶ ecotourism ventures to promote their tourism initiatives continue to grow, as lessons are
aims (Butcher 2007). learned and models replicated. There are now
Compendia of ecotourism case studies com- large-scale programs in many countries where
piled by Buckley (2003, 2010) and Zeppel NGOs have formed partnerships between public
(2006) include over 400 individual projects. land management agencies, private landowners
Approximately, half of these projects were and tourism operators, local communities, and
established by NGOs. The proportion is higher international donors. This reflects a widespread
in Latin America than elsewhere. Many of these convergence among public, private, and voluntary
initiatives are small, but some have received sectors in addressing many large-scale social and
multimillion dollar investments. International environmental issues.
NGOs, such as the World Wide Fund for Nature, Limited attempts have been made to evaluate
the Nature Conservancy, and Conservation Inter- the outcomes of NGO contributions to tourism
national, all support global portfolios of tourism projects. None has yet examined the internal
projects. Many such national- and local-level operational processes of these entities, nor
operations worldwide also promote or support how their actions and local contexts have
tourism projects at particular sites. influenced outcomes. The ability of NGOs to
Non-governmental organizations have adopted use tourism as a tool in community develop-
different financial and legal mechanisms for tour- ment and conservation would thus be enhanced
ism projects. Some set out to become financially by research on when, where, why, and how
self-sustaining, while others rely on securing tourism is used by NGOs; what outcomes
funding indefinitely. In some, NGOs handed these projects achieve; and what factors influ-
over to local communities after an initial start-up ence these goals.
670 Norway
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ con- are the majority. Due to new air routes and expan-
servation, ▶ ecotourism. sion of low cost carriers from the beginning of the
twenty-first century, the country’s destinations
have attracted an increasing proportion of interna-
References tional tourists. Domestic vacationing is dominated
by visits to friends/relatives and/or second homes
Buckley, R. 2003 Case Studies in Ecotourism. Walling- (cabins) in the countryside (M€uller 2007). Winter
ford: CABI.
sports resorts are also significant to the ▶ industry.
Buckley, R. 2010 Conservation Tourism. Wallingford:
CABI. These vacationers mainly ▶ travel with their pri-
Butcher, J. 2007 Ecotourism, NGOs and Development. vate cars, while their inbound counterparts arrive
New York: Routledge. mostly by air. The number of tourists on offshore
Zeppel, H. 2006 Indigenous Ecotourism. Wallingford:
cruiseships increased considerably during the first
CABI.
part of the twenty-first century. In the 1990s, a
▶ national tourism road program was established,
consisting of 18 scenic routes.
The total tourism workforce is approximately
Norway 165,000 in 2007. International arrivals add up to
nearly seven million, representing approximately
Jan Vidar Haukeland1 and 33 million guest nights in 2011. During the period
Jens Kr. Steen Jacobsen2 2000–2011, arrivals with overnight stay increased
1
Institute of Transport Economics, Oslo, Norway by 60% and the number of guest nights by 53%.
2
Norwegian School of Hotel Management, From 1995 to 2011, the country had a comprehen-
University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway sive border survey (Farstad et al. 2011). Statistics
Norway conducts basic international tourism
studies, including hotel stays. The Ministry of
Norway is located in northern Europe and forms Trade, Industry and Fisheries coordinates tourism
the western part of the Scandinavian Peninsula. policies of the country. Innovation Norway, a
The mainland is 324,000 km2 (125,000 mi2) and state-owned company comprising the former
its population amounts to 5.2 million. Its GNP is Tourist Board, leads promotion of international
estimated to be US$377 billion (NOK 2,792 bil- tourism.
lion) in 2011, the world’s 23rd largest economy Norway has several tourism and hospitality
and the 4th highest per capita. Total tourism con- programs at universities and colleges. Related
sumption was $17,345 million (NOK 128,526 research is conducted both at ▶ universities and
million) in 2011, and the ▶ industry represents at a number of independent research institutes. An
4.3% of the GNP (Statistics Norway 2014) important academic publication channel is Scan-
(Figure 1). dinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism. The
Tourism started in the romantic period of the growth in the Nordic tourism research community
nineteenth century. ▶ International tourism grew is expected to continue in the coming years. Par-
considerably during the 1930s and again from the ticular future research challenges include in-depth
1960s onward. The long and mostly alpine coast- analyses of individual and organized travel pat-
line and fjords surrounded by agricultural shores terns in Norway and carbon emission issues
and steep mountains with waterfalls are chief related to long-distance visitation.
attractions. Summer arrivals typically ▶ tour the
fjords of the southwest or take trips along the
extensive coastline north of the Arctic Circle, See also ▶ Alpine tourism, ▶ employment,
where the midnight sun is visible from mid-May ▶ scenic drive tourism, ▶ Tourism Satellite
to late July. Germans and Scandinavian neighbors Account, ▶ visiting friend and relative.
Norway 671
Norway, Figure 1 Map of

Norway
N
672 Nostalgia tourism
References “a positively toned evocation of a lived past in the

context of some negative feeling toward the pre-
Farstad, E., A. Rideng, and I. Mata 2011 Gjesteun- sent” (Davis 1979: 18). Nostalgia tourism pro-
dersøkelsen 2011. Oslo: Institute of Transport vides opportunities for individuals who have
Economics.
M€uller, D. 2007 Second Homes in the Nordic Countries. physically distanced themselves from a special
Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism place or those who long for their glorious past. It
7:193-201. can be seen in restorative and reflective forms.
Statistics Norway 2014 Satellittregnskap for Turisme, Restorative nostalgia, emphasizing nostos, holds
2007-2011. Oslo: Statistics Norway www.ssb.no/
turismesat (29 December). a true perception of the past and wants to recollect
a previous life. For instance, in returning to their
hometown, people could enjoy a reunion with old
classmates or childhood friends. Reflective nos-
talgia stems from algia, longing and loss, and the
Nostalgia tourism imperfection of remembrance. Negotiating such
an agonizing condition impels an inclination to
Bob Lee visit historical relics, ▶ museum collections, or a
College of Education and Human Development, place filled with attributes of a person’s own cul-
Bowling Green State University, Bowling Green, tural ▶ identity (e.g. Chinatown, New York).
USA Nostalgia tourism is an emerging ▶ phenomenon.
Particularly nowadays, as the baby boomers are
approaching retirement age, they will likely drive
Nostalgia tourism refers to tourists traveling to a up the numbers of travelers who have a desire to
▶ destination with a view to reviving their past. revisit destinations which may alleviate their nos-
For example, a couple returns to the destination talgic conditions. Research on nostalgia tourism
where they had their honeymoon, a grown-up man reveals that, when people grow old, the motiva-
goes back to the site where he often fished with his tion of yearning for the past and turning to the
father during his childhood, or an immigrant ▶ exploration of identity will correspondingly
travels back to the town in her home country increase (Russell 2008). As a result, ▶ future
where she grew up. Nostalgia tourism is about research is warranted to address the influence of
fulfilling the desire to relive bygone experiences a destination image on the expectations of poten-
and bring back a personal ▶ history often filled tial nostalgic tourists.
with joy, happiness, and satisfaction.
Nostalgia is key to learning the derived con- See also ▶ Destination, ▶ diaspora, ▶ heritage,
cept of this form of tourism. The term is originally ▶ museum, ▶ segmentation.
derived from the Greek nostos, to return home,
while algia denotes a painful condition. Taken
together, they signify “a painful yearning to return References
home” (Davis 1979:1). However, today, people
do not merely reminisce about a place they left Davis, F. 1979 Yearning for Yesterday. New York: Free
behind, but often use nostalgic feelings to express Press.
their desire for a particular ▶ time in the past Dann, G. 1998 There’s No Business like Old Business:
Tourism, the Nostalgia Industry of the Future. In Global
(Gammon 2002). Hence, it is a state of being Tourism, W. Theobald, ed., pp.29-43. Oxford:
associated with the experience of ▶ mobility or Butterworth-Heinemann.
▶ modernity. Mobility may result in a sense of Gammon, S. 2002 Fantasy, Nostalgia and the Pursuit of
spatial displacement, while modernity may in all What Never Was. In Sport Tourism: Principles and
Practice, S. Gammon and J. Kutzman, eds., pp.61-72.
likelihood bring about feelings of loss of the past.
Eastbourne: LSA Publication.
Nostalgia is not simply an antiquarian feeling, Russell, D. 2008 Nostalgia Tourism. Journal of Travel and
or mindless yearning (Dann 1998). It is actually Tourism Marketing 25(2):103-115.
Novelty 673
scale, to capture the novelty construct associated

Novelty with international pleasure travel.
The international tourist role scale has three
Athena H. N. Mak dimensions. The destination-oriented dimension
Department of Tourism, Recreation and Leisure represents the preference for novelty and familiar-
Studies, National Dong Hwa University, ity when choosing international destinations; the
Shoufeng, Hualien, Taiwan travel services dimension measures the extent of
preference for travel with or without institutional-
ized services; and the social contact dimension
Novelty denotes the quality of being new and reveals the preferences regarding the extent and
unusual, something that has not been experienced variety of social contacts with local people when
before. Novelty and its opposite, familiarity, are traveling in a foreign country.
recognized as the two most general categories of
interpretation of the world (Schuetz 1962); they
are useful in understanding and interpreting tour- The novelty seeking behavior
ist behavior. According to Cohen (1972), tourists
travel in a quest of novelty; yet, most of them need Consistent with novelty being acknowledged as
to stay in their comfort zone or “environmental an important motivation, the seeking behavior has
bubble” in order to fully enjoy the experience. been identified as a critical factor affecting behav-
Based on a novelty-familiarity continuum, ior. Novelty seeking behavior reflects an individ-
Cohen (1972) proposes a typology of four roles: ual’s preference for new experiences and is
the organized mass tourist, the individual mass generally recognized as a personality trait that is
tourist, the explorer, and the drifter. Dann (1977) stable and consistent over time. A high degree of
distinguishes motivation into two factors: “push” novelty seeking is referred to as neophilia
(those predisposing the ▶ tourist to ▶ travel) and (Greek), which reflects the love of what is new.
“pull” (those which attract the tourist to a given Neophilia is known to vary from culture to culture N
destination). Crompton’s study (1979) corrobo- and from individual to individual.
rates this distinction and suggests that novelty is The variation in the degree of novelty seeking
one of the key “pull” (cultural) motives, even can be explained by optimal stimulation level
though the actual quest for it can also be regarded theory. It posits that an individual prefers a partic-
in “push” terms. ular level of stimulation which varies from one
person to another. The optimal level of stimulation
is adjusted through increasing or decreasing the
Operationalization of the novelty environmental stimuli until a balance is achieved.
construct When the environment fails to provide adequate
stimuli, an individual will be motivated to engage
While being recognized as an important motiva- in exploratory behavior in order to increase the
tion, there is no universally accepted operationa- level of arousal. As a result, novelty seeking
lization of the novelty construct, which is behavior is often closely associated with explor-
generally considered multidimensional. atory behavior as well as a variety of other terms,
A number of studies have explored its underlying including curiosity drive, sensation seeking, and
dimensions. Prominent among them is the work of variety seeking which describes the desire to seek
Lee and Crompton (1992), which presents a arousal stimuli (Lee and Crompton 1992).
21-item instrument to capture the four interrelated The effect of novelty seeking has generated a
but distinctive dimensions of novelty: thrill, great deal of research interest. For example, Lee
change from routine, boredom alleviation, and and Crompton (1992) set out a model to explain
surprise. Mo et al. (1993) have further devised a the role of novelty in the destination choice pro-
20-item instrument, the international tourist role cess. The model posits that the level of arousal
674 Novelty
sought by individuals becomes an antecedent of useful when applied to the examination of behav-
their novelty seeking behavior, which in turn will ioral variation in ▶ special interest tourism. For
affect their evaluation and choice of destination. example, Chang et al. (2010) identify a “tourist’s
Other studies have suggested that high novelty paradox” effect, which reflects the oscillation
seeking tourists have a greater tendency to explore between the desire to seek novelty and familiarity
various forms of stimuli from the destinations in dining experiences in foreign destinations.
visited. These can be found in the form of Other- Finally, ▶ globalization may impact upon per-
ness of the destination, including culture, ceived novelty of a destination and tourists’ nov-
▶ region, ▶ time, ethos/▶ religion, and socioeco- elty seeking behavior. Perceptions of novelty and
nomic class. More recently, studies have provided familiarity under the influence of globalization
evidence that novelty is an influential factor thus represent new research directions.
affecting revisit intention and satisfaction.
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ experience, ▶ motiva-
tion, ▶ myth, ▶ other.
Future directions
As a critical construct in understanding tourist moti-

vation and behavior, the novelty construct deserves References
further exploration in the following directions. First,
while novelty is accepted as a multidimensional Chang, R., J. Kivela, and A. Mak 2010 Food Preferences of
construct, there is no agreed-upon operationa- Chinese Tourists. Annals of Tourism Research 37:
989-1011.
lization of the construct. Besides, the use of various Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International
terms, including novelty seeking, exploratory Tourism. Social Research 39:174-182.
behavior, and sensation seeking, in describing tour- Crompton, J. 1979 Motivations for Pleasure Vacation.
ists’ quest for novelty can be ambiguous and may Annals of Tourism Research 6:408-424.
Dann, G. 1977 Anomie, Ego-enhancement and Tourism.
lead to confusion (Lee and Crompton 1992). Annals of Tourism Research 4:184-194.
Future research addressing the dimensionality Lee, T., and J. Crompton 1992 Measuring Novelty Seeking
and ambiguity issues will be most valuable to in Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 19:732-737.
advance novelty research. Second, novelty is a Mo, C., D. Howard, and M. Havitz 1993 Testing an Inter-
national Tourist Role Typology. Annals of Tourism
relative concept, which is dependent on one’s Research 20:319-335.
past experience and the context in which a stimu- Schuetz, A. 1962 Collected Papers I: The Problem of
lus is presented. The construct is particularly Social Reality (Vol. I). The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff.
O
Olympic tourism destination through the media are likely to form

the major source markets of Olympic tourism.
Yong Hee Kim Furthermore, tourists that have visited the ▶ des-
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, tination for Olympic-related reasons may generate
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, repeat visits to the same destination as they may
Hong Kong, China return for other activities. In this regard, Olympic
tourists consist of two categories: those whose
primary motivation for travel is to participate in
Olympic tourism is “behavior motivated or gen- the Games (e.g., athletes, event spectators) and
erated by Olympic-related activities” (Weed those whose primary purpose is not participation
2008: 22). It is not only related to tourism directly but somehow relates to the event (such as skiers
related to, but also about non-sport-related tour- who like to experience Olympic ski resorts or
ism generated before, during, and after the Olym- anyone interested in visiting Olympic venues)
pics. Cities and governments are eager to host the (Weed and Bull 2004).
Olympic Games, despite the substantial associ- There are two main economic benefits created
ated costs, as it may generate positive images of by hosting the Olympics: first, tourism revenue
host cities as potential destinations through event- generated by a substantial number of incoming
related media coverage featuring the destination. tourists during the Games and tax revenue for
The 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, for exam- the government and second, enhanced visibility
ple, had enhanced the saliency and attractiveness or prestige of the destination due to or associated
of the city as a destination (Ritchie 1990). with the Olympics. While the former is often short
Pre-Games tourism is derived from visitors’ term, the latter could be long lasting. Since mega
perceptions about the destination’s imminent events such as the Olympics only occur for a short
hosting of the mega event, while post-Games period of time, the revenue generated by tourism
tourism is significantly affected by the image of often scarcely justifies the associated costs. From
the destination generated by and/or exposed dur- this perspective, it is thus not a viable investment
ing the Olympics in addition to the perceptions of or path to economic growth for cities without the
the event itself (Weed 2008). So, the general pub- promise of intangible benefits from an enhanced
lic or people who have been exposed to the host city image (Burbank et al. 2001). Future research

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
676 Oman
could examine how Olympic tourism is different exceeds 12,000 (Ministry of Information 2012).
from other mega-event tourism, as well as post- As a result of Oman’s new approach to tourism, in
Games use of Olympic facilities for tourism, rec- 2012, arrivals grew to more than 1.5 million and
reation, and leisure activities. earnings reached $2.32 billion with a direct GDP
contribution of 3.1 % (WTTC 2013). In the same
year, the capital city of Muscat was chosen as the
See also ▶ Community development, ▶ festival
Arab Tourism Capital and as the Lonely Planet’s
and event, ▶ MICE, ▶ Sport tourism.
second best city to visit.
Oman combines rich culture with diverse
nature. Its history spans at least 5,000 years
References where it traded with the ancient world, accepted
Islam in 630, ruled territories in northern Arabian
Burbank, M, G. Andranovich, and C. Heying 2001 Olym- Peninsula and eastern ▶ Africa, and deployed the
pic Dreams: The Impact of Mega-events on Local Pol-
first Arab envoy to the ▶ United States in 1840
itics. Boulder: Lynne Rienner.
Ritchie, J. 1990 Turning 16 Days into 16 Years: A Calgary (Al-Haddad 2006). Footprints of Oman’s long
Perspective on Strategies for Enhancing the Success, history are evident in attractions like its four
the Long-term Impacts and the Legacies of the 2002 UNESCO world heritage groups of sites, the
Olympic Winter Games on Salt Lake City. Salt Lake
5,000-year-old bat archaeological sites, the aflaj
City: Report to the Utah Division of Travel
Development. traditional irrigation system, the Land of Frankin-
Weed, M. 2008 Olympic Tourism. Oxford: Elsevier. cense sites, and the Bahla oasis and fort. Oman’s
Weed, M., and C. Bull 2004 Sports Tourism: Participants, modern cultural attractions include the Sultan
Policy and Providers. Oxford: Elsevier.
Qaboos Grand Mosque and the Royal Opera
House.
The other important feature of Oman is its
diverse nature. Its long coast embraces clean
Oman beaches, diving sites like the Daymaniyat islands,
and turtle nesting locations like the Ras al-Jinz
Hamed Al-Azri reserve. Hajar Mountains peak 3,000 m at al Jabal
Marketing Department, Sultan Qaboos al Akhdar and encompass Majlis al-Jinn, one of
University, Muscat, Oman the largest cave chambers in the world. Oman’s
vast deserts embody notable wildlife and tradi-
tional Bedouin lifestyle. In addition, the annual
Sultanate of Oman is located at the corner of the monsoon season in the Governorate of Dhofar
Arabian Peninsula overseeing the strategic Strait attracts thousands of regional visitors.
of Hormuz (Figure 1). It has a land area of Omani government is enhancing tourism
309,500 km2 (119,498 mi2) (Ministry of Informa- ▶ infrastructure through projects like the expan-
tion 2012) and a population of around 3.9 million. sion of Muscat International Airport, the conver-
In 2012, Oman’s GDP was US$78 billion, sion of Port Sultan Qaboos into a tourism hub, and
with petroleum activities contributing 52 % the development of Oman Convention and Exhi-
(NCSI 2013). bition Centre. Tourism research in Oman is
Tourism plays a key role in the country’s eco- needed in areas like ▶ impact assessment, ▶ des-
nomic diversification strategy. In 2001, the coun- tination development, marketing, heritage, educa-
try adopted a strategic plan to develop tourism. tion, events, small and medium enterprises, hotel
This was followed by the issuance of its tourism management, and site management.
▶ law in 2002 and the establishment of the Min-
istry of Tourism and the joining of ▶ UNWTO in See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ destination
2004. Today, the total number of hotel rooms branding, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ world heritage.
Online review 677
Oman, Figure 1 Map

of Oman
References information for tourists (Racherla et al. 2013). In

the past, customers relied mainly on professional
Al-Haddad, F. 2006 A'siyaha fi Sultanat Uman [Tourism in reviews of restaurants and tourism-related busi- O
the Sultanate of Oman]. Muscat: Al-Dharmi.
nesses (Black and Kelley 2009). However, over
Ministry of Information 2012 Oman 2012/2013. Muscat:
Ministry of Information. the past decade, more and more people are willing
NCSI 2013 Economic Review 2012: Fourth Quarter. Mus- to share their views as consumers and voice their
cat: National Center for Statistics and Information. consumption experiences online due to the evolu-
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2013
tion of the internet and mobile technologies.
Oman. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
Many tourists have become active participants in
co-creating values for the products they purchase
through their sharing and socializing activities on
various social media websites. Many online tourism
Online review review websites provide opportunities to post tex-
tual and visual comments about service providers.
Norman Au The most popular ones include, among others,
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, TripAdvisor, Lonely Planet, VirtualTourist, and
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hotels.com. These sites offer users the chance to
Hong Kong, China provide a quantitative or a so-called eRating on
various product attributes and to derive an overall
star rating on a typically five- or seven-point Likert-
An online review is a form of electronic word of type of scale. These online reviews and eRatings
mouth and has emerged as an important source of have had a substantial impact on marketing
678 Online review
activities of hospitality and tourism suppliers. With understanding of the customers’ perspectives on
the growing popularity of online hotel room and online technologies is critical. Hospitality and
tourism product reservations, an increasing number tourism suppliers can encourage loyal customers
of consumers are now consulting online reviews to write online reviews by offering various
before making their purchasing decisions (Ong incentives. They can in turn use these reviews
2012), to such an extent that they have gradually to gain strategic advantages to co-create service
replaced travel agents, paid advertising, and experiences with customers. Additionally, review
published materials as a preferred information sites can develop more effective methods to aggre-
source (Black and Kelley 2009). gate, synthesize, and publish review contents and
ratings (Racherla et al. 2013).
The issue of trust and credibility remains a
Main studies
major challenge, as writers are not held account-
able for what is written. Whether a specific
Online hospitality and tourism product/service
review is regarded as helpful or not depends
reviews have been the subject of considerable
partly on the amount of details included in the
research in recent years. Most studies have
content, such as specific information about the
focused on how reader attitudes and behaviors
service staff, hotel atmosphere, location of the
are affected by online reviews (Black and Kelley
room, or the service encounter (Black and Kelley
2009), in particular in relation to choice set (Ong
2009). Providing prompt and effective manage-
2012), hotel room sales (Ye et al. 2009), and
ment responses to these reviews is another big
purchase intentions (Sparks et al. 2013).
challenge to suppliers due to limited financial
Another major focus is on antecedents of online
and human resources. Nevertheless, there are
posting behavior. For example, Yoo and Gretzel
already some intelligent computer programs
(2008) discover that review writers are mainly
which are capable of automatically categorizing
driven by concerns for other tourists, self-
and analyzing online comments in different lan-
enhancement, and the need to help service pro-
guages posted in many major review websites.
viders. Racherla et al. (2013) examine the determi-
These reports are available for hospitality and
nants of customer ratings of service providers and
tourism practitioners to purchase periodically at
find that the correlations between overall online
a reasonable cost.
review rating and individual rating of attributes
It is likely that tourists will continue to
are very low. They suggest that online review
use online reviews as one criterion in their
should be read with cautions when such ratings
decisionmaking process. Rapid developments in
are taken as an indication of customer satisfaction.
advanced technologies are likely to lead to the
A third line of research uses innovative quali-
application of more sophisticated semantic analy-
tative methodologies, such as netnography, to
sis and sentiment classification techniques for
examine how eReviews transform the tourism
online customer reviews, allowing mass customi-
experience, redistribute institutional accountabil-
zation of products which can be offered at low
ity, and thereby influence the practices of hoteliers
cost. Industry practitioners will need a holistic and
(Scott and Orlikowski 2012). These studies imply
strategic approach to engaging consumers
that the administrators/designers of online review
through online platforms. More importantly,
websites have increasing power to orchestrate and
greater efforts should be made to improve the
tailor how tourist experiences are expressed and
perceived trustworthiness and usefulness of
presented.
online reviews. Given the dynamic changes and
diversity in the preferences of different genera-
Opportunities, challenges, prospects tions of tourists, more research is needed to iden-
tify appropriate business models for future
Given that online reviews have the capacity to success. How different contexts might influence
transform tourist decisionmaking, a sound the effects of the antecedents in relation to the
Optimal arousal 679
posting behavior of online reviews and conse- energy release and the intensity of readiness.
quently the impacts of online user-generated con- Closely associated with the experience of flow
tent would also constitute a useful line of inquiry. from a psychological perspective, the construct
is often used as the explanation for why people
See also ▶ eCommerce, ▶ eTourism, ▶ informa- play or engage in ▶ leisure activities.
tion technology, ▶ internet, ▶ social media. Early research was based upon the belief that
behavior was always directed at satisfying needs.
For example, the vigilance research, concerning
the rates and causes of declining attention to a
References task, finds an individual will perform a skill most
successfully when the level of arousal is optimal.
Black, H., and S. Kelley 2009 A Storytelling Perspective On the other hand, a poor performance may be
on Online Customer Reviews Reporting Service
Failure and Recovery. Journal of Travel and Tourism
due to a low level of arousal and a depressed level
Marketing 26:169-179. of motivation. Animal studies reveal that the retic-
Ong, B. 2012 The Perceived Influence of User Reviews in ulate arousal system is responsible for arousing
the Hospitality Industry. Journal of Hospitality Market- the cortex and is linked to certain simulative pro-
ing and Management 21:463-485.
Racherla, P., D. Connolly, and N. Christodoulidou 2013
cesses, such as awakening and sexual arousal.
What Determines Consumers’ Ratings of Service Pro- Performance and arousal are related to each
viders? An Exploratory Study of Online Traveler other through an inverted U-shaped function that
Reviews. Journal of Hospitality Marketing and paralleled a much earlier discovery of a similar
Scott, S., and W. Orlikowski 2012 Reconfiguring Relations
phenomenon by Yerkes and Dodson (1908) on
of Accountability: Materialization of Social Media in human learning and habituation. Although vigi-
the Travel Sector. Accounting, Organizations and Soci- lance research and animal studies have not been
ety 37:26-40. formally linked, their findings have been widely
Sparks, B., H. Perkins, and R. Buckley 2013 Online Travel
Reviews as Persuasive Communication: The Effects of
used to understand the effects of competition on
Content Type, Source, and Certification Logos on human movement. Most importantly, they explain
Consumer Behavior. Tourism Management 39:1-9. nonutilitarian, exploratory, play-like behavior for
Ye, Q., R. Law, and B. Gu 2009 The Impact of Online User
Reviews on Hotel Room Sales. International Journal of
both human beings and animals who seek novel, O
Hospitality Management 28:180-182.
complex, and uncertain stimuli. The problems
Yoo, K., and U. Gretzel 2008 What Motivates Consumers with this research are that the optimal level varies
to Write Online Travel Reviews? Information by activity, over time, and among individuals. It is
Technology and Tourism 10:283-295. not an accurately defined or easily measurable
state, nor can its objective characteristics be reli-
ably derived from theory or from empirical data.
Mannell and Iso-Ahola (1987), utilizing a post
Optimal arousal hoc satisfaction approach, show that the psycho-
logical benefits of recreational ▶ travel emanate
Philip F. Xie from the interplay of two forces: escaping from
Faculty of Hospitality and Tourism Management, routine and stressful environments and seeking of
Macao University of Science and Technology, recreational opportunities for certain psychologi-
Macao, China cal rewards. They argue that the role of optimal
arousal should be embedded in ▶ tourist behavior
studies. Travels, heavily influenced by the need
Optimal arousal is a psychological construct refer- for optimal arousal, serve as a dialectical optimiz-
ring to a level of mental stimulation at which ing process (Iso-Ahola 1983). Recent studies have
physical performance, learning, or temporary expanded to tourism market ▶ segmentation
feelings of wellbeing are maximized (Smith where optimal arousal is viewed as a variable; to
1990). It can also be described as the degree of motivational and emotional aspects of
680 Organization and association
▶ destination choice behavior where arousal organization), also often referred to as a public-
influences emotional experiences, evaluations, private partnership (Morrison 2013; UNWTO
and behavioral intentions; and to destination loy- 2007; Zapata and Hall 2012). Quangos are usually
alty and repeat behavior for optimum stimulation created by special government statutes and thus
measurement (Tsaur et al. 2013). called statutory bodies.
Tourism organizations vary according to their
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ escape, ▶ motivation, legal structures and on account of their functions
▶ psychology, ▶ satisfaction. and reasons for establishment. Government orga-
nizations have a tendency to have strong policy,
▶ planning, and research functions. Quangos are
References established often for international marketing pur-
poses. In the nonprofit category, many are trade
Iso-Ahola, S. 1983 Towards a Social Psychology of and professional associations with strong industry
Recreational Travel. Leisure Studies 2:45-56.
advocacy and professional development func-
Mannell, R., and S. Iso-Ahola 1987 Psychological Nature
of Leisure and Tourism Experience. Annals of Tourism tions. Non-governmental organizations mostly
Research 14:314-331. operate in developing countries to improve the
Smith, S. 1990 Dictionary of Concepts in Recreation and living conditions of disadvantaged people.
Leisure Studies. Westport: Greenwood.
Tsaur, S., C. Yen, and S. Hsiao 2013 Transcendent Expe-
rience, Flow and Happiness for Mountain Climbers.
International Journal of Tourism Research 15:360-374. Geography and structure
Yerkes, R., and J. Dodson 1908 The Relation of Strength of of organizations
Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit-Formation. Journal of
Comparative Neurology and Psychology 18:459-482.
One popular way of classifying tourism organiza-
tions is by their geographical scope (Mill and
Morrison 2012). There are some key global ones
that are primarily involved with tourism issues,
Organization and association including the World Tourism Organization, World
Travel & Tourism Council, World Tourism Cities
Alastair M. Morrison Federation, International Civil Aviation Organiza-
College of Health and Human Sciences, Purdue tion, and International Air Transport Association.
University, West Lafayette, IN, USA From the governmental standpoint, the former is
the most significant among them. It is the agency
of the United Nations with a mandate to support
Most tourism organizations fall into one of the responsible, sustainable, and universally accessi-
three categories: public (government), private, or ble tourism. It advocates tourism as a driver of
nonprofit. There has been significant research on economic growth, inclusive ▶ development and
private organizations in management-oriented environmental sustainability. It supports tourism
academic journals, particularly those in hospital- worldwide by advancing knowledge and policy
ity management. However, the focus in tourism development. The World Travel & Tourism Coun-
research has mainly been on government organi- cil is a second global organization with a sole
zations and particularly about official organiza- focus on tourism and is a platform for business
tions at the national, state, provincial or leaders in this industry. It raises worldwide aware-
territorial, regional, and local levels. In the non- ness and especially in terms of economic impacts.
profit sector, there are a great variety of organiza- It also builds tourism partnerships between the
tions, but associations and non-governmental private and public sectors. World Tourism Cities
organizations are the most common types. Federation is a newer organization that represents
A fourth type that is growing in popularity is a tourism cities. International Civil Aviation Orga-
“quango” (quasi-autonomous non-governmental nization and International Air Transport
Organization and association 681
Association are global organizations with man- combination is tourism and ▶ culture, with exam-
dates related to civil aviation. The former is a ples being found in ▶ Turkey and the ▶ Maldives.
specialized agency of the United Nations that pro- In some cases, the word “tourism” does not appear
motes the safe and orderly development of inter- in the official name of the ministry. An example of
national civil aviation in the world. The latter is this is in ▶ New Zealand where tourism is just one
the trade association of the world’s airlines, which of the industries within the Ministry of Economic
helps to formulate industry policies. Development. In the ▶ United Kingdom, tourism
Multi-country regional organizations represent is under the Department of Culture, Media and
groupings of countries with common interest. Sport.
Some are governmental organizations and others Most countries have just one national DMO,
are composed mainly of private sector members. but some have split the roles between two differ-
There are two subgroups: organizations in which ent agencies. This happens when governments
tourism is just one part of a broader mandate and want to allow more flexibility in conducting des-
others which are more specialized. The first con- tination marketing. In certain countries, all roles
sists mostly of intergovernmental organizations except for destination marketing are given to the
including Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation, National Tourism Administration. Product devel-
Association of Southeast Asian Nations, Euro- opment, planning, and research are particularly
pean Union, Organization of American States, important roles and can be found in Australia
Organization for Economic Cooperation and and Hong Kong Special Administrative Region,
Development, among others. The second group among others. Australia’s national tourism admin-
has more private sector involvement and includes istration is the Department of Resources, Energy
Latin American Confederation of Tourism Orga- and Tourism; Tourism Australia is the other
nizations, Caribbean Tourism Organization, Euro- national level office and is a statutory body
pean Travel Commission, Mekong Tourism responsible for international and domestic mar-
Coordinating Office, Pacific Asia Travel Associ- keting of Australia as a destination for leisure
ation, and South Pacific Tourism Organization. and business travel. Another example of this
Within individual countries, there are several dual-DMO system is the Hong Kong Tourism
official organizations that are either called desti- Commission and the Hong Kong Tourism O
nation marketing or destination management Board. The latter is a government-funded agency
organizations, and both are abbreviated as and does destination marketing for Hong Kong as
DMO. In some countries, the national organiza- well as performing other duties. Tourism Austra-
tion is called the National Tourism Administra- lia and Hong Kong Tourism Board are both exam-
tion, such as the China National Tourism ples of statutory bodies or quangos. Traditionally,
Administration. Other countries have a separate they were called commissions, boards, or author-
Ministry of Tourism which performs similar roles. ities, such as the Canadian Tourism Commission.
This organizational approach indicates that tour- More recently, the country names were super-
ism is considered to be a highly important eco- seded with either “tourism” or “visit,” including
nomic sector. The ▶ Bahamas, ▶ Croatia, Tourism Australia, Tourism New Zealand, and
▶ Ghana, ▶ Kenya, ▶ Oman, ▶ India, ▶ Indone- VisitBritain. One of the main advantages of
sia, ▶ Israel, ▶ Jamaica, ▶ Malaysia, and ▶ Trin- these bodies is that they tend to offer a blend of
idad and Tobago, mostly developing countries, public and private sector strengths. These organi-
have a Ministry of Tourism. Some countries zations are governed by independent boards of
assign tourism a lower priority and place it along directors drawn from various sectors. Hence,
with other government departments in a shared they have greater management flexibility in deal-
ministerial portfolio. For example, it is often coming with the commercial aspects of marketing and
bined with ▶ economic development, as in the promotion (Wight 2013). Additionally, they have
case of the Ministry of Economy, Development, closer relationships with the private sector and
and Tourism in Chile. Another popular other non-governmental organizations.
682 Organization and association
Several larger countries have governmental expansion of the number of DMOs. Guests at
systems below the national level. In these situa- hotels and other forms of accommodation pay
tions, DMOs operate at state, provincial, or terri- these taxes and then part or all of the collection
torial levels. Similar to the national level, different are distributed by local governments to DMOs. In
types of organizational structures are also found. the United States, these organizations are called
For example, in the State of New York, the Divi- convention and visitors bureaus or CVBs in short.
sion of Marketing, Advertising, and Tourism is They mainly focus on destination marketing but
within the state government’s Empire State Devel- are gradually placing greater emphasis on desti-
opment Agency. The Department of Tourism, nation management roles.
Government of Kerala in India is another case.
All of the DMOs in China are government oper-
ated. There has been a ▶ trend to create statutory Associations and non-governmental
bodies and other forms of nonprofit organizations, organization
particularly to handle destination marketing at
various levels. Tourism Northern Territory in Organizations can also be viewed by their func-
Australia is an example of a statutory body. Visit tions. Tourism has many nonprofit associations,
California is a nonprofit organization classified as most of which are trade/▶ industry or professional
a corporation. Their roles are similar to the associations. They normally charge memberships
national DMOs, but they place more emphasis in exchange for a variety of services. The two
on ▶ domestic tourism and on destination market- major functions of trade or industry associations
ing in general. are advocacy and education/professional develop-
The definition of what a region constitutes ment (Destination Marketing Association Interna-
varies and so does the meaning of a regional DM- tional 2014). They advocate for their subsectors of
O. For example, smaller-sized countries such as tourism by demonstrating their economic impor-
New Zealand and Italy have regional government tance and contributions, such as income and
agencies below the national level. Larger coun- employment creation. They lobby government
tries such as Canada and Australia have states, agencies and politicians on the key issues affect-
provincial or territorial government agencies ing their members. These associations also
below the national level, and then have regions develop and administer education and training
under the states, provinces, or territories. Regional programs and hold annual conferences and
DMOs tend to be mainly involved in destination other meetings. Two examples are Destination
marketing, but in some cases they also assume Marketing Association International, a
other roles, including planning, research, and Washington-based group that represents destina-
product development. In most cases, they receive tion marketing and management organizations,
funding from superior levels of government and and Meeting Professionals International is an
operate either as government-run or are structured association for the global meeting and event
as statutory bodies or nonprofits. community.
At the local level, there are county and city There are several professional associations
DMOs. These exist in most countries in the largest involved with tourism ▶ education and research.
metropolitan areas. In some countries and espe- These include the Travel and Tourism Research
cially in the United States, there are even more Association; International Association of Scien-
extensive systems of county and city DMOs. As tific Experts in Tourism; Council for Australasian
was the case at the three other geographic levels, Tourism and Hospitality Education; Asia Pacific
the county or city DMO may be run by the local Tourism Association; International Academy for
government or alternatively it may be a nonprofit the Study of Tourism; International Council on
organization. The introduction of room or bed Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education;
taxes at county and city levels led to a rapid International Society of Travel and Tourism
Organizational culture 683
Educators; Association for Tourism and Leisure Werker, E., and F. Ahmed 2008 What Do
Education and Research; and others. They pro- Non-governmental Organizations Do? Journal of Eco-
nomic Perspectives 22(2):73-92.
vide a forum for educators and scholars to share Wight, A. 2013 Identifying Best Practice in National Tour-
best practices and research. Some publish their ism Organizations: Lessons for the United Kingdom.
own books and journals. Journal of Vacation Marketing 19:133-148.
Non-governmental organizations as private enti- Zapata, M., and C. Hall 2012 Public-Private Collaboration
in the Tourism Sector: Balancing Legitimacy and
ties are characterized primarily by humanitarian or Effectiveness in Local Tourism Partnerships. The
cooperative, rather than commercial, objectives that Spanish Case. Journal of Policy Research in Tourism,
pursue activities to relieve suffering, promote the Leisure and Events 4:61-83.
interests of the poor, protect the environment, pro-
vide basic social services, or undertake ▶ commu-
nity development in developing countries (Werker
and Ahmed 2008). They are nonprofit organiza- Organizational culture
tions that are involved with international develop-
ment. Two well-recognized examples with strong Marco Antonio Robledo
environmental agenda are the World Wildlife Fund Departamento de Economia de I’Empresa,
and the Nature Conservancy. Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de
More research is required on the relative effec- Mallorca, Spain
tiveness of government and public-private part-
nership approaches to DMOs. In addition, there
has not been much previous research on the con- ▶ Organizational culture is a complex term that
tributions of non-governmental organizations to can be defined from various perspectives. There
tourism, which have been significant in many are scholars who consider ▶ culture as an ▶ ide-
developing countries. Further research is also ology, some speaks of a regularity of observed
required on the concept of ▶ governance in tour- behaviors, while others talk about shared mean-
ism organizations (Ruhanen et al. 2010). ings. Ultimately, the term describes the unwritten
codes of conduct and the pattern of core values
that are widely shared by organizational members. O
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization, A good integrating definition is Barney’s, who
▶ national tourism organization and administra- defines corporate culture as “a complex set of
tion, ▶ non-governmental organization, ▶ World values, beliefs, assumptions and symbols that
Tourism Organization. define the way a company conducts its business”
(1986: 657).
Schein (1985), a key author in organizational
culture, argues that culture is a pattern of basic
References assumptions about behavior within the organiza-
tion, and develops a conceptual framework of
Destination Marketing Association International 2014
Travel and Tourism Advocacy in Action www. three levels for the analysis of culture. The first
destinationmarketing.org/travel-tourism-advocacy- one, “artifacts,” constitutes the visible and surface
action (15 February 2015). level of culture, and represents what is done and
Mill, R., and A. Morrison 2012 The Tourism System.
how. It includes tangible elements, work prac-
Dubuque: Kendall Hunt.
Morrison, A. 2013 Marketing and Managing Tourism Des- tices, technology, symbols, slogans, stories,
tinations. Oxford: Routledge. myths, ceremonies, and rituals. The second level
Ruhanen, L., N. Scott, B. Ritchie, and A. Tkaczynski 2010 is “values,” the broad preferences concerning
Governance: A Review and Synthesis of the Literature.
courses of action or outcomes. Finally, the third
Tourism Review 65(4):4-16.
UNWTO 2007 A Practical Guide to Tourism Destination level is characteristic of the “beliefs” or underly-
Management. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. ing assumptions that the members of the
684 Organizational culture
organization share. Unconscious and implicit, School of thoughts

they explain why things happen.
Culture acts as a stabilizing element, providing There are two approaches to the studies of orga-
values that, if shared, help mobilize and engage nizational culture. The first one is the functionalist
employees. In addition, a strong culture develops approach, which analyzes culture as a critical
consistency in the behavior of the members of the variable and includes two different schools: One,
organization. In this sense, it becomes an effective the comparative or intercultural management
means of implicit control, creating predictability, school understands culture as an independent
order, and consistency. variable introduced in the organization by its
Collins and Porras find that one of the critical members and by the country where it is located.
success factors of businesses is culture. According The main representative of this school is
to their findings, the truly exceptional and long- Hofstede (1994). Two, the corporate culture
lasting companies have a culture that differs from school presents culture as an internal variable,
the rest in a number of respects: They spend more created by the organization, and in which man-
time in the indoctrination of employees, creating agers have an influence. Culture is what holds the
strong cultures; have valued the degree of fit of a organization together and gives stability. Its main
candidate with the organizational culture in the advocates are Schein (1985) and Deal and
selection of managers; and obtain more consistent Kennedy (1982).
alignment with their core ideology on such The second one is the interpretative approach,
aspects as goals, strategies, tactics, and organiza- which understands culture as a representation
tional design (1994: 73). and is represented by four different schools.
One, the school of culture as representation states
that more than “having” a culture, organizations
“are” actually culture (Smircich and Morgan
Evolution of the concept 1983). Two, the theory of organizational cogni-
tion holds a systemic view of knowledge, so that
The literature identifies the works of sociologists culture is a set of shared beliefs. Three, the
and anthropologists such as Durkheim, Radcliffe- school of organizational symbolism works with
Brown, and Parsons as pioneering contributions, frames of symbolic speech, where culture is a
but it was not until the late 1970s when studies on system of shared meanings and symbols. Four,
the concept of organizational culture began to pro- the transformative organization theory contem-
liferate. The first theories (Smircich and Morgan plates organizations as manifestations of uncon-
1983) assume that members of the organization scious processes, so that culture would be a
share a single culture. This vision emphasizes con- projection of the unconscious of the members
sistency, order, and consensus, denying the exis- of the organization.
tence of other cultures or the presence of conflicts
and ambiguities. Culture is thus seen as a property
of the organization viewed as a monolithic unity, Organizational culture in tourism
the culture “of” the organization, and a sense of studies
community and responsibility fostered by manage-
ment to facilitate the integration of members of the The importance of culture in the tourism ▶ indus-
organization around common values that generate try is especially relevant. The tourism business
loyalty, commitment, and sense of belonging. incorporates global practices in a multicultural
However, the current paradigm in organizational ▶ environment. Tourism organizations usually
culture holds that organizations do not have mono- have to manage an increasingly diverse workforce
lithic cultures. Subcultures may exist in depart- as well as diverse customers. These factors have a
ments or specific groups of the organization, strong influence on the way businesses are done in
attuned or not with the official one. tourism organizations.
Organizational learning 685
The vast majority of the research has been defined as one that deals “with the problems and
based on identifying the cultural characteristics opportunities of today, and invests in its capacity
of tourism organizations and its ▶ impact on to embrace tomorrow, because its members are
structure, managerial practices, and work atti- continually focused on enhancing and expanding
tudes. A number of studies have identified the their collective awareness and capabilities”
industry as a traditional one, very concerned (Senge 1994: 4). Consequently, it is the result of
with function and with a pronounced customer “continuous testing of experience, and the trans-
orientation. Most of the research has been focused formation of that experience into knowledge [that
in the hospitality industry (Chen et al. 2012), so is] accessible to the whole organization, and rele-
there is a great need for research on other sectors vant to its core purpose” (1994: 49). Organiza-
of the tourism industry. tions do not learn per se. Rather, learning
(knowledge adoption) occurs within those who
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ human resource manage- constitute its membership. According to Senge
ment, ▶ leadership, ▶ management, ▶ symbolism. (1994), there are five main characteristics
(or disciplines) that are required to cultivate a
learning organization.
The first, “systems thinking” is a conceptual
References framework based on system dynamics, seeing
interrelationships rather than linear cause-effect
Barney, J. 1986 Organizational Culture: Can It Be a Source
chains. “Personal mastery” is the act of continually
of Sustained Competitive Advantage? Academy of
Management Review 11:656-665. clarifying one’s personal vision and seeing reality
Chen, R., C. Cheung, and R. Law 2012 A Review of the objectively. “Mental models” are assumptions that
Literature on Culture in Hotel Management Research: influence how one’s world is interpreted and how
What Is the Future? International Journal of Hospitality
action is taken. There must be a “shared vision” of
Collins, J., and J. Porras 1994 Built to Last: Successful Habits the future that fosters genuine commitment and
of Visionary Companies. Nueva York: Harper Collins. engagement, rather than mere compliance. Finally,
Deal, R., and A. Kennedy 1982 Corporate Cultures: The the capacity of an organization to learn rests within
Rites and Rituals of Corporate Life. Harmondsworth:
Penguin.
“team learning” and refers to the ability of organi- O
Hofstede, G. 1994 Uncommon Sense about Organizations: zational members to suspend assumptions and
Cases, Studies, and Field Observations. London: Sage. enter into a genuine “thinking together.” Senge
Schein, E. 1985 Organizational Culture and Leadership. (1994) states that “systems thinking” is the element
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
that makes the other disciplines “▶ work,” as it
Smircich, L., and G. Morgan 1983 Concepts of Culture and
Organizational Analysis. Administrative Science Quar- integrates all elements, fusing them into a coherent
terly 28:339-358. body of theory and practice.
For Nonaka et al. (2000), learning organiza-
tions are characterized as knowledge-creating
companies. They are places where knowledge
Organizational learning creation is not a specialized activity, but rather
an embedded practice, in which all organiza-
Lisa Beesley tional members are “knowledge workers” and
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel where knowledge gains value as it is shared.
Management, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Therefore, organizational learning is more
Australia than capturing knowledge. It is about how
knowledge is created and leveraged through
collaborative networks to achieve a shared
A learning organization is the term given to a vision.
company that facilitates the learning of its mem- Recent research has identified not only domi-
bers and continuously transforms itself. It is nant factors that impact upon knowledge
686 Organizational learning
processes within an organization, but also the recently, governments across the globe have
relationships among them (Beesley 2004). These placed increasing importance on innovation
dominant factors relate to communication, social within the industry, with many developing poli-
contingencies, individual cognition, affect, and cies and initiatives specifically designed to foster
values. By acknowledging these factors and the learning and tourism-related innovation (Mei
relationships among them, managements are able et al. 2012).
to target specific operational aspects in order to
facilitate and enhance organizational learning.
Challenges and the way forward
Organizational learning in tourism One of the primary challenges to organizational

learning in tourism lies in its own complex nature.
Organizational learning within tourism has most The industry is a complex amalgam of elements in
frequently been applied to destination manage- which systems exist within systems, all of which
ment and collaborative visioning projects. It stand in reciprocal relationship to each other and
involves the amendment of world views used by mutually shape the industry. The multiplicity of
the organizations the participants originate from, stakeholders is accompanied by a variety of
as these views enmesh to become unique to the agendas and “visions” of a future, presenting
emergent organization. In spite of the appeal of enormous challenges to the generation of compet-
collaborative visioning endeavors, few such itive advantage through collaboration, rather than
undertakings have realized the goals and objec- competition.
tives set forth to realize a shared vision for the A second challenge is that the industry is
future of the destination. Difficulties in achieving largely reactive to external influences in terms
a collaborative solution are directly related to the of acquiring knowledge (learning) to solve prob-
differences in value orientation among the associ- lems, and this is predominately approached with
ated stakeholders (Beesley 2004). This reinforces a market orientation. To realize the benefits of a
the importance of networks that promote the learning organization and how it might be
development of relationships and the emergence applied to the industry, coalitions need to be
of trust among them. formed that move beyond a market focus and
In comparison to other industries, tourism has look to proactive strategic planning if tourism is
lagged in its adoption of purposeful knowledge to develop in ways that are not just sustainable
management activities (Cooper 2006). This is but responsible and accountable to future gener-
because the industry is dominated by small and ations. In recent years, tourism has demonstrated
medium enterprises with limited resources to remarkable resilience to unexpected crises and
engage in deliberate knowledge management disasters and is well recognized as one of the
activities. Although innovation capacity is posi- world’s major industries. If tourism is to remain
tively correlated with the size of the enterprise, it a major contributor to economies, then innova-
is now recognized that these enterprises do seek tion (underpinned by learning) is a primary
external sources for knowledge, and, because they means by which to achieve this – learning trans-
are close to the demands of consumers, they have fers new approaches and viewpoints into organi-
a capacity to learn quickly and respond rapidly zations and spawns opportunities for increased
(Beesley and Cooper 2008). When considering competitiveness in ways that are responsible and
national/multinational organizations, the industry accountable. The long-term success and sustain-
has demonstrated a capacity to employ principles ability of tourism in a ▶ destination thus rest
of organizational learning and has been remark- upon the ability of its stakeholders to foster orga-
ably innovative across a number of sectors. More nizational learning.
Orientalism 687
See also ▶ Destination competitiveness, ▶ gov- Said’s magnum opus met an avalanche of aca-
ernance, ▶ planning, ▶ sustainability, ▶ system. demic criticism. Here, several authors suggested
that his approach confirmed rather than chal-
lenged the monolithic nature of the binary
between West and East and that the positive reac-
References tions to his book in the West had been largely
guided by feelings of guilt about its imperialist
Beesley, L. 2004 Multi-level Complexity in the Manage- past. But these criticisms appear weak in the light
ment of Knowledge Networks. Journal of Knowledge
Management 8(3):71-100.
of the fact that Said very precisely framed his
Beesley, L., and C. Cooper 2008 Defining Knowledge treatise as a contribution to the ongoing and suc-
Management Practices: Towards Consensus. Journal cessful work in the human sciences that furnished
of Knowledge Management 12(3):48-62. “the contemporary scholar with insights,
Cooper, C. 2006 Knowledge Management and Tourism.
methods, and ideas that could dispense with
Mei, X., C. Arcodia, and L. Ruhanen 2012 Towards Tour- racial, ideological, and imperialist stereotypes of
ism Innovation: A Critical Review of Public Polices at the sort provided during its historical ascendancy
the National Level. Tourism Management Perspectives by orientalism” (1978: 328).
4:92-105.
Nonaka, I., R. Toyama, and A. Nagata 2000 A Firm as a
Orientalism has been, and remains, a powerful
Knowledge Creating Entity: A New Perspective on the force in historic and contemporary tourism – in
Theory of the Firm. Industrial and Corporate Change literature, visual imagery, and actual practices.
9:1-20. Mark Twain’s (1869) The Innocents Abroad, for
Senge, P. 1994 The Fifth Discipline. New York:
Doubleday.
example, consists of a diary about visiting the
“Holy Land” in which he speaks of cities like
Bethlehem in classic orientalist terms as beauti-
ful from afar but dirty, crowded, corrupt, and
Orientalism poor within. Taking a parallel line, Chloe Chard
(1999) describes the ways in which northern
Tom Selwyn aristocratic tourists to ▶ Italy from the seven-
Department of Anthropology and Sociology, teenth to the nineteenth century came to regard O
SOAS University of London, London, UK its citizens as lazy, disorganized, and seductive,
to be enjoyed but hardly trusted. In more recent
tourism-related settings, orientalism is readily
Until the publication of Said’s (1978) Orientalism, found in the ways that places and people in the
it was broadly possible to use this term to describe global south are made to appear part of the scen-
the scholarly, scientific, and objective study of the ery, but also as commodities to be bought and
languages, religions, and cultures of the orient. sold in emporia where the whims of tourists reign
Said, however, gave the concept a new meaning, supreme.
stripping its claims to scientific objectivity, arguing Orientalism in the tourism industry of today and
forcefully that orientalism is “a way of seeing and tomorrow is being effectively challenged in several
knowing about the orient” framed by colonialism ways. Now there are increasing voices campaigning
and its pre- and postcolonial forms “in which the against tourism being organized as contemporary
orient is the stage on which the whole East is colonialism. One of the most powerful of these
confined” (1978: 63). Kabbani (2008), as others voices is Kincaid’s (1988) A Small Place, a protest
have done too, relatedly glossed Said’s argument about the neocolonialism of tourism in the ▶ Carib-
by claiming that orientalist ideas and fantasies of bean. That was followed by numerous scholarly
the East by the West were built on a web of fictions, commentaries, all of which bring tourism and its
fantasies, myths, and stereotypes. researchers directly back to Said.
688 Other
See also ▶ Colonialism, ▶ Eurocentrism, studies have predominately been structured by

▶ Grand Tour, ▶ myth, ▶ worldmaking. desire for knowledge as truth and reflection, in
asking questions such as “What is a tourism expe-
rience?” Likewise, the search for understanding
References the self in tourism arises through the desire to
establish meaning to manage and understand
Chard, C. 1999 Pleasure and Guilt on the Grand Tour. experiences. Through the Cartesian assumption
Manchester: Manchester University Press.
of a preferential way of knowing the world, and
Kabbani, R. 2008 Imperial Fictions: Europe’s Myths of the
Orient. London: Saqi. that difference can be dissected and rearranged
Kincaid, J. 1988 A Small Place. London: Virago. according to the accepted known, what is taken
Said, E. 1978 Orientalism. London: Routledge and Kegan to be Other is reduced or appropriated into being
Paul.
something the “same” (already known all about).
Twain, M. 1869 The Innocents Abroad. London: Collins.
This denies the Other’s entity and autonomy, as
well as its preexistence and its originality (Ankor
and Wearing 2013).
In the tourism literature, the Other often refer-
Other ences the host culture as primitive, inferior, or
exotic. In this use, studies align with discourses of
Stephen L. Wearing1 and Jo Ankor2 dominance and compliance in a process of
1
University of Technology Sydney, Sydney, Othering cultures and people that separate
Australia and objectify them. However, when the Other is
2
Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia recognized as integral to the tourism experience,
hosts and guests may engage in meaningful
experiences of understanding, respect, and per-
The Other is “the most profound of what our sonal growth (Wearing and Wearing 2001). In this
human, ethical and imaginative faculties must model, still alternative to mainstream practices, the
confront and are confronted by” (Shapiro 1996: Other is recognized as central to the tourism ven-
42). The concept developed most fully in ture, where it is possible for the ▶ tourist to
the ▶ work of the school of continental philoso- encounter the Other and the ▶ tourist space in
phers such as Martin Heidegger, Emmanuel ▶ reciprocity. Future research on understanding
Levinas, and Jean-Paul Sartre. It refers to the reciprocal relationship of the Other and the
an encounter with that which is “new” and self in tourism practices is required.
“different” (alterity) or that which is not the
same as the “self” (▶ phenomenology). Anthro-
pologists have used the term to denote cultures or See also ▶ Exoticism, ▶ experience, ▶ host and
classes of people who are oppressed. In guest, ▶ imaginary, ▶ novelty.
poststructural cultural analysis, the Other is
excluded, oppressed, or disadvantaged by a par-
ticular ▶ discourse; ▶ knowledge (as ▶ power) is References
often used in the Othering process (Foucault
1988). Ankor, J., and S. Wearing 2013 Gaze, Encounter and
Philosophies of Otherness. In The Host Gaze in Global
Tourism ▶ theory has developed within a
Tourism, O. Moufakkir and Y. Reisinger, eds., pp.179-
knowledge tradition based on Cartesian rational- 190. Wallingford: CABI.
ity that excludes or disregards the Other and its Foucault, M. 1988 Politics, Philosophy, Culture: Inter-
associated different ways of knowing. Building views and Other Writings, 1977-1984. New York:
Routledge.
on this base, it has been criticized for its exclusion Hollinshead, K. 1998 Tourism, Hybridity, and Ambiguity:
of Other cultures and the realm of nature The Relevance of Bhabha’s “Third Space” Cultures.
(Hollinshead 1998). ▶ Leisure and tourism Annals of Leisure Research 30:121-156.
Outbound tourism 689
Shapiro, R. 1996 Ethics, The Literary Imagination, and within the ▶ industry worldwide. The increasing
The Other: The Hand that Ought, or was Imagined, to competition for outbound tourists leads to destina-
Have Signed the Paper. Journal of Australian Studies
50/51:42-50. tions to focus more on specialization and product
Wearing, S., and B. Wearing 2001 Conceptualizing the innovation in order to meet outbound demands from
Selves of Tourism. Leisure Studies 20:143-159. different sources. Therefore, as the market matures
and competition intensifies, outbound tourism busi-
nesses become more and more consumer driven.
In the long run, the rise in a single tourist market
Outbound tourism in the developed countries is a significant develop-
ment with global implications. It reflects a growing
Peiyi Ding1 and Shan Jiang2 trend in wider society for young people to spend a
1
Tourism Confucius Institute, Gold Coast period of time living alone or with friends before
Campus, Griffith University, Southport, Australia marrying and starting a family. If this trend is
2
Capital Normal University, Beijing, China echoed in the developing countries, this will have
a serious impact as places like ▶ India and China
are set to become some of the world’s largest
Outbound tourism describes the ▶ phenomenon generators of international tourists. At the same
of residents traveling from one country to another time, cultural influence on traveling patterns and
(World Tourism Organization 1994). It does not spending behavior of tourists are of paramount
comprise of goods and services acquired for or importance. Policymakers who intend to promote
after the trip within the generating country. It may their nations’ tourism to incoming tourists are to
be contrasted with inbound, domestic, and ▶ bor- consider the cultural backgrounds of their source
der tourism. For example, from an Australian markets when they develop and implement tourism
perspective, visitors from the ▶ United States are policies (Gholipour and Tajaddini 2014).
inbound tourists, while from the US standpoint, Future academic research would benefit by
they are outbound tourists. examining the outbound phenomena in respect
With rising levels of disposable income, how- to destination choices, travel behavior, external
ever, many emerging economies have shown fast influences, and informed marketing strategies. O
growth. In 2012, the world’s top five destinations With emerging markets in the Asia-Pacific region,
were the United States, ▶ Spain, ▶ France, research on outbound tourists will shift from
▶ China, and Macao (China). Source markets are the Western to the Eastern contexts (Pearce and
largely concentrated in the industrialized countries Butler 2010).
of ▶ Europe, the ▶ Americas, and ▶ Asia and the
Pacific (UNWTO 2013). With regard to ▶ expen-
diture on outbound tourism, China has shown by See also ▶ Border tourism, ▶ destination,
far the fastest growth. With the 2012 surge, China ▶ domestic tourism, ▶ globalization, ▶ inbound
leaped to first place (US$102 billion), overtaking tourism.
both the longtime top spender ▶ Germany ($84
billion) and second largest spender the United
States ($83 billion), which then were the second References
and the third in the ranking. At the projected pace
Gholipour, F., and R. Tajaddini 2014 Cultural Dimensions
of growth, it is forecasted that by the year 2020,
and Outbound Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
international ▶ tourist arrivals worldwide are 49:203-205.
expected to reach 1.4 billion, and by 2030 it Pearce, D., and R. Butler 2010 Tourism Research: A 20-20
could reach 1.8 billion. Vision. Oxford: Goodfellow.
World Tourism Organization 1994 Recommendations on
▶ Globalization is the driving force for modern
Tourism Statistics. New York: United Nations.
outbound tourism ▶ development and causes UNWTO 2013 UNWTO Tourism Highlights. Madrid:
strong growth rates and increasing competition World Tourism Organization.
P
Package tourism Research on the development of package tourism

is usually conducted from the perspective of a
Nevenka Čavlek single generating market (Holloway 1998;
Department of Tourism, Faculty of Economics Mundt 1993; Sheldon 1986). Therefore, package
and Business, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, tourism and tour operators have not received the
Croatia attention they deserve, and there has arguably
been insufficient evaluation of their impacts on
▶ international tourism. More studies have
Package tourism is formed when several tourists focused on the negative rather than the positive
▶ travel in an organized way by using outcomes of package tourism as if to suggest that
pre-arranged services. It is produced, marketed, it is of little benefit to the development of global
and sold by commercial tourism companies (tour tourism (Aramberri 2010).
operators/wholesalers) at an inclusive price. Pack- Package tourism owes its success to the
age tourism was initially based on the mass pro- appearance of tour operators and charter airlines
duction of standardized inclusive tours offered to on the European market in the 1950s. By persuad-
tourists searching for sun, sand, sea, and sex hol- ing the working and middle classes through
idays at competitive prices. The related term affordable prices to travel on package holidays
“▶ mass tourism” sometimes carries negative abroad in large numbers, they significantly
connotations, even though it is based on the sim- changed tourism patterns. In their search for econ-
ple motivational premise that mass tourism’s pos- omies of scale, tour operators developed it as a
itive offerings are predicated on matching the major and almost indispensable component of
touristic desire for safety with the comfort zone global tourism.
of familiarity. Growth in demand from generating markets
resulted in the concentration of supply in destina-
tions. The industrialized countries of northern
Evolution of the concept and practice ▶ Europe were able to generate masses of tourists,
while the southern European countries had mod-
Official data on the global economic scale of erate capacity to attract them. The concept
package tourism are incomplete. Often based on ensured quick profit for the entrepreneurs from
different forms of assessment, in many cases the generating markets and at the same time enabled
statistics significantly understate reality. As a economic growth in regions that accepted this
result, misconceptions occur when trying to new form of tourism. Consequently, tour opera-
understand mass and other forms of tourism. tors became the desired partners of developing
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
692 Package tourism
countries that sought to use tourism as a substitute Information technology has forced tour operators
for their poor economic output, primarily due to to shift away from their traditional role as whole-
its foreign exchange generating potentials. salers of a simple commodity to customized prod-
Motivated primarily by economic interests, ucts with recognizable added value tailored to
destinations allowed the construction of accom- specific customer lifestyles. Moving from the
modation and supporting facilities in an price-driven mass market business towards a
uncontrolled manner so that they could cater to “modern mainstream” model with differentiated
droves of tourists. Since the quantum of clients and exclusive products adjusted to the needs of
determined the price, the strategy of offering a experienced tourists, tour operators have
simple product ensured large numbers, and there upgraded their offer. New technology has also
was little room for product diversification. Given enabled them to “un-package” the components
that the business interests of tour operators and of a package holiday, allowing their customers
their partners in destinations did not always coin- the possibility to “self-package” it. This kind of
cide (Buhalis 2000), many destinations, by “dynamic packaging” is not a new product, but it
allowing foreign tour operators to dictate the is certainly a new tool that gives customers more
rules, lost control of their own tourism flexibility (Čavlek 2013). Besides all this, the
development. emotional component of holiday packages should
With the introduction of the jumbo jet and with never be neglected and neither should their finan-
▶ airline liberalization, package tourism began to cial protection and assurances of safety given to
develop far beyond the ▶ Mediterranean destina- consumers.
tions where it first started. New package destina- With the traditional generating market matur-
tions were introduced on a much wider ing, the world’s leading tour operators are heading
international market. Today, a strong “package towards ▶ Brazil, ▶ Russia, ▶ India, and ▶ China
▶ holiday belt” spreads from the Mediterranean where they will benefit from these emerging mar-
to the ▶ Caribbean, ▶ Mexico, and many South kets in terms of economies of scope and scale.
American destinations, as well as to Southeast Tour operators have the know-how to organize
Asia. These destinations depend greatly on inclu- holidays and are able to adapt to new market
sive tours from the world’s largest package holi- trends while respecting the different tourism
day source markets: ▶ Germany, the ▶ United habits and traditions of these markets. Therefore,
Kingdom, and ▶ Japan. it seems to be more realistic not to expect fewer
The development of package tourism has led to organized holidays but rather more innovative
a better geographic dispersion of tourism flows forms of package tourism. There is growing
compared to the period before the involvement of understanding of the need for ever closer cooper-
tour operators. But this trend has caused structural ation among all the stakeholders in destinations
changes in international demand, directing it and tour operators. Future research will need to
towards a lower economic stratum of consumers address the unbiased cost-benefit approach to the
thereby rendering destinations less attractive for development of this form of tourism. It should
the higher economic strata. also focus on tour operators’ economic, sociocul-
tural, and environmental impacts on destinations
and examine whether sustainable development is
Trends and future prospects compatible with tour operating business philoso-
phy and, if so, how.
Despite some predictions that the transformation
of consumer behavior through the individualiza- See also ▶ Charter tourism, ▶ commercializa-
tion of the industry would lead to a decline in tion, ▶ mass tourism, ▶ sun, sand, sea and sex,
package tourism, this is not happening. ▶ travel agency and tour operation.
Pakistan 693
References
Aramberri, J. 2010 Modern Mass Tourism. Bingley:

Emerald.
Buhalis, D. 2000 Relationships in the Distribution Channel
of Tourism: Conflicts between Hoteliers and Tour
Operators in the Mediterranean Region. International
Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Administration
1:113-139.
Čavlek, N. 2013 Travel and Tourism Intermediaries: Their
Changing Role. In Handbook of Tourism Economics:
Analysis, New Application and Case Studies,
C. Tisdell, ed., pp.191-206. Singapore: World
Scientific.
Holloway, J. 1998 The Business of Tourism. Harlow:
Longman.
Mundt, J. 1993 Reiseveranstaltung. Munich: Oldenburg
Verlag.
Sheldon, P. 1986 The Tour Operator Industry: An Analysis.
Pakistan, Figure 1 Map of Pakistan
Pakistan
largest city and the country’s business center.
Syed Ali Raza Pakistan’s founder Muhammad Ali Jinnah is
Iqra University, Karachi, Pakistan from this city and today his mausoleum is a
major attraction. Lahore, the country’s second
largest city, is the cultural heart, remembered by
The Islamic Republic of Pakistan, located in historians for being the place where Alexander
South Asia, is bordered by ▶ China, ▶ India, battled on River Jhelum. It is also remembered
▶ Iran, ▶ Afghanistan, and ▶ Tajikistan for having monuments of various Mughal
(Figure 1). It is the world’s 36th largest country emperors and architecture, such as the Badshahi P
(796,096 km2) with the 6th largest population of Mosque, the Tomb of Jahangir, Lahore Fort, and
182.5 million. The country has the 26th largest Shalimar Gardens.
economy and is heavily dependent on textiles, Pakistan is ranked as the 103rd country in
which represents nearly 53 % of total exports in terms of a number of ▶ tourist arrivals (UNWTO
2013 (Federal Board of Statistics 2014). 2013). The industry experienced an extraordinary
As a ▶ destination, Pakistan is attractive boom in the early 2000s. Its ▶ inbound tourism
because of its diverse culture, scenic valleys, tra- increased by 108 % from 2000 to 2006, but from
ditions, historical places, and natural areas. The 2006 to 2010, it has remained stagnant, with a
scenic mountainous valleys include Kaghan, 1.02 % increase. In 2011, Pakistan earned
Naran, Swat, and Hunza; there are attractive hills US$358 million from ▶ international tourism
like Nathia Gali, Muree, and Changla Gali. In receipts. In 2012, the ▶ industry directly
addition, historical sites such as Mohenjo-Daro, supported 1,612,900 jobs; tourism businesses
Harappa, and Taxila have long allured tourists and provided 3.853 million jobs, or 6.4 % of all jobs
archeologists alike from all over the world. in the country. In 2013, the contribution of tour-
Pakistani culture and traditions in its major ism was 7.3 % of the GDP (World Economic
cities attract international tourists. Karachi is the Forum 2013).
694 Palau
In recent times, the country has been marred by (international airport at Airai), and Peleliu
terrorism and natural disasters. In 2005, Pakistan (Belilou). Two thirds of the nation’s population
was devastated by an earthquake which affected of about 21,000 live on Koror.
many attractions. Terrorism has increased sub- Palau has formerly been a colony or a protec-
stantially after the September 11 accident, when torate of Spain, Germany, Japan, and the United
Pakistan agreed to join the ▶ United States in the States, most recently as a part of the US Trust
war against terrorism. There have been incidences Territory of the Pacific Islands. In 1994, the nation
when tourists were targeted by terrorists (Raza gained full sovereignty. The United States con-
and Jawaid 2013). Once the country is able to tinues to provide defense, funding, and access to
put an end to ▶ terrorism, tourism can be expected social services. Otherwise, the economy of Palau
to flourish again. is predominantly based on tourism, in addition to
subsistence agriculture and fishing. Tourism cur-
See also ▶ Historical tourism, ▶ mountain tour- rently constitutes 56 % of the GDP (Vianna
ism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism, et al. 2012). In 2012, 119,000 arrivals were
▶ terrorism. recorded (PVA 2013). The market segments con-
stitute Japan (33 %), Taiwan (32 %), Korea
(16 %), the United States (6 %), China (4 %),
References and European citizens (4 %).
The Palau Visitors Authority was established in
Federal Board of Statistics 2014 Handbook of Statistics on 1982. This office is responsible for marketing
Pakistan Economy. Karachi: Pakistan Ministry of
Palau abroad, collecting data, developing guide-
Finance.
Raza, S., and S. Jawaid 2013 Terrorism and Tourism: lines for policies and legislation, acting as a liaison
A Conjunction and Ramification in Pakistan. Economic between the ▶ industry and local communities,
Modelling 33:65-70. and raising awareness of tourism among the
UNWTO 2013 World Tourism Barometer
public. Its main attractions are wildlife and World
(volume 11, January). Madrid: World Tourism
Organization. War II heritage. Among them, the protected Rock
World Economic Forum 2013 The Travel and Tourism Islands, with their limestone islands, reefs, and
Competitiveness Report – Pakistan www.weforum. marine lakes (the Jellyfish Lake), are most
org/reports/travel-tourism-competitiveness-report-2013
iconic. The management of natural assets is partly
(3 March 2015).
funded by a Green Fee (US$50 in 2012), collected
from international tourists.
Diving is the main ▶ activity and involves the
nation’s unique marine environments (coral reefs,
Palau manta rays, and sharks). It is organized both as
daily tours from Koror and Peleliu and on
Petri Hottola all-inclusive liveaboards. Popular activities
FUNTS, University of Eastern Finland, include snorkeling, sea kayaking, dolphin
Savonlinna, Finland encounters, fishing, birdwatching, and visiting
the World War II sites, including the sites of the
Battle of Peleliu (Murray 2006).
Palau is a Pacific island nation consisting of a National policies have provided a sound basis
large archipelago (258 islands) but a small land for the ▶ future. Given Palau’s isolation in the
area (459 km2). It is located between the Philip- Pacific Ocean, its ▶ development is dependent
pines and Papua New Guinea in the Pacific Ocean. on the ▶ sustainability of air travel in the
To the northeast, its closest neighbors are Yap, in ▶ region. At the moment, arrivals are on the rise,
the Federated States of Micronesia, and Guam, a especially from East Asia (PVA 2013). Available
major air traffic hub (Figure 1). Palau’s tourism is data on tourism developments are insufficient and
mostly concentrated on Koror, Babelthuap there is a need for research in the field.
Panama 695
Palau, Figure 1 Map of Palau
See also ▶ Island tourism, ▶ marine tourism,

▶ military tourism, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ special Panama
interest tourism.
Carla Guerrón Montero
Department of Anthropology, University of
References Delaware, Newark, USA
Murray, S. 2006 War and Remembrance on Peleliu: Islander,

Japanese, and American Memories of a Battle in the Panama is the southernmost country of Central
Pacific War. Santa Barbara: University of California.
PVA 2013 Visitor Arrival Statistics. Koror: Palau Visitors America (75,416 km2 or 29,118 mi2). It is divided
Authority. into nine provinces and three comarcas
Vianna, G., M. Meekan, D. Pannell, S. Marsh, and (indigenous regions) and has a population of
J. Meeuwig 2012 Socio-economic Value and Commu- about 3.9 million. Its dollar-based economy is
nity Benefits from Shark-diving Tourism in Palau:
A Sustainable Use of Reef Shark Populations. Biolog- estimated to be 92nd in the world and third in
ical Conservation 145:267-277. Central America, with a GDP per capita of
696 Panama
82 80 78
Caribbean Sea El Porvenir
Bocas del
Toro Cristóbal Coco Solo
Colón
PANAMA
Golfo de los
Lago
Gatún
CITY Lago 9
COSTA Bayano
Mosquitos Panama Balboa
RICA
Volcán Barú
Vacamonte
Canal
David ARCHIPIELAGO La Palma

DE LAS
PERLAS
Isia del Yaviza
Rey
Santiago
8 Golfo de Chiriqui Chitré Gulf of 8
Panama
Isia de Isia de
Coiba Cébaco COLOMBIA
0 40 80 km
7
0 40 80 mi
NORTH PACIFIC OCEAN 7
82 80 78
Panama, Figure 1 Map of Panama
US$15,900. Panama has a strategic geopolitical Authority, which conducts occasional training
▶ location on the isthmus connecting North and workshops throughout the country (IPAT 2005).
South America (Figure 1). Additionally, universities and institutes offer
The National Commission of Tourism was approximately 14 tourism-related programs.
formed in 1934; in 1960, it became the Panama- National and local governments share tourism
nian Bureau of Tourism and in 2008 the Panama- responsibilities, and both establish policy and leg-
nian Tourism Authority, an entity with ministerial islative frameworks. Currently, residential tour-
status. Prior to the 1989 US invasion that deposed ism has been promoted significantly at the
de facto dictator General Manuel Noriega, only governmental level and aided through laws that
three places were promoted for tourism: the Pan- provide special tax incentives and ownership
ama Canal, the Duty Free Zone in the city of rights to investors. International conventions and
Colón, and Comarca Kuna-Yala in the San Blas ▶ cruise tourism have also become government
Archipelago. After US troops departed in 1999, priorities (IPAT 2008). At the local level, the civil
successive governments focused on tourism for society has responded by demanding support to
economic development. A masterplan in 1994 small- and medium-scale tourism businesses.
divided the country into nine tourism zones Today, tourism is the country’s first source of
(later revised to ten zones) with emphasis on income. Between 2001 and 2010, tourism
▶ ecotourism, ethnic, and ▶ heritage tourism represented 76 % of internal income, and ▶ tourist
(Guerrón Montero 2009). arrivals grew by 9.8 %. In 2012, the industry
Starting in the 2000s, the government made contributed $4.59 billion to Panama’s economy,
significant investments in tourism ▶ infrastruc- equivalent to 13.1 % of the national GDP.
ture and ▶ development to complement private There is potential to conserve natural resources
investment (most centered in Panama City). The and develop economic and cultural options for
official institution charged with ▶ training tour- tourism appeal. The challenge is that so far the
ism personnel is the Panamanian Tourism benefits resulting from tourism have not reached
Papua New Guinea 697
all social sectors. Tackling the potential, chal- Foreign Affairs and Trade 2014). Although pro-
lenges, and new tourism trends in Panama will moted as a key export industry, tourism contrib-
continue to interest researchers. Topics of concern utes only 4.1 % of exports and 3.0 % of
include ecotourism, residential tourism, cultural GDP. Access to the country is by daily flights
heritage and ▶ ethnic tourism, and service profes- from ▶ Australia, the ▶ Philippines, ▶ Singapore,
sionalization and standardization. and ▶ Japan. Australia is the largest source mar-
ket, followed by the ▶ United States. Over the
See also ▶ Destination, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ ethnic- past decade, ▶ inbound tourism has slowly
ity, ▶ multiculturalism, ▶ second home. increased in numbers.
Papua New Guinea has a tropical climate and is
very mountainous, a characteristic which makes
References land transport difficult and acts as an inhibitor to
tourism ▶ development (Sakata and Prideaux
Guerrón Montero, C. 2009 The “Three Roots” of Panama’s 2013). As a consequence, air ▶ travel is important
Cultural Heritage: The Construction of Racial and
for locals and tourists for travel beyond Port
National Identities in Simulated Tourism. In Cultural
Tourism in Latin America: The Politics of Space and Moresby, the country’s main international gate-
Imagery, M. Baud and A. Ypeij, eds., pp.45-68. Leiden: way. Lack of government interest in tourism in the
Brill. past has contributed to a lack of continuity in
IPAT 2005 Estrategia de Consolidación de Destinos
strategy and policy development and implemen-
Turísticos Tradicionales y Desarrollo de Nuevos
Destinos y Productos Turísticos. Panamá City: Instituto tation. The current government appears to be com-
Panameño de Turismo. mitted to tourism. Guided by a 5-year plan in
IPAT 2008 Executive Synthesis Panama Sustainable Tour- 2007, it is working with stakeholders to achieve
ism Master Plan 2007-2020. Panamá City: Instituto
its development goals (PNGTPA 2007). The gov-
Panameño de Turismo.
ernment promotes small-scale ▶ special interest
tourism, such as diving, trekking and climbing,
surfing, birdwatching, World War II history, fish-
ing, culture, and village-based tourism.
Papua New Guinea While possessing abundant resources (includ-
ing tropical rain forests, coral reefs, unique fauna,
Bruce Richard Prideaux1 and Grace Guaigu2 and colorful local cultures), the country has not P
1
School of Business and Law, Central Queensland been able to capitalize on these to develop a sig-
University, Cairns, QA, Australia nificant tourism ▶ industry of the type found in
2
University of Papua New Guinea, Port Moresby, other Pacific Islands, such as ▶ Fiji and ▶ Vanu-
Papua New Guinea atu. A part of this might be explained by the high
cost of transport, but governance issues appear to
lie at the heart of the problem. Basic services have
Papua New Guinea is the largest of the Pacific deteriorated; there are serious law and order prob-
Island countries (463,000 km2; 178,765 mi2), lems; and institutional weaknesses allow corrup-
comprising the main and over 600 smaller islands tion to thrive (AusAid 2003), all of which inhibit
(Figure 1). The country has a population of seven large-scale tourism development. Results of the
million, speaking 700 languages. About 85 % of Tourism Promotion Authority’s 2011 tourist sur-
the population live in rural villages and depend on vey indicated tourists dissatisfied with services,
subsistence and small crop farming. The largest infrastructure, and high prices of goods and ser-
city, and its capital, is Port Moresby. In 2013, the vices. On a positive note, the survey found
country had a GDP of US$16.1 billion, and its that respondents rated the country highly in
income per capita was $2,300 (Department of terms of cultural diversity and friendliness
698 Paradigm
Papua New Guinea, 0 100 200 300 km

Figure 1 Map of Papua 144 150 156
New Guinea NORTH PACIFIC 0 100 200 300 mi
OCEAN Equator
0 0
Manus SOUTH PACIFIC

INDONESIA Island
Kavieng New
Ireland OCEAN
Wewak
Bismarck Sea Rabaul
Mount Madang
New Guinea Wilhelm New
Arawa
6
Mount Goroka Kimbe Britain 6
Bougainville
Hagen Lae
Solomon Sea
Gulf of Popondetta SOLOMON
Daru Papua
ISLANDS
PORT
Torres
MORESBY Alotau
Strait
Great B a r r
12 12
ie
rR Coral Sea
ee
f
AUSTRALI A
144 150 156
(PNGTPA 2007). Its tertiary institutes offer a

range of related programs; however, the level of Paradigm
academic research on tourism remains low.
Tomas Pernecky
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ cultural tour- School of Hospitality and Tourism, University of
ism, ▶ flora and fauna, ▶ island tourism, ▶ spe- Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
cial interest tourism.
The term “paradigm” was first brought to the

References ▶ attention of the scientific community by Kuhn
(1962). Influenced mainly by the natural sciences,
AusAID 2003 Good Governance www.ausaid.gov.au/pub he was interested in their ▶ development and
lication/pdf/good-governance.pdf (24 April 2014). argued that they go through different stages,
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade 2014 Papua
New Guinea www.dfat.gov.au/geo/fs/png.pdf
including a revolutionary phase – a scientific
(28 April). revolution – which leads to a significant change,
PNGTPA 2007 The Tourism Master Plan and Sector radical advancements, and new directions. In this
Review. Port Moresby: PNG Tourism Promotions context, the concept of a paradigm denoted shared
Authority.
Sakata, H., and B. Prideaux 2013 An Alternative Approach
theoretical beliefs, values, instruments, and tech-
to Community-based Ecotourism. Journal of Sustain- niques http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/thomas-
able Tourism 21:880-899. kuhn/#3.
Paradise 699
The contemporary use of the term paradigm perspectives are promising candidates for facili-
suggests that it plays a specific role in the research tating original thinking by creating room for con-
process. As a ▶ system of views and beliefs, it is siderations not necessarily explored under
interconnected with ontology, ▶ epistemology, conventional approaches to the study of tourism.
and ▶ methodology. Taken together, these form
the research design: setting the parameters for See also ▶ Methodology, ▶ mobility, ▶ qualita-
what it is possible to know, while acknowledging tive research, ▶ worldmaking.
researchers’ philosophical assumptions about
reality, and their attitude towards the research
problem. To determine under which paradigm References
they operate, it is thus necessary to immerse them-
selves in the underpinning ontological, epistemo- Guba, E. 1990 The Alternative Paradigm Dialog. London:
Sage.
logical, and methodological assumptions, which
Hollinshead, K., I. Ateljevic, and N. Ali 2009
in turn guide the researchers’ actions. Worldmaking Agency—Worldmaking Authority: The
Under the premise of qualitative inquiry, the Sovereign Constitutive Role of Tourism. Tourism
notion of “alternative paradigms” (Guba 1990) Geographies 11:427-443.
Kuhn, T. 1962 The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
emerged as a response to positivist/post-positivist
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
approaches to research and gave rise to new Pernecky, T. 2012 Constructionism: Critical Pointers for
research paradigms, such as constructionism/con- Tourism Studies. Annals of Tourism Research
structivism, interpretivism, critical ▶ theory, and 39:1116-1137.
Urry, J. 2000 Sociology Beyond Societies: Mobilities for
the transformative paradigm. Mainly inspired by
the Twenty-First Century. London: Routledge.
scholars advancing qualitative research, efforts
have been made to delineate the differences
among various paradigms. However, the
attempt to organize them into neat categories can
be problematic, as has been shown in relation to Paradise
tourism studies (Pernecky 2012). Present-day def-
initions continue to depict a paradigm as “a basic Maximiliano E. Korstanje1 and Geoffrey Skoll2
1
set of beliefs that guides action, whether of the Department of Economics, University of
everyday garden variety or action taken in con- Palermo, Buenos Aires, Argentina P
2
nection with a disciplined inquiry” (Guba Criminal Justice Department, Buffalo State
1990:17). College, Buffalo, USA
Different disciplinary foci allow for new para-
digms to emerge at a disciplinary level (e.g., sym-
bolic interaction in sociology and biological The concept of paradise may be defined as an
determinism in psychology). Although most tour- “exemplary center” where needs and suffering
ism research draws on paradigms grounded in are eliminated. The archetype of paradise has
▶ qualitative research, it is showing signs of been employed by tourism to emulate a climate
maturity by engaging in novel conceptualizations of relaxation, ▶ recreation, and abundance which
and understandings of what tourism is and does. contrasts with daily working life. In paradise, all
There are two leaders in the field of tourism: desires are fulfilled, and people are in communion
“worldmaking” which speaks of the transforma- with the gods. In many cosmologies, the human
tive power of tourism and its ability to remake and fall brought about an epistemological rupture
demake worlds (Hollinshead et al. 2009) and the between the world of the gods and earth. As a
“mobilities paradigm” that seeks to understand punishment, the gods introduced suffering and
tourism in terms of the movements of objects work to humankind. The process of redemption
and things but also relationships, meanings, and is predicated on the acceptance of laws and work
performances (Urry 2000). These theoretical (Korstanje and Busby 2010).
700 Paraguay
Joseph Campbell explains that the concept of Korstanje, M., and G. Busby 2010 Understanding the Bible
Eden means a “space of pleasure,” while paradise as the Roots of Physical Displacement: The Origin of
Tourism. E-Review of Tourism Research 8(3):95-111.
relates to the Persian words Pairi (outskirts) and MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of Lei-
Daeza (restricted space). When the founding par- sure Class. London: Macmillan.
ents are expelled from Eden, it becomes a para- Salazar, N. 2010 Envisioning Eden: Mobilizing Imagi-
dise, a prohibited untouched space. At first, the naries in Tourism and Beyond. Oxford: Berghahn
Books.
quest for pleasure, the return to paradise, denotes
its own restricted and temporal nature. Ancient
myths form the basis for current social practices.
To validate laws and legal authority, society needs
a continual recycling through rites of passages, Paraguay
which validates in contemporary times the main
cultural values of the “center-out-there” (Cohen Roberto Codas1, Raúl Peralba Fortuny2 and
1982). MacCannell (1976) acknowledges that Eduardo Fayos-Solà3
1
sacredness corresponds with an attempt to emu- Desarrollo Empresarial, Asunción, Paraguay
2
late an eternal pleasure. As a type of imagined Positioning Systems, Boadilla del Monte,
community, the paradise is located beyond the Madrid, Spain
3
boundaries of urban life. Urban-rural separateness UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain
is identified by Graburn (1989) as a criterion of
attraction from the profane to sacred space. To
delineate the social status of some groups over The Republic of Paraguay is a landlocked South
others, the ▶ power to be in voluntary isolation American country (406,752 km2, 157,047 mi2),
serves as a barrier which symbolically confers with a population of some seven million and a
social status to elite (Salazar 2010). GDP of approximately US$34 billion. It is a mem-
Using the foregoing as a point of departure, ber of Mercado Común del Sur (Mercosur) and
Korstanje and Busby (2010) explain that paradise borders ▶ Brazil, ▶ Argentina, and ▶ Bolivia
in tourism should be conceived as a rite of passage (Figure 1). Paraguay’s geographic position
where the founding values of societies are cycli- makes it strategically important for ▶ transporta-
cally recreated. Daily frustrations and privations tion of Asian goods to Mercosur.
are projected in the archetype of paradise. As Paraguay declared its independence from
imagined archetypes, the multifaceted figures of ▶ Spain in 1811. The combination of Spanish
paradise represent fertile source of applied and indigenous cultures led to a distinctive
research to expand the current understanding of national character, and today the country is bilin-
societies and their resulted economies and gual, speaking both Guarani and Spanish. Para-
politics. guay became democratic in 1989, with a
presidential governance system and a
See also ▶ Pleasure tourism, ▶ play, ▶ pilgrim- two-chamber parliament.
The country is divided into two main regions
age tourism, ▶ leisure, ▶ rite of passage.
by the Paraguay River. The Western Chaco region
is a distinctive ecosystem with small population
and attractive natural scenery, ranging from wet-
References
lands to desert dunes. The east, where 95 % of the
Cohen, E. 1982 The Pacific Islands. From Utopian Myth to population resides, contains Jesuit Missions, the
Consumer Product: The Disenchantment of Paradise. Itaipu Dam on the Parana River, and the remnants
Cahiers du Tourisme, série B, no. 27. of the inner Atlantic Forest.
Graburn, N. 1989 Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In Host
and Guest: The Anthropology of Tourism,
Some three million short-term visitors (staying
V. Smith, ed., pp.21-36. Pennsylvania: The University only few hours) enter every year for shopping;
of Pennsylvania Press. most of them are from Brazil and Argentina.
Paraguay 701
Paraguay, Figure 1 Map

of Paraguay
Long-stay tourism volume has grown consistently growth and improvement. The main challenge P
over the past 8 years, about 500,000 visitors per for tourism is the quality of services. Several
year (World Bank 2012). In 2013, $350 million or ▶ universities offer degrees in tourism, including
about 1 % of the GDP was generated from tourism the National Universities of Asuncion, Villarrica,
revenue. Hotel capacity has grown by almost and Ciudad del Este, as well as a number of
35 % in the past 5 years, and there are now over private universities. Nevertheless, given the rela-
500 establishments with approximately 15,000 tively small size of the industry, not many students
rooms (SENATUR 2012a). Besides South Amer- choose tourism careers. The government and pri-
ica, tourists come mainly from the ▶ United vate foundations also offer training for managers
States, ▶ Germany, and Spain. In 2013, ▶ travel and owners of touristic sites and services.
and tourism directly generated 38,000 jobs, while
indirectly 112,000 jobs were supported by the See also ▶ Americas, ▶ policy and
industry (WTTC 2014). policymaking, ▶ SWOT analysis.
Tourism policy is not a high government pri-
ority, although for the last decade the Secretariat
of Tourism has organized ▶ resources to promote
References
tourism supported by non-governmental organi-
SENATUR 2012a Plan Maestro de Desarrollo Sostenible
zations. The national masterplan (SENATUR del Sector Turístico del Paraguay. Actualización al
2012b) outlines the proposals for sustained 2012. Asunción: Government of Paraguay.
702 Park tourism
SENATUR 2012b Encuesta Hotelera. Asunción: Govern- make a gate for a local city. This tension between
ment of Paraguay. use and preservation continues from that tale to
World Bank 2012 Country Data. Washington DC: World
Bank. modern time. Sheail (2010) outlines in detail the
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism: Economic Impact 2014 worldwide history of the creation of the first parks.
Paraguay. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. The earliest parks in the Middle East and later
in ▶ Europe were hunting reserves for the power-
ful elite, such as kings. Slowly, over centuries
common people gained rights to access the
Park tourism reserves for various recreational activities. The
change is often highlighted by the action of King
Paul F. J. Eagles Charles I of England, Scotland, and ▶ Ireland
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, who opened Hyde Park in London to the public
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, ON, Canada in 1637, a precedent-setting action of royal parks
being opened for public recreation.
A park is an enclosed piece of ground, of consid-

erable extent, usually within or adjoining a city or Values and meanings
town, ornamentally laid out and devoted to public
▶ recreation. It can be a “public park,” as the Virtually every country has parks and protected
various ones in major cities. A park can also be areas, going by many names: park, wildlife ref-
an enclosed piece of ground, of considerable uge, conservation area, nature reserve, or marine
extent, where animals are exhibited to the public, reserve. For comparison, the International Union
either as the primary or a secondary function. The for the Conservation of Nature created a classifi-
word park is from Middle English, in turn coming cation system (Dudley 2008), known as the
from Old French parc, which came from the “IUCN Category System for National Parks and
Medieval Latin word parricus, which has Ger- Protected Areas.” It ranges from Category 1, strict
manic origin in parrukax, in turn related to Ger- nature reserve, which has virtually no human
man Pferch meaning pen, fold, or paddock. In interference in natural processes, to Category
English, the word was originally a legal term 6, protected area with sustainable use of natural
designating land held by royal grant for the pur- resources, which is a highly modified human-
pose of keeping game animals. According to dominated setting. Inherent in this system is an
Oxford English Dictionary, this area was enclosed underlying assumption that human use is negative
with special laws and officers. Many European and tourism use is harmful. There is an abiding
languages contain a word with similar etymology idea that park tourism is a problem, leading to
such as German, park; Spanish and Portuguese, negative environmental impacts. For example,
parquet; French, parc; Italian, parco; and Dutch, moving from Category 1 through 6 is a continuum
parkeren. of heightened human use of the landscape.
Jones and Wills (2005) maintain that the strug- Assessment procedures use a baseline of no
gle between conservation and use of special human activity, with each new activity being con-
places has ancient roots, stretching back 4,000 sidered negatively. This approach sees all tourism
years to the Sumerian civilization. A legendary as negative. The International Union for the Con-
tale is preserved in a tablet at the Assyrian King servation of Nature category system does not rec-
Ashurbanipal’s place at Nineveh, whereby two ognize cultural and historic parks.
friends go afield from an urban area looking for Conversely, parks and protected areas are cre-
eternal life. They enter into a sacred cedar forest, ated by governments due to public demand. This
whereupon they cut down the trees, provoking the demand is stimulated by attitudes of value
wrath of the forest keeper. The friends kill the strengthened by satisfying tourism use of parks
forest keeper and then fell the largest trees to in the past. In this view, park tourism is essential if
Park tourism 703
Park tourism, Table 1 Meanings of parks

Meaning Explanation
Wilderness Areas virtually untouched by humans, used for personal reflection, challenge, and
redemption
Community social Areas, typically urban, used for community events, social functions, and athletic events
function
Hunting reserve Habitats for the growth and reproduction for the populations for animals and birds.
Selected people may kill the creatures
Physical and emotional Landscapes for tourists to gain health through physical activity, relaxation, and removal of
health stress
Ecological preservation Reserves for the long-term protection of ecosystems, including all the constituent plants
and animals. Human use is allowed, if the ecosystem is not compromised
Recreation Recreation is the act of creating over again, or renewing one’s self, and of replenishing. The
primary object of recreation parks is tourist use
Meaning of life Wild nature reveals meaning to one’s life. Natural area allows tourists to reflect on the
values such as continuity, stability, adaptation, sustained productivity, diversity, and
evolutionary forces
Protecting native peoples The primary goal is to provide natural habitat that sustains populations of aboriginal
people. Tourists gain access to better understanding of cultures and the supporting natural
processes
Historic and cultural The primary meaning is the cultural and historic significance. Tourists gain understanding
preservation of past events and ideas, including influences
such establishments are to survive the competition underlying meanings are a major source of man-
from other human activities that are environmen- agement actions in parks (Eagles and McCool
tally damaging, such as mining, agriculture, and 2002). The resolutions of the debates are
urbanization. Some argue that national parks need expressed in concepts such as types of recreation
tourists if they are to survive the political battles allowed, carrying capacity, limits of acceptable
with competing demands. In this view, tourism is use, volumes of activity, policing, and tourist
essential for their long-term survival. Tourism use ▶ management.
leads to people with an enhanced sense of place P
for park environments, with strengthened motiva-
tion to be politically active in defending these Management challenges
interests, increased willingness to pay for supplied
services, increased willingness to donate time and Eagles et al. (2002) summarize the state of the art
money for their use, and desires to encourage of park tourism management and provide guide-
family members and friends to experience them. lines for managers. Newsome et al. (2013) review
There is a virtuous circle of ▶ ecotourism, where- the ecology, impacts and management involved in
upon park visitation leads to ▶ tourist satisfaction natural area tourism. Hornback and Eagles (1999)
leading to further visitation. Eagles and McCool provide guidelines for the definitions and methods
(2002) outline nine discrete meanings attached to for the measurement of park tourism volumes,
the creation and tourist use of parks (Table 1). recommending that the basic unit of use should
Each of these meanings of parks is expressed be tourist day, which is one person, engaged in
through ▶ travel: a person moves from home to an 1 day of recreational activity. No global inventory
area of special significance in order to seek under- of park tourism has been compiled; however, in
standing, undertaking a journey of exploration 1996 there were about 2.6 billion tourist days of
and discovery. Major debates occur in park recreation activity in the parks and protected areas
management around the relative importance of at state/provincial and national levels in the
each of the nine meanings. The conflicts among ▶ United States and ▶ Canada. This level of use
704 Park tourism
was an underestimate, due to monitoring limita- additional money to manage these new parks,
tions and the tourist use of tens of thousands of leading to stretched budgets of existing parks.
parks in cities and towns that was not included This could lead to lower levels of management
(Eagles et al. 2000). The associated economic effectiveness in existing parks and decreased tour-
▶ impact was estimated to be between US$236 ist satisfaction due to inadequate facilities and
and $370 billion. Extrapolation of these numbers programs (Eagles et al. 2002; Newsome
globally reveals a tourist use level of over ten et al. 2013).
billion tourist days and over a trillion dollars of There is no doubt the park tourism will be
expenditure through park tourism each year. expected to carry increased levels of management
Pergams and Zaradic (2006) found a long-term cost. This in turn will make park tourism much
decline in tourism use of national parks in the more important to managers, leading to height-
United States starting in 1988 and credited this ened emphasis on its management. It will also
decline to increase the use of electronic media, lead to higher levels of fees charged to the tourists
with less time spent in outdoor recreation. In or visitors. In prospect, a major activity from 2014
response, Balmford et al. (2009) looked at tempo- to 2024 will be ▶ adaptation of park tourism man-
ral trends in tourist use for 280 parks in 20 coun- agement as the Aichi target 11 is addressed.
tries and found that visitation was declining in the Researchers should attempt to understand how
United States and ▶ Japan, but was increasing the fulfillment of these biodiversity targets influ-
elsewhere. They concluded that nature-based ences tourism distribution and its overall impacts
tourism retains the potential to generate funds on parks and protected areas.
for conservation and to positively influence peo-
ple’s attitudes to the natural environment. See also ▶ Environment, ▶ forest tourism,
In 2010, the signatories to the Convention on ▶ nature tourism, ▶ protected area tourism,
Biological Diversity created targets for park crea- ▶ recreation.
tion, known as Aichi targets. Target 11 states that
by 2020, at least 17 % of terrestrial and inland
water and 10 % of coastal and marine areas, espe-
cially areas of particular importance for biodiver-
sity and ecosystem services, are conserved References
through effectively and equitably managed, eco-
Balmford, A., J. Beresford, J. Green, R. Naidoo,
logically representative, and well-connected sys- M. Walpole, and A. Manica 2009 A Global Perspective
tems of protected areas and other effective area- on Trends in Nature-based Tourism. PLoS Biology
based conservation measures and integrated into 7(6): no page.
Dudley, N. 2008 Guidelines for Applying Protected
the wider landscapes and seascapes. This is the
Areas Management Categories <www.iucn.org/about/
most important officially designated target for work/programmes/gpap_home/gpap_capacity2/gpap_
park creation extant. pub/?1662/Guidelines-for-applying-protected-area-
management- categories> (10 August 2013).
Eagles, P., and S. McCool 2002 Tourism in National Parks
and Protected Areas: Planning and Management.
Future research challenges London: CABI.
Eagles, P., S. McCool, and C. Haynes 2002 Sustainable
For the first time, international, compulsory tar- Tourism in Protected Areas: Guidelines for Planning
and Management. Madrid: World Tourism
gets have been set within a global convention for Organization.
park creation on land and marine areas, with a Eagles, P., S. McLean, and M. Stabler 2000 Estimating the
defined time target of 2020. This will have major Tourism Volume and Value in Parks and Protected
impacts on tourism. There will be more parks Areas in Canada and the United States. George Wright
Forum 17(3): 62-82.
available for tourism use, possibly leading to
Hornback, K., and P. Eagles 1999 Guidelines for Public
declining use in existing parks. There are indica- Use Measurement and Reporting at Parks and Protected
tions that governments are not forthcoming with Areas. Cambridge: IUCN, Parks Canada, Cooperative
Partnership 705
Research Center for Sustainable Tourism for Australia, combining ▶ knowledge, expertise, and capital
and World Commission on Protected Areas. resources, collaboration and partnership strategy
Jones, K., and J. Wills 2005 The Invention of the Park.
Cornwall: Polity. can produce consensus and synergy, leading to
Newsome, D., S. Moore, and R. Dowling 2013 Natural new opportunities, innovative solutions, and a
Area Tourism: Ecology, Impacts and Management. greater level of effectiveness that would not have
Bristol: Channel View. been achieved by the partners acting
Pergams, O., and P. Zaradic 2006 Is Love of Nature in the
United States Becoming Love of Electronic Media? independently.
16-year Downtrend in National Park Visits Explained
by Watching Movies, Playing Video Games, Internet
Use, and Oil Prices. Journal of Environmental Framework and foundation
Management 80: 387-393.
Sheail, J. 2010 Nature’s Spectacle: The World’s First
National Parks and Protected Areas. London: The literature on interorganizational relationships
Earthscan. and strategic alliances in general and
co-marketing alliances and networks in particular
has used different theoretical paradigms to
approach the issue of collaboration and partner-
Partnership ship, such as resource dependency theory (Pfeffer
and Salancik 1978), transaction cost economics
Youcheng Wang (Williamson 1975), strategic management theory
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, (Prahalad and Hamel 1990), and networking the-
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA ory (Granovetter 1985). However, due to the com-
plex structure of the industry, an integrative
approach should be used to explain tourism orga-
The ▶ development, ▶ marketing, and ▶ man- nizations’ behavior in forming partnerships.
agement of destinations have increasingly Based on Wood and Gray (1991), Wang (2011)
focused on ▶ collaboration and partnership attempts to propose such an integrative concep-
approaches (Wang 2011). Wood and Gray tual framework defined by four major constructs,
(1991) define collaboration and partnership as an with the emphasis on the nature and dynamics of
arrangement when a group of autonomous stake- tourism collaboration and partnership. These
holders of a domain engage in an interactive pro- comprise the precondition construct which delin- P
cess, using shared rules, norms, and structures, to eates the economic, social, and environmental
act or decide on issues related to the case. conditions; the motivation construct which
Collaboration and partnership arrangements in explains why tourism organizations choose to
the tourism ▶ industry, particularly at a ▶ desti- come together to achieve their specific goals; the
nation level, involve a number of stakeholders stage construct which captures the dynamics of
(both public and private) working interactively the process; and the outcome construct which
on a common issue or problem through a process describes the consequences.
of exchange of ideas and expertise and pooling of In strategic management, it is generally
financial and human resources (Jamal and Getz accepted that organizations must adapt to their
1995). Such activities can be conducted by taking environments in order to survive and prosper. As
various forms and focusing on different areas. such, they do not form partnership in a vacuum,
Examples at a destination level may include joint and their collaborative behaviors are influenced
promotion campaigns, participating in co-op pro- and shaped by environmental forces, which set the
grams for trade shows and advertising, organizing preconditions for them to enter into collaboration
familiarization tours for travel agents and tour relationships. These preconditions include eco-
operators, information and market intelligence nomic conditions; crises or major events; chang-
sharing, and contribution to destination events. ing demands of tourists; intra- and inter-
Bramwell and Lane (2000) argue that by destination competitions; organizational support;
706 Partnership
and technology support. Wang’s (2011) study working within a formal structure. From the trans-
reveals that from an economic perspective, an action cost perspective, organizations entering
adverse condition prompts tourism businesses to into partnerships are driven by the need for effi-
be more receptive to collaboration for the pur- ciency with the emphasis on providing incentives
poses of cost sharing in operation and advertising, for efficient transactions and economizing on their
generating new ideas of promoting the entire des- costs (Williamson 1975).
tination to boost visitation, and creating superior ▶ Organizational learning perspective focuses
products to consumers. He also posits that crises on the ability of tourism organizations to extract
or major events, human or nature induced, are new knowledge and skills or to protect core com-
some of the most important and typical precondi- petences from competitors. Moreover, to explain
tions for organizations to form collaborative rela- certain economic development phenomenon,
tionships for solutions, especially when the crisis cluster competitiveness can trace its theoretical
requires collective actions. foundation from the cluster theory, which was
Furthermore, emerging trends and fluctuating articulated by Michael Porter in the seminal
demand patterns (e.g., ▶ seasonality) of ▶ host work titled Competitive Advantage of Nations.
and guest populations seem to trigger tourism Clusters are viewed as encompassing an array of
firms, particularly the small ones, to participate linked industries and other entities important for
in activities with other businesses. The increasing the competitiveness of a destination that provides
competition in the marketplace and the pressure complementary products and services and offers
for better destination performance in order to holistic experiences. Often, organizations enter
attract business serve as important preconditions collaborative relationships in order to address
for collaboration. From a macroeconomic per- community issues or public concerns. Those
spective, external competition from surrounding motivated by this desire are responding from a
areas is an immediate concern for destinations. perspective of social responsibility. By participat-
This environmental condition increases the likeli- ing in partnership initiatives, stakeholders in the
hood of firms to work together to promote com- community demonstrate that they are concerned
petitiveness of their destination. In a similar about and actively responding to the needs and
fashion, organizational support serves as a very expectations for the benefit of the community.
important precondition for organizations to enter Collaboration and partnership can be regarded
into partnership with others. ▶ Information tech- as a process of shared decisionmaking among key
nology also plays important roles either as a driv- stakeholders of a domain about its ▶ future (Wood
ing force or as a facilitating tool during the and Gray 1991). In tourism, this involves joint
collaboration process. decisionmaking among all those parties having
As pointed out by Wang (2011), organizations an interest or stake in marketing and/or manage-
and businesses enter into collaboration and part- ment activities. It is understood that the process
nership relationships with different motivations, does not necessarily manifest a sequential order.
ranging from social to economic to strategic con- Instead, they are embedded in a dynamic and
siderations. These motivations can be classified cyclical process whereby cooperation, conflict,
into five broad categories: strategy oriented, trans- and compromise coexist and various ▶ gover-
action cost oriented, learning oriented, cluster nance structures are negotiated to ensure that the
competitiveness, and community responsibility. whole process is smooth and successful. As such,
From a strategic point of view, the formation of Wang (2011) proposes the following five stages in
interorganizational linkages can be explained as forming successful partnerships: assembling,
the strategic or resource needs of an organization, ordering, implementing, evaluating, and
and collaborations and partnerships in tourism are transforming.
set up to achieve goals which are best met by The first stage describes a process of issue
combined activities based on the participants identification and partner selection so that an
Partnership 707
understanding can be built around it (Bailey and and business networks (Granovetter 1985).
Koney 2000). This gives way to the next stage These resources include information, ideas,
where ideas identified in the previous phase are leads, business opportunities, ▶ power and influ-
streamlined and sorted through and efforts are ence, emotional support, and even good will,
made to arrive at a shared vision among all the trust, and the spirit of cooperation.
parties involved so that appropriate actions can be
taken (Selin and Chavez 1995). The
implementing stage is introduced after the ideas
and thoughts generated in the first two phases are Future directions
put into action and plans and strategies are
operationalized. ▶ Evaluation is another impor- In tourism, collaboration and partnership through
tant stage in the collaboration process for most strategic alliance between/among agencies, orga-
of the tourism organizations involved. The evalu- nizations, and stakeholders involved in destina-
ation stage takes a retrospective view and assesses tion marketing and management constitute a
whether the predefined goals and objectives have complex subject of study and call for comprehen-
been achieved (Wood and Gray 1991). In the final sive, holistic, and systematic approaches to its
stage, members in the partnership determine the scrutiny. Tourism collaboration and partnership
future direction of their relationships at some are usually voluntary arrangements among orga-
point in the lifecycle of their collaborative nizations involved in product development, mar-
relationship. keting, and management in a collective way, and
Collaboration inevitably leads to outcomes can occur as a result of a wide range of motives
which are usually multifaceted and contingent and goals, take a variety of forms, and occur
upon the context in which it takes place. There across vertical and horizontal boundaries. For
are three broad categories of outcomes resulting tourism development, a collaborative approach
from tourism partnership: strategy realization, appears to be particularly relevant at a time when
organizational learning, and social capital build- public, private, and, to an extent, voluntary sectors
ing (Wang 2011). First, the realization of strategy are increasingly choosing collective efforts to
is directly reflected in the organizations’ enhanced address related issues.
▶ competitive advantage through collaboration. However, conventional research in destination
Within the destination context, the enhanced com- marketing usually focuses on developing tools P
petitive advantage may include sharing marketing and techniques to understand and approach con-
cost, effective use of pooled resources, increased sumer markets, which is reflected in a plethora of
▶ destination competitiveness, competitive studies on market segmentation. From a market-
branding and image building, and improved prod- ing strategy point of view, such an approach
uct portfolio (Selin and Chavez 1995). The second places the emphasis on the external environments
category of collaboration outcome is related to for destinations. While these studies have identi-
organization learning. Collaboration essentially fied and developed useful means by which tour-
can be characterized as a joint learning experience ism organizations can utilize when marketing and
and a vehicle by which firms transfer knowledge. promoting their destinations to potential tourists,
In other words, organizational learning outcomes how to improve the marketing efforts through
for organizations are manifested in knowledge enhancing tourism organizations’ capacity and
transfer, organization change and ▶ innovation, capability has rarely been fully examined. Essen-
and improvement in various types of required tially, destination marketing is a collective effort
competence such as people, communication, and which requires various organizations and busi-
problem solving skills. The third outcome is nesses to harmoniously work together in order
▶ social capital building. This refers to the to achieve a common goal. As such, successful
▶ resources available in and through personal destination marketing entails a profound
708 Peace
understanding of the critical aspects in the collab-

oration process. Peace
In supporting this goal, tourism as a social and
economic system is ideally suited to the develop- Omar Moufakkir1 and Ian Kelly2
1
ment of collaboration and partnership, given the Gulf University for Science and Technology,
range and diversity of organizational and commu- Kuwait City, Kuwait
2
nity interests and involvement. New methodolo- International Institute for Peace through Tourism
gies combining various research paradigms are (Australia) Inc., Golden Grove, Adelaide,
expected to be adopted, to not only help in under- South Australia
standing the nature and process but also to enable
researchers to understand relationships among
key factors contributing to collaboration and part-
nership in a quantifiable and measurable way in Tourism and peace focus on the extent to which
the tourism context. tourism mitigates conflicts among countries
(international peace), among and within commu-
nities (domestic peace), and within the individ-
See also ▶ Destination, ▶ management, ▶ mar- uals. The peace-through-tourism proposition was
keting, ▶ organization and association, largely based on the contact hypothesis that
▶ strategy. intercultural interactions can reduce the likelihood
of intergroup ▶ hostility (Allport 1954). How-
ever, this relationship is a challenging research
theme, initially narrowly focused on but now
References seen as linked to a number of overlapping areas
of tourism practice and scholarship (Wohlmuther
Bailey, D., and K. Koney 2000 Strategic Alliances among and Wintersteiner 2014).
Health and Human Services Organizations. London:
Questioning this proposition, Litvin (1998)
Sage.
Bramwell, B., and B. Lane 2000 Tourism Collaboration notes tourism is primarily a beneficiary of peace
and Partnerships: Politics, Practice and Sustainability. rather than a contributor. Initial skepticism about
Clevedon: Channel View. tourism as an agent of peace also related to defi-
Granovetter, M. 1985 Economic Action and Social Struc-
nitional problems. Responding to this, Haessly
ture: The Problem of Embeddedness. American Journal
of Sociology 91:481-510. (2010) asserts that peace must be manifest as a
Jamal, T., and D. Getz 1995 Collaboration Theory and harmonious presence in society and its
Community Tourism Planning. Annals of Tourism opposite – conflict – as a condition of
peacelessness.
Pfeffer, J., and J. Salancik 1978 The External Control of
Organizations: A Resource-Dependence Perspective. The proposition has progressed from asking
New York: Harper and Row. whether or not tourism contributes to peace to
Prahalad, C., and G. Hamel 1990 The Core Competence broad acceptance and examination of how it can
of the Corporation. Harvard Business Review
be purposefully managed to mitigate conflicts
68(3):79-91.
Selin, S., and D. Chavez 1995 Developing a Evolutionary and contribute to peaceful solutions and harmo-
Tourism Partnership Model. Annals of Tourism nious relations (Moufakkir and Kelly 2010).
Research 22:844-856. While tourism does not automatically contribute
Wang, Y. 2011 Collaborative Destination Marketing:
Principles and Applications. In Destination Marketing
to peace, it has the potential to do so in
and Management: Theories and Applications, Y, many ways.
Wang and A. Pizam, eds., pp.259-283. London: CABI. There is a distinction between what might be
Williamson, O. 1975 Markets and Hierarchies. New York: termed the “solid” and “liquid” elements of
Free Press.
tourism-related issues. The former, the more vis-
Wood, D., and B. Gray 1991 Towards a Comprehensive
Theory of Collaboration. The Journal of Applied ible issues, relate to the concepts associated with
Behavioral Science 27:139-162. sustainable and ▶ responsible tourism: the social,
Perception, community 709
cultural, economic, and environmental impacts of

tourism ▶ planning, ▶ development, and practice. Perception, community
The latter, the less visible and perhaps more diffi-
cult issues, are those stemming from negative John Ap
attitudinal dispositions, such as stereotyping, prej- Stenden University, Doha, Qatar
udice, stigma, hatred, xenophobia, racism, reli-
gious extremism, and bigotry. With respect to
these, the nature and quality of tourism-initiated Much interest has focused on how tourism is
contacts is a major factor. perceived in the community and, in particular,
Tourism has the potential to contribute to by host residents. Understanding such perceptions
world peace, but it may also be detrimental to is important in determining whether tourism is
peace if it is not conducted in appropriate ways. regarded positively or negatively within the com-
There are practices (commissions to guides, false munity, ▶ destination, or host country. When
advertising) and forms of ▶ tourist behavior developing tourism, the ▶ industry and its advo-
(soccer hooliganism, child ▶ sex tourism) which cates, governments, and communities seek to max-
bring tourism into disrepute. Questions also relate imize or optimize its positive impacts. Typically,
to the genuineness and effectiveness of organiza- they focus on its economic benefits while neglecting
tions involved in the promotion of peace through other equally important benefits such as the socio-
tourism. As new forms of tourism emerge, practi- cultural and environmental ones. Such neglect, par-
tioners and academics must be alert and may need ticularly the sociocultural aspects, has often led to
to develop measures to counter additional harmful tensions within communities about the role and
impacts. contribution of tourism. In an era where sustainable
▶ Future research can document and analyze development and sustainability are becoming uni-
case studies in which tourism is used as a versally accepted values, it must be recognized that
political, social, cultural, ideological, and envi- the impacts of tourism are unavoidable.
ronmental tool for peacebuilding. In an Numerous academic studies have examined per-
increasingly globalized world, it becomes ceptions of the host community on tourism and its
imperative to examine the effects of tourism impacts. According to Ap, “Perceptions and atti-
on world citizenship and cross-cultural tudes of residents toward the impacts of tourism are
understanding. likely to be an important planning and policy con- P
sideration for the successful development, market-
See also ▶ Cultural conflict, ▶ hostility, ▶ polit- ing, and operation of existing and future tourism
ical science, ▶ sustainable tourism. programs and projects. For tourism in a destination
area to thrive, its adverse impacts should be mini-
mized and it must be viewed favorably by the host
population” (1992:665). Sharpley argues that
References “. . .understanding resident perceptions and
responses is fundamental to the successful and fun-
Allport, G. 1954 The Nature of Prejudice. Cambridge: damental development of tourism” (2014:41–42).
Addison-Wesley. Thus, disregard for the impacts of tourism and
Haessly, J. 2010 Tourism and a Culture of Peace. In Tour- negative perceptions of the community are likely
ism, Progress and Peace, O. Moufakkir and I. Kelly,
eds., pp. 1-16. Oxon: CABI.
to create problems and a loss of support for it.
Litvin, S. 1998 Tourism: The World’s Peace Industry. The Webster dictionary defines perception as
Journal of Travel Research 37:63-66. the way one “think(s) about or understand(s)
Moufakkir, O., and I. Kelly (eds.) 2010 Tourism, Progress someone or something.” It also refers to one’s
and Peace. Wallingford: CABI.
Wohlmuther, C., and W. Wintersteiner (eds.) 2014 Interna-
awareness, insights, and the image of something.
tional Handbook on Tourism and Peace. Klagenfurt: Perceptions and attitudes are often used inter-
DRAVA. changeably. However, a distinction can be made
710 Perception, community
between the two. The former is a general term perceptions toward tourism. To date, social
while the latter refers to firmly held or “enduring exchange has been the most commonly used theo-
beliefs.” Technically speaking, it is easier and retical framework. Others include social represen-
more appropriate to measure perceptions rather tations theory, dependency theory, attitude-
than attitudes. For various reasons, many in the behavior theory, and growth machine theory.
community may not have firmly held beliefs or Structural equation modeling has also been
dispositions about tourism, while it is easier for used in an attempt to explain residents’ percep-
them to indicate how they perceive it. For some, tions toward tourism. In order to identify a “uni-
“perception is reality,” as this may be the only versal model,” Vargas-Sánchez et al. (2011)
knowledge or experience they have with a partic- examined 13 studies which had used structural
ular phenomenon. According to Pearce equation modeling. While identifying a number
et al. (1996), such understanding may be derived of variables, they concluded that such a model
from direct experience, word of mouth, social cannot be formulated. While previous studies
interaction, and the media. have identified some common variables, it is not
clear how residents develop positive or negative
perceptions about tourism and how the relation-
Research overview ship can be explained.
The question is still asked – Why it is so elusive
Research on perceptions of tourism has tradition- to study and understand host community percep-
ally focused on identifying and examining the tions of tourism? Possible explanations include: the
various economic, sociocultural, and physical nature and characteristics of perceptions do not
(or environmental) impacts. These impacts may lend themselves to accurate measurement; varia-
be further categorized as positive or negative, tions arise due to different contexts and settings;
depending upon the nature of tourism and context too much emphasis has been given to the use of
of the study. Research has also linked perceptions quantitative approaches; and there has been a lack
of tourism and its impacts to community support of development with current concepts and theories.
for it or its development, quality of life, commu-
nity wellbeing, and host-tourist interactions.
Identifying impacts of tourism provides a base- Future directions and challenges
line for research on perceptions. According to
Deery, Jago, and Fredline, the listing of “. . . In order to advance knowledge and understanding
impacts does not provide insights as to why resi- of residents’ perceptions, there is a need to reflect
dents perceive them in a particular way” upon the past and identify what directions should
(2012:67). Hence, it is important to understand be pursued in the future. First, one must review all
why, for example, residents develop positive or relevant theories and conceptual frameworks used
negative opinions toward tourism or view it the so far and to build upon them, albeit incremen-
way they do. Sharply’s (2014) review of the liter- tally. It is essential to go beyond reliance on the-
ature on host perceptions of tourism found that the oretical concepts at a superficial and basic level.
majority of studies conducted were empirical, Second, researchers need to examine the topic
quantitative, and cross-sectional in nature. more from a qualitative perspective. Third, future
In terms of theoretical development on how research should examine perceptions on and of
residents perceive tourism, there has been limited tourism in a broader context such as from a devel-
research. Ap (1992) proposed the application of opment perspective and thinking outside the box
social exchange theory to provide a basis to explain by viewing it in a non-tourism centric manner.
why residents develop positive or negative Finally, it is important to examine the extent to
Performance 711
which study settings and contexts affect one’s social and cultural phenomena, it is an important
knowledge and understanding of residents’ per- dimension of tourism studies.
ceptions in order to identify universal features
common across all study settings.
It is also time to go beyond cross-sectional Identifying performance
studies and opt for longitudinal or panel studies.
While numerous studies and some progress have Performance has been debated extensively in the
been made over the past few decades on this humanities and social sciences, especially since
subject, theoretical development is still lacking. the 1940s and 1950s when it was associated with
This is the challenge for tourism researchers to the early use of the concept of “play” (Huizinga
address in the future. 1955). At that time, performance was defined as
the entire set of activities “of a given participant
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ com- on a given occasion which serves to influence in
munity development, ▶ qualitative research, any way any of the other participants” (Goffman
▶ stakeholder, ▶ sustainable tourism. 1959: 15). In the following decades, performance
has become an extremely popular term used to
indicate a number of very different activities,
including linguistic acts, rituals, and folklore.
References Performance has been extended far beyond its
initial association with theatricality, to be
Ap, J. 1992 Residents’ Perceptions of Tourism Impacts. employed more widely to understand human
Deery, M., L. Jago, and L. Fredline 2012 Rethinking Social
behavior (Schechner 2006). Instead of focusing
Impacts of Tourism Research. Tourism Management solely on given symbolic structures, this new
33:64-73. approach assumes that all human practices are
Pearce, P., G. Moscardo, and G. Ross 1996 Tourism Com- performed and all cultures are performances.
munity Relationships. Oxford: Pergamon.
Sharpley, R. 2014 Host Perceptions of Tourism. Tourism
This shift – from a metaphor for theatricality to
Management 43:37-49. the ▶ interpretation of human behavior – has
Vargas-Sánchez, A., N. Porras-Bueno, and M. Plaza-Mejía influenced different disciplines including tourism
2011 Explaining Residents Attitudes Toward Tourism: studies.
Is a Universal Model Possible? Annals of Tourism P
Tourism studies
In tourism studies, performance has been used to

Performance interpret cultural presentations as attractions and
also to understand practices as specific forms of
Yujie Zhu human behavior. The tourism industry prompts
Australian Centre on China in the World, people to seek pleasure and entertainment away
Australian National Univeristy, Canberra, ACT, from their home. Once local traditions become
Australia attractions and are increasingly oriented to an
“external public,” performances may be shortened
and adapted to the tastes of tourists (Cohen 1988).
The notion of “performance” is broad. It appears In such circumstances, performance becomes a
on different occasions and has many uses, includ- parody of the original meanings of traditional
ing theatrical practices. As a way to understand cultures, in which the performers sell their own
712 Performance
bodies as part of an event (Tilley 1997). Other Now and the future
debates suggest that local performance is not nec-
essarily undermined by globalized tourism; rather, Closely related to the term of performance, the
it has become “a diacritical mark of ethnic or notion of “performativity” appears to be relatively
cultural identity, a vehicle of self-representation new within the tourism domain. Originating from
before an external public” (Cohen 1988: 383). John L. Austin’s “speech act,” it was used to
Local organizations and people are capable of illustrate practices through the act of something
transforming and reconfiguring tourism and cre- being performed. In recent decades, the term has
ating emergent meanings while accommodating been reinterpreted and reconfigured to indicate
or resisting trends of standardization and ▶ com- different meanings in a variety of fields. For
mercialization. Cultural performance as attraction example, Stanley Tambiah regarded ritual as a
sometimes can even actively enhance and enliven performative act; Judith Butler linked this concept
local communities. By extension, this argument to a discourse on gender and identity politics; and
relates to discussions on “authenticity.” Bruno Latour examined the social as practice.
Performance is also used as a metaphor and an “Performativity” is not so much about the perfor-
analytical tool to understand tourists’ practices. mance and plays as such; rather, it emphasizes
MacCannell (1973) further developed Goffman’s transformation, enactment, embodiment, and
(1959) work and divided tourism behavior into negotiation among actors.
different stages. The front stage is the meeting Since 2010, an increasing number of articles
place of hosts and guests, or service providers about “performativity” have been published in
and customers, and the backstage is the place to journals such as Annals of Tourism Research.
relax and to prepare (MacCannell 1973). People The emergence of the notion reveals a paradig-
attempt to convey meanings and values in social matic shift in how agency is conceptualized and
settings on the front stage, dropping their actors’ exemplified in tourism. Though further study is
masks when they return to the backstage. This needed to clarify the complexity of the terms and
front stage/backstage division helps explain why their application in different contexts, perfor-
tourists are interested in what happens behind the mance and performativity will remain valuable
scenes and, therefore, why tourism practitioners concepts to both strengthen and convey the mul-
prefer to create a front stage that looks like the tifaceted meanings of tourism as a social
backstage. ▶ phenomenon.
The metaphor of performance contributes to
understanding how “embodied performances” See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ cultural tourism,
are enacted by tourists at different stages or set- ▶ play, ▶ ritual.
tings. According to Edensor (2001), “perfor-
mance” is an interactive and contingent process
between actor and audience. Tourists often follow
particular settings to ▶ travel based on their spe- References
cific roles and enact a number of performances at
Austin, J. 1962 How to Do Things with Worlds. Oxford:
distinct stages. These stages provide the establish-
ment of meaningful settings that tourists consume Butler, J. 1993 Bodies That Matter: On the Discursive
(Edensor 2001). The performance metaphor also Limits of “Sex”. New York: Routledge.
sheds light on the liminal nature of tourism. Tour- Cohen, E. 1988 Authenticity and Commoditization in
Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 15:371-386.
ists may tend to perform their self-identity, since
Edensor, T. 2001 Performing Tourism, Staging Tourism:
they engage in non-ordinary activities, and feel (Re)producing Tourist Space and Practice. Tourist
free from the constraints of their daily life. Studies 1:59-81.
Peru 713
Goffman, E. 1959 The Presentation of Self in Everyday country received 272,000 tourists in 1993 and
Life. New York: Doubleday. reached a record of 2.8 million in 2011
Huizinga, J. 1955 Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-
Element in Culture. Boston: Beacon. (UNWTO 2013). During 2003–2012, the average
Latour, B. 1984 The Powers of Association. The Sociolog- annual growth rate was 11 %, 13 % of which was
ical Review, 32(1):264–280. attributed to ▶ foreign exchange earnings.
MacCannell, D. 1973 Staged Authenticity: Arrangements ▶ Domestic tourism represents 15.6 times of the
of Social Space in Tourist Setting. American Journal of
Sociology 79:589-603. arrivals and 2.1 times of the income of ▶ inbound
Schechner, R. 2006 Performance Studies: An Introduction. tourism (Comunidad Andina 2013).
London: Routledge. The contribution of tourism to the GDP was
Tambiah, S. 1981 A Performative Approach to Ritual. 9.3 % in 2013 and is forecasted to rise by 4.9 % in
London: British Academy.
Tilley, C. 1997 Performing Culture in the Global Village. 2014. The number of jobs in 2013 was 1,178,500
Critique of Anthropology 17:67-89. or 7.7 % of total employment. For the same
period, tourism contribution accounted for 4.8 %
of total investment and is expected to rise by 5 %
in the following year (WTTC 2014). Tourism
▶ development is hampered by poor connectivity,
Peru and there is a need for quality ▶ infrastructure
(roads, airports, telecommunications, and
Alejandro Reyes Hurtado utilities).
Education, Procibaris, Lima, Peru The Ministry of External Trade and Tourism
was created in 2002. Its strategic ▶ national tour-
ism plan was first presented in 2004 and is
The Republic of Peru is one of the 15 most diverse updated periodically. The proposed 2012–2021
countries in the world. It has 84 of 117 eco-zones plan implements improved ▶ governance by
of the planet. It is the third largest country in South facilitating coordination with the Ministries of
America (1.285 million km2 or 0.496 million Transport and Communications, ▶ Culture,
mi2), with a population of 29.41 million in 2010 ▶ Environment, Health, Internal Affairs, and
(MINCUL 2011). It is bordered by ▶ Ecuador, Labor and with the subnational governments
▶ Colombia, ▶ Brazil, ▶ Bolivia, ▶ Chile, and and the private sector. Multi-sectoral working
the Pacific Ocean (Figure 1). Its economy is groups are proposed, and tourism development P
heavily dependent on mining (56 % of total is on the agenda. The Ministry of Foreign Trade
exports in 2009). and Tourism’s national program for rural com-
Machu Picchu is considered the main cultural munity was launched with success in 2007.
attraction, while the national reserves of Paracas Two educational institutions have ▶ UNWTO.
(Ica) and Titicaca (Puno) are the most significant TedQual accreditation offering master’s, bache-
natural attractions. The main touring loop is lor’s, and technical degrees. ▶ Facilitation ini-
the southeast route to Arequipa, Puno, and tiatives include the elimination of visa and
Cuzco. The country has 11,714 pre-Hispanic passport requirements for entry of citizens of
archaeological monuments declared as cultural the Andean community among others. ▶ Future
heritage sites. tourism research should focus on its source
The country’s image has improved since it markets.
overcame ▶ terrorism and economic and social
instability it experienced between the 1980s and See also ▶ Community-based tourism,
1990s. In 1993, there was an 11.87 % fall in the ▶ heritage, ▶ nature tourism,▶ rural tourism,
number of arrivals. In quantitative terms, the ▶ sustainable tourism.
714 Peru
Peru, Figure 1 Map of Peru
References comunidadandina.org/Documentos/DEstadisticos/
SGde628.pdf (12 September 2014)
COMUNIDAD ANDINA 2013 Secretaria General. MINCUL 2011 Ministry of Culture. Atlas Infrastructure
Informe Anual de Turismo 2003 - 2012 http://intranet. and World Heritage of the Americas www.mcultura.
Phenomenology 715
gob.pe/sites/default/files/docs/atlas_pe.pdf (1 January opus. This commenced his thinking on the ques-

2014). tion of the meaning of Dasein (Being) and
UNWTO 2013 World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World
Tourism Organization. remained a lifelong ontological concern about
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Peru. experience in the world. In this early work, Hei-
London: World Travel and Tourism Council. degger addressed issues related to existence and
Dasein, as a “being-in-the-world” that is aware of
itself and of dying someday. This fills it with
Angst (dread) and issues of (in)authentic existence
Phenomenology arise as Dasein tries to grapple with Angst
(Heidegger 1996). ▶ Language plays a crucial
Tazim Jamal role, and it is the house of Being, as Heidegger
Department of Recreation, Park and Tourism addresses with respect to historicity and the “her-
Sciences, Texas A&M University, College meneutic circle” of ▶ interpretation and under-
Station, Texas, USA standing. The world is always an interpretive
task, shaped by dispositions, habits, cultural
norms, past experiences, ▶ education, and the
Broadly speaking, phenomenology is the study of like, which Heidegger refers to as the “fore-
lived experience. It has a rich ▶ tradition that structures” of understanding. His later works con-
evolved significantly with the works of German tinued to grapple with issues related to experience
and French philosophers in the twentieth century. and existence, including the notion of dwelling,
Edmund Husserl (1859–1938) is generally con- and the influence of ▶ technology and the instru-
sidered to be the founder of phenomenology. His mental use of things (in the natural world
teacher, Franz Brentano, critiqued British empiri- included). Heidegger was also known as an exis-
cism’s tendency to present consciousness in terms tential philosopher.
of representations or ideas; rather, consciousness Heidegger’s student, Hans Georg Gadamer
is consciousness of something, its intentional (1900–2002), built on his work on hermeneutic
object. Influenced by Brentano, Husserl strove phenomenology and the “hermeneutic circle” of
over the years to develop a scientific method to interpretation and understanding. Influenced by
get at the “essence” of experience in the lived the earlier works of Schleiermacher (1768–1834)
world. His first phenomenological work, Logical and William Dilthey (1833–1911), philosophical P
Investigations (1900/1901), led to a decade of hermeneutics, as it is referred to, continued to
▶ work in what he called transcendental phenom- evolve under Gadamer as he explored how people
enology. This involves “bracketing” or come to interpret and understand their world – not
suspending judgment or prejudices (and a naive just written texts but also encounters with other
realism) about the external world in order to things, people, traditions, art, places, environ-
examine phenomena as they are given in con- ments (natural, social, and cultural), etc. His
sciousness (Husserl 1973). This epoché is major work, Wahrheit und Methode (Truth and
followed by a further step of eidetic reduction to Method), was published in 1960. As Gadamer
identify the essential structures (transcendental strove to demonstrate in this work, truth is
structures) of things as they are given in interpreted from a hermeneutic perspective; this
consciousness. does not mean that anything suffices as truth – it is
not relative in the sense of relativism
(Gadamer 1989).
Historical traditions By contrast, the influential evolution of phe-
nomenology in the French tradition, such as with
Husserl’s student, Martin Heidegger Maurice Merleau-Ponty (1908–1961) and his
(1889–1976), published Sein und Zeit (Being treatise Phenomenology of Perception (1962,
and Time) in 1927 which became his magnum first published in 1945), focused on the active
716 Phenomenology
role of the body in human experience. He, too, applied philosophical hermeneutics to explore a
was seeking to reinterpret the division between range of topics, such as respect to tour guides and
body and mind common to most conventional interpretation. Tourism research in this area has
Western philosophy and psychology, and his cri- also focused on issues related to Self-Other rela-
tiques of Hussrelian intellectual consciousness tionships and meanings of place, ▶ identity, and
worked toward the historical and embodied per- being (see Edelheim 2007; Pernecky and Jamal
spectives developed in his key works. “Being-in- 2010, for some examples of the above).
the-world” means that “we are through and However, theory building is slow to develop
through compounded of relations with the with respect to the phenomenology of tourism-
world” (Merleau-Ponty 1962: xiii). related experiences. Despite post-Husserl
Contemporary views on phenomenology have phenomenology’s rich theoretical evolutions and
taken the critical turn even further into the domain methodological insights, surprisingly few studies
of linguistic phenomenology (such as the works have drawn upon these to explore aspects such as
of Paul Ricoeur and Jacques Derrida). In addition, tourist Angst, or how the past (historicity) informs
it should be noted that the work of the German the present and the ▶ future “being-in-the-world”
philosophers has had a strong influence on other of heritage tourists (through various interpretive
disciplines which have consequently taken up the acts). Even with the burgeoning literature on
study and critique of phenomenology, such as in authenticity and experience that has emerged
psychology and sociology. Phenomenological since MacCannell’s (1976) early work, relatively
sociology evolved from Alfred Schutz (1967), little theoretical attention has been directed to the
who critiqued Husserl’s approach to “intersubjec- issue of “authentic” experience, by, for example,
tivity,” and developed his own version of this drawing on Heidegger in relation to “being-in-the
concept and how it plays out in the Lebenswelt world” (which is also a being-toward-death) or his
(Lifeworld). A detailed philosophical exposition later notions of dwelling. Hardly any studies use
of the phenomenological tradition appears in Merleau-Ponty’s extensive work on phenomenol-
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/phenomenology/. ogy and the body. Cohen’s influential
(1979) study, for instance, has been criticized for
not providing theoretical or philosophical justifi-
Phenomenology studies in tourism cation for the typologies of phenomenological
experiences forwarded (Edelheim 2007).
Phenomenology has made a slow but steady A close analysis of the literature in this area of
entrance into tourism studies and related areas of tourism studies reveals a range of methodological
▶ leisure and ▶ recreation research. issues and challenges in addition to the lack of
MacCannell’s The Tourist (1976) was an early theory building. Trenchant criticism of the lack of
sociological attempt to examine ▶ authenticity in awareness of various research paradigms that sit-
relation to the objects and experience of tourism. uate phenomenology in terms of ontology, ▶ epis-
This seminal work stimulated a long string of temology, and ▶ methodology has been launched
subsequent forays into various modes of authen- by several authors. Lack of clear explication of the
ticity in tourism. Cohen’s (1979) typology was phenomenological tradition being explored, its
also influential in directing subsequent examina- key concepts, and methodological application
tions of tourist experiences. Studies of conscious- are evident in many articles published in tourism
ness and “lived experience” of woman tourists studies (Szarycz 2009). A number of positivistic
and backpackers, pilgrims, heritage tourists, and research approaches have drawn upon Husserl,
“dark” tourists, as well as serious leisure experi- but very few have explained the assumptions
ence in touristic events and destinations, illustrate driving reductionist efforts to get at the “essence”
the range of topics being addressed through phe- of tourist experience through ▶ quantitative
nomenological inquiry in tourism and leisure. research approaches that appear to follow
Drawing upon Gadamer, subsequent works also positivistic paradigms of tourism research
Phenomenology 717
(Szarycz 2009). Phenomenology, unlike positivist ▶ Postmodernism, poststructuralism, and influ-

studies, rejects the mind/body dualism, yet some ences from philosophical and feminist studies
researchers continue to identify “subjective” and have enabled new theorizing on ▶ performance,
“objective” positions. performativity, and the situated body. Positivistic
Following the postmodern and interpretive studies will henceforth be hard-pressed to justify
turns in the twentieth century, a number of the passive, disembodied perspective of the tourist
scholars have called for greater methodological and the tourist experience evident in earlier
attention to the study of lived experience in tour- notions of tourism, and new theoretical and meth-
ism, such as through phenomenology and ▶ qual- odological approaches will be needed to enable
itative research approaches. Pernecky and Jamal and justify both positivistic and non-positivistic
(2011) propose a framework to guide research approaches to the study of lived experience in
applying hermeneutic phenomenology and note ▶ travel and tourism.
the relevance of Heidegger’s embodied notion of Anti-foundational ways of undertaking inter-
“dwelling” to studies of lived experience in tour- pretive research on tourist perceptions and expe-
ism destinations. Suvantola (2002) offers a meth- rience (such as through phenomenology) demand
odologically well-described study which employs careful theoretical attention and methodological
an existential phenomenological approach to rigor. Especially important for tourism research
uncover the ontology of tourist experiences. He in this area is providing methodologically detailed
uses firsthand investigations of his own experi- suggestions for how a phenomenologist goes
ences as a ▶ tourist and also through group obser- about generating descriptions of lived experience
vations and deep interviews of individual tourists and how to address issues such as “validity” of
in holiday destinations (Suvantola 2002). He such interpretive research. As already illustrated,
explains that texts can be seen as “layers of mean- phenomenology is a rich tradition and offers fruit-
ings” in hermeneutics as well as in poststruc- ful avenues toward research study and critique of
turalism and as “expressions of lived consciousness and lived experience in tourism
experiences” phenomenologically (Suvantola studies.
2002: 10; cited in Edelheim 2007: 89). It therefore
enables critical ▶ exploration. See also ▶ Experience, ▶ interpretation, ▶ para-
Yet, very few tourism studies appear to have digm, ▶ qualitative research, ▶ sociology.
tackled critical research or critiques related to P
Heideggerian perspectives on technology, for
instance. A rare exception is Edelheim (2007)
who uses both linguistic phenomenology and her-
meneutic phenomenology in his thesis to engage References
in a cultural critique of tourism studies. In general,
both theory building and methodological devel- Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences.
opment in the phenomenology of tourist experi- Sociology 13(2):179-201.
Edelheim, J. 2007 The Bushranger and the Big Banana:
ences continue to progress very slowly, despite A Cultural Studies Critique of Tourism Studies. PhD
the importance of understanding the tourist expe- thesis, Department of Critical and Cultural Studies,
rience to both academic and marketing/business Macquarie University, NSW, Australia.
interests. Much remains to be done. Gadamer, H. 1989 Truth and Method (2nd ed., trans.
J. Weinsheimer and D. Marshall). London: Continuum.
Heidegger, M. 1996 Being and Time (trans. J. Stambaugh).
Albany NY: State University of New York Press.
Future directions Husserl, E. 1973 Logical Investigations (trans. J. Findlay).
London: Routledge.
New mobilities and new theoretical perspectives Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.
continue to contest and change earlier, positivistic Merleau-Ponty, M. 1962 The Phenomenology of Percep-
views of tourism and the tourist experience. tion (trans. C. Smith). London: Routledge.
718 Phenomenon
Pernecky, T., and T. Jamal 2010 (Hermeneutic) Phenome- one identified by its own descriptions and mani-
nology in Tourism Studies. Annals of Tourism festations. The first relies on an economic-
Research 37:1055-1075.
Schutz, A. 1967 The Phenomenology of the Social World. marketing orientation and the second is character-
Evanston, Ill: Northwestern University Press. ized by a sociocultural framework (Osorio and
Szarycz, G. 2009 Some Issues in Tourism Research Castillo 2006). Most tourism academics choose
Phenomenology: A Commentary. Current Issues in the former by examining the phenomenon from a
Tourism 12:47-58.
Suvantola, J. 2002 Tourist’s Experience of Place. Hamp- quantitative position, leaving a theoretical and
shire: Ashgate. methodological research void, a gap that reflects
a complex relationship between facts and their
meanings (Castillo 2011). This binary distinction
demonstrates the existence of a prevailing posi-
tivist approach toward the investigation of the
Phenomenon phenomenon. At the same time, it implies a sig-
nificant omission in the study of related sociocul-
Celeste Nava Jiménez and tural issues pertaining to tourism.
Marcelino Castillo Nechar In a complex and multicultural society, tourism
Faculty of Tourism and Gastronomy, University is a phenomenon coexisting between subjects and
Autonomous of State of Mexico, Toluca, Mexico objects with different essences. Indeed, it is
immersed in a multiplicity of worldviews that
point to cultural, social, and economic globaliza-
To speak of tourism as a phenomenon involves a tion, thereby making tourism an intercultural phe-
journey through several varieties of meanings. nomenon wrapped in a multiplicity of practices
While the economic dimension dominated the that embody a multiculturalism produced by glob-
conceptualization of this phenomenon during the alization itself.
1930s, and its measurement in economic terms Future research on tourism as a phenomenon,
since the 1960s, the subsequent sociological through a reflexive critical methodology, aims to
awareness of tourism as a total social occurrence transform the reality of what is manifested. It also
signified an influence on all society and its insti- implies as its essence a freedom from conven-
tutions, thereby involving changes in the macro- tional wisdom, marking it out as a mass demon-
economic, social, and political processes (Lanfant stration of people disrupting a variety of social
1995). and cultural events and activities that interpret the
The relative newness and development of the different meanings of tourism as a total social
notion of “phenomenon” in tourism studies from entity.
the 1970s affected the systemic conceptualization
of tourism and post-tourism, as well as the con-
troversy of its disciplinarity and indiscipline See also ▶ Epistemology, ▶ interpretation,
(Panosso 2008). There were also the additional ▶ paradigm, ▶ phenomenology, ▶ sociology.
associated visions of the inter- and multidis-
ciplinary studies and the critical turn in tourism
studies (Ateljevic et al. 2007), all leading to the References
vital question: What exactly is the phenomenon of
Ateljevic, I., A. Pritchard, and N. Morgan 2007 The Crit-
tourism? ical Turn in Tourism Studies. Oxford: Elsevier.
Tourism is a multifaceted social phenomenon. Castillo, M. 2011 Epistemología Crítica del Turismo
Its analysis focuses on two essential aspects, each Qué es Eso? (Critical Epistemology of Tourism: What
Philippines 719
is It?) Turismo em Análise (Tourism Analysis) from 1990 to 2010 was around 5 %. In 2012, 4.3
22(3):516-538. million arrivals and 40.7 million domestic tourists
Lanfant, M. 1995 International Tourism, Internationaliza-
tion and the Challenge to Identity. In International were recorded (DOT 2012b). In that year, the
Tourism, Identity and Change, M. Lanfant, J. Allcock direct contribution of tourism to the country’s
and E. Bruner, eds., pp.24-43. London: Sage. GDP was US$4.9 billion (PHP215.5 billion or
Osorio, M., and M. Castillo 2006 Ensayos Teórico- 2.0 %), and it directly supported 762,000 jobs or
Metodológicos del Turismo: Cuatro Enfoques
(Theoretical/Methodological Essays on Tourism: Four 2.0 % of total employment (WTTC 2013).
Foci). México City: Universidad Autónoma del Estado ▶ Tourist exports generated $4.2 billion
de México. (PHP183.8 billion or 5.8 %), while tourism
Panosso, A. 2008 Filosofía del Turismo, Teoría y ▶ investment was $1.46 billion (PHP64.2 billion)
Epistemología (Philosophy of Tourism, Theory and
Epistemology). México City: Trillas. or 3.1 % of the country’s total investment (WTTC
2013).
The 2009 ▶ national tourism act legislated the
Department of Tourism responsible for tourism
policy and planning, international and domestic
Philippines marketing, facilitating investment, the accredita-
tion of tourism enterprises, maintaining data on
Miguela M. Mena tourism and its economic impacts, and supporting
University of the Philippines, Asian Institute of tourism activities of local government units
Tourism, Quezon City, Philippines through capacity building (DOT 2012a). The
national tourism ▶ development plan for
2012-2017 was formulated to address the key
The Republic of the Philippines is an archipelagic issues that impede tourism competitiveness and
country located in Southeast Asia (Figure 1). It to achieve inclusive economic growth, with the
has a population of 92.34 million and land area of vision of becoming the “must experience ▶ desti-
300,000 km2 (115,831 mi2). Its primary exports nation in Asia.”
include semiconductors and electronic products, Tourism and ▶ hospitality education began
transport equipment, garments, copper and petro- more than three decades ago and has grown in
leum products, coconut oil, and fruits. Its major types, levels, and number of programs from
trading partners include the ▶ United States, mainly vocational and technical courses to under- P
▶ Japan, ▶ China, ▶ Singapore, South Korea, graduate and graduate levels with a strong man-
the ▶ Netherlands, Hong Kong, ▶ Germany, Tai- agement orientation and general education base.
wan, and ▶ Thailand (World Bank 2013). However, major human resources concerns and
For more than three decades, the country has constraints (readiness of graduates, scarcity of
utilized tourism as a tool for economic growth and qualified and competent managers, etc.) still ham-
development (DOT 2012a). Known for its rich per tourism development in the country. The pros-
biodiversity, scenic land and seascapes, and pects for future research are in the areas of the
diverse cultural heritage, the Philippines offers a country’s tourism competitiveness, destination
wide array of attractions, and its major markets are image, destination management focused on sus-
South Korea, the United States, and Japan (DOT tainability, and ▶ impact evaluation.
2012a). On the domestic front, the past decade has
experienced low growth, but there has been steady See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ cultural tourism,
increase of international arrivals for most of the ▶ developing country, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ sustain-
1990s. The annual average inbound growth rate able tourism.
720 Philippines
Philippines,
Figure 1 Map of the
Philippines
Photography 721
References tourists themselves are not conscious of the

choices they make. Rather than using text alone,
DOT 2012a National Tourism Development Plan: 2012- the addition of photographs can evoke deeper
2016. Manila: Department of Tourism.
elements of the human psyche and play a mean-
DOT 2012b Profile of Visitors to the Philippines from
Selected Markets. Manila: Department of Tourism. ingful role in constructing tourism memories.
World Bank 2013 Philippine Economic Update: Acceler- However, scholars who have used researcher-
ating Reforms to Meet the Jobs Challenge www. generated photos have admitted that they might
worldbank.org/content/dam/Worldbank/document/EAP/
have missed some important findings. Instead,
Philippines/Philippine_Economic_Update_May2013.pdf
(September 30). they advocate that photos used in elicitation inter-
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2013: views should be taken or owned by the respon-
Philippines. London: World Travel and Tourism dents themselves in order to give them control to
Council.
talk about issues most relevant to their lives. One
of the more contemporary research methods that
have employed respondent-generated photo-
graphs is the metaphor elicitation technique
Photography (Zaltman and Higie 1993). This was first used in
the rural areas of ▶ Nepal where participants were
Catheryn Khoo-Lattimore given cameras and asked to take photographs of
Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel their everyday lives. The most striking observa-
Management, Griffith University, Nathan, tion here was that most pictures did not show the
Australia feet of the subjects.
During the interviews, it was discovered that
the subjects did not aim the cameras incorrectly;
Considering how ▶ destination experiences are rather, being barefoot was a sign of poverty in
almost always marketed through attractive pic- their ▶ culture, and as a result people chose to
tures, photography then becomes a logical addi- hide their bare feet in the pictures. This discovery
tion to the researcher’s toolbox. In addition, of a “hidden meaning” in photographs points to
contemporary tourism represents an amalgam of the potential ▶ power of integrating photography
culturally, socially, and psychologically derived with psychological theories and calls for tourism
mental images portrayed by photographs, which scholars who are attempting to understand ▶ tour- P
further strengthens the rationale for the use of ist behavior to avail themselves of the choices and
photography within its studies. ▶ travel patterns to do so (Khoo-Lattimore and
The reliability and validity of photography as a Prideaux 2013). ▶ Future research could employ
data collection method was recognized in a the metaphor elicitation technique with photo-
▶ comparative study on photo elicitation inter- graphs to explore ▶ tourist decisionmaking and
views and nonphotographic interviews to explore choice. The ▶ ethics behind using researcher-
the efficiencies of each method (Collier 1957). generated photographs versus respondents’ own
The earliest work on photography’s role in tour- should also be debated.
ism is discussed by Chalfen (1979). Many studies
following these two lead publications have shown
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ decision support system,
how photographs act as a springboard for less
▶ qualitative research.
articulate respondents to begin their story and
facilitate discussions. They also draw out a differ-
ent kind of insight rather than more information.
References
This is because photographs evoke certain intan-
gible constructs that are otherwise difficult to Chalfen, R. 1979 Photography’s Role in Tourism: Some
articulate. This inability to express inner feelings Unexplored Relationships. Annals of Tourism
is sometimes attributed to unawareness, since Research 6:435-447.
722 Pilgrimage tourism
Collier, J. 1957 Photography in Anthropology: A Report journey.” But many scholars and practitioners
on Two Experiments. American Anthropologist insist on these divisions, arguing that pilgrimage
59:843-859
Khoo-Lattimore, C., and B. Prideaux 2013 ZMET: is more serious, meaningful, and transformative
A Psychological Approach to Understanding than the leisure-time pursuit of sun, surf, sex, and
Unsustainable Tourism Mobility. Journal of Sustain- souvenirs that marks typical tourism imaginaries.
able Tourism 21:1036-1048.
Zaltman, G., and R. Higie 1993 Seeing the Voice of the
Customer: The Zaltman Metaphor Elicitation Tech-
nique. Boston: Marketing Science Institute. Construction of pilgrimage sites
Eliade (1959) considered pilgrimage sites to be

axes mundi, irruptions of the sacred where humans
recapture cosmological harmony amidst the
Pilgrimage tourism chaos of profane existence. Often geographically
out-of-the-way, sacred centers were seen as
Michael A. Di Giovine1 and Jas’ Elsner2 peripheral to the institutional ▶ power structures
1
Department of Anthropology and Sociology, of quotidian life and separate from the social
West Chester University of Pennsylvania, West world. Pilgrimage shrines are built around
Chester, USA tombs of holy people (Santiago de Compostela,
2
Corpus Christi College, Oxford University, Sufi tombs in ▶ Mali), historical sites associated
Oxford, UK with saints or prophets (Mecca and Medina,
Bethlehem, and Jerusalem), places of apparition
(Lourdes, Medjugorje), and environmental for-
Pilgrimage is an ancient form of mobility and a mations or built structures that suggest divine
fundamental precursor to modern tourism. Tradi- interaction on earth (Buddha’s footprints in
tionally, it applies to journeys with a religious Southeast Asia, the Dome of the Rock, the Vir-
purpose, but it can also refer to secular ▶ travel gin’s houses in Loreto and Walsingham) or to
with particular importance for the pilgrim contain effigies of deities who manifest them-
(Morinis 1992). Espousing a distinctive ritual selves to pilgrims. The last is especially impor-
structure, pilgrimage is often considered to be tant in animistic (Shinto) and polytheistic (Hindu,
personally and collectively transformative. Taoist) societies, and the object of pilgrimage in
Though individually experienced, pilgrimage is these cultures is often to see and be seen by the
a social process developed iteratively over time; deity (Sanskrit, darshan; ancient Greek,
pilgrims walk in the footsteps of Others. In this derkomai; Japanese, kanko).
sense, pilgrimage implies a ritualized, hyper- Like tourism destinations, pilgrimage sites are
meaningful journey – both inward and created through a synergy of person-place marker,
outward – to a person’s or group’s sacred center, where “marker” constitutes a wide array of mate-
set apart from everyday life, and built on rich rial culture that creates distinctive imaginaries
mythological representations and symbolic about the site. Texts are especially important in
markers. Abrahamic traditions: The Koran enjoins the
In tourism and religious studies, pilgrimage ▶ hajj (to Mecca) as obligatory for all able-bodied
often serves as an oppositional category, defined Muslims. The Bible and the circulation of pilgrim
against other practices of journeying or devotion narratives provided the impetus for pilgrimage to
through sets of binaries, such as sacred/profane, the Holy Land in the Middle Ages, while hagiog-
popular/normative religion, and communitas/con- raphies (saints’ biographies) and relics promised
testation. Some have argued that the two forms are access to God through saints’ tombs in ▶ Europe
closely related, with tourism considered a “sacred (Coleman and Elsner 1997, 2003). The great texts
Pilgrimage tourism 723
of South Asia marked places associated with the (1978) argued that pilgrimage constitutes a form
lives of Rama, Krishna, Buddha, and others. As of “anti-structure” that temporarily creates
Hindu epics, like the Mahabharata and Ramayana, communitas (a commonality among pilgrims),
spread into Southeast and East Asia, new sites which exists beyond the social structures of daily
were associated with the landforms in these life – including institutionalized religion. Largely
myths. For instance, Mount Meru, the axis circumventing institutions that otherwise mediate
mundi in one Hindu creation myth, was associated between devotees and the divine, pilgrimage
with the Himalayas and with Mt. Phousi in promises direct and unmediated experience of
▶ Laos, while the Khmers constructed Angkor the holy – often the medico-miraculous allevia-
Wat as a metonym of the mountain. tion of bodily, spiritual, or psychological suffer-
Many narratives (oral and written) focus on ing. Elaborate practices of penance and sacrifice
healing at shrines. Pilgrims often leave supplica- may help obtain merit with the deity (in this life or
tions to deities or saints for miraculous interven- the next) or tie the deity into an obligation to assist
tions, as well as scrolls, inscriptions, and other the devotee.
ex-votos listing their names, vows, or monetary Against the Turners, Eade and Sallnow (1991
donations to the god in the expectation or receipt [2000]) pointed out that shrines are constructed
of a miracle. Varieties of material culture, notably through explicit and often public contestation
much impressive and creative religious art and between pilgrims and authorities or between
architecture, lend depth to pilgrimage centers, rival devotional groups. Thus, religious hierar-
constructing their value and meaning. chies tend either to deter the faithful from pilgrim-
Pilgrims carry back souvenirs, relics, religious age or to co-opt its charisma through ritualized
objects, holy water, pieces of sacred ground, and authentication processes. Sometimes reactionary
photographs, which circulate through social net- groups may seek to eradicate a site, as when the
works and embody their experiences with the Sunni-led Islamic State destroyed Iraqi Shiite,
sacred; devotees sometimes claim they help Yazidi, and Christian shrines in 2014. To effec-
them “pray better.” Many such objects are per- tively manage and facilitate pilgrimage, therefore,
ceived to possess miraculous or sacred properties tourism professionals must appreciate the multi-
because of their sacred provenance. Pilgrims may plicity of heightened meanings, deep-yet-
touch sacred objects to souvenirs purchased at the conflicting ideologies, and modes of interaction
site or to photographs of family members brought surrounding pilgrimage sites, which may conflict P
from home, to capture some of the “contagious with the socioeconomic and political norms
magic” contained within. Mundane souvenirs, espoused by the tourism industry and other out-
such as statuettes, plaques, and rosaries may side forces.
undergo elaborate rites of inventio, whereby a
priest blesses them, transforming them into sacred See also ▶ Hajj, ▶ religion, ▶ ritual, ▶ sacred
relics. These are gifted to family, friends, prayer journey.
groups, churches and temples, and those in need
of miraculous intervention who were not able to
make the journey (Di Giovine 2012).
References
Popular vs. normative religion
Coleman, S., and J. Elsner 1997 Pilgrimage: Past and
Present in the World Religions. Cambridge: Harvard
Pilgrimage is often considered an act of “popular
University Press.
religiosity” in opposition to the norms of Coleman, S., and J. Elsner 2003 Pilgrim Voices. Oxford:
“authorized” religion. Victor and Edith Turner Berghahn.
724 Place attachment
Di Giovine, M. 2012 Padre Pio for Sale: Souvenirs, Relics, A tourist develops attachment to a place if the
or Identity Markers? International Journal of Tourism destination becomes a memorable experience, and
Anthropology 2:108-127.
Eade, J., and M. Sallnow 1991[2000] Contesting the his personality matches the identity of the place.
Sacred: The Anthropology of Christian Pilgrimage. One of the scales used to measure the level of
Urbana: University of Illinois Press. place attachment takes into account destination
Eliade, M. 1959 The Sacred and the Profane: The Nature of attractiveness, past experiences, satisfaction with
Religion. New York: Harcourt.
Morinis, A. 1992 Sacred Journeys: The Anthropology of the destination, ▶ travel to related places as part of
Pilgrimage. Santa Barbara: Praeger. family ▶ tradition, familiarity with the place, and
Turner, V., and E. Turner 1978 Image and Pilgrimage in tourist’s age upon his or her first visit to the
Christian Culture. New York: Columbia University destination (Lee 2001). Thus, the place becomes
Press.
a stimulus for the tourist, and the experience rep-
resents the medium (Orth et al. 2012) where the
tourist’s attachment toward the place is being
created.
Practically, place attachment represents quality
Place attachment of the location to stimulate the tourist’s ▶ senses
through certain characteristics that see it in a dif-
Aurelia-Felicia Stăncioiu and ferent position from other places (Lynch 1960),
Mihail-Cristian Dit‚oiu thus creating unique and powerful associations,
The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, emotions, and memories supported by the tour-
Bucharest, Romania ist’s sensorial experiences on the spot (visual,
auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile).
▶ Future research should aim to design a mea-
Place attachment stands for all positive feelings surement scale for levels of place attachment,
developed by the ▶ tourist in connection to a which unifies both the resident’s and the tourist’s
specific location. Taking into account that this perspectives. It is also essential to study the influ-
calls for a holistic concept, which practically ence of place attachment on tourists’ perceptions
includes the entire economic activity, and place- of experience.
related experiences (▶ UNWTO and ETC 2009),
place attachment could also be defined from the See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ destination branding,
residents’ point of view. Thus, it is a psychologi- ▶ experience, ▶ loyalty, ▶ satisfaction.
cal and social construction that refers to a tight
connection between resident and place, expressed
through the behavior of the former. In this regard, References
there are other notions as well to conceptualize the
resident-place connection such as sense of place, George, B., and B. George 2004 Past Visit and the Inten-
place ▶ identity, place dependence, and commu- tion to Revisit a Destination: Place Attachment as the
Mediator and Novelty Seeking as the Moderator. Jour-
nity attachment.
nal of Tourism Studies 15(2):51-66.
Research on place attachment has been Lee, C. 2001 Predicting Tourist Attachment to Destina-
conducted over the years in fields such as tourism, tions. Annals of Tourism Research 28:229-232.
▶ marketing and ▶ management, ▶ history, geog- Lynch, K. 1960 The Image of the City. Cambridge: MIT
Press.
raphy, and ▶ religion. For researchers in tourism, Orth, U., A. Stöckl, R. Veale, J. Brouard, A. Cavicchi,
the concept is a variable that explains the reitera- M. Faraoni, M. Larreina, B. Lecat, J. Olsen,
tion of visits to a certain ▶ destination (George C. Rodriguez-Santos, C. Santini, and D. Wilson 2012
and George 2004). There are also connections Using Attribution Theory to Explain Tourists’ Attach-
ments to Place-based Brands. Journal of Business
among place attachment and ▶ recreation Research 65:1321-1327.
demand, ▶ landscape and urban ▶ planning, UNWTO and ETC 2009 Handbook on Tourism Destina-
experience, satisfaction, and ▶ loyalty. tion Branding. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Planning 725
emphasis on the physical planning of destinations

Planning in the earliest planning works and not on product
development or marketing.
Bihu Wu1 and Alastair M. Morrison2 The next influence on tourism planning was
1
College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, from academics and professional experts. These
Peking University, Beijing, China were mainly geographers and economists who
2
College of Health and Human Sciences, Purdue had developed a special interest in tourism.
University, West Lafayette, IN, USA Gunn’s (1979) Tourism Planning was a “water-
shed” text for the topic. Inskeep (1981, 1994)
made a significant contribution with his books
Tourism as an activity in a ▶ destination is created on national and regional planning. Another
through the existence of unique attractions and important contribution was Wu’s (2001) Regional
events. These may include beaches, natural scen- Tourism Planning Principles covering the plan-
ery, parks, historical buildings and landmarks, ning experiences in ▶ China.
unique cultural characteristics, one of a kind Subsequently, management and marketing
local events and festivals, and outdoor sports and professionals influenced tourism planning, draw-
▶ recreation activities. If a destination area wants ing especially from corporate strategic manage-
to maintain tourism as a long-term economic ment and planning. From the classic texts on
activity, it must have planning to preserve and strategic management came the concepts of
enhance the special features that make it different SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
from all other destinations. threats) analysis and terms such as mission,
Tourism planning is a “strategic activity com- vision, core values, goals, strategies, and critical
prising a number of stages that lead to the deter- success factors. The focus was on defining a step-
mination of a course of action to meet by-step process and in emphasizing that strategic
predetermined tourism goals. Tourism planning planning was a cycle to be repeated many times.
is concerned with the future; is devoted to acquir- Here, there was a priority on researching, analyz-
ing knowledge and identifying appropriate ing, and projecting external environments with the
courses of action; and is about anticipating procedure of environmental scanning (Fahey and
change, developing a strategic vision and facili- King 1977). More people with business manage-
tating decisionmaking” (Dredge and Jenkins ment backgrounds began working for tourism P
2007: 467). Tourism planning has five basic pur- organizations, as they gradually moved away
poses: identifying alternative approaches, from just public sector governance into public-
adapting to the unexpected, maintaining unique- private partnerships. Marketing, public relations,
ness, creating the desirable, and avoiding the and sales professionals added their distinct
undesirable (Mill and Morrison 2012). imprints on planning, especially in putting more
emphasis on market and competitive analysis,
rather than simply analyzing the destination’s
History of tourism planning physical resources.
The fourth influence on tourism planning was
Tourism planning has existed as a professional from community planners and nonprofit organi-
field for approximately 50 years. It started in zations. Here, the main focus was on the process
countries such as ▶ Ireland and ▶ France where of how to get all stakeholders involved in
there was a strong belief in community long-term discussing and defining future directions. Inclu-
planning and especially in a regional context and siveness and “getting buy-in” from all stake-
rural areas. These earliest plans were done by holders were key features of these planning
government agencies and prepared by profes- processes. The visioning process evolved as an
sionals with a background in regional and urban interactive procedure allowing many to contribute
planning rather than tourism. There was an to strategic planning. In developing countries,
726 Planning
non-governmental organizations play a key role in as an economic sector. Additionally, in some

tourism planning processes. This influence has places there is a belief that the private sector can
brought a more active role of local residents as handle its own planning, and there is no need for
individuals or as groups. Since the early 1980s, others to get involved. A third argument against
the ▶ sustainable tourism “movement” has doing long-term planning is that it costs too much
supported the critical need to have resident and time and money. A fourth reason may simply be
community inputs. the perceived complexity of coordinating plan-
Recently, consumers have had a significant ning with so many government agencies, private
influence on tourism planning. For example, sector and nonprofit organizations, and individ-
their demands for greater transparency of the gov- uals involved.
ernments and other policy-/decision-makers have There is a general agreement that long-term
led to plans being publicly available, rather than tourism planning should be conducted in several
being in the hands of the selected few. Consumer stages and that it should use a participatory pro-
use of the internet and social media channels has cess including community involvement (Dredge
meant there is more open discussion of tourism and Jenkins 2007; Hall 2008; Mason 2008; Mill
planning processes and resulting documents. and Morrison 2012; Morrison 2013). The defini-
Additionally, the need to incorporate tourists’ tion states that it comprises of “a number of
opinions, perceptions, and expectations through stages” but academic authors differ on the labeling
primary research has become more recognized as and ordering of these stages.
another necessary input. Today, tourism planning Generally, however, there is a consensus on the
is more comprehensive and integrated than when following ten stages of tourism planning: one,
it was first introduced in the 1960s. It has become planning process initiation to define and identify
more inclusive, with potentially all stakeholders the need for a tourism plan and specific issues and
having the opportunity to influence the planning problems to be addressed (Hall 2008; Mason
process and the type of tourism to be preferred in 2008); two, articulation of planning purposes to
the future. state the specific outcomes desired from the tour-
ism plan and the reasons for doing the planning
(Hall 2008); three, background research and stra-
Stages of long-term tourism planning tegic analysis to gather secondary and primary
research data to support the plan (Hall 2008;
Every destination needs to have long-term plans, Mason 2008; Mill and Morrison 2012); four,
but few do. Essential as they might be, there is defining tourism vision, goals, and objectives
often a need to justify spending time and money through synthesizing the research to produce a
on a long-term planning process. A well- destination vision and tourism goals (long-term)
developed plan offers clear future directions and objectives (short-term) (Hall 2008; Mill and
(e.g., focus attention on tourism), has a clear Morrison 2012); five, preparing the interim tour-
vision and goals (e.g., set targets to be achieved ism plan through drafting an initial plan for con-
within specific time frames), identifies opportuni- sideration by all stakeholders (Hall 2008; Mason
ties (e.g., pinpoint specific strategies and develop- 2008; Mill and Morrison 2012); six, reviewing the
ment opportunities that enhance a destination), draft plan and preparing the final plan through
and is based on widespread participation and var- incorporating comments, suggestions, and other
ied inputs (e.g., through the promotion of shared inputs from stakeholders (Mason 2008); seven,
ownership of a plan). assembling and communicating tourism planning
Despite the many obvious benefits, there still documents by designing online and offline publi-
remain many destinations that have not initiated cations and communications in several versions
long-term tourism planning. Probably the most (e.g., executive summary, full plan report); eight,
important reason for this inaction is that the des- implementing the tourism plan by carrying out the
tination has not attached a high priority to tourism major projects and initiatives recommended in the
Planning 727
plan (Hall 2008; Mason 2008; Mill and Morrison tourism. Tourism plans based on specific issues
2012); nine, monitoring and evaluating the tour- or sectors are the third type. Notably, these are
ism plan through tracking progress in plans for specific tourism issues such as work-
implementing the plan and measuring the level force development or safety and security, and for
of success in achieving the destination vision specific sectors such as the cruise industry, or
and tourism goals and objectives (Hall 2008; domestic and ▶ international tourism of a country
Mason 2008; Mill and Morrison 2012), and or region.
through assessing the effectiveness of the plan The term tourism masterplan is used quite fre-
(Morrison 2013); and, ten, initiating the next quently but seldom defined. It is helpful to think
stage of tourism planning, which is to be based of this as a comprehensive tourism plan, implying
upon the results and success of the previous that all parts of tourism and all related issues are
round, and to commence another round of tourism covered within the masterplan. Another usual
planning. characteristic of tourism masterplans is that they
cover longer periods (usually up to 20 years) than
other plans. Some countries such as China have
Types of tourism planning more formal definitions of tourism masterplans as
defined by The Tourism Law of the People’s
There are different types of tourism plans Republic of China, but generally it is the broad
according to geographic scopes and specific pur- scope of tourism masterplans that separates them
poses. Dredge and Jenkins (2007), for example, from other types of plans.
define tourism plans by geographic levels: The coverage of tourism plans is usually exten-
national, regional, and local (sometimes called sive, so multidisciplinary teams of experts and
destination plans). In addition, there are three scholars are required to conduct them. The plan-
other types of tourism plans that serve specific ning team must refer to theories, concepts, princi-
goals or purposes. For instance, sustainable or ples, and approaches from many disciplines.
▶ responsible tourism plans focus on sustainable Referring to regional tourism planning, Wu
development principles as applied to specific (2001) notes the need to draw from theories of
geographic areas. The emphasis is on the long- geography, history, anthropology, regional sci-
term sustainability of natural, social, heritage, ence, economics, and landscape ecology. Many
and cultural resources (Morrison 2013). These tourism plans also need environmental scientists, P
types of plans are especially important in environ- marketing researchers and practitioners, commu-
mentally and culturally sensitive destinations nity development scholars, finance experts, and
such as protected lands, protected marine others with specific knowledge and skills as dic-
areas, and indigenous tourism areas (Dredge and tated by the specific planning requirements.
Jenkins 2007).
Spatial masterplan for tourism development is
another type. These physically oriented tourism The future of tourism planning
plans are for destinations with a particular focus
on the proposed functions of specific geographic With a growing demand for ▶ travel and tourism
areas within the destination. Broadly, this can be generated by urbanization and globalization in the
called “tourism zoning,” and the work is done by next decades, especially from BRICS-IN coun-
landscape architects, architects, urban planners, tries (▶ Brazil, ▶ Russia, ▶ India, China,
geographers, and others with physical planning ▶ South Africa, and ▶ Indonesia), origin-
expertise and experience (Morrison 2013; Wu destination models formed in the last 50 years
2001). Spatial structure plans of tourism develop- will be transformed, and new patterns of long-
ment are more popular in developing countries haul travel will replace the conventional ones.
because these regions need more facility and Policies, regulations, products, marketing frame-
infrastructure investment and construction for works, and ▶ visitor management styles will, as a
728 Play
result, call for more investigations by tourism

planners. Play
Developed countries are challenged by declin-
ing industrialized areas and now need to renovate Lynn A. Barnett1 and Augustus W. Hallmon2
1
and redevelop downtowns and traditional attrac- Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism,
tions. Tourism planners must devote greater atten- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
tion to integrating creative industry development, Champaign, IL, USA
2
gentrification, industrial heritage tourism projects, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
▶ shopping tourism, and events and festivals that Champaign, IL, USA
help rejuvenate these areas.
Planning for destination development and mar-
keting faces many new challenges worldwide. Play is a ubiquitous human activity which encom-
The advances in information and communication passes a vast realm of behavioral forms. Despite
technologies, especially with smartphones, social this diversity, there is remarkable consistency in
media, and location-based service innovation and the elements that are shared by these behaviors.
commercialization, and the new tourist mobility There is general agreement that play can be
paradigm, have led to major changes in destina- defined as behavior that is intrinsically motivated
tion choices and consumer behavior. with the pleasure that accompanies it derived from
engagement in the activity itself. Play is delin-
See also ▶ Community development, ▶ devel- eated from other human behaviors by the height-
opment, ▶ policy and policymaking, ened perception of choice, ▶ attention to means
▶ sustainability. rather than ends, and being self- rather than other-
determined (Ryan and Deci 2000).
Thus, the relationship between play and tour-
ism is an easy one to make because of their com-
References mon characteristics (Cohen 1985). For example,
▶ leisure tourism generally relates to the type of
Dredge, D., and J. Jenkins. 2007 Tourism Planning and journey in which the primary motivation of the
Policy. Milton: Wiley. traveler is to seek a stress-free experience, often
Fahey, L., and W. King. 1977 Environmental Scanning for
referenced as an ▶ escape from the stressors
Corporate Planning. Business Horizons 20(4):61-71.
Gunn, C. 1979 Tourism Planning. New York: Crane embedded in the individual’s daily life. ▶ Family
Russak. tourism, where individuals seek to visit family
Hall, C. 2008 Tourism Planning: Policies, Processes and members or friends, represents a major type of
Relationships. Harlow: Pearson Education.
leisure travel, and the enjoyment experienced
Inskeep, E. 1981 Tourism Planning: An Integrated and
Sustainable Development Approach. New York: Wiley. from these reconnections represents basic human
Inskeep, E. 1994 National and Regional Tourism Planning: desire for a sense of relatedness and belonging
Methodologies and Case Studies. Madrid: World Tour- that can be explained through current theories of
ism Organization.
enjoyment and intrinsic motivation (Ryan and
Mason, P. 2008 Tourism Impacts, Planning and Manage-
ment. London: Taylor & Francis. Deci 2000). Many individuals actively participate
Mill, R., and A. Morrison 2012 The Tourism System. in sport tourism, in which the tourist’s primary
Dubuque: Kendall Hunt. purpose is to visit venues in order to view or
Morrison, A. 2013 Marketing and Managing Tourism
Destinations. London: Routledge.
participate in a sporting event or competition for
Wu, B. 2001 Regional Tourism Planning Principles. the enjoyment of sharing an athletic experience
Beijing: China Travel and Tourism Press. with other attendees and thereby becoming a
Pleasure tourism 729
“part” of the athletic competition. Adventure tour-

ists are motivated by the ▶ quest for engaging in a Pleasure tourism
high-risk and often physically and mentally
exerting exploit. In ▶ adventure tourism, individ- Salvatore Bimonte
uals are typically motivated by the need for Department of Economics and Statistics,
▶ novelty and/or stimulation – to experience a University of Siena, Siena, Italy
high level of arousal through participating in
such precarious and unpredictable experiences.
The notion of arousal seeking as both an anteced- Pleasure is defined as a feeling of happiness, sat-
ent and theoretical explanation of play is central in isfaction, or enjoyment. Therefore, the pursuit of
the theoretical literature about why individuals such feelings through travel is referred to as plea-
seek and derive enjoyment and exhilaration from sure tourism. According to Currie (1997), “tour-
participation in adventurous tourist activities ism” means pleasure travel, and according to the
(Apter 1987). UNWTO (2007), pleasure represents the main
In summary, many ▶ tourist activities can be purpose of tourism.
considered to be a subset of the vast arena of play In the research literature, pleasure tourism is
behaviors, in which humans choose to engage normally defined in opposition to business tour-
predominantly for the inherent pleasure derived ism. The classification is partly driven by statisti-
from their involvement in the ▶ activity. The cal measurement conventions that mainly focus
range of pleasurable experiences – from cathartic on the purpose of a trip rather than on its motiva-
displacement to replenishing relaxation to height- tions. The UNWTO (2007) classifies tourism into
ened exhilaration – readily exemplifies the moti- two broad categories: personal and business/pro-
vations and outcomes for much of play and tourist fessional purposes. The former can be broken
behaviors. Significant advances could be gained down into subcategories such as holidays, leisure,
by the cross-fertilization of theories and research and recreation; visiting friends and relatives; edu-
in the play and tourism literatures. With this inte- cation and training; health and medical care; reli-
gration, it is likely that the natural synergies that gion and pilgrimages; shopping; and other
exist between play and tourism could be energized pursuits.
and utilized to make significant contributions to The previous classifications do not distinguish
the development of theory and implications that between pleasure and non-pleasure tourism. In the P
can be applied to practice. strictest sense, any typology of tourists implies
some degree of pleasure seeking. Therefore, plea-
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ motivation, sure per se may not be the distinguishing factor.
▶ multidisciplinarity, ▶ psychology, ▶ theory. Whether or not it is pleasure tourism depends on
the degree of freedom in which pleasure may be
pursued.
References Smith (1989) defines tourists as a temporarily
leisured person who voluntarily visits a place
Apter, M. 1987 Reversal Theory: The Dynamics of Moti- away from home for the purposes of experiencing
vation, Emotion and Personality. Oxford: Oneworld. a change. Since this is felt as desirable, its experi-
Cohen, E. 1985 Tourism as Play. Religion 15:291-304. ence or anticipation produces pleasure. For plea-
Ryan, R., and E. Deci 2000 Self-determination Theory
and the Facilitation of Intrinsic Motivation, Social
sure tourism to occur, some basic conditions are
Development, and Wellbeing. American Psychologist needed, including a personal need to experience a
55:68-78. change by means of going on a trip, voluntariness
730 Poland
of the choice, as well as leisure time and activities

that are free from commitments. Nonetheless, this Poland
does not mean that other forms of tourism
(business, study, health) are unpleasant; it only Matylda Awedyk
means that in a restricted environment, one tries Department of Geography of Tourism and
to do the best under certain constraints and restric- Landscape, E. Piasecki University School of
tions (constrained maximization). In the case of Physical Education in Poznań, Poznań, Poland
pleasure tourism, the organization of the visit is
unconstrained. Therefore, with respect to the
aforementioned conditions, one could expect Poland is located in Central Europe, bordering
higher reward from the tourism experience. with ▶ Germany, ▶ Czech Republic, ▶ Slovakia,
Whether, to what extent, and under which con- ▶ Ukraine, ▶ Belarus, Baltic Sea, Kaliningrad,
ditions this actually occurs will depend on many and ▶ Lithuania (Figure 1). The country covers
factors such as expectations, experience, and cog- an area of 313,000 km2 (120,726 mi2) and has a
nitive dissonance, which are not necessarily population of over 38.5 million (Central Statisti-
related to previous categorizations. Understand- cal Office 2013). It is a unitary state made up of
ing these aspects and relationships, as well as the 16 voivodeships, based on the country’s historic
source of pleasure, is the aim of a recent line of regions.
investigation regarding tourism and life satisfac- The year 1873 is considered the starting date of
tion (Bimonte and Faralla 2012, 2013). Further- contemporary Polish tourism. Poland as a ▶ des-
more, finding out whether tourism contributes to tination has been frequented by tourists after its
personal and societal wellbeing is the main chal- political transformation in 1989 and accession to
lenge that its research has to take on in the near the European Union in 2004. Kraków, Wrocław,
future. and its capital Warsaw are regarded as the most
attractive urban destinations. Gdańsk, Poznań,
Lublin, and Toruń are also gaining in popularity.
See also ▶ Business tourism, ▶ health tourism, The Auschwitz German concentration camp,
▶ leisure, ▶ motivation, ▶ recreation. located near Oświęcim, is a historic site and
place of Holocaust pilgrimage. Areas of natural
beauty and ▶ recreation include Baltic Sea coast,
References Masurian Lake District, Białowieża Forest, and
Karkonosze, Tatra, Pieniny and Bieszczady
Bimonte, S., and V. Faralla 2012 Tourist Types and Hap-
piness: A Comparative Study in Maremma, Italy.
Mountains.
Annals of Tourism Research 39:1929-1950. In 2010, tourism accounted for 5.3 % of GDP,
Bimonte, S., and V. Faralla 2013 Happiness and Outdoor corresponding to 58.3 million international
Vacations: Appreciative versus Consumptive Tourists. arrivals. This is comparable with the recent peak
Journal of Travel Research, DOI: 10.1177/
0047287513513171.
of 66.2 million recorded in 2007. Germany is the
Currie, R. 1997 A Pleasure Tourism Behaviors Frame- largest source market, accounting for 36 % of
work. Annals of Tourism Research 24:884-897. arrivals. International receipts totaled US$9.5 bil-
Smith, V. 1989 Host and Guest: The Anthropology of lion in 2010 and contributed to 4.9 % of total
Tourism. Philadelphia: The University of Pennsylvania
Press.
Polish export earnings (UNWTO 2013). In the
UNWTO 2007 International Recommendations on Tour- same year, the ▶ accommodation and catering
ism Statistics. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. sectors employed 241,000 people (OECD 2012).
Poland 731
Poland, Figure 1 Map of

15 18 21 24
Poland
Bornholm Baltic Sea LITH.
(DEN.)
Gdynia RUS.
Kolobrzeg
Gdańsk
54 54
near Raczki
Swinoujście
Elbląskie
Szczecin Bialystok
Bydgoszcz
Vis
Poznań tul
a
WARSAW BELA.
GER.
O Łodź
de
Radom
r
Lublin
Wrocław
51 51
Częstochowa
Gliwice
Katowice Rzeszow
Krakow
CZECH REP. UKR.
0 50 100 km
0 50 100 mi Rysy
15 18
SLOVAKIA 21
AUS.
The European countries with the highest growth E. Piasecki University School of Physical Educa-
in the number of guests staying in the accommo- tion in Poznań. In 2012, 66 out of the 445 public P
dation sector in 2012 included ▶ Ireland, ▶ Bela- and private universities were offering tourism
rus, ▶ Russia, ▶ Ukraine, ▶ Norway, ▶ Greece, ▶ education.
▶ Latvia, ▶ Switzerland, ▶ Portugal, and ▶ Tur- Main assumptions concerning the future
key. Among non-European countries the highest ▶ development of tourism are presented in the
growth was from ▶ Brazil, ▶ India, the ▶ United “Marketing Strategy for Poland in Tourism Sector
States, and ▶ Australia (Institute of Tourism from 2012 to 2020” and “Directions for Tourism
2013). Development until 2015,” which identify urban
Political transformation has brought significant and ▶ cultural tourism as priority products for
changes in tourism. The Polish Tourism Organi- development. These strategy documents seek to
zation, established in 1999 and with 17 interna- foster and strengthen interest in Poland as an
tional offices, has expanded its activities at attractive destination for ▶ business tourism
regional and local levels. The first department of (Ministry of Sport and Tourism 2008). The objec-
tourism and recreation was founded in 1974 at the tives will be supported by research toward the
732 Polar tourism
development of infrastructure, integrated prod- activities. Specifically in the Arctic, cultural and
ucts, and human resources to strengthen the indigenous tourism activities have become more
growth of different types of tourism. popular.
Polar tourism is seasonal, occurring mainly in
the short summer seasons. Well-off and older peo-
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ heritage, ple in search of adventure allied with education
▶ inbound tourism, ▶ urban tourism. are generally regarded as the typical polar ▶ tour-
ist, with the majority from North America,
▶ Europe, and Australasia. Tourist numbers are
References hard to determine in the Arctic (Johnston 2011),
but figures for Antarctica estimated 34,000 tour-
Central Statistical Office 2013 Concise Statistical ists in the 2012–2013 season.
Yearbook of Poland. Warsaw: Central Statistical Office.
The ▶ governance of polar tourism is charac-
Institute of Tourism 2013 Tourism Statistics. Warsaw:
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management. terized by a multilayered and complex ▶ system,
Ministry of Sport and Tourism 2008 Directions for Tour- including formal and informal transregional
ism Development until 2015. Warsaw: Ministry of and regional regulations by states in the Arctic
Sport and Tourism.
for their sovereign territory and the various
OECD 2012 Tourism and Policies. Paris: Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development. regulatory instruments associated with the Ant-
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World arctic Treaty System (Haase et al. 2009). Of
Tourism Organization. importance are also informal industry self-
regulation bodies such as the Association of
Arctic Expedition Cruise Operators and the Inter-
national Association of Antarctica ▶ Tour
Operators, indirect regulation of ship-based
Polar tourism activities through the International Maritime
Organization, as well as local jurisdictions at the
Emma J. Stewart1 and Daniela Liggett2 regional and community level in the Arctic or at
1
Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, scientific stations in the Antarctic (Bastmeijer
Lincoln University, Lincoln, New Zealand 2003).
2
University of Canterbury, Christchurch, Polar tourism has to date received significant
New Zealand scholarly ▶ attention through self-organized
research groups such as the International Polar
Tourism Research Network, and substantial pro-
Polar tourism refers to visits, excluding those for gress has been made in understanding polar tour-
scientific research or support, to the ▶ Arctic ism. ▶ Future ▶ management and research
(typically comprised of the states, water bodies, challenges include how visitors value the polar
and islands north of the tree-line) or the ▶ Ant- regions; how market dynamics (the rise of the
arctic (often described as the continent itself, ice Asian market) and new destinations (in Arctic
shelves, water, and islands south of the Antarctic ▶ Russia) influence polar tourism; how regulation
Convergence). The geographic remoteness asso- and management will adapt under rapidly chang-
ciated with unique biota, landscapes, and climate ing global environmental, political, and economic
forms the appeal of the polar regions. The major- conditions; and how polar tourism may be posi-
ity of polar tourists fly to gateway ports and then tioned as a result of peak oil and ▶ climate change
board relatively small ice-strengthened expedition (M€uller et al. 2013).
cruise vessels (Stewart et al. 2005). Recently,
polar tourism has diversified to include larger
vessels (not ice-strengthened) as well as yachts See also ▶ Arctic tourism, ▶ antarctic tourism,
and a greater range of land-based adventure ▶ climate change, ▶ sustainable tourism.
Policy and policymaking 733
References methodology and a collaborative approach

(Fayos-Solà and Alvarez 2014). The ▶ model
Bastmeijer, K. 2003 Tourism in Antarctica: Increasing developed by Fayos-Solà et al. (2003) has been
Diversity and the Legal Criteria for Authorization.
used extensively by the World Tourism Organi-
New Zealand Journal of International Law 7:85-118.
Haase, D., M. Lamers, and B. Amelung 2009 Heading into zation, with policymaking usually comprising
Uncharted Territory? Exploring the Institutional three successive stages, from an exhaustive
Robustness of Self-regulation in the Antarctic Tourism analysis of the destination and its stakeholders
Sector. Journal of Sustainable Tourism 17:411-430.
(the tourism analysis phase) in a Green Paper,
Johnston, M. 2011 Arctic Tourism Introduction. In Polar
Tourism: Environmental, Political and Social Dimen- followed by the choice of a strategic positioning
sions, P. Maher, E. Stewart and M. L€
uck, eds., pp17-32. in a White Paper, to the determination of spe-
New York: Cognizant. cific ways and means in the Tourism Policy
M€uller, D., L. Lundmark, and R. Lemelin, eds. 2013 New
Plan.
Issues in Polar Tourism: Communities, Environments,
Politics. London: Springer.
Stewart, E., D. Draper, and M. Johnston 2005 Tourism
Research in the Polar Regions. Arctic 58:383-394. Green and white papers
A Green Paper is the first stage in tourism

policymaking. It results from the preliminary
Policy and policymaking efforts of a community of knowledge acting
upon a specific destination. The focus of this
Eduardo Fayos-Solà community’s intelligence endeavors is both the
UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain analysis of data and existing governance proce-
dures and the comprehension of the (political)
decisionmaking processes and stakeholders
Starting from the 1990s, policy has become an involved in determining new objectives and mobi-
important item in the tool kit of tourism experts lizing the ▶ resources to achieve them. It implies
and professionals. Its concept is commonly used consultation and debate among the tourism agents
to refer to sets of actions addressing broad issues and experts leading to a new conceptual and insti-
such as ▶ strategy, competitiveness, sustainabil- tutional framework for action, while simulta-
ity, and aggregate value added of tourism activi- neously identifying all stakeholders involved and P
ties in a ▶ destination. their technical and political capabilities.
Policy was originally defined by Gee and Preparing a White Paper is the next stage. It
Fayos-Solà as “a public policy designed to provides an envelope of feasibility and validity for
achieve specific objectives relevant to tourism. . .” the strategic positioning chosen, as well as the
(1997: 286). Others assert that “tourism policy objectives and means of policy. It continues
assembles the ▶ planning function and political from the analysis phase initiated in the Green
goals for tourism into a set of guidelines. . .” Paper, extending it to an ▶ exploration of the
(Edgell et al. 2007: 5). A more complete contem- comparative advantages existing in the destina-
porary view may frame it as a macro-governance tion/cluster. An analysis of existing and potential
function, dealing with both sectorial and transver- competing destinations is also essential. Thus, a
sal objectives of tourism. It is comprised of a set of White Paper is the analysis of a community of
programs, instruments, measures, and actions. knowledge and a policy exercise providing a com-
Once the spatial and time frames of a policy plete diagnosis and a dynamic objective setting,
have been established and analyzed, it is substan- relative to the external and internal factors making
tial to specify its goals and objectives, its means, up the comparative and potential competitive
and the governance actors involved. advantages of a destination. It creates an indis-
The process of defining tourism policies in a pensable theoretical and practical framework to
destination must be based on both a formal set up the contents of an explicit plan.
734 Policy and policymaking
Tourism policy plan a Tourism Satellite Account exercise), sustainabil-

ity programs (creating indicators, benchmarks,
A Tourism Policy Plan is the definitive final stage and norms relative to the long-term feasibility of
in policymaking. Its recommendations, prescrip- tourism strategies and operations in a destination),
tions, and voluntary and compulsory standards knowledge management programs (referring to
(including benchmarking exercises, best prac- “bridging theory and practice” and thus including
tices, norms, and laws) are formulated after care- the creation of pure and applied research, and
ful consideration of the Green and White Paper dissemination of ▶ knowledge relating to tour-
conclusions. It can be discussed at parliamentary ism), ▶ innovation programs (very often with a
level. However, experience shows that best prac- restricted reach of application of knowledge, the
tical results are achieved when a participatory final result on ▶ product creation of bridging the-
governance process for its discussion and imple- ory and practice exercises), excellence programs
mentation is initiated from the very first stage (establishing norms and stimulus to achieve effi-
(Green Paper). ciency in tourism products and processes and
As already commented, a Tourism Policy Plan quality, understood as customer and stakeholder
is thus a set of programs, subprograms, and satisfaction), communication and promotion pro-
actions that make use of monetary, fiscal, and grams (including these aspects of tourism ▶ mar-
knowledge management instruments to adopt keting and often involving all internal and
measures applicable in specific actions. Its pur- external stakeholders, beyond direct customers),
pose is to achieve both sectorial (such as compet- and cooperation programs (referring to specific
itiveness and ▶ sustainability of tourism governance setups for the implementation of the
activities) and transversal objectives Tourism Policy Plan, beyond stakeholder partici-
(▶ employment, incomes, growth, and ▶ devel- pation in the Green and White Papers).
opment) in a destination – at local, regional,
national, and supranational levels.
Tourism Policy Plans became the standard for- See also ▶ Europe, ▶ governance, ▶ interna-
mat for governmental action at the beginning of tional tourism, ▶ Tourism Satellite Account.
the 1990s, with pioneering plans in countries like
▶ Australia, ▶ Canada, and ▶ Spain (SGT 1992)
and many other governments creating their own
policy setups in the following two decades. References
A need for clarification of concepts and sound
methodology has been apparent from the start, Edgell, L., D. Allen, G. Smith, and J. Swanson 2007
Tourism Policy and Planning. London: Butterworth-
but it was only in the 2000s (Fayos-Solà and Heinemann.
Pedro 2001) when the OCDE, the European Fayos-Solà, E., and M. Alvarez 2014 Tourism Policy and
Union, and the Word Tourism Organization Governance for Development. In Tourism as an Instru-
(2001) began efforts in this respect and emphasis ment for Development, E. Fayos-Solà, M. Alvarez and
C. Cooper, eds., pp.101-124. London: Emerald.
on ▶ governance became evident. Fayos-Solà, E., L. Fuentes, and A. Muñoz 2003 Structure
and Operations of Tourism Destinations: The FAS
Model. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Programs Fayos-Solà, E., and A. Pedro 2001 Globalization, National
Tourism Policy and International Organizations. In
Tourism in the Age of Globalization, S. Wahab and
Based on the experience of existing Tourism Pol- C. Cooper, eds., pp.45-65. London: Routledge.
icy Plans and work at ▶ UNWTO, the following Gee, C., and E. Fayos-Solà 1997 International Tourism.
set of programs is usually considered when delin- Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
SGT 1992 Plan Marco de Competitividad del Turismo
eating a plan: data programs (systematizing data Español. Madrid: Ministry of Tourism.
conceptualization and statistical information col- UNWTO 2001 Cooperation between the Public and
lection and applications, often in the framework of Private Sectors. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
Political science 735
Velasco (2004) points out that the limited anal-

Political science ysis of tourism undertaken in the field of political
science has focused on aspects related to ▶ power,
Fernando Almeida-García1 and Erica Schenkel2 the formulation of laws and regulations, and the
1
School of Tourism, University of Malaga, economic impact of the industry. An economic
Málaga, Spain perspective has regularly dominated the study of
2
National Council for Scientific and its policies. Thus, there has been an attempt to
Technological Research, Sarmiento, Argentina identify tourism as a consumer activity, offered
and distributed by a productive industry and
directed at tourists as consumers. In this manner,
Political science deals with the theoretical and the tourist is positioned outside the public sphere
practical studies of politics. While the notable and in the context of the private sector. It is likely
growth in tourism activities from the middle of that this has delayed the study of tourism within
the twentieth century sparked the interest of political science (Velasco 2004).
national governments and even international orga- The predominance of the market economy per-
nizations, the field of political science began its spective, within which tourism is conceived as
academic analysis of tourism rather later governed by the law of supply and demand, has
(Matthews and Richter 1991; Velasco 2004; obscured the social aspects of tourism. Analysis of
Scott 2011). the phenomenon is thus located in the economic
sphere to the detriment of consideration of its
political and public dimensions and is dominated
Political analysis by the application of business management tech-
niques with tourism policy reduced to simple
The first political science studies took a regulatory marketing plans. The denial of the political and
approach, focusing on the training, legitimization, public nature of the industry impedes a genuine
and organization of power, while leaving aside the understanding of the phenomenon (Zhang and
impact of the rules of power on societies. After Yan 2009).
World War II, in the context of the welfare state, Tourism involves different public factors
the field began to concern itself with the observ- related directly and indirectly to theoretical and
able facts of social realities and with applied pol- practical policy issues, such as the development of P
icy. Theoretical and applied studies of tourism did societies, the use of natural and cultural resources,
not begin until almost the last quarter of the twen- health, transport, and telecommunications sys-
tieth century and with much less intensity than in tems and their infrastructure, public safety, and
other social sciences (geography, anthropology, border management. At the same time, tourism
and sociology). directly influences aspects of government man-
The first studies on the subject were developed agement, contributing to the balance of payments,
in the 1970s when political scientists were more creating direct and indirect employment, bolster-
interested in applied than theoretical aspects. ing local economies, creating national image, and
There has been notable growth in tourism research preserving cultural and environmental heritage.
since then, especially with that related to the anal- The significance of the tourism phenomenon as
ysis of tourism as a factor influencing economic a public issue has increased in research and teach-
development (Jenkins 1980). The study of touring for political science. A number of the key
ism in the discipline of political science has, nev- concepts of the discipline have contributed toward
ertheless, remained minor. Matthews and Richter understanding of tourism from a complex
(1991) explain this lack of interest among political and interdisciplinary perspective. Matthews and
scientists as resulting from the prevalent under- Richter (1991) highlight seven aspects in particu-
standing of tourism as a private individual lar: political socialization, ideology, power,
activity. authority, legitimacy, sovereignty, and political
736 Political science
development. The importance that the industry related to tourism (Almeida 2014). The definitions
has acquired as an instrument of public action of its policy are diverse; Hall and Jenkins feel
over the last few decades puts public policy that “tourism policy is whatever governments
concerning tourism at the forefront of government choose to do or not to do with regard to tourism”
agenda. As Scott puts it, “studies of tourism public (1995: 8), an interpretation that provides
policies provide useful insights into who gets researchers with a wide investigative scope.
what, when, and why in the tourism policy pro- Regardless of the definition employed, the main
cess, and might also make a contribution to better focus of policy research is public action in relation
informed government decisionmaking and to tourism. Nor is there any clear agreement on the
policymaking” (2011: 6). approach to be adopted in its policy studies or
related fields of interest. An economic approach
has been developed within which tourism policy
Tourism policy as a subject of study is considered an economic sector policy with cer-
tain particularities (Sessa 1976). A noncritical
With the profit generated by mass tourism in the vision predominates in these studies, highlighting
1950s and 1960s, Western nations no longer achievements over the territorial and social imbal-
viewed the industry as a private, small-scale activ- ances caused by tourism. The difficulties in gen-
ity. Tourism became an engine of development for erating development contrast with government
many developed and developing countries. Gov- praise over the role it plays in regional and
ernments created departments to apply policies national economic development.
aimed at its planning and promotion abroad. To a lesser extent, political science proposes a
While the intentions underpinning governmental political approach to tourism policy. Initially,
activities in relation to the industry have varied there was slight interest in tourism within this
substantially, state intervention has continued discipline, as it was considered a frivolous field
since the beginning of modern tourism. In the of little substance. The experts in this subject
early decades of mass tourism, ideology deter- themselves found it difficult to specify a definition
mined whether its development received strong of tourism policy. However, the role of its policy
government support. From the 1980s, the consid- within the discipline has evolved to such a degree
erable profits generated by tourism meant that that some scholars consider it completely inde-
political discussion no longer centered on the pendent of the economy. For example, Velasco
degree of state intervention, but rather focused (2004) defends two approaches autonomous of
on the question of management. the field of political studies: one strictly centered
Tourism is a constructed phenomenon that on the industry and the other a cross-sectoral
emerges from the prevailing political-economic approach that would cover all the other sectors
view. State intervention in items concerning a directly related to tourism (security, environment,
specific policy can only be analyzed in relation and the like).
to the social, economic, and political context;
tourism policies are bound up with the govern-
ment’s ideas and values and its relationship to Status and trends
other political and economic stakeholders. Ideo-
logical and practical aspects converge in the gov- Over recent decades, the link between political
ernment’s policy agenda. To gain a better science and tourism has increased significantly.
understanding of tourism policy and its results, it Nevertheless, from the distance covered, there is
is thus essential that empirical and theoretical still a long way to go, and it is necessary to delve
analysis is not separated. further into this field of study from a complex
Within this context, the study of tourism policy multidisciplinary perspective. Political science
has clearly been gaining importance and can be offers a number of theoretical and methodological
understood as a mixed, multidisciplinary field tools that contribute to the understanding of
Political science 737
tourism. As with all growing economic activities, tourism policy were directed toward competitive-
it is bound up in conflicts and interests; these ness. In this traditional view, its policy was under-
demand critical analysis that goes beyond mere stood as a tool for growth. However, in recent
studies of the promotion of tourism and acknowl- decades, there has been a shift in focus and other
edges the complex interweaving of the interests important concepts, such as sustainability and
and players involved. Political science occupies a governance. The sustainability of destinations is
central place in this challenge. now one of the issues most frequently researched
At present, three main approaches to analyzing and analyzed, this being an aspect of considerable
public and tourism policy can be identified (Scott concern to host communities. Development
2011). First, the scientific approach focuses on models related to such policy usually present a
providing factual knowledge and analysis rather choice between two opposing goals and routes:
than a political view and introduces theories and sustainable development or competitiveness, as
concepts that connect with other approaches. This asserted in Michael Hall’s studies. In a slightly
analysis aims to achieve a rational vision that goes different stream, the study of tourism governance
beyond particular aspects of policy and empha- has focused on the role of stakeholders, participa-
sizes the need to achieve the rational choice of tion processes, the development of competitive-
objectives. This approach uses methods and tech- ness indicators, and the identification of best
niques drawn from economics, sociology, politi- practices (Beaumont and Dredge 2010).
cal science, inter alia, such as cost-benefit At present, research on tourism policy is
analysis, public choice analysis, the modeling of concerned with analysis from a sociological per-
policy, the delineation of objectives and actions, spective and local studies. Within this sphere, a
satellite accounts of sustainable development for number of emerging research issues can be
tourism policy, and so on. detected: the role(s) of new local agents, the
Second, the institutional approach focuses on implementation processes of governance at the
the government structure, rules, and investments destinations, new forms of public-private partner-
that exert an influence on tourism policy develop- ships, networking and clusters of destinations and
ment. This analysis argues that the industry is tourism products, comparative studies of tourism
heavily influenced by the government and its policies, environmental practices and restrictions,
institutions. Within this perspective, some inter- technology and destinations, and globalization
esting theories and practical applications have and tourism (Bianchi 2002). P
been developed, such as regime theory (the struc-
ture of property affecting the development of See also ▶ Governance, ▶ policy and
tourism) and regulation theory (analyzing the policymaking, ▶ power, ▶ public good.
transformation of tourism from Fordism to post-
Fordism). Other studies of interest are
community-based tourism and the analysis of
ethics in its policy. References
Third, the social approach highlights the inter-
actions between individuals and organizations Almeida, F. 2014 A Comparative Study of the Evolution of
and processes to reach agreements. This analysis Tourism Policy in Spain and Portugal. Tourism Man-
is interested in collaborative policy (public- agement Perspectives 11:34-50.
Beaumont, N., and D. Dredge 2010 Local Tourism Gover-
private relations), the relational approach nance: A Comparison of Three Network Approaches.
(stakeholder participation in the institutions), Journal of Sustainable Tourism 18:7-28.
tourism governance, social capital, and ▶ power Bianchi, R. 2002 Towards a New Political Economy of
and policy narratives. Global Tourism. In Tourism and Development: Con-
cepts and Issues, R. Sharpley and D. Telfer, eds.,
The concept most studied in relation to tourism pp.265-299. Bristol: Chanel View.
policy is ▶ development. For a long time, the Hall, C., and J. Jenkins 1995 Tourism and Public Policy.
actions framed in a country’s or destination’s London: Routledge.
738 Pollution
Jenkins, C. 1980 Tourism Policies in Developing Coun- studies on the use of heat pumps, solar panels,
tries: A Critique. International Journal of Tourism Man- thawing machines, solar control ▶ film, LED
agement (March):22-29.
Matthews, H., and L. Richter 1991 Political Science and lighting, and HEPA filters (Chan 2009; Chan
Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 18:120-135. et al. 2013a, b). ▶ Future research on pollution
Scott, N. 2011 Tourism Policy: A Strategic Review. alleviation may extend to the photovoltaic, envi-
Oxford: Goodfellow. ronmental ▶ impact of design using large areas of
Sessa, A. 1976 The Tourism Policy. Annals of Tourism
Research 5:234-247. glass, air purification and cleaning ▶ technology,
Velasco, M. 2004 La política turística. Gobierno y and composter and chiller’s working fluid. Envi-
administración turística en España (1952-2004). Valen- ronmental studies on ▶ green tourism include
cia: Tirant Lo Blanch. estimation of emissions attributable to ▶ energy
Zhang, H., and Q. Yan 2009 The Effects of Power, Ideol-
ogy, Interest Groups, and the Government on Tourism consumption in hotels and ▶ corporate social
Policy Making: A Conceptual Model. Journal of China responsibility reports of themeparks. Further,
Tourism Research 5:158-173. while airlines support the low-carbon campaign,
studies on air ▶ travel find that their definitions of
▶ energy usage indicator in reports are not the
same as in reality.
Various assessment methods have been intro-
Pollution duced to evaluate and benchmark environmental
▶ performance of tourism enterprises, such as
Wilco Chan Hotel Building Environmental Assessment
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Scheme, LEED, Green Globe 21, ECOTEL,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Green Leaf, and Green Care. Collectively these
Hong Kong, China “environmental assessment methods” share the
core notion of providing operational guidelines
and assessment criteria for ▶ management. None-
theless, the diversity of ▶ certification bodies and
Pollution in tourism covers pollutants in solid variety of assessment methods often result in con-
waste (organic/inorganic), water (sea/river/sew- fusions among hoteliers and tourists. Therefore,
age), and air (outdoor and indoor). Thus, multidis- comparison and synergy of various schemes and
ciplinary ▶ knowledge is often called for an their associated eco-labels could enhance commu-
in-depth understanding, particularly research nity understanding of environmental assessments
from chemistry, physics, and biology. Usually, in tourism.
pollutions are associated with ▶ carrying capacity As a prospect, while going green is a ▶ trend,
of a ▶ destination, ▶ tourist behavior, ▶ energy or tourism practitioners need “scientific” advice on
▶ water consumption, industry development, environmental issues. Notably, tourism research
transport emissions, decoration, and smoking has been too management focused and social sci-
(Chan 2009, 2012; Chan and Lam 2002). Period- ence oriented to meet the genuine need of the
icals such as the Journal of Sustainable Tourism, industry for science and engineering perspectives
International Journal of Hospitality Manage- on environmental technologies. To facilitate sus-
ment, and International Journal of Contemporary tainable development of the industry, “hard” envi-
Hospitality Management have been major sources ronmental ▶ technology subjects should be
of reference for its research. incorporated into tourism ▶ education and
Pollution mitigation devices have been dem- research. Likewise, industry executives and oper-
onstrated in a series of ▶ hospitality and tourism ation managers should be equipped with
Portugal 739
environmental knowledge and experience so as to Tourism ▶ development began in the

advance tourism ▶ sustainability. mid-nineteenth century, linked with thermal spas
located in the countryside. In the 1970s, it became
See also ▶ Environment, ▶ green tourism, one of the most important European destinations
▶ low-carbon tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism. for “sun and sea” holidays (Lewis and Williams
1988). In the 1980s, it attracted some 8 million
international arrivals, and this number climbed to
References 12 million at the end of the century. In 2010 alone,
more than $10 billion (€8 billion) in international
Chan, W. 2009 Environmental Measures for Hotels’ Envi- ▶ tourist expenditure was recorded. Further,
ronmental Management Systems - ISO 14001. Interna-
27 million international bed-nights (mainly from
tional Journal of Contemporary Hospitality
Management 21:542-560. Europe) and 13.5 million domestic bed-nights
Chan, W. 2012 Hotel Indoor Air Quality Enhancement: were registered. Tourism provides 7–8 % of the
Research Agenda. Journal of China Tourism Research GDP and 13–14 % of exports of all goods and
8:1-18
services (Cunha 2012).
Chan, W., and J. Lam. 2002 Pollutant Emissions due to Gas
Consumption in the Hotel Industry. Journal of Sustain- The country’s main attractions are its good
able Tourism 10:70-81. weather, natural and diverse landscapes, and
Chan, W., S. Yeung, E. Chan, and D. Li. 2013a Hotel Heat culture. Sun and sea, touring, meetings, incen-
Pump Hot Water Systems: Impact Assessment and
tives and events, golf, city and short breaks,
Analytic Hierarchy Process. International Journal of
Contemporary Hospitality Management 25:428-446. pilgrimages, nature, sports, and cruises are
Chan, W., D. Li, B. Mak, and Y. Liu. 2013b Evaluating the activities and products that have gained popu-
Application of Solar Energy for Hot Water Provision: larity over the past few decades. Due to the
Action Research of an Independent Hotel. International
uneven distribution of resources, tourism is
Journal of Hospitality Management 33:76-84.
highly concentrated in the regions of Algarve,
Lisbon, and Madeira.
Turismo de Portugal acts as the only national
authority on tourism and is responsible for stra-
Portugal tegic actions, statistics, reports, territorial plan-
ning and licensing, promotion, financial
João Albino Matos da Silva1 and Jorge Umbelino2 incentives, education and ▶ training for tourism, P
1
Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, and regulation of gambling. The country has no
Faro, Portugal official regional organizations, but five bottom-
2
Escola Superior de Hotelaria e Turismo do up volunteer organizations, including munici-
Estoril, Estoril, Portugal palities and business operators, are supported
by law and receive financial support from the
government. The tourism ▶ education and train-
The Portuguese Republic is located in southwest- ing system is supported by several institutions.
ern ▶ Europe bordered by the Atlantic Ocean and Public and private universities and polytechnics
▶ Spain (Figure 1). Portugal also holds sover- offer a diverse and regionally dispersed range of
eignty over the Atlantic archipelagos of Azores undergraduate, postgraduate, and research
and Madeira, with a total land area of 92,000 km2 programs.
(35,000 mi2). With a population of 10.5 million in Today, there is a modern network of highways,
2011, its GDP was US$220 billion (€171 billion five main international airports, and several com-
Euros) in 2013 (INE 2014). mercial ports receiving a growing number of
740 Postmodernism
Portugal, Figure 1 Map of Portugal
cruiseships that guarantee good connections to Economic Development - Western European Experi-
other tourism regions and countries within ences, A. Williams and G. Shaw, eds., pp.101-122.
New Jersey: Belhaven.
Europe. The country has more than 2,000 hotels Turismo de Portugal 2014 Proturismo www.
(or 250,000 beds) (INE 2014; Turismo de turismodeportugal.pt/Portugu%C3%AAs/ProTurismo/
Portugal 2014). Tourism continues to play an Pages/ProTurismo.aspx (17 January).
important role in improving the country’s interna-
tional competitiveness while becoming a signifi-
cant export earner.
Postmodernism
Richard Sharpley
See also ▶ Europe, ▶ golf tourism, ▶ Spain,
School of Management, University of Central
▶ sun, sand, sea and sex.
Lancashire, Preston, Lancashire, UK
References
The term postmodernism first emerged in the early
Cunha, L. 2012 Turismo em Portugal: Sucessos e twentieth century to refer to new forms of art and
Insucessos. Lisboa: Edições Universitárias Lusófonas. music. By the 1970s, however, it was used spe-
INE 2014 Instituto Nacional de Estatística www.ine.pt/ cifically to describe a new approach to ▶ architec-
xportal/xmain?xpid=INE&xpgid=ine_base_dados
ture which, rejecting the perceived blandness and
(17 January).
Lewis, J., and A. Williams 1988 Portugal: Market Segmen- functionality of the modernist movement,
tation and Regional Specialization. In Tourism and reintroduced historical styles, often in
Postmodernism 741
combination or collage, to building design and postmodernity, not least in its dedifferentiation
ornament. Subsequently, the term was applied from other social and cultural activities. In other
more generally to describe the alleged condition words, tourism has long been a distinct, or differ-
of contemporary culture: the condition of postmo- entiated, social institution.
dernity. Though widely contested, it is broadly Predating its democratization during the twen-
considered to signify the replacement of scientific tieth century, tourism was socially differentiated;
rationality or certainty underpinning a universal it remained the preserve of the wealthy leisured
belief in progress or the end of “meta-narratives” classes. Subsequently it became spatially and tem-
(Lyotard 1984) with a multiplicity of ideas and porally differentiated, occurring in defined places
realities and an emphasis on ▶ image, choice, the (the seaside, the countryside, mountains) and
ephemeral, and, most significantly, the borrowing times (the 2-week holiday) distinct from normal
and merging of previously distinctive cultural day-to-day life. Indeed, for many tourists, this
forms and practices. In other words, whereas remains the principal attraction of tourism. How-
modernity could be identified by the emergence ever, as a social activity, it has now become
of rational, organized, secular, political, and cap- dedifferentiated in terms of both place and time
italist systems that brought about the structural while simultaneously also reflecting the postmod-
differentiation of various aspects of society and ern characteristics of nostalgia, as well as a pref-
culture, postmodernity refers to the breaking erence for spectacle and the hyperreal.
down of these distinctions, of cultural “dediffer- Tourism place has become dedifferentiated
entiation” (Lash 1990: 11). both geographically and culturally, some destina-
Thus, postmodernity may be characterized by tions typifying the collage, or the borrowing and
the dedifferentiation of distinct social and cultural combining of cultural forms and practices, funda-
structure and institutions, particularly the merging mental to the concept of postmodernism. Geo-
of popular/mass and “high” culture; a plurality of graphically, tourism now occurs in places
viewpoints and voices “accepted as authentic and normally associated with non-tourism activities,
legitimate” (Harvey 1990: 48); the merging of the such as (post)industrial cities, while places of
past and present, or time-space compression, production, both working and historic, have
denying historical progression and encouraging become attractions. Similarly, other urban-based
nostalgia; lifestyles increasingly dominated by places, such as modern shopping malls, have also
spectacle, image, and the visual, resulting in become attractions, permitting people to merge P
ephemerality, lack of cultural depth, and individ- non-touristic activities (shopping) in a tradition-
ual identity created through consumption; and the ally non-tourism places (the shopping center) with
dedifferentiation of fact and fantasy, of original leisure/tourism activities, such as eating at inter-
and fake, and of reality and “hyperreality” (Eco nationally themed restaurants or going to the
1995). cinema.
More specifically, new postmodern attractions/
destinations have been created that blur the dis-
Tourism and postmodernism tinction between reality and image and between
the real and hyperreal. The so-called inland
According to Urry, tourism is “prefiguratively resorts, for example, superimpose simulated envi-
postmodern” (1990: 87), where earlier forms of ronments, such as indoor water activity centers
mass tourism, such as the seaside resorts of the based on tropical forests, on reality to create post-
nineteenth century, combined image, spectacle, modern tourist experiences. Similarly, Dubai’s ski
art, and culture into the reality of the popular resort offers (hyperreal) year-round winter sports
mass tourist experience. However, the develop- activities in a (real) desert environment. Other
ment of contemporary tourism, though not neces- examples of postmodern tourism places include
sarily responding to its influences, nevertheless Tenerife’s Penguinarium – an “authentic Arctic
displays more identifiable characteristics of ecosystem” recreated on a holiday island – and
742 Power
the Blue Lagoon in Iceland, an artificially created critiquing postmodernism more generally. Indeed,
spa developed from the output of a nearby geo- future research can consider the extent to which
thermal power station. tourism reflects an identifiable and continuing
cultural transformation, perhaps toward the post-
postmodern.
Remaining issues and future research
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ heritage, ▶ identity,
The dedifferentiation of tourism place has permit- ▶ nostalgia tourism, ▶ sociology.
ted the dedifferentiation of its time, as both tour-
ism and non-tourism activities merge in particular
contexts. Moreover, advances in communication
technology have heralded the advent of virtual References
travel; thus, it may be suggested that most people
are tourists, through actual or virtual mobility, Eco, U. 1995 Faith in Fakes. London: Minerva.
Feifer, M. 1985 Going Places. London: Macmillan.
most of the time. Of greater significance, how- Harvey, D. 1990 The Condition of Postmodernity. Oxford:
ever, is postmodern time compression, where the Blackwell.
past (and perhaps the future) is compressed into Lash, S. 1990 Sociology of Postmodernism. London:
the present, satisfying both tourists’ nostalgic Routledge.
Lyotard, J-F. 1984 The Postmodern Condition: A Report
yearnings and their fondness for image and spec- on Knowledge. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota
tacle. In particular, burgeoning heritage sites rec- Press.
reate the past as an attraction through Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage.
representations that may bear little resemblance Walsh, K. 1992 The Representation of the Past: Museums
and Heritage in the Post-Modern World. London:
to historical reality: “The postmodern past is one Routledge.
where anything is possible, where fantasy is
potentially as real as history as heritage dulls our
ability to appreciate the development of people a
place through time” (Walsh 1992: 113).
Yet it must be emphasized that, although con- Power
temporary tourism displays many of the charac-
teristics of postmodernity, the concept itself Antonio Miguel Nogués-Pedregal1 and Yi Wang2
1
remains highly contested. Moreover, though Department of Social and Human Sciences,
dedifferentiation is evident in various aspects of Universitas Miguel Hernández of Elche, Elche,
contemporary tourism, in some respects it argu- Spain
2
ably retains many of the characteristics of moder- University of Nottingham Ningbo, China
nity. From a production perspective (and despite
the growth in independent, self-booked travel),
the package holiday as a manifestation of rational, In social sciences and humanities, “power” refers to
modernist production methods remains popular. “all forms of successful control by A over B – that
At the same time, the “post-tourist” (Feifer 1985) is, of A securing compliance” (Lukes 1974: 17).
ironically challenges the notion of postmodernity; Much of the debates revolve around its nature, with
the post-tourist is cognizant of the frivolity and a broadly accepted definition yet to be settled.
shallowness of contemporary tourism (and con- The roots of current Western theoretical con-
temporary culture), understands that tourism is an structions on power are based upon Karl Marx’s
“as if” game, and delights in making choices, arguments on the control of production assets,
rational or not, based on knowledge and under- class struggle, and the role of ideology and/or
standing. Thus, tourism, as a particular social Max Weber’s studies on force and legitimacy,
institution, provides a valuable context for authority, and rule. Two main perspectives can
Power 743
be distinguished: one focuses on the cultural man- perspective, ruling elite exists as a well-defined
ifestations of the variety of “powers” that pene- group (Charles Wright Mills). The focus on
trate dissymmetrical social relationships and act decisionmaking as the solely measurable behavior
as productive forces in society, and the other stud- of power has led scholars to reveal what is called
ies the functions – mainly in the political the second face of power. This includes the study
dimension – that frame social relationships. of those values that bias the election of which
The first perspective analyzes the plurality of issues are organized into decisionmaking pro-
powers that penetrates society. It examines all cesses and which are located outside these
spheres within which there are asymmetrical processes.
social relationships and highlights the importance The attention to the territory of ideas, values,
of the symbolic sphere and the dramatization or and beliefs to understand the invisible aspects of
staging in rituals. Scholars argue that power is power connects to the Marxist notion of “false
embedded in social relationships maintained by consciousness” or its derivatives from Antonio
symbolic formations and activities (gift exchange, Gramsci’s notions of “culture” and “ideology.”
ceremonials, or ▶ leisure activities). This perspec- These concerns shift the focus of knowledge pro-
tive unveils the conceived mechanisms of coer- duction from the nature of power (what it is) to its
cion that are not scrutinized in traditional political function and agents (how it is produced and
and economic studies. As Foucault puts it, “the reproduced). Lukes’ third dimension of power
State is superstructural in relation to a whole series decentralizes conflict and redefines the scope of
of power networks that invest the body, sexuality, the study of power to include the mechanisms that
the family, the kinship, knowledge, technology, shape peoples’ “perceptions, cognitions and pref-
and so forth” (1980: 122). This emphasis is erences in such a way that they accept their role in
followed by a special attention to the power of the existing order of things” (1974: 28).
representations.
Tourism scholars have paid ▶ attention to the
subtleties of seduction present everywhere as Tourism studies
“▶ authenticity” (Dean MacCannell) or “▶ gaze”
(John Urry). The ethereal nature of power is taken Though frequently invoked as pivotal features in
to the ground of scientific analysis by Pierre the production of tourism, the negotiation of the
Bourdieu, whose notion of “symbolic power” ▶ tourist experience and the administration and P
complements a power that constructs reality and, ▶ governance of tourism, power, and power rela-
along with the social genesis of the “habitus,” tions are routinely under-conceptualized in this
allows the analysis of the processes that ease the field (Church and Coles 2007: 6). This lack of
existence of coercion and quiescence in society. attention is because practitioners are less
A duality is also claimed by Anthony Giddens’ concerned with theoretical issues and more
structuration theory that attempts to integrate inclined toward tourism business research and
structural analyses with more agency-centered applied studies (Tribe 2004).
traditions of sociology. Cheong and Miller (2000) rely on Foucault to
The second perspective deals with operationa- show different productive and repressive strate-
lization of power and methodological issues led gies involving interactions among varied actors
by hypothesis testing and measurable elements to located in different social positions in tourism
comprehend political systems. Scholars had contexts, including those agents who regulate
mainly opposed two perspectives within this par- and steer the direction of tourism-related policies,
adigm. From the pluralistic perspective, power is those who own the businesses, those who either
fragmented and distributed in society, and policy serve as ethnic attractions or ▶ work in the
is the outcome of competitive struggle of each ▶ industry, and those who visit the destinations.
group’s interests (Robert Dahl). From the elitist More recently, Hall (2010) revisits Lukes to
744 Precautionary principle
highlight the multilayered faces of power, thus Tribe, J. 2004 Knowing about Tourism: Epistemological
extending Foucault’s view of the role of structural Issues. In Qualitative Research in Tourism: Ontologies,
Epistemologies and Methodologies. J. Phillimore and
dominance, with the necessary empirical strength L. Goodson, eds., pp.46-62. London: Routledge.
shown by individual actors.
Future directions Precautionary principle
Nogués-Pedregal (2012: 186) asserts that tourism Barbara J. McNicol

is just another name of power, for it is the most Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences,
sophisticated elaboration created by capitalist Mount Royal University, Calgary, Canada
forces and interests, since it produces a distinct
▶ chronotope that both stimulates the occupation
of territories transforming them into destinations The precautionary principle was incorporated as
and contributes to the production of new mean- Principle 15 into the 1992 United Nations Rio
ings and ▶ senses that are being appropriated by Declaration on Environment and Development at
local populations. Thus, it will continue playing a the Earth Summit. It proposes that where there are
major role in tourism studies, since the nature of threats of serious or irreversible damage, lack of
its governance has become more complex as the full scientific certainty shall not be used as a
distinctions between the public and private sectors reason for postponing cost-effective measures to
become blurred. Further, as state and society rela- prevent environmental degradation. The principle
tions become more complex, the role of power is an international norm used in treaties and laws
will need to be stressed on exploring the agency of that recognizes the limitations of scientific
actors and the nature of interactions among them. methods to adequately predict environmental
uncertainties into the ▶ future. In other words, it
is designed to protect against harm when environ-
See also ▶ Acculturation, ▶ chronotope, mental “uncertainty” is identified. Policies to
▶ development, ▶ policy and policymaking, reduce the threat of future climate change, for
▶ stakeholder. example, may include emission reductions and
shifts in ▶ travel and energy uses to provide for
gaps in ▶ knowledge about future risks. The prin-
ciple states that “In order to protect the ▶ environ-
References ment, the precautionary approach shall be widely
applied by States according to their capabilities”
Cheong, S-M., and M. Miller 2000 Power and Tourism.
A Foucaldian Observation. Annals of Tourism
(UNEP 1992: Principle 15).
Research 27:371-390. Considerations under the Rio Declaration act
Church, A., and T. Coles (eds.) 2007 Tourism, Power and toward global partnerships of cooperation
Space. New York: Routledge. between countries and the ▶ development of
Foucault, M. 1980 Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews
and Other Writings, 1972–1977. New York: Pantheon.
international agreements which respect the
Hall, C. M. 2010 Power in Tourism: Tourism in Power. In theme of sustainable development: balance
Tourism, Power and Culture: Anthropological Insights, among society, economy, and environment.
D. Macleod and J. Carrier, eds., pp.199-213. Bristol: Application of the principle to the tourism
Channel View.
Lukes, S. 1974 Power: A Radical View. New York: Palgrave.
▶ industry requires focus on ecosystems and pre-
Nogués-Pedregal, A-M. (ed.) 2012 Culture and Society in vention of negative environmental impacts by
Tourism Contexts. Bingley: Emerald. tourism activities, growth, and development. It
Prestige 745
also protects societies in critical or sensitive hab- Fennell, D., and K. Ebert 2010 Tourism and the Precau-
itats where cultures and ecosystems are intricately tionary Principle. Journal of Sustainable Tourism
12:461-479.
meshed. When discussing the ▶ ethics of environ- UNEP 1992 Rio Declaration on Environment and Devel-
ment and tourism, according to Fennell, “central opment: Principle 15. Nairobi: United Nations Envi-
to the application of the Precautionary Principle is ronment Programme.
the concept of proportionality or cost-
effectiveness. Will environmental benefits of pre-
cautionary action outweigh the economic and
societal costs?” (2006: 219). A reasonable chance Prestige
that adverse environmental or societal impacts
will take place should ensure precautionary mea- Antonia Correia
sures or even a “no tourism” decision being made. Faculty of Economics, CEFAGE, University of
One geographical area key to research about Algarve, Faro, Portugal
the ▶ evaluation of the precautionary principle in
tourism studies has been the globally and
politically uncertain territory of Antarctica. The In etymology, prestige is derived from the Latin
practical relevance of the principle in the ▶ man- expression of praestigiae. In the Middle Ages,
agement of ▶ Antarctic tourism and the issue of this word was used with a pejorative sense to
international control of tourism, the assessment, refer to delusion, trick, deception, or magic. Yet
prevention, and regulation of its cumulative prestige appears related to honorific positions that
impacts, and the status and possible outcomes of are deferred to individuals that possess an exqui-
tourism uses into the future have remained uncer- site position in the society, such as wisdom. Later,
tain for the signatory countries of the Antarctic Veblen (1899) considered prestige as a synonym
Treaty System. At the same time, a precautionary of social standing or honor some groups may
approach is applicable at different scales of tour- possess; then these were a minority in the society.
ism ▶ planning and management – ranging from Nevertheless, prestige drives all human needs,
local to international – when considerations about even the most primary ones.
risk and impacts are paramount. The precaution- Tourism is in essence a social behavior mostly
ary principle is a longer-term tourism develop- driven by prestige motivations. For many tourists,
ment and planning tool that safeguards this is the process by which they can enhance their P
environmental and human health by anticipating social standing. Defined as status, this social
and controlling for future ▶ sustainability standing could be achieved by behaving in con-
(Fennell and Ebert 2010: 461). Future research formity, “bandwagon effect,” with others or by
will focus on the evaluation of the longer-term differentiating, “snob effect,” their experiences
effects of the principle for ▶ sustainable tourism, (Leibenstein 1950). As such, prestige motivations
most predominantly at the international scale of depend more on the manner of traveling than on
▶ governance. the place visited (Riley 1995). Yet prestige in
tourism is defined as the process by which indi-
See also ▶ Environment, ▶ ethics, ▶ impact, viduals strive to improve their regard or honor
▶ planning, ▶ sustainability. through the consumption of ▶ tourist experiences
that confer and symbolize prestige both for tour-
References ists themselves and for their peers.
Moreover, the prestige motivation is assumed as
Fennell, D. 2006 Tourism Ethics. Clevedon: Channel a multidimensional construct that refers to the social
View. recognition which comes from belongingness to a
746 Principal component analysis
group (visiting destinations where most friends go)

or group differentiation (traveling to places where Principal component analysis
friends have not yet visited). Hence bandwagon and
snob motives act as measures of the level of status Paula Cristina Remoaldo1 and
tourists are willing to experience, giving rise to the Elaine Cristina Borges Scalabrini2
1
reconciliation of both perspectives to achieve status Department of Geography, University of Minho,
(Wegener 1992). Institute of Social Sciences, Braga, Guimarães,
Holidays in popular destinations where many Portugal
2
others go are perceived as ability to confer the University of Minho, Braga, Portugal
level of compliance tourists seek with their peer
groups, relating also to prestige-worthy behavior
that is able to confer status. Tourists that exhibit Principal component analysis is a statistical
snobbish behavior wish to be different and exclu- method of multivariate factor analysis technique,
sive: differentiating and distancing themselves often used in studies with a large number of inter-
from the “common herd” are drivers of their related variables that attempt to explain them
behavior. Here, demand decreases if the tourists through common inherent dimensions. This
concerned recognize that others are consuming method aims to gather information contained in
the same commodity or that they are increasing a number of original variables into a smaller set of
their consumption. In tourism, experiences out of statistical variables, considering a minimum loss
the ordinary (exclusivity) or unique ▶ travel expe- of information. Principal component analysis is
riences (uniqueness) give tourists a sense of pres- useful in cases where there is the need for creating
tige, conferring status through a perceived multiple scales of analysis (Hair et al. 2005).
increase in social standing and impressing others. The reduction in the number of variables is not
The interpersonal values of both exclusivity and done by a simple selection of variables, but by the
uniqueness may be regarded as antecedents of a construction of new synthetic variables obtained
behavior that is mostly driven by the desire for by linear combination of the initial ones. In this
social status (consequence). process, action factors are used. The reduction is
▶ Future research should use a prestige possible only if the initial p variables are depen-
motivation scale that accrues cognitive and evalu- dent and have nonzero coefficients of correlation
ative dimensions, transforming differences of (Jolliffe 2002). In several studies, its application is
achieving social honor into a prestige hierarchy. complemented with other statistical techniques,
From there, distinctive prestige attributes that may such as K-test and ANOVA.
enact the spillover of the ▶ image may be outlined. Principal component analysis is used in differ-
ent areas of knowledge, where researchers work
with large numbers of variables in their studies
See also ▶ Luxury tourism, ▶ motivation, and thus seek to explain the results obtained.
▶ social class, ▶ yachting tourism. Some research areas utilizing this method include
health, tourism, spatial analysis, and the social
sciences.
References The technique has been used in tourism studies
to understand the inherent nature of the ▶ phe-
Leibenstein, H. 1950 Bandwagon, Snob, and Veblen
Effects in the Theory of Consumer Demand. Quarterly nomenon. Topic areas such as ▶ tourist attrac-
Journal of Economics 64:183-207. tions, consumer behavior, market segmentation,
Riley, R. 1995 Prestige Worthy Tourist Behavior. Annals of ▶ destination image, residents’ perceptions, and
Tourism Research 22:630-649. demand characteristics use principal component
Veblen, T. 1899 The Theory of the Leisure Class.
New York: Vanguard. analysis to explain the results obtained in the
Wegener, B. 1992 Concepts and Measurement of Prestige. implementation of research. Getz and Carlsen
Annual Review of Sociology 18:253-280. (2000) use this method to identify the
Product 747
characteristics and goals of families who own goods, services, ideas, events, persons, places, or
businesses in rural areas of ▶ Australia. organizations (Kotler and Armstrong 2008), ful-
Kastenholz et al. (1999) utilize the same technique filling two distinct tasks. First, each product sat-
to explain the development of ▶ rural tourism in isfies a need through the benefit(s) it incorporates.
northern and central ▶ Portugal. These are mostly the result of managerial deci-
Most factor analyses in tourism studies apply sions and the production process; however, the
the principal component approach due to their product’s need-fulfilling value is only perceived
quantitative characteristics with a high incidence by the consumer. Benefits and values are thus
of variables. Therefore, when compared to other cocreated by the firm and the consumer (Vargo
multivariate techniques such as VARIMAX, this and Lusch 2006). Second, products are the pre-
method is sufficient to explain a tourism problem requisite for businesses to achieve their objectives
from its various dimensions. As a quantitative relating to turnover, profitability, market share,
technique, this method is likely to remain an and the like. Only by selling products that succeed
important approach to understanding tourism in satisfying consumer needs can businesses earn
and addressing its research objectives. Notwith- a profit.
standing, future research could enhance its useful- Tourism products are those which satisfy tour-
ness by complementing or combining principal ists’ needs. According to Jovicic, the latter are
component analysis with qualitative approaches. those that are “satisfied when movement is
performed (▶ travel and sojourn) outside the
See also ▶ Contingent valuation method, ▶ con- place of residence” (1988: 2-3). They can be
tinuum model, ▶ methodology, ▶ quantitative grouped into two distinct categories. Primary
research. needs are those that urge a person to make a trip
in order to satisfy them, such as escaping to nature
for relaxation. Secondary or derived needs are
References
those arising from the trip, such as the necessity
Getz, D., and J. Carlsen 2000 Characteristics and Goals of of finding overnight accommodation (Paul 1977:
Family and Owner-operated Businesses in the Rural 18). Tourism products are the means to satisfying
Tourism and Hospitality Sectors. Tourism Management these primary and secondary needs, due to the
21:547-560. benefits offered by their consumption.
Hair, J., W. Black, B. Babin, and R. Anderson 2006
Multivariate Data Analysis. Upper Saddle River: Pren- Both the needs and the products are objects in P
tice Hall. the transaction between tourists and businesses
Jolliffe, I. 2002 Principal Component Analysis. New York: (Figure 1). Tourists exchange their money for
Springer. products to satisfy their needs. These are provided
Kastenholz, E., D. Davis, and G. Paul 1999 Segmenting
Tourism in Rural Areas: The Case of North and Central by a wide range of businesses supported by orga-
Portugal. Journal of Travel Research 37:353-363. nizations such as industry associations and desti-
nation marketing organizations.
Product Overall versus specific products
Dimitris Koutoulas Tourism products can be determined at two

Business Administration Department, University distinct levels. The overall products comprise
of Patras, Rio Patron, Greece the combination of all the elements consumed
by tourists during their trips, contributing to
their overall experience. The specific products
In a marketing context, products are bundles of are the offerings of individual tourism enterprises,
tangible and intangible elements conveying ben- such as ▶ accommodation, transport, and
efits to satisfy needs. They may take the form of attractions.
748 Product
Product, Demand Supply

Figure 1 Relations
between subjects and Collective Organizations
objects of tourism Representing Businesses
Needs and/or Destinations
marketing (Koutoulas
2004) Products
Tourists (Need
Satisfiers)
Money Tourist Businesses
Subjects of Tourism Marketing

Objects of Tourism Marketing
As a growing number of tourism organizations for a purpose not related to tourism are classified
and businesses have adopted a marketing orienta- as “primary tourist supply” (such as natural attrac-
tion, they have come to embrace the “total view of tions and historic sites), and components created
the tourism product,” which is how the consumer especially for satisfying tourist needs are classi-
sees the product. According to Medlik and Mid- fied as “secondary tourist supply” (such as hotels
dleton (1975), all tourists opt for a “package,” and themeparks); by origin, built versus natural
purchased either separately or as an inclusive elements; by tangibility, tangible elements such as
▶ tour. Producers may see their offerings (such hotels and restaurants versus the intangibles such
as airline seats or hotel beds) as individual prod- as the history and the climate of the destination; by
ucts, but these are actually elements or compo- variability, invariable elements such as the climate
nents of a composite total tourism product. and the scenery of the destination versus variable
elements such as destination transport services; by
time of consumption, components classified
Components of overall products according to the phase of the trip during which
they are consumed (planning or anticipation,
Overall tourism products consist of numerous travel to the destination, destination activities,
components due to their complex nature. Compo- travel back home, recollection); and by functional
nents may be of tangible or intangible nature, with role, components attracting tourists to the destina-
services such as hotel accommodation, ▶ trans- tion classified as primary tourism ▶ supply or as
portation, and leisure activities largely defining attractions, as well as components facilitating the
the overall experience. These components com- ▶ travel and stay at the destination classified as
plement each other and are functionally secondary tourist supply or as amenities or as
interdependent as each one provides only a part facilitators (Koutoulas 2004).
of the total sum of benefits sought by tourists.
Components come in various forms: “individ-
ual products” sold independently on the market Future research
(such as hotel accommodation, air transport,
admission to attractions); “free” or “public” Tourists increasingly acting as cocreators of tour-
goods such as the climate and the scenery, used ism products are an issue to be further researched
or consumed by tourists free of charge; and “com- and incorporated into the classic marketing the-
plementary” services that cannot be sold indepen- ory. Empowered by a huge amount of up-to-date
dently on the market, such as the services provided content readily available on the internet, tourists
by a tourist information office or a tour leader. are not just passive consumers of travel experi-
The numerous components of the overall tour- ences. Nowadays, they are increasingly demand-
ism products may be distinguished in six different ing the adjustment of their travel experience to
ways: by purpose of creation, components created their personal tastes and preferences and have in
Professionalism 749
many cases become active contributors of value to associations, and countries. It is readily apparent
the tourism products they consume. Businesses that the maturity and success of ▶ international
should be aware of how this development affects tourism no longer reside with the diversity and
their marketing efforts. quality of its products and services; instead, the
focus is now on “how” these enterprises conduct
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization, themselves locally and abroad (O’Fallon and
▶ experience, ▶ marketing, ▶ service. Butterfield 2005). Hence, the fluidity of operating
in an international sphere elevates the importance
of recognizing the interactive effects that exist
among individual, corporate, situational, and
References ▶ culture value systems.
The body of knowledge, inclusive of the con-
Jovicic, Z. 1988 A Plea for Tourismological Theory and cept known as professionalism in tourism, is
Methodology. Revue de Tourisme 3:2-5.
Kotler, P., and G. Armstrong 2008 Principles of Marketing.
bifurcated into two dimensions (O’Fallon and
Upper Saddle River: Pearson Prentice Hall. Butterfield 2005): normative theories which
Koutoulas, D. 2004 Understanding the Tourism Product www. focus on how a person should behave, which
academia.edu/1861406/Understanding_the_Tourism_ implies the application and compliance with nor-
Product (16 September 2014).
Medlik, S., and V. Middleton 1975 The Tourist Product and
mative rules, and positivistic decisionmaking
its Marketing Implications. In The Management of models which pertain to the implementation of
Tourism, A. Burkart and S. Medlik, eds., pp.131-139. ethical decisions within an operational context
London: Heinemann. and the resultant impacts of these decisions. Nor-
Paul, H. 1977 Marketing f€ ur Fremdenverkehr: Leitlinien
f€ur die Dienstleistungs- und Absatzpolitik im
mative theories are founded on Kohlberg’s theory
Herstellerbereich der Fremdenverkehrswirtschaft. which assumes that ethical decisions are evalua-
Frankfurt: RKW. tive and as such are viewed as morally sound or
Vargo, S., and R. Lusch 2006 Service-Dominant Logic: divergent for established mores. While positivist
What It Is, What It Is Not, What It Might Be. In The
Service-Dominant Logic of Marketing, R. Lusch and
“professional conduct models” have led to scien-
S. Vargo, eds, pp.43-56. Armonk: ME Sharpe. tific testing, they extend from the past and
describe an action as “congruent or incongruent”
by focusing on the aggregated effect of
implementing the ethical decision. P
Professionalism Professional conduct is the summative effect of
ethical code of implementation, enforcement of
Randall Upchurch policies and procedures, and alignment of the pro-
Chaplin School of Hospitality and Tourism fessional’s personal ethical code with those
Management, Florida International University, embodied by the corporation. As such, the encul-
Miami, USA turation of professionals in tourism enterprises is a
▶ management tool whereby its members pro-
mote and cultivate ethical interactions among
The concept of ethical conduct has evolved as a and within individuals, teams, and businesses.
body of ▶ knowledge over the last decade. The The primary goal is to perpetuate ethical business
evolution is strongly influenced by ▶ industry practices and growth of the industry by
maturation, global economic conditions, trans- implementing sound ethical practices on a micro-
global political events, and the growing influence scale (within a company) to a macroscale whereby
of multinational companies operating in countries multinational companies promote inbound and
with differing value systems. The mere fact that ▶ outbound tourism between/among countries.
this realm of influence is international in nature Ethical practices have been sanctioned in the
has resulted in strategies sensitive to interaction areas of ▶ sustainable tourism, ▶ ecotourism,
among and within consumers, businesses, and climatic change, to name a few highly
750 Pro-poor tourism
recognized global issues that confront multina- United Nations Millennium Development Goals.
tional companies, tourism businesses, govern- Inspired by the positive outcomes of a series of
ments, and local residents. The importance of pro-poor tourism pilot projects, the UNWTO
ethical conduct in a global economy has been set launches the “Sustainable Tourism for Eliminat-
forth in communiques in the UNWTO’s (2013) ing Poverty” program. In addition to
Global Code of Ethics for Tourism, a comprehen- nongovernment and multilateral organizations,
sive set of principles designed to guide key there are also an increasing number of countries,
players in tourism ▶ development. tourism associations, and investors interested and
Given projected trends surrounding global involved in the promotion and implementation of
development of tourism enterprises, it is evident pro-poor tourism.
that ▶ future scholarly works should focus on
psychological, sociological, cultural, and anthro-
pological impacts associated with conducting Framing pro-poor tourism
businesses in an international ▶ environment.
As advocated by the partnership, pro-poor tour-
See also ▶ Corporate social responsibility, ism centers on expanding and enhancing eco-
▶ decision support system, ▶ development, nomic opportunities for the poor. Much
▶ ethics, ▶ sustainability. emphasis is also put on improving the social and
environmental impacts of tourism development,
such as capacity building, empowerment, and
References access to infrastructure and other basic services.
To actualize these benefits, a reform in policy/
O’Fallon, M., and K. Butterfield 2005 A Review of the process is usually required to facilitate local par-
Empirical Ethical Decision-Making Literature: 1996-
ticipation and engage the private sector. However,
2003. Journal of Business Ethics 59:375-413.
UNWTO 2013 Global Code of Ethics for Tourism. these action guidelines have been criticized for
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. being neither theoretically nor methodologically
innovative. Since any form of tourism can be
pro-poor, it is difficult to draw a clear line between
this and similar concepts, such as community-
Pro-poor tourism based, alternative, and ▶ sustainable tourism.
The working definition, “generating net bene-
Weibing Zhao fits for the poor,” is also not rigid enough. The
Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China assessment of costs and benefits of tourism is
often subjective and even value laden. The criteria
for determining poverty also vary a lot. Because
The concept of pro-poor tourism originates from a of the variations in the interpretation and applica-
research partnership in the late 1990s among three tion of the term, researchers tend to agree that
UK organizations: the International Center for pro-poor tourism is not a distinct form, but, rather,
Responsible Tourism, the International Institute it represents an approach to improving the liveli-
for the Environment and Development, and the hood of poor people by harnessing tourism (Chok
Overseas Development Institute. The pro-poor et al. 2007). In some studies, the use of the term
tourism partnership defines it as tourism that can pro-poor tourism is detached from its original
provide net benefits for poor people (Ashley conceptualization, and generally concerns the
et al. 2001). role of the industry as a development tool
Eradicating extreme poverty is a top priority of (Scheyvens 2007). To avoid confusion, it is
human development, as explicitly stated in the recommended to use a more generic concept,
Pro-poor tourism 751
such as tourism and poverty alleviation/reduction/ suffering is frequently depicted as voyeurism

elimination as a broader view of pro-poor tourism (Frenzel and Koens 2012).
(Zhao and Ritchie 2007). In prospect, despite the ongoing debate over the
value of pro-poor tourism, it is widely recognized
that the industry should and is able to play an active
Pro-poor tourism development role in helping the poor. Influencing mainstream
stakeholders to change their traditional practices
Local participation is emphasized in nearly every and become more pro-poor would be a major chal-
pro-poor tourism effort. Participation can be direct lenge. Any attempt to “standardize” the develop-
or indirect, contingent upon the way the poor reap ment models seems doomed to failure in that the
the benefits from tourism-generated opportunities. root cause of poverty is different and deeply
The ▶ impact on poverty is composed of three embedded in the unique milieu of each location.
parts: direct effects on the poor, secondary effects Therefore, the pro-poor tourism strategy may con-
on the poor, and wider dynamic effects on the tinually be implemented on the basis of projects.
economy and its growth (Mitchell and Ashley There is also a need to unify pro-poor tourism with
2010). Current pro-poor tourism practices are other poverty alleviation approaches. Developing
mostly oriented to enlarging direct effects through systematic and scientific instruments for assessing
facilitating direct participation, but do not attach the progress and impact of development is another
much importance to the other two parts, thereby focus for future research.
constraining the functionality of tourism in
influencing the poor positively.
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ devel-
Pro-poor tourism is not philanthropy. Com-
oping country, ▶ economic development, ▶ slum
mercial viability is paramount because the poor,
tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
with a fragile asset base, cannot afford to fail.
Thus, the macroenvironment and institutional
arrangements must be favorable, and ▶ destina-
tion competitiveness should be built up in order to
References
draw and maintain an acceptable level of tourism
flow that can allow survival (Zhao and Ritchie Ashley, C., D. Roe, and H. Goodwin 2001 Pro-poor Tour-
2007). Stakeholders such as the private sector, ism Strategies: Making Tourism Work for the Poor - P
governments, civil society, tourists, and aid A Review of Experience. http://r4d.dfid.gov.uk/PDF/
Outputs/Mis_SPC/R7557-ppt_report.pdf (19 August
donors take part in pro-poor tourism with various
2013).
motivations and interests, which are not always Chok, S., J. Macbeth, and C. Warren 2007 Tourism as a
pro-poor and concerted. The poor can be easily Tool for Poverty Alleviation: A Critical Analysis of
marginalized due to their vulnerability, so stake- “Pro-poor Tourism” and Implications for Sustainabil-
ity. Current Issues in Tourism 10:144-165.
holder collaboration is critical.
Frenzel, F., and K. Koens 2012 Slum Tourism: Develop-
The political nature of pro-poor tourism is par- ments in a Young Field of Interdisciplinary Tourism
ticularly a concern in the age of globalization and Research. Tourism Geographies 14:195-212.
neoliberal market economy, where addressing Mitchell, J., and C. Ashley 2010 Tourism and Poverty
Reduction: Pathways to Prosperity. London: Earthscan.
equity often gives way to growth (Schilcher
Scheyvens, R. 2007 Exploring the Tourism-Poverty
2007). Significant commitment will be needed to Nexus. Current Issues in Tourism 10:231-254.
solve structural inequities that exacerbate poverty Schilcher, D. 2007 Growth versus Equity: The Continuum
and constrain pro-poor attempts (Chok of Pro-poor Tourism and Neoliberal Governance. Cur-
rent Issues in Tourism 10:166-193.
et al. 2007). Moreover, the ethical ground of orga-
Zhao, W., and J. Ritchie 2007 Tourism and Poverty Alle-
nizing trips to impoverished communities has viation: An Integrative Research Framework. Current
been questioned: “gazing” at the poor and their Issues in Tourism 10:119-143.
752 Protected area tourism
As in the past, the natural settings attract a large

Protected area tourism number of tourists. Where tourism is promoted at
a protected area ▶ destination, it is often a system
Lawal Marafa that comprises of the area itself, the tourism oper-
Department of Geography and Resource ations, and the communities in close proximity
Management, Chinese University of Hong Kong, (Strickland-Munro et al. 2010).
Hong Kong, China
Function
Historically, protected areas represent areas of
land and water set aside for protection by legisla- As tourism continues to grow, it is now a major
tion or culture bequeathed by past civilizations, management issue for most of the protected areas,
subjected to a wide range of management require- as many have been designated as UNESCO world
ments. While these areas receive protection heritage sites. Several of the protected areas have
because of their ecological and natural values, common features. They are mostly created by
some are recognized because of their cultural governments and are generally large areas with
value or wilderness with need for perpetuation relatively natural environments and possibly
(Marafa 2003; Strickland-Munro et al. 2010). indigenous people. They are also managed
There is evidence that protected areas constitute through legal or other effective means (Dudley
a cultural artifact having a very long history. Some 2008). Furthermore, they were made accessible
scholars (Holdgate and Phillips 1999) claimed to people for outdoor ▶ recreation and nature
that this dates back to over two million years ago appreciation. From this perspective, visitation
when protection of natural reserves was under- and tourism became central pillars of the protected
taken in ▶ India. area movement.
Given the nature of the resources, protected The opening up of protected areas has gener-
areas are those places in which human occupation ated specific interest in trends of tourism that
and activities regarding exploitation of resources includes ▶ ecotourism, nature-based, adventure,
are limited. In this regard, some were protected in and ▶ culture and ▶ heritage tourism. Conse-
▶ Europe to provide hunting grounds for the rich quently, it is being recognized that protected
and powerful over 1,000 years ago. A growing areas are vital reserves of the shared natural heri-
number of countries also set aside areas for cul- tage. Despite their status as protected landscapes,
tural uses (as in sacred groves). In more recent they continue to allow well-managed access,
times, protected areas are recognized as vital and appreciation, and enjoyment. Over the years,
essential for biodiversity conservation, as they tourism in protected areas has grown exponen-
protect ecological processes and functions. It is tially. This growth is a result of global increase
these values that warranted the creation of in tourism and also the growing interest among
protected areas by legislation in which the Yel- tourists in seeking experience at natural and
lowstone National Park was created in 1872, mak- cultural heritage destinations that mostly fall
ing it the world’s first national park. Others have within protected areas. Generally, it is recognized
since been created. Protected areas currently cover that it is the quality of the natural environment
approximately 12.3 % of the total global terrestrial that is increasingly seen as a major attraction.
landmass and about 10 % of territorial waters as of While this is seen as an advantage for its develop-
2010. Given their spatial coverage, they represent ment, the pressure to respond to the needs of
the very core areas of conservation strategies for tourists can be a threat. The challenge is to ensure
terrestrial as well as the marine ecosystems, given that tourism is well managed so that benefits will
that they contain most of the precious biological accrue to the site and the proponents of the tour-
wealth of the planet. ism industry.
Psychology 753
Challenges See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ con-

servation, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ park tourism,
One of the main challenges is to balance the flow ▶ sustainable tourism.
and behavior of tourists to the protected areas with
the conservation goals. Generally the varied geo-
graphical structure of the protected area can
mostly offer strong instruments for a management References
strategy that can be oriented toward finding a
balance between ▶ tourist flow and resource Dudley, N. (ed.) 2008 Guidelines for Applying Protected
Area Management Categories. Gland: IUCN.
protection. Eagles, P., S. McCool, and C. Haynes 2002 Sustainable
If the tourism industry is well conceived and Tourism in Protected Areas. Gland: IUCN.
operated in a sustainable way, it can be a strong Holdgate, M., and A. Phillips 1999 Protected Areas in
force for conservation and will generate income Context. In Integrated Protected Area Management,
M. Walkey, I. Swingland and S. Russell, eds., pp.1-
for parks and the local communities within 24. Boston: Kluwer.
them. It will also create awareness and ensure Marafa, L. 2003 Identifying Wilderness in the Landscapes
support from tourists for the purpose of contin- of Hong Kong Urban Periphery. International Journal
uous protection of the resources that attracted of Wilderness 9(3):39–43.
Strickland-Munro, J., H. Allison, and S. Moore 2010 Using
them in the first place. Earlier, Eagles Resilience Concepts to Investigate the Impacts of
et al. (2002) estimated that about 10 % of Protected Area Tourism on Communities. Annals of
tourists worldwide wish to visit natural and Tourism Research 37:499–519.
cultural heritage sites, making this the fastest
growing segment of the industry. In the United
States, this patronage has increased from less
than 40 million after the World War II to over Psychology
300 million in present times.
Although the rise of ▶ international tourism Kevin Moore
means that more and more tourists have the oppor- Faculty of Environment, Society and Design,
tunity to enjoy protected areas, there is also an Lincoln University, Lincoln, Canterbury,
increasing concern over the impacts that such New Zealand
visits might cause. It is important to recognize P
that tourism in protected areas can add to the
costs of management. Proponents and curators Over the past 150 years, the discipline of psychol-
have to invest in, manage, and maintain tourism ogy has developed from a small, laboratory-based
facilities; moreover, tourists’ presence and actions offshoot of philosophy to one of the most widely
can result in serious negative impacts onto sensi- applied bodies of modern, social scientific knowl-
tive areas. edge. One historian of psychology has called the
Finally, protected area tourism brings benefits twentieth century “the century of psychology.”
in several ways and, if successful, provides alter- This was to emphasize the applied and socially
native income. It might also reduce the natural instrumental orientation of the discipline from its
resources within the host communities. Given beginnings and its consequent application through-
that protected areas are unique landscapes with out society. Today, the areas covered by its profes-
different trends of tourist activities, monitoring sional specializations include mental illness,
and management studies are necessary on counseling, industrial and organizational settings,
such sites. Research results will have to be sports, criminal forensics, ▶ education, personality
place specific. Other aspect that will require assessment, health, military, family, and ▶ law.
future research is conflict of use that occurs in In the nineteenth century, scientific psychology
protected areas. focused on the study of conscious experience. By
754 Psychology
the early twentieth century, the focus had radically geographers, sociologists, and leisure and recrea-
shifted toward investigating behavior and the law- tion researchers are doing much work which at
ful relationships between it and external condi- heart is psychological” (1991: 150). This fact
tions. This emphasis involved the investigation highlights the useful distinction between the dis-
of processes of conditioning and, consequently, cipline of psychology and the psychology of a
either denied altogether or saw as irrelevant for the ▶ tourist. The latter need not be studied from the
explanation of behavior any theoretical under- perspective of the former.
standing of mental processes within the individ- Much work on the psychology of destination
ual. It was not until the second half of the last decisionmaking and choice, for example, has
century that the unit of analysis shifted again, this stemmed from work in economics, marketing,
time to the study of cognitive (thought) processes and consumer behavior rather than psychology
and, less prominently, emotions and motivation. (Decrop 2006; March and Woodside 2009).
The cognitive approach came to dominate both While there is conceptual overlap and cross-
individual and social psychology (the latter refers pollination between these disciplines, psycholog-
to the psychological rather than the sociological ical concepts and frameworks have often been
version). From its origins in information used in an ad hoc manner primarily as support
processing theory and the analogy between the for these other disciplinary perspectives and the
mind and the computer, cognitive science questions of interest to them. In particular, the
(including cognitive psychology) has evolved questions being investigated were practical ones
into a sophisticated paradigm that is becoming about how to identify markets, generate tourist
increasingly integrated with neuroscience and visits to a ▶ destination, limit the impacts of that
evolutionary theory. visitation, and provide satisfying experiences to
Recent theoretical and empirical developments promote further visits by the same or new tourists.
have been in such areas as evolutionary psychol- Market segmentation studies have sometimes
ogy, behavioral genetics, human development, made use of psychological studies of personality
neuropsychology, neurodevelopment, and or motivation to provide useful theoretical
embodied cognition. There has also been the frameworks for profiling distinct tourism con-
emergence over the last 30 years of social consumers, for example, Stanley Plog’s (2001)
structionist and discursive approaches. These psychocentric-allocentric personality model.
recent approaches have highlighted the Some researchers have explicitly argued
interdependence of internal mental processes and against the idea that psychological theories and
external environments and events. As a result, the concepts should be directly applied to tourist
boundary between the individual mind and the behavior. Instead, it has been claimed that the
world has become less obvious. particular context of tourism requires unique
modeling and development of distinctive theoret-
ical frameworks that incorporate but are not
Application to tourism constrained by psychological models or theories
of tourist behavior. As a result, theories of tourist
Initially, much of the work on the psychology of behavior – such as Seppo Iso-Ahola’s theory of
tourists examining experience derived from disci- recreational travel, Philip Pearce’s “travel career
plines other than psychology. Human geography, ladder” (later, “travel career tapestry”), and the
consumer behavior, sociology, ▶ leisure and rec- psychocentric-allocentric personality theory –
reation studies, ▶ marketing and ▶ economics are amalgams of ideas from various other
provided many of the early studies and conceptual disciplines alongside standard psychological con-
frameworks for the study of decisionmaking, cepts and theories.
tourist behavior, and experiences. As Pearce Despite the presence of hybrid models and
and Stringer put it, “[i]n the absence of a theories, the areas of tourist behavior most often
broad psychological thrust in tourism, studied from a predominantly psychological
Psychology 755
perspective are tourist motivation, decisionmaking, visitation and also to determine the role and mean-
and the social psychology and dynamics of inter- ing of tourism in the lives of individuals.
actions with others (other tourists, locals, and
industry personnel including tour guides) and
with places (Pearce 1982; Stringer and Pearce Emergent developments
1984). Focus on these areas is not surprising since
motivation helps determine travel choices, and New avenues being pursued at the interface
much of the tourist experience depends upon the between psychology and tourism project along
nature and quality of interactions. Together, these both theoretical and thematic dimensions. Recent
processes are thought to result in both the quality of and promising theoretical approaches include
the tourist experience and the level of satisfaction it incorporation of social constructionist and discur-
produces. sive psychological perspectives to help explore
The psychology of decisionmaking has the emergence and dynamic development of moti-
recently expanded beyond modeling of the cogni- vational, decisionmaking, and experiential pro-
tive processes of information search, selection, cesses in tourism social settings (Pearce 2005).
and choices made by individuals. Building upon These perspectives provide a useful fit with the
earlier work on family-based tourism decision- real-time and interactive coproduction of the psy-
making (van Raaij and Francken 1984), social chological processes and experiences of tourists,
psychological accounts of that now also consider an area that, to date, has been underresearched.
the broader social construction of decisions Similarly, there has been recent focus on con-
and the discursive means by which they are ceptualizing the distinctive nature of the tourism
often transmitted and determined. As tourism experience from a subjective, phenomenological
products become more diversified and complex, perspective. This work distinguishes itself
research has also begun to focus on how through a focus on the felt, affectively and sub-
decisions evolve and adapt during experiences. jectively salient, and unfolding experience rather
Some attempts have also recently been made than on a strictly behavioral and outcome-oriented
to model these dynamic decision processes account (Gnoth and Matteucci 2014). Signifi-
through application of complex systems theory cantly, these phenomenological approaches con-
and agent-based models, among other leading- tinue the tradition (Stringer and Pearce 1991) of
edge developments in decision theory and understanding the ▶ psychology of tourism by P
modeling. drawing upon intellectual trends beyond, but
Tourist behaviors have most often been under- overlapping with, the discipline of psychology.
stood to emerge out of interactions with people Such trends include strands of ▶ phenomenology,
and places. Psychological insights into the causal anthropology, and post-structuralism.
processes underpinning these interactions and the Current theoretical developments in psychol-
emotional quality of the experiences include stud- ogy that are less well represented in tourism
ies of orientation to new environments (built, nat- research include work in evolutionary psychol-
ural, and social); the development of attitudes to ogy, embodied and situated cognition, behavioral
places, host communities, and experiences; and genetics (e.g., in relation to personality traits), and
the dynamics of place attachment. There has been cognitive neuroscience. While such developments
increasing use, for example, of models of attitude may seem a long way from the usual focus of
formation and change (such as the theory of tourism research, they nevertheless represent
planned behavior and the elaboration likelihood potential areas for developing future insights into
model) in attempts to understand how impressions motivational, perceptual, emotional, and attitudi-
of destinations and host communities are made. nal responses of tourists. Evolutionary
The study of post-trip processes of memory and approaches, for example, provide insights into
reminiscence of experiences has also been pur- status-seeking, decisionmaking processes, moti-
sued, in part to understand likelihood of repeat vation, emotional responses, intergroup contact,
756 Psychology
and the basis of cooperation and trust, all of which perceptions of tourists and tourism have been
are relevant to a psychological understanding of investigated, there is considerable opportunity to
tourism. Embodied cognition, similarly, has expand understanding of the host experience
promise for understanding the performative through application of insights from psychology
aspects of experiences, aspects that have been of (in-group/out-group dynamics, ▶ identity forma-
broad interest to a range of tourism researchers. tion, attribution processes). Similarly, psycholog-
Emergent thematic areas of interest for psy- ical study of the interactions between front-line
chologists of tourism include the effects of new personnel and both tourists and locals would help
technologies and ▶ social media on decision- complete a social psychological account of the
making and experience (“eTourism”), the rela- experience.
tionships between behavior and ▶ wellbeing, Over the past 30 years, the psychological study
and psychological processes that mediate between of tourism has increased in sophistication and in
behavior and issues of ▶ sustainability, such as in the variety of concepts and theories applied to its
▶ slow tourism (Pearce 2011). New technologies setting. Further opportunities exist for broadening
allow information to be accessed independently this application while, at the same time, integrat-
and progressively in real time. These changes ing psychological insights with other perspectives
are increasing the dynamism of decisionmaking in a way that improves the understanding of the
and thus provide further challenges for the suc- behavior of tourists and other stakeholders. As a
cessful prediction and modeling of tourists’ consequence, such broadening is likely to attract
behaviors and experiences. There are also pro- the interest of more psychologists and social psy-
found implications for how the industry is chologists to the psychology of tourism and thus
represented in decisionmaking that is more and increase its potential for contributing to an overall
more instantaneously mediated “peer to peer” understanding of human behavior.
among tourists. Similarly, these technological
developments raise important psychological ques-
tions about the effect such technologies have on See also ▶ Cognition, ▶ decisionmaking,
experiences and on how tourists deal with com- ▶ eTourism, ▶ experience, ▶ optimal arousal.
plex, dynamic (yet still mediated) informational
environments.
Psychologists are focusing increasingly on fac-
tors associated with wellbeing and, in particular, References
subjective wellbeing (self-reported assessments of
happiness and life satisfaction). The extent to Decrop, A. 2006 Vacation Decision Making. Wallingford:
CABI.
which travel experience contributes to, or detracts
Gnoth, J., and X. Matteucci 2014 A Phenomenological
from, wellbeing and the particular forms of tourist View of the Behavioural Tourism Literature. Interna-
behavior that optimize it are new areas of focus. tional Journal of Culture, Tourism and Hospitality
This concern with wellbeing also dovetails in Research 8:3-21.
March, R., and A. Woodside 2009 Tourism Behaviour:
interesting ways with the prospects for such
Traveller’s Decisions and Actions. Wallingford: CABI.
forms as slow, volunteer, ethical, and ▶ sustain- Pearce, P. 1982 The Social Psychology of Tourist Behav-
able tourism. That is, desire for the preservation of iour. Oxford: Pergamon.
the beneficial qualities derived from tourism dur- Pearce, P. 2005 Tourist Behaviour: Themes and Concep-
tual Schemes. Clevedon: Channel View.
ing a period of potential resource depletion, peak Pearce, P. 2011 Tourist Behaviour and the Contemporary
oil, ▶ climate change, and ▶ sustainability chal- World. Bristol: Channel View.
lenges has reignited research interest in the factors Plog, S. 2001 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in
that lead to optimal experiences and wellbeing. Popularity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administra-
tion Quarterly 42(3):13-24.
Finally, psychological research has targeted,
Stringer, P., and P. Pearce 1984 Toward a Symbiosis of
with few exceptions, the tourist. Less well under- Social Psychology and Tourism Studies. Annals of
stood is the psychology of other actors. While host Tourism Research 11:5-14.
Public good 757
Stringer, P., and P. Pearce 1991 Psychology and Tourism. The concept of public goods is becoming
Annals of Tourism Research 18:136-154. increasingly important at the international and
Van Raaij, W., and D. Francken 1984 Vacation Decisions,
Activities and Satisfactions. Annals of Tourism global levels. For example, many environmental
Research 11:101-112. issues, such as climate change, transcend national
borders, and providing a stable climate is in
essence a global public good. Therefore, their
provision faces an even greater challenge. The
Public good free-riding incentives are even stronger when the
number of people is larger. Thus, another impor-
Milka Ivanova tant challenge is that cooperation is difficult
Institute for Tourism Research, University of among sovereign nations. International coordina-
Bedfordshire, Luton, UK tion requires agreement and enforcement among
them, many with different or conflicting interests
and rules of law (Kotchen 2014).
A public good is an economic concept that refers
to one of the four main types of goods grouped on
the basis of their excludability and rivalry Public goods in tourism studies
(Mankwin and Taylor 2011). It can be defined as
a good that, once produced, can be consumed by The notion of public goods is relevant to tourism
additional consumers at no additional cost and because the ▶ product and ▶ image packaged by
without diminishing its use value. Consumers intermediaries and sold as a ▶ destination experi-
cannot be excluded from using them once they ence are highly dependent on the goodwill and
are produced; hence, public goods are neither cooperation of host communities (Murphy 2013).
excludable nor rival (Mankwin and Taylor Many attractions and places visited are public
2011). Some examples include national defense, property or goods. Memorable experience is as
knowledge creation, fighting against poverty, and much a result from excellent ▶ hospitality service
the internet. as it is from the hospitality of the local public
Since public goods are non-excludable, people (Murphy 2013). The product depends on private
can receive their benefit without paying (free companies’ decisions and on the public attributes
rider); as a result, the private market lacks an of the destination (cultural legacy, public safety, P
incentive to provide such goods. However, the degree of preservation of the environment, brand
government can potentially remedy the problem. image, public infrastructures, or street cleanli-
If it decides the potential benefits of producing ness). All of these have a certain degree of
public goods exceed the cost, it can provide them non-rivalry and of non-excludability, as they are
with tax revenue, thus benefiting the society characteristic of public goods.
(Mankwin and Taylor 2011). Not everyone agrees The concept of public goods in tourism studies
that the private market lacks incentives to produce has been applied mainly from an economic per-
public goods and the government is the only spective. Research focuses on their embedding
available option. Holcombe (1997) argues that components in the tourism product, public-private
they can be and are efficiently produced in the cooperation and financing, the role of tourism in
private sectors. Examples include computer soft- local ▶ development, and the economic inclusion
ware, television and radio broadcasts, and the like. of public goods (Yadav and O’Neill 2013). To a
Common resources are similar to public goods; lesser extent, research has been carried out on
however, they are non-excludable yet rival. Many their role in ▶ sustainable tourism development
categories are sometimes included in the list of and policies such as the works of Peter Keller on
public goods, such as clean air, water, wildlife, public interest and the ▶ commercialization of
and congested public roads (Mankwin and Taylor public goods such as ▶ culture and ▶ environ-
2011). ment through tourism (M€uller 2015). ▶ Other
758 Public relation
studies explore how ▶ resources created mainly References

for tourism are used by the local population as
well or how many others are shared in common Briassoulis, H. 2002 Sustainable Tourism and the Question
of the Commons. Annals of Tourism Research
with local people in everyday life. More often
29:1065-1085.
than not, resources are overused and degraded. Holcombe, R. 1997 A Theory of the Theory of Public
This is the aspect that distinguishes public from Goods. The Review of Austrian Economics 10:1-22.
common goods. In such cases, sustainable devel- Kotchen, M. 2014 Public Goods. In Environmental and
Natural Resource Economics: An Encyclopedia,
opment is severely threatened: economic
T. Haab and J. Whitehead, eds., pp. 271-273. Santa
wellbeing declines, environmental conditions Barbara: Greenwood.
worsen, social injustice grows, and ultimately Mankwin, N., and M. Taylor 2011 Microeconomics.
▶ tourist satisfaction drops (Briassoulis 2002). Andover: Cengage Learning.
M€uller, H. 2015 Peter Keller: A Pioneer of a Sustainable
Other areas of research into public goods such
Tourism Policy. In Tourism and Leisure: Current Issues
as ▶ heritage, ▶ pollution, poverty, and ▶ terror- and Perspectives of Development, H. Pechlaner and
ism transcend national borders and are also E. Smeral, eds., pp. 41-50. Berlin: Springer.
reflected in tourism studies. However, such Murphy, P. 2013 Tourism: A Community Approach. New
York: Routledge.
research seldom engages in the notion of public
Yadav, L., and S. O’Neill 2013 Is There Agreement
goods as identified in economics. Rather, it between Beneficiaries on Who Should Bear the Costs
focuses on specific concepts and does not exam- of Conserving Farm Landscapes? Tourism Manage-
ine the definition or the underlying assumptions ment 39:62-70.
of them.
Insights on the concept Public relation
In tourism studies, the concept of public goods is Assumpció Huertas

used mostly in its economic sense. The field con- Rovira i Virgili University, Tarragona, Spain
tributes to its understanding in terms of the public-
private cooperation in the industry where public
goods (and all their social, cultural, and environ- “Public relations” is a concept, a field of study, and
mental aspects) are integral and inseparable parts a profession based on the ▶ management of strate-
of the tourism product. Thus, private companies gic communication among organizations and their
have vested economic interest and incentives of publics. The objective is to build trust among them
the sustainable development and maintenance of and to achieve a positive image in general. In this
public goods despite the free-rider issue. respect, public relations have many connections
Public goods present a fertile area of research with tourism and become necessary in its ▶ devel-
in tourism beyond their economic and financial opment. Actually some scholars use “tourism PR”
measures. Recent critical studies call for post- as an area by itself (L’Etang et al. 2007).
disciplinary investigation of public goods and Public relations are necessary in the communi-
issues of power, access, representations, ▶ heri- cation of companies, tourism institutions, and also
tage, ▶ identity, ▶ globalization/glocalization, destinations because both places and services
poverty, ▶ migration, ▶ terrorism, and other address themselves to a broad range of publics.
bumpy terrains that are present and/or ▶ play Their main aim is to build relationships with
themselves out in tourism. diverse publics and generate good images. Both
private and public organizations use public rela-
See also ▶ Economics, ▶ governance, ▶ politi- tions activities in their promotion and
cal science, ▶ resource, ▶ sustainable tourism. communication.
Public relation 759
Despite its importance, the number of studies on studies on this subject have proliferated: research
this subject is few (L’Etang 2006). There has mainly on how tourism organizations use social media in
been a predominance of theoretical development their communication and investigations into how
and research from the ▶ marketing perspective social media influences their publics.
(Huertas 2008). However, due to the importance As a prospect, more research is needed on the
of ▶ social media in communication, more recent relationship between tourism organizations and
research on communicative aspects of tourism busi- their publics in order to achieve equitable and
nesses and institutions has been undertaken from sustainable development of the ▶ industry.
the public relations perspective. A growth of litera- ▶ Future research should also focus on the use
ture has been notable in the areas of cultural studies; of new communication technologies for public
▶ tourist businesses and services; logos, ▶ destina- relations in tourism.
tion branding, event, and place image; public rela-
tions of nations and countries; and more
See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ festival and
importantly the use of new information and com-
event, ▶ image, ▶ social media, ▶ stakeholder.
munication technologies in tourism.
While websites are important channels of com-
munication, the great revolution in the area of
References
tourism public relations has been generated by
social media (Yoo and Kim 2013). These are Huertas, A. 2008 Public Relations and Tourism: Fighting
fundamental tools of public relations for users to for the Role of Public Relations in Tourism. Public
post comments and for organizations to create Relations Review 34:406-408.
L’Etang, J. 2006 Public Relations in Sport, Health and
dialogs and establish relationships with their pub-
Tourism. In Public Relations: Critical Debates and
lics. Because of the intangibility and underlying Contemporary Practice, J. L’Etang and M. Pieczka,
risks associated with the purchase of tourism eds., pp. 241-264. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum.
products and services, the opinions and comments L’Etang, J., J. Falkheimer and J. Lugo. 2007 Public Rela-
tions and Tourism: Critical Reflections and a Research
of other disinterested users provide credibility and
Agenda. Public Relations Review 33:68-76.
trust in tourism decisionmaking. Thus, social Yoo, K., and J. Kim. 2013 How US State Tourism Offices
media have become a key tool for communication Use Online Newsrooms and Social Media in Media
and public relations in tourism. Two types of Relations. Public Relations Review 39:534-541.
P
Q
Qatar $6.35bn (QAR23.1bn, or 1.7 % of GDP) by 2024

(WTTC 2014).
Dan Musinguzi, Eddy K. Tukamushaba and Qatar is endowed with numerous attractions
Razan El Khatib and resources, including sand dunes, museums,
Stenden University Qatar, Doha, Qatar traditional souqs, beaches, sports venues, exhibi-
tion and conference facilities, as well as local
Qatari and Arab culture (QTA 2014). These pro-
The State of Qatar occupies 11,586 km2 vide opportunities for the nation to leverage its
(4,473 mi2) (Figure 1) and has a population of socioeconomic transformation. As Qatar prepares
about 2.12 million of whom Arabs constitute to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, the country is
40 %, Indians 18 %, Pakistanis 18 %, Iranians currently undergoing rapid change hand in hand
10 %, and others 14 % (CIA 2013). Qatar is rich in with the country’s tourism development.
hydrocarbon resources such as natural gas and oil. Qatar Tourism Authority has launched its long-
They are among the main sources of revenue, but range ▶ national tourism strategy to make Qatar a
tourism is also being promoted to diversify the premier ▶ destination (QTA 2014). It has invested
country’s economy. in infrastructure that will make the country attrac-
Tourism is expected to play a significant role in tive to international tourists. In 2013, 1.2 million
the country’s social and economic development arrivals were recorded. This figure is expected to
(Qatar General Secretariat 2012). The direct contri- increase to seven million by 2030 (QTA 2013).
bution of ▶ travel and tourism to GDP in 2013 was Business tourists, visiting friends and relatives,
US$3.74 bn (QAR13.6bn) or 1.8 % of GDP. This is and “authentic discoverers” are the main targeted
expected to rise by 9.1 % to $4.09 bn (QAR14.9bn) segments.
by the end of 2014. The economic activity is gener- The key challenge is how to overcome the lack
ated by industries such as hotels, travel agents, of brand identity and inadequate supply of tourism
airlines and other passenger transportation services, ▶ education institutions. There is only one uni-
the activities of restaurants, and leisure industries. It versity in the country offering tourism and ▶ hos-
is estimated that about 86,000 jobs are supported by pitality education at an undergraduate level. This
the travel and tourism businesses. Its direct contri- limitation has led to the number of qualified
bution to GDP is expected to grow by 4.5 % to human resources within Qatar to remain low,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
762 Q-methodology
51°00′ 51°30′
QTA 2014 Qatar National Tourism Sector Strategy. Doha:
Qatar Tourism Authority.
Persian Gulf WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2012:
Madinat Qatar. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
ash Shamäl
BAHRAIN
Al Khuwayr
26°00′ 26°00′
Gulf of
Ras Laffan
Bahrain Industrial City
HAWÄR
ISLANDS
(BAHRAIN) Al Khawr Q-methodology
Umm
25°30′ Saläl ‘Ali 25°30′ Chris Phelan
Dukhän Umm Saläl Lincoln Business School, University of Lincoln,
Muhammad
Ar Rayyän
DOHA Lincoln, UK
Dawhat Umm Bäb
Salwá Al Wakrah
Umm Sa’id
25°00′ 25°00′ Q-methodology is an empirical technique focus-
ing on the subjective first person viewpoints of
participants, in a way that allows for measurement
Tuwayyir al
Hamír Persian and controlled comparison among individuals.
Gulf
Stephenson (1953) developed an innovative adap-
24°30′ 24°30′
tation of the traditional factor analysis method to
S AU D I
A R A B IA describe groups of individuals rather than groups
0 10 20 km of variables.
0 10 20 mi
The island of Hälül is not shown. 51°00′ 51°30′
U.A.E . Within Q-methodology, participants rank vari-
ables, which are typically written statements,
Qatar, Figure 1 Map of Qatar items, or images and which are drawn from the
literature that represents all known forms of com-
munication (the “concourse”) on the topic. These
items traditionally take the form of cards which
thus leading to overdependence on expert labor
are given to participants who are then asked to
force (QTA 2014). Qatar’s commitment to becom-
rank them along a forced distribution, for
ing a knowledge-based economy, by encouraging
instance, from “most agree” (+4) to “most dis-
quality research, is an important strategic move
agree” ( 4). This ranking, known as Q-sort,
toward overcoming the current challenges facing
reflects an individual’s understanding on a given
its tourism and hospitality industry, and other
subject, with Stephenson’s inverted factor analyt-
sectors.
ical technique subsequently identifying patterns
across individuals. Thus, a Q-study bridges the
See also ▶ Desert tourism, ▶ destination brand-
quantitative-qualitative divide and offers a meth-
ing, ▶ Middle East, ▶ sport tourism.
odological hybrid given the emphasis on both
factor analytical technique and the ability to map
the subjectively held beliefs of the participants
References (McKeown and Thomas 1988; Watts and Stenner
CIA 2013 The World Factbook 2013-2014. Central Intelli-
2012).
gence Agency https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/ Q-methodology has only recently been applied
the-world-factbook/geos/qa.html (7 May 2014). in tourism research, though it enjoys a greater
Qatar General Secretariat 2012 Qatar National Vision ▶ heritage in wider social science disciplines
2030. Doha: Qatar General Secretariat for Develop-
ment Planning.
such as psychology, health, ▶ political science,
QTA 2013 Qatar Mini Visitors’ Guide. Dubai: Explorer and rural studies. Stergiou and Airey (2011) advo-
Group. cate the use of this technique as a rich
Qualitative research 763
methodological alternative that emphasizes the

lived experiences of individuals, democratizes Qualitative research
the research process, and aids the “critical turn”
in tourism studies. As an innovative approach, Carina Ren
the technique is earning a small but growing pres- Department of Culture and Global Studies,
ence in tourism, particularly in the context of Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark
visual Q-sorts. For instance, Fairweather and
Swaffield (2002) use a visual Q-sort of tourist
images, to understand the experiences sought Qualitative research refers to inquiries applying a
and appreciated by visitors to ▶ New Zealand. range of qualitative methods in order to inductively
They identify four factors (sublime nature, iconic explore, interpret, and understand a given field or
tourism, New Zealand family, and picturesque object under study. Qualitative research in tourism
landscape) which show how Q-methodology can takes its inspiration primarily from the cultural and
be used to advance the understanding of destina- social sciences such as anthropology and sociol-
tion image. ogy. Most often, the aim of this research approach
As illustrated above, Q-methodology offers an is to explore and search for meaning or to develop
alternative and innovative methodological an understanding through empirical studies, gener-
approach to studying tourism and is especially ating rich descriptions or collecting material, which
useful in situations centering upon how individ- may become subject to interpretation. Qualitative
uals give meaning to their worlds. However, research seeks to avoid making generalizations,
the extent to which the technique can foster grand claims, and reductions and is often charac-
more critical paths of inquiry in tourism terized by a high level of reflectivity and sensitivity
▶ knowledge remains to be seen. Moreover, to power relations and ambiguity. All of these
future work must elucidate the extent to which characteristics will be elaborated further below.
the technique bridges the quantitative-qualitative The concept of qualitative research covers a
divide and marks a departure from positivist range of methodologies, but is usually contrasted
inquiry. with and seen in opposition to quantitative and
deductive research, as it attempts to explore the
complexity and fragmentary nature of the social
See also ▶ Factor analysis, ▶ methodology,
world of tourism. This exploration can be carried
▶ qualitative research, ▶ quantitative research.
out through ethnographic fieldwork and/or by
applying various methods, which seek to deploy Q
more inductive and explorative approaches. Such
References methods include interviews, participant or
nonparticipant observations, focus groups, text
Fairweather, J., and S. Swaffield 2002 Visitors’ and Locals’ and discourse analysis, photo and video documen-
Experiences of Rotorua, New Zealand: An Interpreta- tation or elicitation, semiotic studies,
tive Study Using Photographs of Landscapes and
Q Method. International Journal of Tourism Research
autoethnography, and virtual ethnography
4:283-297. (netnography). More recently, attempts have been
McKeown, B., and D. Thomas 1988 Q Methodology. Lon- made to explore relations between the performing
don: Sage. arts and social science, e.g., through innovative
Stephenson, W. 1953 The Study of Behavior: Q-Technique
and Its Methodology. Chicago: University of Chicago
methods such as poetry and virtual curating.
Press.
Stergiou, D., and D. Airey 2011 Q-Methodology and
Tourism Research. Current Issues in Tourism Ontology, epistemology, methodology
14:311-322.
Watts, S., and P. Stenner 2012 Doing Q Methodological
Research: Theory, Method and Interpretation. As a multidisciplinary field, tourism research has
London: Sage. incorporated a broad variety of discipline-based
764 Qualitative research
methodologies to study tourism as an economic identity, Othering, performativity, and embodi-

and sociocultural phenomenon. The question of ment, as well as gender, race, and other
what methods to apply when conducting research inequality-related issues.
has long been a contested issue within tourism The application of qualitative inquiry has meant
research. This is explained by how the choice of a need to question and redefine criteria and research
methods is not only a question of “selecting the standards otherwise used in tourism research, as
tools” to carry out research but is also intrinsically qualitative approach does not (seek to) conform to
linked to ontological, epistemological, and politi- ideals such as truth, objectivity, and validity
cal/philosophical issues of what to study, how to retrieved in the positivist sciences. In order to
study it, and for what aims. This demonstrates develop new ways by which to distinguish and
how the phenomenon of tourism, the methods of evaluate good qualitative research, Jamal and
its research, and the analytical engagement into its Hollinshead (2001) suggested transparency, reflex-
unfolding richness cannot be compartmentalized, ivity, and dialog as essential when engaging in
but should be holistically grasped in conjunction. qualitative research. Hence, the development and
Qualitative tourism research does not consti- strengthening of qualitative inquiry has challenged
tute one singular body of research. Nor is it in any tourism research as a positivist or strictly business-
way “epistemologically aligned.” Rather, it directed science. It offers not only new methods
covers many theoretical and philosophical posi- and tools to engage with the field of study but also
tions, such as hermeneutics, phenomenology, other standards by which to articulate and grasp
post-structuralism, and social constructivism. it. This has also led to a new understanding of the
Many different research strategies are deployed, performative capacities of methods and of how
but a unifying trait is the wish to accommodate for researching tourism is also a way of creating it in
nonquantifiable or noncumulative ways of certain ways rather than others.
enquiring into, understanding, and representing
tourism. Hence, qualitative tourism research
urges one to engage holistically as well as reflex- Qualitative research in tourism
ively with tourism and with tourism research.
Qualitative tourism research not only refers to Whether to apply quantitative or qualitative
(qualitative) methods but also denotes a larger methods has been the subject of intense discussion
movement which challenges the previously dom- and has often been accompanied with a dichoto-
inating role of quantitative methods within the mous view of the field of tourism research as
study of tourism. This movement is reflected in divided into a business-driven (quantitative) and
the emergence of new tourism research (Tribe socially oriented (qualitative) fraction. Its
2005) and critical tourism studies (Ateljevic abstaining from reductionist representations and
et al. 2007), which challenge functionalist and explanations has meant that until the late 1990s,
business-centered approaches to studying tour- qualitative research occupied a marginal position in
ism. What characterizes these approaches are tourism journal publications and doctoral thesis
their attempts to raise attention to tourism as a writings (Riley and Love 2000). Up until recently,
cultural and socio-material phenomenon as the understanding of qualitative research as unable
opposed to merely an industry or an area of (or rather unwilling) to deliver the types of out-
study confined to business, economics, and man- come, which “explain and predict” tourism, has
agement. Instead of seeking immediate results impacted upon its ability to gain general
or closure, it also attends to tourism realities acceptance.
(and research) as sensibilities, as ways to relate Only slowly has tourism research made room
to and create the world, and as context-specific for the changes in social and cultural sciences,
processes of living and knowing. Both methodo- which since the 1960s had opened up to new
logically and analytically, critical tourism “alternative” paradigms and subsequent method-
research centers on themes such as power, ologies. By the turn of the millennium, qualitative
Qualitative research 765
research was increasingly gaining ground and has social and business research, teaching, funding,
now become accepted as an essential and valid publishing, as well as other practical and
tourism research strategy to a broader audience of “applied” activities, all of which engage with
tourism scholars. This is exemplified by the col- and construct tourism research as a field of
lection of articles entitled Qualitative Research in practice.
Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and Meth-
odologies edited by Phillimore and Goodman
(2004), the first book on qualitative tourism Future of qualitative tourism research
research methods to be published as a paperback.
Also, it is reflected in the foundation of journals As divided fractions in tourism research recon-
based on qualitative research such as Tourist Stud- cile, the application of qualitative and quantita-
ies (2001) and a drastic rise in qualitative tive methods may also become less contested,
research-based publications in prominent journals potentially leading the way to new ways of
such as Annals of Tourism Research and, to a engaging with and creatively conjoining qualita-
lesser degree, Tourism Management. tive and quantitative methods and methodologies
in the years to come. For instance, the huge
amounts of big data currently being generated
Tourism as a heterogeneous field online represent a challenge – as well as an
opportunity, for qualitative research. An example
Since the turn of the century, the research com- of this is to be found in Jóhannesson et al. (2014),
munity is progressively coming to terms with the in which digital methods are introduced as a way
contributions of qualitative research in generating to mapping controversies. It is argued that the
knowledge in and about tourism. In continuation ongoing devising and use of numeric visualiza-
to this, new issues and interests regarding the tion tools to explore issues online affords new
application and role of qualitative research can lines of inquiry which cut across the conven-
also be identified. One is a growing appreciation tional quantitative/qualitative divide, spurring
in business and management of the rich material new questions about tourism and its relational
and knowledge generated by qualitative research, ontologies.
for instance, through ethnography. As cultural A different, but undoubtedly related direction
insights are increasingly being perceived as “use- which qualitative tourism research is taking is
ful” in developing and managing tourism, linked to the ever more widespread attention to
“applied,” corporate, or business ethnography is complexity, multiplicity, and intangible issues Q
on the rise. This trend raises new and critical drawing, for instance, on insights from cultural
questions on the changing impacts and power and gender studies as well as science and technol-
relations of qualitative research and knowledge ogy studies. Already in 2001, in the first editorial
production. of Tourist Studies, Franklin and Crang called upon
Another issue related to the status and practice new tools with which to study tourism not only as
of qualitative tourism research is the emerging an industry and business but also as a mundane,
critique of the dichotomous perception of tourism embodied, enacted, and localized practice. Since
as either strictly instrumental or purely then, a focus on mobility, affect, emotions, mate-
intrinsic. This understanding of research as riality, everyday life, and performativity has
divided into two incommensurable “camps” is increased immensely and shown how cultural or
gradually being replaced by a view of investiga- social issues are not exogenous, but rather intrin-
tion as a highly complex network composed of sically linked to – or even cocreated in – tourism.
heterogeneous and partially coherent practices. Such movements have necessitated and spurred
As an alternative to seeing the research in this new methods of inquiring into the highly hetero-
field as bisected, one could also describe it, as geneous and relational, glocally situated, and
done in Ren et al. (2010), as an intermingle of fleeting practices of tourism.
766 Quality of life
In 2000, Riley and Love did not hold high Jóhannesson, G., C. Ren, R. van der Duim, and A. Munk
hopes for the state and future development of 2014 Actor-Network Theory and Tourism Research:
Approaches, Implications and Future Opportunities.
qualitative research in tourism. Today, however, In Tourism Methodologies: New Perspectives, Prac-
qualitative research is continuously expanding its tices and Procedures, J. Meged, B. Blichfeldt,
toolbox thanks to mobile, autoethnographic, K. Hvass and L. Hansen, eds., pp.119-137. Copenha-
visual, digital, and sensory methods. Material gen: Copenhagen Business School Press.
Law, J., and J. Urry 2004 Enacting the Social. Economy
semiotics and nonrepresentational approaches to and Society 33: 390–410.
the field urge the critical inspection not of how Mol, A. 1999 Ontological Politics: A Word and Some
data is “extracted,” but rather how research mate- Questions. The Sociological Review 47:74-89.
rial is composed and represented. The understand- Phillimore, J., and L. Goodman, eds. 2004 Qualitative
Research in Tourism: Ontologies, Epistemologies and
ing of how research impacts and intervenes into a Methodologies. London: Routledge.
field of investigation raises the awareness of how Ren, C., A. Pritchard, and N. Morgan 2010 Constructing
research and knowledge creation is always a mat- Tourism Research: A Critical Approach. Annals of
ter of doing ontological politics (Mol 1999), that Tourism Research 37:885-904.
Riley, R., and L. Love 2000 The State of Qualitative
is, of enacting particular versions of reality while Tourism Research. Annals of Tourism Research
Othering Others. Hence, qualitative tourism stud- 27:164-187
ies are not only of different realities but also of the Tribe, J. 2005 New Tourism Research. Tourism Recreation
ability to choose between them. Research 30:5-8
The field of tourism is witnessing an interest in
the research community in tailoring qualitative
methods (in combination with quantitative ones)
to better engage with the complexity and Quality of life
multiplicity of tourism and of the social
(Law and Urry 2004). Hence, the field of qualita- Muzaffer Uysal
tive tourism research is currently witnessing a Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia
fruitful and dynamic stage of methodological Polytechnic Institute and State University,
innovation. The current refinement of qualitative Blacksburg, USA
research methods and the more systematic reflec-
tions on how their impacts shape and perform the
industry and global society at large hold promise The link between tourism activities and quality of
for the further development of tourism-based life of both tourists and providers is uniquely
methods and their future integration into a larger embedded in the fully functioning tourism ▶ sys-
body of social and cultural research. tem. Although both the explicit and implicit
assumptions have been that tourism as an
▶ industry benefits its stakeholders, there has
See also ▶ Epistemology, ▶ ethnography, been sporadic research that examines its assumed
▶ methodology, ▶ multidisciplinarity, ▶ paradigm. benefits and cost on the wellbeing of participants
and quality of life of different stakeholders, as
well as employees of tourism service providers.
This is one of the areas of research streams that is
References gaining momentum and will receive more system-
Ateljevic, I., A. Pritchard, and N. Morgan, eds. 2007 The
atic attention in the years to come (Uysal 2012;
Critical Turn in Tourism Studies: Innovative Research Smith and Puczkó 2014).
Methodologies. London: Elsevier. For several years, researchers have attempted
Franklin, A., and M. Crang 2001 The Trouble with Tour- to shed light on how to attract more tourists and
ism and Travel Theory? Tourist Studies 1:5-22.
Jamal, T., and K. Hollinshead 2001 Tourism and the For-
how to get them stay longer, dine at restaurants,
bidden Zone: The Underserved Power of Qualitative and reach the inner layers of consumer behavior
Inquiry. Tourism Management 22:63-82. and the attitude and behavior of customers in
Quantitative research 767
general. Still the critical research question that

needs to be fully examined from both demand Quantitative research
and ▶ supply sides of tourism is how experiences
relate to one’s quality of life. An underlying the- Antonino Mario Oliveri
oretical foundation is that people are consumers of Department of Cultures and Society, Università
different tourism and hospitality goods and ser- degli Studi di Palermo, Palermo, Italy
vices at a destination, and the community with its
different providers and stakeholders serves as
the host. The goal of any research is to contribute to the
Uysal et al. (2012) proposed that within the advancement of knowledge of the phenomena
fully functioning tourism system, two models under scrutiny. Quantitative research in particular
should be considered in examining activities and focuses on measurement and resorts to the appli-
their consequences from a systems point of cation of scientific methods, which have devel-
view. The first model examines the impact of oped the following characteristics over time:
tourist-related variables on the wellbeing of tour- formalization, value freedom, controllability, and
ists. The second examines the ▶ impact of repeatability. To these characteristics, which con-
tourism-related variables on the wellbeing of the stitute common requisites for other scientific
host community and its stakeholders. In order to research approaches, it adds the orientation
fully appreciate the assumed links between tour- towards numerical determination, or the measure-
ism and quality of life, the focus needs to be ment of the phenomena. The very nature of
placed on both the basic and growth needs of numerical determination has been discussed at
consumers, providers, and employees of the length, starting from the perspective of physics,
industry. Thus, intangible and tangible benefits, where measurement is limited to the concept of
examined from the perspectives of both tourists fundamental measurement, i.e., to characteristics
and local residents, should be part of any devel- such as weight (or height) for which a concatena-
opmental efforts at any level of the industry. The tion process (addition or subtraction between
next decade will see more challenges that neces- values) can be employed.
sitate new research streams in the area of resident This point of view would result in the disqual-
and ▶ stakeholder satisfaction with life domains ification of scientific research in the social arena,
and the effect it will have on quality of life of those given that almost all of the characteristics of inter-
representing both demand and supply sides of est do not have a physical nature, nor do they lend
tourism. themselves to evaluation of the differences Q
between subjects through arithmetic operations.
Social scientists have reacted to these notions by
See also ▶ Community development, ▶ health gravitating to the proposal by Stevens who defines
tourism, ▶ tourist, ▶ trend, ▶ wellbeing. measurement as “The assignment of numerals to
objects or events according to rules . . . (this) . . .
leads to different kinds of scales and different
References kinds of measurement” (1946: 678). Obviously,
not all scales have the same properties, and arith-
Smith, M., and L. Puczkó 2014 Health, Tourism and Hos- metic operations are reserved for quantitative
pitality: Spas, Wellness and Medical Travel. Oxon:
Routledge.
scales, including interval and ratio scales. As to
Uysal, M. 2012 Tourism and Quality of Life (QOL): properties measured through qualitative scales,
Research for 2020: The Hospitality and Tourism Indus- two objects/subjects are equal or different
try by 2020. HOSTEUR 21:36-38. (nominal scale) or at most one is “greater” or
Uysal, M., R. Perdue, and R. Sirgy 2012 Handbook of
“less” than the other (ordinal scale).
Tourism and Quality-of-Life Research: Enhancing the
Lives of Tourists and Residents of Host Communities. Nevertheless, also the properties of interest in
Dordrecht: Springer. social research, predominantly operationalized
768 Quantitative research
and measured at the nominal- and ordinal-scale according to many it would feed quantitative
level, can be processed with appropriate quantita- research in opposition to the tradition of the phe-
tive techniques (models for categorical variables). nomenology lying at the base of qualitative
These perspectives allow to redefine the concept research.
of quantitative research, to also include qualitative At the height of positivist philosophy, scientific
phenomena, such as destination image or resi- research (and with it the quantitative approach)
dents’ attitudes towards tourism, for which it was obviously influenced by its assumptions, but
would not be possible to establish how many nowadays many original positivist ideals are not
times an object/subject may contain another, the as widely shared. Thus, it does not seem appro-
latter being taken as the measurement unit. priate to associate modern quantitative research to
a philosophy which many scholars consider out-
dated (Yu 2006). Quantitative methods have dif-
Quantity versus quality fused and developed extensively in recent decades
to become consistent with the most diverse philo-
Quantitative research employs “reconstructed” sophical approaches: neopositivism, critical real-
logic (a set of formalized rules for conducting ism, pragmatism, and ▶ phenomenology. In many
research) and follows a “technocratic” procedure and substantial aspects, the practice of quantita-
where the research is planned by an expert, the tive research is in deep contrast with its alleged
researcher in this case, across a linear path which positivist matrix (Yu 2006).
proceeds through the typical phases of the In the tradition of quantitative research, differ-
hypothetico-deductive method. These phases con- ent approaches coexist. Thus, for example, testing
sist of conceiving a theory, building up opera- research hypotheses constructed on the basis of
tional hypotheses, selecting a data building/ theoretical considerations (theory of statistical
collection method, using statistical data analysis tests), attributable to the traditional hypothetico-
models, and interpreting results. deductive approach, is a common practice.
According to Creswell (2003), different Exploratory methods that seek to build new theo-
approaches to research can be distinguished refer- ries from the data (exploratory analysis, data min-
ring to knowledge claims, strategies of inquiry, ing) are used as much.
and methods of data collection and analysis. Some studies aim at assessing the existence
Creswell states that quantitative approaches and intensity of causal relationship between
engage post-positivist knowledge claims, experi- explanatory and response variables
ments, and surveys as the main research strate- (experimental or quasi-experimental designs,
gies, predetermined numeric data collection cohort studies, case–control studies). Some
instruments with closed-ended questioning, and scholars explicitly reject this approach on the
statistical processing of such data aimed at testing grounds that what is observed empirically is sim-
hypotheses, with particular attention to validity ply covariance and not causal relationship
and reliability issues. This perspective is com- (correlational studies, surveys). Other studies ren-
monly used in social research and in the more der the two points of view compatible by
specific field of tourism research (Finn assessing the consistency of a theoretical model
et al. 2000). of causal relationships between variables and the
There is a debate on the fact that these elements system of covariations that are empirically
are really discriminatory, although they are com- observable between the same variables. Propo-
monly used in order to differentiate quantitative nents of each of these points of view (all
from qualitative research. In fact, quantitative pertaining to quantitative research) can choose
research today does not automatically or obliga- from a wide range of models that comply with
torily advance via hypotheses and deduction. their individual approach to scientific research.
Even reference to the positivist philosophical tra- Although the distinction between quantitative
dition is not necessarily a given, although and qualitative research is ever less relevant as one
Quantitative research 769
departs from the archetypes, it seems to find jus- Triangulation is implemented by scholars in
tification in the traditional field of research para- search for more reliable results and frequently
digms by Kuhn (1970). Indeed, contrasting includes elements from both the quantitative and
versions of the world may be found in science, the qualitative traditions, although it could also be
among which there may be a very difficult com- performed within a single approach (be it the
munication (incommensurability). The opposition quantitative or the qualitative).
between quantity and quality can be found within
that setup between scientific and humanistic cul-
ture or between nomothetic and idiographic sci- Quantitative research in tourism
ences. This logic of separation is still predominant
in research handbooks, as each of the two Despite the definition of tourism being far from
approaches is still addressed by separate chapters obvious or unproblematic, there is broad consen-
or sections. This dichotomy also resonates in tour- sus that it consists of individuals on the move for
ism, with examples like Walle (1997) and any purposes “other than to be employed by a
Jennings (2012), who draw on the well-known resident entity in the country or place visited”
distinction by Pike (1954) between an etic (UNWTO 2010: 10). Tourism scholars are inter-
(which would owe to the quantitative tradition) ested in analyzing the displacement of subjects in
and an emic approach (which would pertain to the ▶ time and space; the motivations, ▶ attitudes,
tradition of qualitative research). and behavior of travelers (including expectations,
In everyday research, scholars are committed satisfaction, ▶ loyalty, mode of travel arrange-
to using the most suitable tools to solve the prob- ments, ▶ expenditure); the characteristics of des-
lems they tackle, drawing from the knowledge tinations (▶ image and promotion of the image,
base and instrumentation at their disposal, proba- attractiveness, competitiveness); and the ▶ impact
bly deriving from education within a paradigm of tourism (including related ▶ sustainability). It
(in Kuhn’s terms). Upgrading one’s own cultural is certainly not a complete list encompassing all of
background may suggest new and original solu- the relevant topics. To analyze these phenomena
tions to research problems. (and their empirical references), quantitative
On the above basis, a new approach is gaining research provides many useful instruments, the
consensus, which is clearly contrary to the ideo- only limitation being a researcher’s imagination.
logical separation of quantitative and qualitative Matching all of the used or usable quantitative
traditions and research practices, in favor of the methods for specific research problems is virtually
rather pragmatic use of research tools that are the impossible herein. An overview of the main tech- Q
most effective (Creswell 2003). This suggests the niques currently used for quantitative analysis in
opportunity exists for “mixed” approaches in tourism is, however, obtainable through several
which elements of both traditions can be used in manuals addressing the subject. Nevertheless, it is
sequence or simultaneously. For example, it could possible to present a few examples. The analysis
be argued that written or oral texts (flyers, word of of the time series of tourist flows can be studied
mouth contents, newspaper articles) are qualita- through Holt-Winter’s procedures, autoregressive
tive in nature. However, their elementary units integrated moving average (ARIMA) models, and
(words) tend to co-occur. Co-occurrence patterns seasonal ARIMA techniques; the movement of
can be investigated by using multivariate statisti- tourists in space can be analyzed by using Markov
cal techniques (quantitative content analysis). or semi-Markov models or ▶ social network anal-
Nowadays, the appreciation for mixed ysis; tourist motivation, behavior, and satisfaction
methods is associated with the heightened interest are investigated by constructing composite indi-
to triangulation as a way towards “good” research. cators, as well as by drawing on classical test
Basically, triangulation consists of the concurrent theory models and item response analysis, ▶ fac-
use of more than one research method when a tor analysis, structural equation models, and logis-
single phenomenon is being studied. tic regression models. Demand segmentation is
770 Quest
conducted via classification methods, such as employing mixed models and triangulation pro-
▶ cluster analysis, ▶ discriminant analysis, and cedures in scientific research represents a new
classification trees. Destination image is analyzed frontier and a challenge that might be taken up
via techniques such as ▶ content analysis and by quantitative research, to better understand the
▶ factor analysis. The attractiveness of destina- phenomena under scrutiny.
tions is studied by means of deterministic
(gravity models) or probabilistic models See also ▶ Emic and etic, ▶ epistemology,
(discrete choice models), as well as composite ▶ methodology, ▶ qualitative research, ▶ survey.
indicators. The latter are also currently used to
study competitiveness, for which the analytic
hierarchy process, the balanced scorecard, and
the ▶ data envelopment analysis have proved use- References
ful as well. For the analysis of the economic
impact, econometric modeling is normally Creswell, J. 2003 Research Design: Qualitative, Quantita-
tive, and Mixed Methods Approaches. Thousand Oaks:
employed; environmental impact is analyzed via Sage.
instruments provided by environmental statistics, Finn, M., M. Elliott-White, and M. Walton 2000 Tourism
and social experimentation can be performed for and Leisure Research Methods. Harlow: Pearson-
analyzing social and cultural impacts. Longman.
Jennings, G. 2012 Qualitative Research Methods. In Hand-
book of Research Methods in Tourism: Quantitative
and Qualitative Approaches, L. Dwyer, A. Gill and
Current limitations and future directions N. Seetaram, eds., pp. 309-323. Cheltenham: Edward
Elgar.
Kuhn, T. 1970 The Structure of Scientific Revolutions.
Quantitative research provides researchers with a Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
variety of instruments to satisfy knowledge devel- Pike, K. 1954 Language in Relation to a Unified Theory of
opment in tourism. Unfortunately, mass quantita- the Structures of Human Behavior. Glendale: Summer
tive literacy has not yet occurred. From time to Institute of Linguistics.
Stevens, S. 1946 On the Theory of Scales of Measurement.
time, improper use of statistics in the literature Science 103(2684): 677-680.
regarding tourism can be found. For example, UNWTO 2010 World Tourism Organization International
take the violations of distributional requirements Recommendations for Tourism Statistics 2008. New
that render the use of parametric tests incorrect or York: United Nations.
Walle, A. 1997 Quantitative versus Qualitative Tourism
the commonly used non-probabilistic samples, Research. Annals of Tourism Research 24: 524-536.
which are inconsistent with the constant recourse Yu, C. 2006 Philosophical Foundations of Quantitative
to measurements of statistical significance. Research Methodology. Lanham: University Press of
Finally, it might be mentioned are the use of America.
estimation algorithms which are justifiable for
quantitative variables but inappropriately applied
to ordinal variables, such as those commonly used
to measure attitudes. Quest
Sometimes, sophisticated multivariate analyti-
cal tools are used for problems that could be Shalini Singh and Trent Newmeyer
solved using simpler methods, as the seemingly Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies,
more elegant solutions are not always the most Brock University, St. Catharines, ON, Canada
useful. These kinds of situations could be resolved
through a more critical and focused use of
methods and tools from the broader field of The subject of why people undergo the travails of
statistics. journeys and tours is an endearing scholarly pur-
Quantitative research is certainly not the only suit. The theme of quest has emerged as a true
paradigm available. In this sense, the call to archetype in tourism studies that investigates the
Quest 771
aspiration for a desirable journey in the tourist. Sociologists legitimize this hunt for elective
Hence, quest relates to a rousing that is fueled by centers as a modern alternative to conventional
value-laden meanings attached to the center of the religious loci. Accordingly, the newly elected cen-
journey. Beliefs propelling journeys of quest can ters apparently exude a “sense of mystery” by
either be sacred or secular, as also combinations virtue of being located outside or beyond their
thereof. Consequently, pilgrim – tourist motiva- lived modernity. Modernity is thus the affect and
tions become fraught with complexities due to effect of touristic quests due to individuals’ alien-
personal needs, time, place, and cultural circum- ation from their own societal context. Drifters,
stances (Smith 1992). modern youth, and enthusiasts of nature and cul-
Touristic quests are defined by the social con- ture exhibit such tendencies for countercultural
text to which individuals belong or live their quests.
everyday lives, and because of which a yearning Tourists, who consciously seek alternative cen-
to seek out alternative locations (centers) beyond ters, are motivated by a desire for authentic expe-
home emerges. Potential tourists exercise their riences (MacCannell 1973). In that, they are
freedom in recurrently selecting and traveling to known to equip themselves with considerable
the location of their choice. As such, tourists knowledge of aspects and elements of their
vicariously participate in the center of the Other elected center, so as to ensure authentic and
to continuously seek, find, and recast themselves wholesome in situ experiences. Notwithstanding
in juxtaposition with the values of the Other. claims of authenticity, scholars continue to
Generic reasons for undertaking journeys of explore the theme and nature of postmodern tour-
quest include strangeness, change, harmony, plea- istic quests (Crang 1996; Kim and Jamal 2007).
sure, and novelty in varying mutations. The con-
tinuum of quest spans from “no-quest”, which is a
mere escapade or a retreat into oblivion See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ experience,
(detachment), to a specified purpose of being ▶ modernity, ▶ motivation, ▶ Other.
one (aligned) with the locus of the Other. Cohen
(1979) identifies five modes of quest-based mod-
ern tourism experiences in incremental degrees of References
discovery: recreational, diversionary, experien-
tial, experimental, and existential. Although one Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences.
mode exists independently of the other, each Sociology 13:179-201.
genre supersedes its predecessor. Hence, the fleet- Crang, M. 1996 Magic Kingdom or a Quixotic Quest Q
for Authenticity? Annals of Tourism Research
ing, aimless, and often effortless quest for instant 23:415-431.
salvation and frequent strong hedonistic tenden- Kim, H., and T. Jamal 2007 Touristic Quest for Existential
cies could gradually transform into a directed, Authenticity. Annals of Tourism Research 34:181-201.
prolonged pursuit for profound insight, involving MacCannell, D. 1973 Staged Authenticity: Arrangements
of Social Space in Tourist Settings. American Journal
considerable self-denial and physical or spiritual of Sociology 79:589-603.
suffering as a tourist transcends from the recrea- Smith, V. 1992 The Quest in Guest. Annals of Tourism
tional to the existential mode. Research 19:1-17.
R
Race institutionalized. Postcolonial societies still strug-

gle with unhanding and dismantling this history of
A. Lynn Bolles social and economic inequality between and/or
Department of Anthropology, University of among groups.
Maryland, College Park, MD, USA Race or racism, the belief in racial superiority,
is one of the featured elements in tourism.
Whether the society is the product of a colonial
Race is an ideological construction of how human past of the enslavement of peoples of African
populations are categorized and segmented. Cul- descent, prerevolutionary Chinese serfdom, or
tural practices of exclusion, prejudice, bigotry, the Hindu caste system, the “past” attracts the
and intolerance were encoded in assumptions of inquisitive and forms the basis for ▶ tourist con-
racial superiority through learned social behav- sumption. Governments use valuable resources to
iors. Likewise, socialization of racialized people attract tourism to a specific locale often at the
includes modes of behavior that enable them to expense of national coffers. Low bids on land
navigate through the oppression of a racist society. acquisition, the devaluation of labor costs, or the
According to Sanjeck, “For worse, not better, exorbitant tax holidays offered to global tourism
today we all live in a racialized world” (1996:1). businesses come at the expense of countries with
From the 1400s, as Western Europeans oppressive colonial pasts (Bolles 2008).
expanded their economies across the globe, Visual representations in printed, electronic
humans were hierarchically categorized based on formats and social media replicate social ineq-
visible markers of phenotype and physical appear- uities of the past and keep them in the present.
ance. Outcomes of policies and pursuits of spe- These images – reconstructed as lure and lore of a
cific productive structures gave excessive powers ▶ destination – form a vista for touristic consump-
and privilege to conquering forces. Varying tion. On one hand, ▶ mass tourism helped to erase
extremes of human bondage, indenture, and dis- the specificity of cultures and locations in North
crimination became the history of much of the Africa, making ▶ Tunisia and Jordon just “South-
world’s population due to the dark skin color ern Europe” (Hazbun 2008). On the other, the
and hegemony of white supremacy. This taxon- social and cultural implications of racial superior-
omy rationalized the Atlantic slave trade, coloni- ity are both nuanced and up-front as tourists inter-
zation, denigration of cultures, and the act with the “exotic.” Nonetheless, the encounter
domination of subordinated groups who became between tourists and residents remains an ongoing
racialized subjects. Racist policies of inequitable negotiation. The latter can use their history and
discriminatory practices were coded in laws and way of life as a way to address the inequities in
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
774 Rail tourism
positive and culturally relevant ways to the former acknowledge the heritage value as well as the
as an element of tourist experience. Tourism can sociocultural and human geographical dimen-
provide a social and educational opportunity for sions related to train travel, together with cheap
tourists and residents to learn to respect and value or high-end luxury travel. Schivelbusch
each other’s social history and cultures. It is (1977) provides one of the earliest critical
important that future tourism research utilizes an accounts on the sociocultural changes occurring
approach that considers differences such as race, together with the introduction of the rail network
ethnicity, class and gender of the social fabric of in Europe and the United States.
the society under study. Such an approach can Rail operation has transcended into contempo-
examine the inequalities that are apparent, and rary tourism studies, interlacing the topic to a
can add much to the knowledge of the local variety of substantiated discourses, including rail-
situation. way heritage (Conlin and Bird 2014), attractions
management, slow tourism, nostalgia,
See also ▶ Colonialism, ▶ ethnicity, ▶ exoti- backpacking (Johnson 2010), and low-carbon/
cism, ▶ experience, ▶ image. green/sustainable tourism. In addition, rail tour-
ism has been explored through recent mobility
research, including cultural studies on how rail
References travel is relationally experienced through materi-
ality, the senses, and practices (Roy and Hannam
Bolles, A. 2008 The Caribbean is on Sale. In The Gender of 2013), contributing with insights into the phe-
Globalization, N. Gunewardena and A. Kingslover,
nomenology of train travel. With the increasing
eds., pp.215-231. Santa Fe: School of American
Research. interest in low-carbon footprints and sustainable
Hazbun, W. 2008 Beaches Ruins and Resorts. Minneapo- transport, rail tourism receives continuous atten-
lis: University of Minnesota Press. tion to its potential environmental benefits. In
Sanjeck, R. 1996 The Enduring Inequalities of Race. In
addition, research also seeks to inform the man-
Race, S. Gregory and R. Sanjek, eds., pp.1-17. New
Brunswick: Rutgers University Press. agement of rail-based mobility through quantita-
tive studies on the characteristics of consumer
behavior and transport potentials in relation to
train travel.
Other areas of future research include the com-
Rail tourism mercialization, management, and reenactment of
historical rail journeys (such as “The Mary Valley
Martin Trandberg Jensen1 and Geoffrey R. Bird2 Railway Hold Up” or “The Orient Express”),
1
Department of Culture and Global Studies, including the motivations as well as
Aalborg University, Copenhagen, Denmark sociodemographic specificities underlying such
2
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, trips. However, financial and risk management
Royal Roads University, Victoria, BC, Canada challenges to sustain certain rail experiences, in
particular heritage railways, have led to a growing
need to rely on volunteerism and fund-raising.
Rail tourism describes the fusion between travel- In addition, future research remains to illustrate
ing to a destination by rail and train as the desti- how spatial designs and semiotics influence rail
nation (Dickenson and Lumsdon 2010). The experiences, as well as to examine how the intro-
concept encapsulates the experience, and/or sym- duction of high-speed trains, technology, and
bolic consumption, related to traveling by train societal trends is modifying rail tourism charac-
(including the experience of railway architecture teristics and preferences. Finally, another area of
such as stations, tunnels, and viaducts) and visit- research includes the role of rail tourism in geo-
ing railway museums. Studies on rail tourism graphical peripheries, as well as further policy and
Ratio analysis 775
planning investigations pertaining to the societal calculation being a ratio in the form of a fraction,
and environmental role of rail mobility in the percentage, rate, or colon (multiple). For instance,
twenty-first century. ratios of the numbers 2 and 1 can be written as a
fraction (2/1), a percentage (200%), a rate (2 per
See also ▶ Mobility, ▶ slow tourism. 1, 2 for 1, or 2 times – expressed as 2x), or with a
colon (2:1). In the tourism ▶ industry, ratios can
be expressed in different ways. For example, hotel
References room occupancy is normally calculated as a per-
centage of total room availability, whereas ▶ res-
Conlin, M., and G. Bird 2014 Railway Heritage and taurant occupancy is often computed as a turnover
Tourism: Global Perspectives. Bristol: Channel View.
rate of total seat/table capacity (the average num-
Dickenson, J., and L. Lumsdon 2010 Slow Travel and
Tourism. London: Earthscan. ber of times each seat/table is occupied in given
Johnson, J. 2010 Euro-railing: A Mobile-ethnography operating times).
of Backpacker Train Travel. In Beyond Backpacker In tourism, ratio analysis can be broadly
Tourism: Mobilities and Experiences, K. Hannam
defined as the utilization of information about
and A. Diekmann, eds., pp.102-113. Bristol: Channel
View. tourists, labor, capital, products and services, and
Roy, S., and K. Hannam 2013 Embodying the Mobilities of natural ▶ resources in creating a range of quanti-
the Darjeeling Himalayan Railway. Mobilities 8:580- tative ▶ destination outputs. Ratios are often used
594.
as key indices to evaluate the success of the des-
Schivelbusch, W. 1986 The Railway Journey: The
Industrialisation of Time and Space in the 19th Century. tination management performances. A tourism
Berkeley: University of California Press. index is a ratio or an average of ratios involving
two or more ▶ time periods expressed as a per-
centage (Backman et al. 1992). A review of the
literature reveals that a variety of ratio measures
pertinent to tourism have been developed and are
Ratio analysis being used to understand trends, and market
changes and evolution, including trip index, activ-
Dongkoo Yun ity index, intensity, price index, seasonality ratio,
Centre for Tourism Research, Charlottetown, productivity ratio, and sustainability indicators
Prince Edward Island, Canada (Huan and O’Leary 1999; Mark and Harwood-
Richardson 1996; UNWTO 2004).
The measurement of tourism ratios is funda-
Ratio analysis is a method used to calculate, inter- mental to improvement, as it allows ▶ manage- R
pret, and compare a firm’s financial ratios using ment to learn how well they are doing, which
the information provided in its fiscal statements. areas are problematic and require further inves-
The basic purposes of this analysis are to increase tigation, and the course of action most suited to
the understanding of information reported in the solve the problem. Ratio measurement com-
statements and to examine the firm’s performance. prises the selection of both output and input
Further, ratio analysis determines trends and variables at destinations. Thus, tourism ratios
exposes strengths or weaknesses of a firm to facil- should be developed for the specific purpose to
itate wise investment, credit, and managerial deci- which they will be applied and measured with
sions. In corporate finance, five common ratio financial, physical, or combined inputs and out-
classifications are used: liquidity, solvency, activ- puts at destinations.
ity, profitability, and operating ratios (Andrew and
Schmidgall 1993: 58–59).
A ratio is simply one number divided by See also ▶ Cost-benefit analysis, ▶ financial
another in similar units, with the resulting management, ▶ management, ▶ SWOT analysis.
776 Reciprocity
References giving of pre-travel senbetsu (gifts) to travelers

which are returned in the form of selected souve-
Andrew, W., and R. Schmidgall 1993 Financial Manage- nirs (omiyage).
ment for the Hospitality Industry. Lansing: American
In tourism, reciprocity includes cooperation
Hotel and Motel Association.
Backman, K., M. Uysal, and S. Backman 1992 Index at interpersonal level (host-guest) and, on a
Numbers: A Tourism Managerial and Policy-Making broader level, collaborative ▶ planning among
Tool. Journal of Applied Recreation Research 17:158- various stakeholders including tourists,
177.
residents, enterprises, government agencies, and
Huan, T., and J. O’Leary 1999 Measuring Tourism Perfor-
mance. Champiagn: Sagamore. non-governmental organizations. The giving and
Mark, S., and S. Harwood-Richardson 1996 Influencing receiving in ▶ hospitality (food, drink, ▶ accom-
Hotel Productivity. In Productivity Management in modation, and entertainment) can lead to a trans-
Hospitality and Tourism, N. Johns, ed., pp.141-163.
formation between the hosts and guests from
London: Cassell.
UNWTO 2004 Indicators of Sustainable Development for complete strangers when they arrive to friends
Tourism Destinations. Madrid: World Tourism upon their departure (Tucker 2003).
Organization. Because cooperation emerges from stable rela-
tionships that are developed over time, the transi-
tory, short-term, and asymmetrical relationship
between the hosts and guests does not foster
Reciprocity mutual understandings and cooperation between
one another. Issues and tensions inherent to the
Guillaume Tiberghien notion of commercialized hospitality imply a
School of Hospitality and Tourism, Auckland redefinition of obligations and control of the
University of Technology, Auckland, social exchange in the host-guest relationship.
New Zealand However, successful interactions between the
hosts and guests can generate positive feelings
for the involved individuals and increase tourists’
The social norm of reciprocity is the expectation ▶ loyalty.
that people will respond to each other in similar Experiential reciprocity considers how experi-
ways. In Mauss’ (1925) anthropological views, “a ence of a site influences the tourist’s desire to
gift is never free,” engaging the honor of both contribute in return to the ▶ conservation and
the giver and receiver as the former does not environmental protection of a setting (Russell
merely give an object but also a part of himself. and Russell 2010). In ▶ volunteer tourism, recip-
Gifts generate reciprocal exchange between the rocal relationships between the hosts and guests
giver and receiver, thus leading to a mutual are induced by productive exchanges enhancing
interdependence that can also transcend their local communities’ understanding of tourists’
relationship. expectations. In ▶ eTourism, members of virtual
In cultural anthropology, Levi Strauss (1969) communities have access to shared ▶ resources
claims all human relationships are based on the depending on specific policies ruling their access,
norm of reciprocity. Conducts of former nomads and reciprocity of information occurs within the
were conditioned by codes of reciprocity and group as a whole in a ▶ system of generalized
belonging imperative for their survival. In Poly- exchange.
nesia, one’s spiritual source of authority and ▶ Future research exploring reciprocity
wealth (mana) can be lost if the person omits to involves investigating the mode of exchange
reciprocate. Sherpa reciprocal labor in the form of between the hosts and guests, in particular the
kinship in ▶ mountain tourism has been conditions leading to creative reciprocity so that
reconstituted alongside traditional relations of both return with some valuable experiences. On a
production and cultural order (Adams 1992). broader level, further research should consider
One of the traditional customs in ▶ Japan is the ways of fostering better cooperation between
Recreation 777
various stakeholders involved in tourism longer history. In his review of the early history
decisionmaking and planning. of recreation and leisure, Cross (1990) notes that
sing tribal people did not have the same distinc-
See also ▶ Community development, ▶ experi- tion between work and leisure as people in indus-
ence, ▶ host and guest, ▶ planning, ▶ volunteer trialized societies. ▶ Work was undertaken when
tourism. necessary, and life more generally infused with
rites and customs that lend it variety and pleasure.
As societies became more technically advanced
References and developed more complex structures, ▶ play,
leisure, and the active pursuit of games/sport
Adams, V. 1992 Tourism and Sherpas, Nepal: Reconstruc- (another important aspect of socialization) and
tion of Reciprocity. Annals of Tourism Research
recreation became more pronounced. Cross pro-
19:534-554.
Lévi-Strauss, C. 1969 Elementary Structures of Kinship. vides commentary on their development through
Boston: Beacon. ancient Egyptian, Assyrian, Babylonian, and
Mauss, M. 1925 The Gift: Forms and Functions of other civilizations as a platform for more philo-
Exchange in Archaic Societies. New York:Norton.
sophical discussions of the role of recreation and
Russell, D., and C. Russell 2010 Experiential Reciprocity:
The Role of Direct Experience in Value Perceptions. leisure in both the Grecian and Roman empires
Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing 27:624-634. (1990: 52–56). It was however the industrial rev-
Tucker, H. 2003 The Host-Guest Relationship and Its olution with a clearer separation of work and
Implications in Rural Tourism. In New Directions in
leisure and the rapid growth of technologies
Rural Tourism, pp.80-89. Farnham, Surrey: Ashgate.
(including those associated with mobilities) and
of urbanization that led to a heightened focus on
leisure time. An associated reduction in formal
working hours “has been accomplished by a dras-
Recreation tic ‘repackaging’ of leisure hours making possible
new forms of leisure time, including typically
David Simmons and Kevin Moore modern notions of free evenings, the weekend,
Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, paid summer vacations, as well as lengthy child-
Lincoln University, Lincoln, Canterbury, hood and retirement” (1990: 49). These in turn are
New Zealand the drivers of both recreation and tourism demand.
Recreation is considered as a pleasurable, socially Definitions and concepts R

sanctioned activity that restores the individual,
concomitant with the experience of leisure. Con- In defining recreation, Stephen Smith (1992)
siderable debate exists about the nature and mean- traces the origins of the term to the Latin recreare,
ing of recreation and its relationship to tourism to renew or to be re-created. The concept of
(Annals of Tourism Research 1987). While this restoring the individual (often, historically, “to
debate is ongoing, there appear to be continued return to work”) still pervades most contemporary
calls for merging of the fields of inquiry, from definitions. While these terms emphasize a human
their originally different ideological beginnings and at times ideological or spiritual perspective, a
of ▶ leisure and recreation as welfare and tourism resultant tension has evolved among definitions
as business (Moore et al. 1995). emphasizing one’s experience and engagement in
While tourism as a mass phenomenon is an activity. Other important definitional criteria
largely discussed in contemporary terms and center on whether or not recreation and/or the
linked to the ▶ history and evolution of transpor- experience of leisure can occur during time spent
tation, recreation (largely as “▶ activity”) and lei- on obligatory or extrinsically motivated activities,
sure (as a psychological “state”) have a much such as within ▶ employment.
778 Recreation
Despite such debates, there is a general agree- Notwithstanding, the active and ongoing debates
ment on some of the basic elements of recreation. about the nature of and conditions for recreation
Neumeyer and Neumeyer (1958) summarize are similar in many ways to the definitional
these as follows: that recreation is an individual debates surrounding tourism. Of interest in these
or collective activity that can occur during leisure, debates is the relationship between recreation and
that it must have some elements of intrinsic value tourism.
(although they argue that it may also have extrin- Tourism has a special relationship with recrea-
sic value, a view not necessarily shared by others), tion and leisure. At the simplest level, tourism is
that the primary motive is the satisfaction arising most often a freely chosen activity that occurs in
from participation in an activity, and that social discretionary time and involves discretionary
stimulation and cultural influences shape specific expenditure. This approach has led some
forms of recreation. researchers to view it as a separate subcategory
As well as definitional debates, the literature of leisure, distinguished primarily by its spatial
reports various attempts at classification of recre- (▶ travel) and temporal (involving at least
ational activities, which have been subject to one night’s stay) arrangements. These additional
review. For example, Shivers (1981) notes the elements result in a clearer focus on tourism’s
restrictive limits most authors impose on their industrial elements (▶ transportation and
classifications and definitions. He summarizes ▶ accommodation especially), although the dis-
these as addressing five key concepts: when rec- tinctions are not so clear for the public or com-
reation occurs (during leisure time), why mercial sectors. Conversely, ▶ business tourism
(intrinsically satisfying), how (freely chosen), does not present the same levels of intrinsic worth
what (physical activities), and its social accept- or of free choice implicit in the above definitions
ability. Shivers then sets out to challenge or ques- and seeks to confound its relationship with
tion each of these defining concepts. He argues, tourism.
for example, that, for the first concept, recreation When behavior is studied, much of the findings
can occur through ▶ work or obligatory ▶ time are about tourists’ satisfaction and activities. Sat-
spent with one’s family and, for the second, that isfaction is commonly anchored on a destination’s
some forms of recreation, such as sports or some “foundation resources” (public and common
hobbies, can be extrinsically rewarding. Freedom property goods) and recreational attributes. Simi-
of choice may similarly be absent in some recre- larly, when reported, the latter comprises an exten-
ational contexts, such as in activities prescribed in sive list of shopping, entertainment, and passive
a therapeutic context. For the latter two concepts, and active forms of outdoor recreation (such as
Shivers also notes that some recreations, such as ▶ sightseeing, canoeing, ▶ camping, rafting, trek-
watching television or reading, might be termed king, skiing, sports, and so on). Opportunities for
sedentary or passive and that “social acceptance” recreation and associated benefits are also major
might also be an unnecessarily restrictive criterion elements in the ▶ marketing and image-making of
that presents paradoxes: sexual activity might be destination areas.
recreation if undertaken with one’s spouse but is Crompton (1979), in his analysis of the “moti-
not recreation if it is with a prostitute. vations for pleasure vacations,” makes an impor-
tant observation that seven of the nine motivations
are “sociopsychological” in origin and closely
Links to tourism research match those defined elsewhere for recreationists.
Indeed, the general categories of recreation
Given its definitional problems, the recent litera- motives enacted through tourism may explain
ture has tended to focus on the benefits much of the push factors (such as ▶ escape, relax-
derived from recreation and the various manage- ation, ▶ prestige, and social interactions), while
rial contexts in which it occurs: commercial, “cultural” motives (▶ novelty and ▶ education)
community, physical, outdoor, and therapeutic. may help explain pull factors shaping specific
Recreation 779
destination choice. While motivation is multifac- similarities and differences in motives and expe-
eted and may change over the course of a single riences encompassed within recreation or tourism.
trip, Crompton cautions that much tourism may There continues to be a search for deeper per-
thus simply be diversionary and ▶ destination sonal and social meanings in leisure travel and
specific. Several contributions on “recreational concomitant questioning of what constitutes
travel” represent a deliberate integration and “good” tourism. As examples, Rojek’s recent
again reinforce the “push” (in terms of seeking (2010) emphasis on “emotional labor” in leisure
personal and interpersonal rewards) and “pull” and recreational settings converges with the
(in terms of escaping personal and interpersonal observation in tourism (going back, at least, to
environments) motives for travel. The common the Grand Tour) that travel is an obligation
goal is the recreation or restoration of the required to improve one’s knowledge and charac-
individual. ter. Today, with the increased significance of
Leiper’s (1995) work follows a similar vein. global networks, contacts, and interactions, there
He advocates that tourism is a special form of is also a focus on tourism’s role in “enlightening”
leisure; “it is leisure away from home, on trips” people about the diversity of human cultures and
(1995: 10), albeit with some dimensions that raise the ethical and environmental responsibilities
it above daily recreation. In his analysis, the phys- associated with travel.
ical nature of withdrawal and return and the strong At the same time, doing the “right” form of
temporal and physical demarkers of touristic tourism to express and refine one’s own tourist
movements (departure, travel to and from desti- skills and experiences requires increased efforts in
nations, and return) promote this heightened dis- a world of rapid production and dissemination of
tinction. Moore et al. (1995) further advance the tourism information and associated cultural capi-
argument for a behavioral approach to the study of tal. In Rojek’s terms, tourism, like recreational
tourism as a contemporary career in one of the and leisure pursuits in general, has these “serious”
central “planes” of everyday life. The other is and almost obligatory dimensions of emotional
family and work, each with its own career struc- labor that encompass both self-care and care for
ture. Others have argued that both satisfactory the other. In this respect, there is now an emergent
recreation and tourism experiences require a interest in new forms of tourism, “volunteer tour-
match between existential (subjective reality ism,” “Willing Workers on Organic Farms,” etc.,
through personal evaluations) and structural and increasing academic interest in notions such
(environmental or structural reality through indus- as “ethical tourism,” “slow tourism” (i.e., lower
try programming) elements, and this remains an energy/environmentally sustainable tourism), and
important caveat for developers and providers of “peace tourism.” R
services to tourists. Many tourism faculties were originally
founded within the behavioral perspectives of
Parks, Recreation and Leisure Studies Depart-
Trends and issues for future research ments, although these have been extended in
more recent decades with the placement of tour-
The future for the research interface between rec- ism academics within business and/or hospitality
reation and tourism remains complex. As noted, faculties. Similarly, academic journals maintain
new technologies and advances in social media varying degrees of this joint focus: Tourism Rec-
provide opportunities for the further blurring of reation Research; Journal of Outdoor Recreation
strict boundaries between recreational activity and and Tourism; European Journal of Tourism, Hos-
tourist activity. Responses to these developments pitality and Recreation. While the debate about
by industry and academia are at the forefront of recreation and tourism will continue, there can be
efforts to adapt to and understand emerging tour- little doubt that recreational activity is a central
ism trends. Beyond the impacts of new technolo- construct in tourist choice and decisionmaking.
gies, there is also increased consideration of Thus, the interrelationships among leisure,
780 Recycling
recreation, and tourism will continue to occupy a those recovered, reducing energy and air pollution
central place in tourism (and recreation) research, from incineration, and controlling water pollution
regardless of disciplinary (geography, sociology, from landfills. Therefore, recycling reduces the
psychology, ▶ management) or interdisciplinary amount of disposed waste and lowers greenhouse
focus. gas emissions (Harris et al. 2002).
Corporations involved in the tourism ▶ indus-
See also ▶ Leisure, ▶ geography, ▶ play, ▶ psy- try have implemented recycling program and ser-
chology, ▶ sociology. vices at hotels, restaurants and bars, entertainment
venues, conference centers, racetracks, ▶ recrea-
tion areas, parks, and community facilities. A key
reason for implementing such programs at sites
References for tourism is to reduce cost for collection of
waste. Reduction and reuse of materials proceed
Annals of Tourism Research 1987 Interrelationship of Lei- recycling in the hierarchy of solid waste manage-
sure, Recreation and Tourism. Annals of Tourism
Research (special issue) 14(3).
ment. Reduction in wastes also reduces purchas-
Crompton, J. 1979 Motivations for Pleasure Vacation. ing costs in addition to disposal costs. However, it
Annals of Tourism Research 6:408-24. is noted that manufacturing recycling products
Cross, G. 1990 A Social History of Leisure Since 1600. requires more water and energy than manufactur-
State College: Venture Publishing.
Leiper, N. 1995 Tourism Management. Collingwood:
ing products from raw materials. In the sense, it is
TAFE Publications. still debatable if recycling is indeed needed. It is
Moore, K., J. Cushman, and D. Simmons 1995 Behavioral generally regarded that recycling is beneficial in
Conceptualization of Tourism and Leisure. Annals of terms of saving environment while counting on
Neumeyer, M., and E. Neumeyer 1958 Leisure and Recre-
the whole procedure of waste management
ation (3rd ed.). New York: The Ronald Press. streams (Hunter 1997).
Rojek, C. 2010 Leisure and Emotional Intelligence. Lei- Common recyclables found in tourism opera-
sure Journal 52(4):274-279. tions include paper (computer and bond, corru-
Shivers, J. 1981 Recreation and Leisure Concepts. Boston:
Allan and Bacon.
gated cardboard boxes, newspaper, telephone
Smith, S. 1992 Dictionary of Concepts in Recreation and books, magazines), metals (aluminum cans,
Leisure Studies. New York: Greenwood. tin/steel cans), glassware (clear, brown, green bot-
tles and jars), plastics and office supplies (copier
and printer cartridges), maintenance materials
(motor oil, antifreeze, paint), and others (wood
Recycling pallets, polystyrene containers). Collection of
recyclables is only a part of the economic process
Sunny Ham contributing to successful programs. Other key
Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea activities include reprocessing the materials into
new products and marketing them.
Buying recycled products generates demand for
Recycling, originally a technical term of the reusable collected tourism-oriented businesses.
oil-refining and similar industries, has become a New manufactured products appearing in the mar-
mainstream notion and concern among consumers ket range from ordinary writing paper to fancy
since the 1960s. It is a key component of modern decorative glass tiles. People buy products
waste reduction and the third component in the containing “postconsumer content,” meaning the
waste management hierarchy: reduce, reuse, and materials used to manufacture the items previously
recycle. Specifically, it is a process of used and subsequently recycled. Businesses pro-
transforming waste materials into new products mote recycling programs among customers as indi-
and thereby avoiding the discard of potentially cations of commitments to environmental
useful materials by replacing raw materials with protection. To make recycling programs successful,
Red tourism 781
tourism businesses should develop strategic poli- or quasi-spiritual pilgrimage for domestic tourists
cies, communicate and educate employees, imple- and ▶ study tour participants. In ▶ China, the first
ment programs with the assistances of local National Red Tourism Development Plan was
agencies and private companies, and assess the out- initiated in 2004, and tremendous market growth
comes for effective reduction of waste costs. In has occurred since then (Li and Hu 2008). In
addition to businesses, governments and nonprofit 2011, some 540 million domestic tourists and
organizations engage in significant environmental US$23 billion in revenue were generated by red
promotion for public outdoor attractions as well as tourism (Xinhua News 2012), which is still a
▶ hospitality and tourism operations (Kasavana predominantly government-driven phenomenon.
2008). The green issues have been applied to The central government has designated 12 major
research in the topics of a variety of green activities regions with distinct revolutionary themes,
for tourism operations, its impacts on firm perfor- 30 routes, and 100 key scenic sites. Its ▶ devel-
mance, and customer’s perceptions of green activi- opment is heavily subsidized in terms of ▶ infra-
ties as corporate social responsibility. structure, amenities, and public-funded study
tours to these destinations for schools and worker
See also ▶ Ecotourism, ▶ environment, ▶ green groups. Government institutions and their
tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism, ▶ waste employees are required to participate.
management. State involvement can be attributed to political,
economic, and social factors, including
reinforcing the legitimacy of the Chinese Com-
References munist Party; generating income for residents of
former revolutionary bases, many of which are
Harris, R., P. Williams, and T. Griffin 2002 Sustainable landlocked and poor; and resurrecting the “red
spirit” – a combination of communist ideology
Hunter, C. 1997 Sustainable Tourism as an Adaptive Par-
adigm. Annals of Tourism Research 24:850-867. and Chinese traditional virtues (Li and Hu
Kasavana, M. 2008 Green Hospitality. Hospitality 2008). Previous research also demonstrates that,
Upgrade Summer 140-148. more than simple political worship, red tourism is
often used as a bridge or approach to participating
in ▶ other types of tourism activities or fulfilling
other ▶ travel motivations (Li and Hu 2008).
Red tourism Most published research focuses on market char-
acteristics and consumer behaviors, including
Shengnan Zhao1 and Dallen J. Timothy2 reimaging the ▶ phenomenon as an interesting R
1
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, and interactive social ▶ activity instead of the
California State University, Long Beach, CA, stereotypic ▶ image of patriotism (Liu and
USA Sheng 2010). Other research is beginning to take
2
School of Community Resources and a critical social stance. For instance, Rioux (2008)
Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, explored the relationship between cultural land-
AZ, USA scapes and ▶ ideology in the context of red
tourism.
Unlike traditional patriotic ▶ education, which
An important form of communist ▶ heritage tour- exclusively focuses on political teaching, social,
ism, red tourism, involves current state-promoted cultural, and economic goals are also integrated
tours to revolutionary sites, such as memorial into red tourism (Zhao and Timothy 2015). Due to
museums, halls, and/or monuments (Li et al. market demand, red tourism products have been
2010). The term “red tourism” derives from the redesigned to provide ▶ leisure and entertaining
color’s association with communist revolutionary experiences. Connecting red tourism to other sec-
movements. These visits often resemble a secular tors is an important new ▶ trend. Academic
782 Region
research on this subject has remained largely con- by a single dominating attribute, such as natural
ceptual in nature, and quantitative analyses are regions or those characterized by a dominant
still descriptive. ▶ Future research on red tourism economic activity (industrial or touristic);
should address participants and stakeholders in its a functional region, unified by spatial interrela-
▶ development, its impacts at national and com- tionships and flows; and a political-administrative
munity levels, and the effects of ideological trans- region.
mission through heritage interpretation. Since the mid-twentieth century, regional anal-
ysis has been enriched through various epistemo-
See also ▶ China, ▶ dark tourism, ▶ heritage, logical and disciplinary approaches (Entrikin
▶ impact, ▶ study tour. 2008). The neo-Marxist perspective emphasizes
the spatial organization resulting from production
relationships; humanist schools of thought focus
References more on places as a source of cultural identifica-
tion; the neo-positivist ideology supports the idea
Li, Y., and Z. Hu 2008 Red Tourism in China. Journal of of a systemic region; postmodernists consider
China Tourism Research 4:156-171.
regions a historical process characterized by
Li, Y., Z. Hu, and C. Zhang 2010 Red Tourism: Sustaining
Communist Identity in A Rapidly Changing China. global interaction; and the relational turn of eco-
Journal of Tourism and Cultural Change 8(1–2):101- nomic geography emphasizes the role of eco-
119. nomic stakeholders, as well as their actions and
Liu, X., and Z. Sheng 2010 Experience-based Develop-
interactions.
ment: The Sustainable Development of Red Tourism.
Commercial Research 1:176-178. The concept of a tourism region is clearly
Rioux, Y. 2008 Marketing the Revolution: Tourism, Land- complex and elusive. It can be defined “as a geo-
scape and Ideology in China. Unpublished Doctoral graphical ▶ location in which common character-
Dissertation, University of Colorado, Boulder, United
istics and synergies exist between tourism
States.
Xinhua News 2012 Prosperous Development of Red Tour- products and services, and the term is also associ-
ism in 2011<http://news.xinhuanet.com/travel/2012- ated with a politico-administrative framework in
03/01/c_122777252.htm> (12 February 2014). which tourism ▶ planning and policy is deliv-
Zhao, S., and D. Timothy 2015 Governance of Red Tour-
ered” (Dredge and Jenkins 2007:289). As such,
ism in China: Perspectives on Power and Guanxi. Tour-
ism Management 46:489-500. tourists can visit multiple destinations within a
tourism region.
Nonetheless, a region is much more than a
concept of spatial classification. Regional analysis
favors the understanding of territorial dynamics of
Region tourism in different geographical contexts (e.g.,
coastal, urban, metropolitan, or rural environ-
Josep A. Ivars Baidal ment). The processes of globalization, economic
Tourism Research Institute, Alicante University, restructuring, and territorial competence have
Alicante, Spain heightened interest in interactions between the
local and the global. In this instance, a regional
analysis at an intermediate scale is required, in
A region is basically defined as a distinct part of connection with issues such as land management,
the earth’s surface. A regional analysis includes infrastructural planning, place marketing, and/or
both the area differentiation, at various scales, and regional policy, in which tourism plays a promi-
the explanation of physical and human factors nent role. Tourism planning takes an applied
interacting to determine the spatial organization. approach to facilitating analysis, policy and devel-
Regionalization depends on diverse objectives opment of a region (Hall and Page 2002), and
and criteria. Three basic types of regions could benefits from the many possibilities resulting
be differentiated: a homogeneous region, defined from geographical information systems.
Regression 783
Regional analysis goes beyond the mere spatial of vacation or destination” (1979:415). Through
description of the tourism ▶ phenomenon, con- 39 unstructured interviews conducted in the
tributing to better understanding and management ▶ United States, Crompton developed a cultural-
of territorial processes caused by spatial interde- sociopsychological disequilibrium continuum
pendencies, stakeholder interactions, territorial that encompasses such motives as escape from a
complementarity and synergies, as well as perceived mundane environment, exploration and
regional tourism ▶ development strategies. evaluation of self, relaxation, prestige, regression,
Therefore, the concept of a region complements enhancement of kinship relationships, and facili-
that of a ▶ destination in describing and tation of social interaction.
explaining integrations in a wider territorial sys- Subsequent research finds little influence of
tem which conditions the competitiveness and regression on Crompton’s seminal conceptualiza-
▶ sustainability of tourism development. tion. The notion of regression is empirically
reported as an approximation with escape, along
See also ▶ Destination, ▶ development, ▶ geo- with anomie/authenticity-seeking, culture/educa-
graphical information system, ▶ geography, tion, wanderlust/exploring the unknown, and
▶ zoning. jet-setting/prestige-seeking, as tourism motiva-
tions. Later, Crompton and McKay (1997)
reexamine the motivation of attending cultural
References events, in which regression is found to bear affin-
ity with novelty as a drive for festival attendance,
Dredge, D., and J. Jenkins 2007 Tourism Planning and in addition to cultural exploration, recovery of
Policy. Melbourne: Wiley.
equilibrium, internal and external socialization,
Entrikin, J. 2008 Regions. Burlington: Ashgate.
Hall, M., and A. Page 2002 The Geography of Tourism and and gregariousness or seeking the company of
Recreation. London: Routledge. others in a group.
The motive of regression is often explained in
the context of modernity, in which the traditional
and sacred images of the cosmos are abandoned in
Regression favor of increasing interest in culture, life, and
natural environment (Cohen 1979). Individuals
Mimi Li1 and Liping A. Cai2 tend to experience inauthenticity and fragmenta-
1
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, tion in their everyday life, which stimulates
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, demand for tourism as an ambivalence of moder-
Hong Kong, China nity (Wang 2000). In this sense, Crompton’s orig- R
2
Purdue Tourism and Hospitality Research Center, inal conceptualization of regression reflects both
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN, USA the escape and the seeking dimensions of
Iso-Ahola’s (1982) dichotomy. In other words,
individuals travel because they perceive tourism
A regression is a type of sociopsychological moti- as a potential satisfier of the desire for intrinsic
vation to ▶ pleasure tourism. It is the underlying rewards of returning to maternal dependency or
desire to do things that are puerile, irrational, and childhood, as well as the needs for leaving the
reminiscent of the past. Such behaviors are nor- routine environment.
mally inconceivable within the context of the As a motivation factor, regression is less often
usual lifestyles and are facilitated by withdrawal seen in recent research due to complexity of the
from usual role obligations during vacations. notion. Most subsequent studies on tourist moti-
Regression was originally identified by vation are grounded in Iso-Ahola’s (1982) dichot-
Crompton as one of the seven sociopsychological omy or the push-pull model and adopt a positivist
motives of pleasure vacationers “guid[ing] the paradigm. Future research should go beyond con-
▶ tourist toward the selection of a particular type ventional theories to reexamine human desire to
784 Religion
return to maternal dependency, or a “regression” human, temporal, and contingent and that claims
to the exploration of the fundamental value or for itself a similarly transcendent status; a set of
meaning of tourism. practices whose goal is to produce a proper world
and/or proper human subjects, as defined by a
See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ escape, ▶ motiva- religious discourse to which these practices are
tion, ▶ nostalgia tourism, ▶ novelty. connected; a community whose members con-
struct their identity with reference to a religious
discourse and its attendant practices; and an insti-
References tution that regulates religious discourse, practices,
and community, reproducing them over time and
Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences. modifying them as necessary, while asserting their
Sociology 13:179-201.
eternal validity and transcendent value (Lincoln
Crompton, J. 1979 Motivation for Pleasure Vacation.
Annals of Tourism Research 6:408-424. 2003:6–8).
Crompton, J., and K. McKay 1997 Motives of Visitors As such, religion can be seen as a set of prag-
Attending Festival Events. Annals of Tourism Research matic or worldview-orienting beliefs or dis-
24:425-439.
courses which give rise to a set of normative and
Iso-Ahola, S. 1982 Toward a Social Psychological Theory
of Tourism Motivation. Annals of Tourism Research ritual practices around which a community is
9:256-262. defined and is structured by an institution that
Wang, N. 2000 Tourism and Modernity: A Sociological regulates these beliefs, discourses, and practices
Analysis. Oxford: Pergamon.
the community follows. However, such a defini-
tion highlights the fact that in many ways religion
is undefinable, as in many parts of the world what
constitutes religion is not so easily divorceable
Religion from the cultural and social realm. Instead of
being something above and beyond culture or a
Daniel H. Olsen seemingly separate societal institution, religion is
Department of Geography, Brigham Young comingled with national or group culture to the
University, Provo, UT, USA point where the two are synonymous with each
other and not easily separable. As well, its general
essence has seemingly transcended or been liber-
“Religion” is generally used by Western scholars ated from institutional boundaries where people
to draw parallels between Western notions of what seek out religious expression and fulfillment in
constitutes religion and similar constructs in other other cultural settings and societies.
societies through cross-cultural comparison Religion and tourism have long been
(Smith 1998). Its scholarly definitions have intertwined through the medium of pilgrimage,
tended to be either very broad, vague, and ambig- with some scholars labeling pilgrimage as the
uous or too restrictive to be of any use. Because oldest form of tourism. However, according to
definitions of religion are in large part the histor- Bremer (2004:3–7), there are at least four ways
ical product of Eurocentric and Christian dis- in which religion and tourism are related in the
courses, and because of the almost innumerable modern era. First, both religious followers and
theological, cultural, and tangible manifestations tourists demonstrate concern about and attach-
of religion in various world regions and cultural ment to special places, whether they be built or
contexts, defining what represents religion is dif- natural in character. Second, the practices that
ficult at best. maintain the special character of touristic/reli-
Religion is generally viewed as the search for gious places also lead to the construction of iden-
the “ultimate concern” or a belief in God or gods tities, since ▶ travel to and participation in places
or spiritual beings. However, it also revolves that are meaningful can lead to a reinforcing of
around a discourse whose concerns transcend the personal and group identity. In turn, travel to these
Religion 785
special places for construction and maintenance of of Tourism. These documents outline the church’s
personal and group identities reinforces the spe- views pertaining to free time, travel, and the ways
cial nature of particular places. in which different units of the Church should
Third, both groups are concerned with aes- serve people on the move.
thetics. However, while tourists are generally Moreover, a number of Christian ecumenical
concerned with aesthetic (primarily authentic) groups, such as the Ecumenical Coalition on
experiences as they journey, which frame their Third World Tourism, the Third World Ecumeni-
experiences of religion, pilgrims seek authentic cal European Network, and the World Church
religious experiences which can be enhanced Council, have discussed how to combat the nega-
through aesthetics. Fourth, the desire for aesthet- tive impacts of tourism ▶ development. These
ically pleasing and authentic experiences by both include social and physical impacts at the com-
groups leads to the ▶ commercialization of sites, munity level, their influence on the behavior of
whether this occurs through tourism operators and individual tourists who may temporarily suspend
marketers or through religious groups themselves the moral constraints of their culture or society
as they cater to the wants and needs of visitors. when they travel, and tourism development in a
Within this context, religious leaders, theologians, Third World context (Olsen 2011:19).
and academic scholars have begun to examine the In most cases, religious faiths tend to have
influence of tourism on religious beliefs, prac- more implicit views of tourism as a social phe-
tices, and sites, as well as the influence of religion nomenon, which can be teased out through exam-
on tourism practices. ining the perspectives of particular religious
institutions on appropriate leisure, ▶ hospitality,
gendered religious spatial practices, views of the
Religious views of tourism human body, and their ▶ attitudes toward the arts
(Olsen 2011). Recognizing these implicit views
From a broad perspective, religion has long can help researchers to understand how tourism
influenced human migration patterns and how “works” at destinations where religious culture is
people utilize their leisure time, with religious intimately intertwined with economic, political,
prescriptions and proscriptions influencing why and social institutions. For example, religious cul-
people travel, where they go, and how they act ture can influence how tourism is developed and
while traveling. From a religious perspective, sustained in different destinations, the attitudes
tourism should enhance people’s belief in God and behaviors of segments of a community toward
and give tourists a greater appreciation for God’s visitors, the staffing of tourism establishments
creations and a chance for worship and spiritual (such as working on Sundays), the ▶ interpreta- R
renewal. Many religious leaders and theologians, tion of various sites, the theming of religious
however, have begun to show increasing concern hotels, the dietary needs of religious travelers,
with the negative social, cultural, and environ- and why tourism establishments seem to be
mental impacts of tourism as they relate to their targeted by religious extremists.
sites, on the behavior and identities of their adher-
ents, and on the religiosity of host communities
(Cohen 1998). Notwithstanding treatises on pil- Religion as a tourism resource
grimage and travel during free time from Hindu
and Islamic writers, the Roman Catholic Church is Tourism scholars and promoters have paid limited
the only world religion group that seems to have attention to the nature of religion and related reli-
outlined a formal or systematic “theology of tour- gious discourses that underlie the creation of the
ism” dealing with these tourism concerns (Cohen practices, communities, and institutions of reli-
1998), publishing documents such as The Church gion around the world that have long attracted
and Tourism: Serving People on Their Travels for the curious outsiders. Rather, with the growing
Recreation and Guidelines for the Pastoral Care economic impact of this market and the rising
786 Religion
numbers of tourists to religious sites, regardless of and the rise of religiously themed hotels. How-
their motivation, research has revolved around ever, as a newer field of study, much of the
religion as a resource for development and con- research on the intersections between religion
sumption (Stausberg 2014), and much of this and tourism can be characterized as lacking in
research is viewed through the prisms of market- theoretical cohesion, with much of the research
ing and consumption. being grounded in a priori theoretical speculation
With the recent revival of pilgrimage, millions rather than being data driven (Stausberg 2014).
of religiously motivated tourists visit “holy” sites
to participate in identity-building rituals, ceremo-
nies, prayers, festivals, and processions. How- Spiritual tourism
ever, from a strictly tourism-centric standpoint,
participants are viewed as a type of tourists and Related to religious tourism is the rise of spiritual
the act of pilgrimage itself as a type of tourism tourism as a specialty niche market. While there is
▶ activity (Olsen 2013). From this supply-side no definitive definition of spirituality, it revolves
perspective, anyone traveling to visit a site or around the elements of quest, searching, experi-
participate in religiously themed activities would ence, and change on the part of the person who
be considered a religious ▶ tourist, regardless of wishes to have this sensation. The idea is often
their underlying motivations. On the other hand, a considered a key component in “wellness tour-
number of recent studies have focused on the ism,” where spiritual development is a part of
demand side, placing greater importance on moti- the ▶ holistic approach to balancing the mind,
vation rather than on the activities and places with body, and spirit.
which people engage. This research relates to Historically, the ▶ quest for spiritual enlight-
segmenting the religious tourism market (Olsen enment was subsumed under the term “pilgrim-
2013), including determining who is a pilgrim age,” but today an increasing number of people
versus a tourist, understanding the various purposefully or self-consciously engage in self-
sociodemographic characteristics of these tourists discovery pursuits outside the structure of reli-
from different faith backgrounds, and how religious institutions. This type of tourism can be
gious tourism is manifest in specific world regions characterized as “intensely personal and subjec-
and countries. As a part of this market segmenta- tive” travel for spiritual betterment through focus-
tion, many scholars have turned to phenomeno- ing on one’s inner path rather than through
logical approaches and use interviews rather than connecting with a broader religious community
a priori surveys to understand the motivations, and worldview (Norman 2012:25).
expectations, experiences, and personal meanings Unlike religious tourists, spiritual tourists may
of people who visit religious sites, including seek out secular attractions which are imbued with
understanding the perspectives of site managers potential meaning or can act as catalyst for spiri-
and ▶ tour guides (Olsen 2013). tual experiences. Examples of these sites may
In addition to market segmentation studies, include memorials and cemeteries, sporting
scholars have also examined additional issues events, and homes of famous people. Spiritual
related to religion and tourism, including the ecotourists might also visit religious sites as a part
nomic, social, and environmental impacts of reli- of their quest for meaning. For example, in some
gious tourism on various destinations and their geographical contexts, such as along the Camino
management; the meaning of souvenirs; the his- de Santiago de Compostella, religious and spiri-
torical development of this type of tourism; the tual tourism takes place side by side (Norman
marketing of religious sites; the political uses of 2012). Visits to natural areas, such as wilderness
religious sites; religious tours planning; gastron- parks, might also trigger emotions and experi-
omy; ▶ authenticity, embodiment, and identity ences viewed as spiritual (Stausberg 2014) and
formation at sites; the commodification of sites are often combined with “eco-spiritual tourism”
and ceremonies; gender and site management; where these visitors join tours that combine the
Repeat tourism 787
search for spiritual experiences with ▶ service to Olsen, D. 2011 Towards a Religious View of Tourism:
underprivileged communities and earth con- Negotiating Faith Perspectives on Tourism. Tourism,
Culture and Communication 11:17-30.
sciousness or the sustainable utilization of Olsen, D. 2013 A Scalar Comparison of Motivations and
▶ resources. Expectations of Experience within the Religious Tour-
The rise of, and scholarly interest in, spiritual ism Market. International Journal of Religious Tourism
tourism, as well as the growing New Age tourism and Pilgrimage 1:41-61.
Smith, J. 1998 Religion, Religions, Religious. In Critical
market, has added new dynamics to the traditional Terms for Religious Studies, M. Taylor, ed., pp.269-
pilgrim/tourist debate over how to differentiate 284. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.
between pilgrims and tourists. Arguments over Stausberg, M. 2014 Religion and Spiritualty in Tourism. In
the differences between these two ideal types The Wiley Blackwell Companion to Tourism, A. Lew,
C. Hall and A. Williams, eds., pp.349-360. Chicherster:
have turned to discussing the similarities between Wiley.
the two, as not only are they seen in many cases as
being inseparable in terms of purchasing patterns
and dress, but the term “pilgrim” has been increas-
ingly used as a metaphor to describe people who Repeat tourism
are in search of meaningful experiences outside
the traditional purview of institutionalized reli- Catalina Juaneda
gion (Olsen 2010). Department of Applied Economics, University of
Future research will include differentiating the the Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
spiritual and religious tourism markets, including
a focus on those who consider themselves spiri-
tual but not religious. From a broader perspective, The term “repeat tourism” refers to tourists visit-
more place-based and people-centered studies are ing the same destination once again or multiple
needed to understand the interface between reli- times. As a repurchase decision, it is a part of the
gious theology and practical management holiday decision process and one of the important
catering to the needs of travelers both en route issues in demand studies. In this sense, repetition
and during their stay in religious and nonreligious is a specific and measurable concept that has two
destinations, as well as to examine economic val- dimensions: frequency and sequence of visits
uations of the religious tourism market (Stausberg (Oppermann 2000). Consequently, tourists who
2014). visit the same destination more than once are
called “repeat tourists” (versus “first-time”
tourists).
See also ▶ Hajj, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, ▶ sacred
There is a strong relationship between repeti- R
journey, ▶ wellbeing.
tion and destination loyalty; however, these are
different concepts. ▶ Loyalty is more complex
than repetition, as it includes both tourists’ behav-
References iors and ▶ attitudes (Oppermann 2000). Repeti-
tion contributes essential but only partial
Bremer, T. 2004 Blessed with Tourists: The Borderlands of information to the study of loyalty from a behav-
Religion and Tourism in San Antonio. Chapel Hill: The ioral perspective. Thus, a tourist is considered
University of North Carolina Press. loyal when she repeatedly visits a destination,
Cohen, E. 1998 Tourism and Religion: A Comparative
Perspective. Pacific Tourism Review 2:1-10.
showing a determined sequence of purchases.
Lincoln, B. 2003 Holy Terrors: Thinking about Religion Given that the tourism ▶ product is composed of
after September 11. Chicago: The University of Chi- multiple elements, the purchase of which involves
cago Press. several stakeholders, repetition can also refer to
Norman, A. 2012 The Varieties of the Spiritual Tourist
Experience. Literature and Aesthetics 22:20-36.
some of these elements, including hotel, travel
Olsen, D. 2010 Pilgrims, Tourists and Max Weber’s “Ideal agency, and types of holidays (but may not nec-
Types”. Annals of Tourism Research 37:848-851. essarily refer to the whole package).
788 Representation, cultural
Tourists can be classified according to their the Grand Canyon. The Service Industrial Journal
own repetitive behavior. This depends on the 11:439-457.
Oppermann, M. 2000 Tourism Destination Loyalty. Jour-
timing with which repetitions occur or on whether nal of Travel Research 39:78-84.
they can be continuous, alternating, or irregular.
Considering the number of repetitions, tourists
can be irregular, loyal, or very loyal (Moutinho
and Trimble 1991; Oppermann 2000).
Information about the pattern and frequency of Representation, cultural
repeat visits offers only limited understanding of
the phenomenon; further helpful information Carla A. Santos and Erin McKenna
refers to the main characteristics of the tourists Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism,
and their stays. The insight on the repetition pat- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
tern and its relationship with tourist motivations, Champaign, IL, USA
demographic and psychographic characteristics,
and travel conditions allows one to predict repeat
behavior and to segment repeaters in order to Representation is a concept that has long engaged
establish specific promotional campaigns philosophers, sociolinguists, sociologists, and
(Moutinho and Trimble 1991). From a marketing anthropologists. The term embodies a range of
perspective, it is remarkable that tourists who meanings and interpretations advanced by the
have revisited a destination several times have works of Bourdieu (1991), Foucault (1972), Hall
higher probability of returning (Oppermann (1997), and Said (1978), among others. It can be
2000), especially when they are satisfied. These defined both as a function of language and in
tourists are also good transmitters of information, social terms. As a function of language, the con-
through the effect of word of mouth. It is consid- cept can be conceived of as the representation of
ered that by attracting repeat tourists, it reduces empirical experience and as the representation of
the advertising and communication costs. thoughts. In social terms, it can be conceived of as
From an economic perspective, the question is the linking of mass-mediated practices and social
whether repeat tourists spend significantly more norms to the representation of particular social
or less than first-time tourists, since this affects groups and the construction of their identities, as
what the ▶ industry will earn and what economic well as the complex and relational depiction of the
benefits to a ▶ destination will be (Alegre and interests of political subjects or issues (the foun-
Juaneda 2006). For future studies, the economic dational principle of a representative democracy).
and marketing impacts of repeat tourism and its Consequently, the study of representation calls on
relationship with new market segments (cruises the analysis of language, including social struc-
tourism, second home senior citizen) demand the ture and cultural practices to understand how
attention of the research community. meanings are produced and circulated.
In terms of cultural representations more spe-
cifically, postcolonial scholars have pointed to the
See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ behavior, ▶ destination, constructed rather than objective nature of repre-
▶ loyalty, ▶ marketing. sentations highlighting the power relationship
between the representer and the represented
(Spivak 1988). Groups in interaction are not
References always in equal positions, thus representations
may be a form of silencing those who do not
Alegre, J., and C. Juaneda 2006 Destination Loyalty: have a platform to represent themselves. Repre-
Consumers’ Economic Behavior. Annals of Tourism
sentations often have political motivations and
Moutinho, L., and J. Trimble 1991 A Probability consequences; cultural representations in tourism
of Revisitation Model: The Case of Winter Visits to are no exception.
Representation, cultural 789
Application not pertain to the represented group. This may

affect how the ▶ destination or ▶ culture is per-
In tourism studies, cultural representation is ubiq- ceived and understood, ultimately playing a role
uitous in the pre-, during-, and post-tourism pro- in tourists’ decisions, behavior, and ▶ interpreta-
cesses. Destinations (and cultures) are represented tion of their experience. Further, these are also
on all different geopolitical levels as a means to consumed by members of the represented group.
intentionally attract tourists. Representations in This may be done in order to revitalize traditions
▶ media and the arts may serve to lure or dissuade or construct specific idealized versions of a culture
tourists, intentionally or not. In addition to pro- or society. Representations also affect how indi-
motional materials, cultures are represented to viduals, tourists, or the toured view themselves.
tourists in museums, in guidebooks, during Specifically, representations have been found to
tours, through souvenirs, on postcards, and in serve as social, cultural, and economic commod-
photos. Tourists represent and curate cultures ities that are produced according to market
with photos, words, and souvenir purchases, demand and ▶ supply and reflect and contribute
most of which take on a representational life of to how individuals or collectives define and judge
their own especially given the propensity to share others, as well as themselves (Morgan and
those photos and words in online forums. Pritchard 1998).
In tourism, as with representations more gen-
erally, the significance of the cultural representa-
tion depends on its context(s). This context can be Significance to tourism studies
gleaned by identifying who is being represented,
who is representing, the intended and possible When taking into account the different variables
audience of the representation, the medium, and of who is representing, who is being represented
the representation itself. Given the diverse possi- and how, audience, and means of representation,
ble contexts under which representation exists, one can start to understand the significance of
there is no one single way to provide a succinct representation in tourism. National cultural repre-
explanation of its presence and purpose in tour- sentations occurring in an official capacity, for
ism. Rather, it is helpful to identify some of these example, in publicly funded museums or state-
different representational contexts that occur. sponsored tourism brochures, and focusing solely
As alluded to above, representations permeate on a majority group may reveal national inequal-
all phases of tourism processes. They are pro- ities and a desire to ignore a minority group on a
duced by a variety of sources including tourists, national scale. Self-representations of a minority
locals, ▶ tour guides, government agencies group may be an opportunity for empowerment, R
and officials, media sources, and guidebooks. whereas self-representations of a majority group
Sometimes those producing the representations may be a form of oppression. Tourists’ represen-
are members of the represented group, while tations of cultures they have toured may reveal
many times they are not. Sometimes the group is exoticizing tendencies or social justice agenda.
comprised of many cultural entities and the By looking at cultural representation through a
representers are not part of all the entities. lens of tourism, scholars have contributed to the
Cultures represented could be based on a broader understanding of representations. One
variety of ties including ethnic, national, socio- such contribution raises the question of authentic-
economic, ▶ race, historic, geographic, religious, ity, an overwhelming preoccupation in tourism
ethnolinguistic, or organizational. Tourism repre- studies. Questioning the authenticity of a repre-
sentations, therefore, are necessarily connected to sentation is important because it can reveal power
historic, social, political, and economic realms differentials; however, tourism scholars have
(Dann 1996). pointed out that this is not always the aim of
Tourism representations are often intended for representations. Exploring the (in)authenticity
an audience: tourists and potential tourists who do of a representation can reveal the complexity of
790 Resort development
relations that exist between groups and the ways within the field is between “legacy” resorts which
in which agency appears even when groups are have evolved over periods sometimes extending
seemingly silenced. These are just some of the to centuries and others which are outcomes of
understandings that scholars have gleaned by more deliberate and self-conscious development
evaluating cultural representations in tourism. by an entrepreneur. Some of the former “first-
Future research promises to address the ever- generation resorts” are synonymous with ▶ desti-
changing production and consumption of repre- nation towns or even cities.
sentations, especially given the increased, yet far The destination and resort life cycle concepts
from universal, access to the internet and ▶ social have been used almost interchangeably to explain
media, as well as the role of tourists as modern the development process for these and subsequent
curators of culture. resorts. Butler’s (1980) tourism area life cycle is
the best known and most established theory of the
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ discourse, ▶ identity, resort development process. The model draws
▶ Other, ▶ power. from multiple disciplines including marketing
(where the product life cycle originated) and
from regional planning. It has subsequently been
applied by researchers and practitioners in diverse
References geographical settings across the developed and
developing worlds with consideration to other
Bourdieu, P. 1991 Language and Symbolic Power. Cam- dimensions such as chaos theory and globaliza-
bridge: Polity.
Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism:
tion (Cole 2009).
A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Oxford: CABI. Various expressions present more detailed con-
Foucault, M. 1972 The Archaeology of Knowledge. New cepts of resort types or styles. Integrated resorts
York: Pantheon. are typically initiated by a single organization and
Hall, S. 1997 Representation: Cultural Representations and
Signifying Practices. London: Sage.
incorporate all of the facilities that are required to
Morgan, N., and A. Pritchard 1998 Tourism Promotion and provide extended holidays within a resort perim-
Power: Creating Images, Creating Identities. Chiches- eter (Smith 1992). This approach frequently
ter: Wiley. involves a single concept and theming, though
Spivak, G. 1988 Can the Subaltern Speak. In Marxism and
the Interpretation of Culture, C. Nelson and
variability may be prevalent where subcompo-
L. Grossberg, eds., pp.271-313. Basingstoke: nents of the resort are concessions operated by
Macmillan. third parties. Another commonly used expression
Said, E. 1978 Orientalism. New York: Patheon. is the “all-inclusive” resort. Guests in these set-
tings are commonly offered access to a single
fully inclusive price which encompasses all
▶ accommodation, meals, and activities. Better
Resort development known all-inclusives include Club Med with its
global reach and Sandals with its stronger Carib-
Brian E. M. King bean focus.
School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong
Kong, China Evolving resort development concepts
The manifestation of tourism evolution through

There is no single and all embracing resort con- the resort development process may be physical
cept prevalent within the literature to capture the and/or conceptual. Those studying or
diverse use of the term and its manifestations implementing such properties gather inputs from
(Agarwal and Shaw 2007). The main distinction disciplines ranging from design and urban and
Resort development 791
regional planning to architecture. Historically, The future of resort development

resorts are more commonly located in regional
and rural areas than in cities, though some beach- When the modernization paradigm was in vogue
side cities may be viewed as urban resorts (King during the 1970s and 1980s, governments
2001). Recent technological advances have acquired land along extensive coastlines to facil-
pushed the boundaries among categories and itate resort growth. Examples include Languedoc-
have allowed urban spaces to replicate resorts Roussillon on the French Mediterranean and
with complexes such as Ski Dubai, re-creating Cancun on ▶ Mexico’s Caribbean coast. The
winter and snow-bound conditions within a retail recent and rapid expansion of Asia-Pacific and
environment in a hot desert city setting. These Mediterranean coastal tourism has fuelled
processes have seen a blurring of the distinctions resort developments across ▶ China in special
between places of living and of pleasure/vacation economic zones, such as subtropical Hainan
as residents seek “quality of life” and “lifestyle” at Island. There is also a close connection between
home and away in urban and regional settings resorts and entertainment, including gambling
(King 2001). The terminology of resorts has con- (Stansfield 1978).
sequently hybridized into expressions such as In the case of Asia, resort expansion has coin-
eco-urban resorts. cided with the progressive liberalization of gam-
The term “generation” acknowledges that ing regulations in various countries. The
resort concepts change over time and describes government of ▶ Singapore’s integrated resort
various development phases for mountain (ski) concept applies to initiatives incorporating a
resorts as well as for their coastal and casino casino and gaming component (Marina Bay
equivalents (Gill and Williams 2011). The Sands and Sentosa). Though some nature-based
longest-established resorts are sometimes eco-resorts buck the trend, the increasing provi-
described as “first generation.” Many subse- sion of lavish “entertainment” is prompting
quently experienced perceptual or actual stagna- resorts in various world regions to incorporate a
tion, thus prompting the need to rejuvenate. Such gaming component. Within Asia this is evident in
redevelopments have been the subject of scholarly the case of Macao, ▶ Malaysia, Korea, and the
investigations, including the problems that are ▶ Philippines. The extravagance of many recently
associated with stagnation such as social exclu- developed resorts involving a gaming and
sion among local residents. casino component has provided an impetus for
Stagnation is prevalent in many longer- the development and investigation of new archi-
established seaside resorts in developed settings tectural and design concepts. The resort possibil-
such as northern ▶ Europe (Britain, the ▶ Neth- ities afforded by new technologies allowing R
erlands, and northern coastline of ▶ France). Most resorts underwater or even in space suggest
were overtaken in popularity by ▶ Mediterranean that more applications of future research to
resort developments during the 1960s, notably by resorts would be timely. Researchers may also
▶ Spain with its more amenable climate for investigate the extent to which new resorts that
engaging in leisure activities. Many of the are not targeting Western tourists should facilitate
so-called “second-generation” resorts subse- resort experiences which are distinct from those
quently needed to revise and reposition. These applicable in earlier, European-oriented
were overtaken by less expensive alternatives complexes.
located in emerging resort destinations, such as
▶ Turkey and ▶ Tunisia (sometimes described as
“third generation”). The latter benefited from fall-
ing price competitiveness in destinations such as See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ destination
▶ Italy, Spain, and ▶ Greece whose governments lifecycle, ▶ enclave tourism, ▶ skiing tourism,
adopted the Euro as their currency. ▶ timeshare.
792 Resource
References history. It is hard to restore them once these char-

acteristics are lost; at best they can only be
Agarwal, S., and G. Shaw, eds. 2007 Managing Coastal restored over a long time. Natural environment
Tourism Resorts: A Global Perspective. Clevedon:
and cultural heritage are typical examples.
Channel View.
The Canadian Geographer 24:5-12. Concept and characteristics
Cole, S. 2009 A Logistic Tourism Model: Resort Cycles,
Globalization, and Chaos. Annals of Tourism Research
36:689-714. In reality, the characteristics of tourism resources
Gill, A, and P. Williams 2011 Rethinking Resort Growth: differ in degree from one ▶ destination to another.
Understanding Evolving Governance Strategies in For instance, in an entertainment-oriented casino
Whistler, British Columbia. Journal of Sustainable
destination, the facilities and employees are part of
Tourism 19:629-648.
King, B. 2001 Resort-based Tourism on the Pleasure the attraction to the site and locality. Irreversibility
Periphery. In Tourism and the Less Developed World: and history do not play important roles, which is
Issues and Case Studies, D. Harrison, ed., pp.175-190. different from destinations characteristic of natural
Wallingford: CABI.
and cultural resources. Likewise, themeparks are
Smith, R. 1992 Beach Resort Evolution: Implications for
Planning. Annals of Tourism Research 19:304-322. also entertainment oriented and do not have much
Stansfield, C. 1978 Atlantic City and the Resort Cycle connection with the locality. For large-scale resort
Background to the Legalization of Gambling. Annals destinations such as seaside beaches or mountain
resorts, the attractiveness of natural resources (e.g.,
landscapes, flora, and fauna), as well as naturally
embedded facilities (e.g., accommodations), repre-
sents a combination of resources.
Moreover, in an intangible case wherein art
Resource performance is the main attraction, human
resources that have the capability for performance
Yasuo Ohe and hospitality are utilized as essential tourism
Department of Food and Resource Economics, resources. Notably, while some activities are
Chiba University, Matsudo, Japan based on a single resource, many are composite
activities in reliance on a combination of multiple
resources. In sum, a tourism activity can involve a
Tourism resources are stock that generates neces- combination of natural, historical, cultural,
sary inputs, together with the input of labor and human, and capital resources. How these
capital, for the production of tourism goods and resources are combined depends as much on the
services (Stabler et al. 2010). Labor and capital local development strategy in utilizing its
play important roles in the production of tourism resources, as it does on the type of activities to
activities, and also in their characterization that be undertaken under that strategy.
enables operators to differentiate one’s services
from ▶ the Other. In general, labor and capital
can be procured from everywhere, and often do Resources and sustainability
not necessarily have a relationship with locality.
Nevertheless, tourism resources are formed over a Like other general resources, tourism resources
long period of time based on specific local natural are constrained by availability, which is defined
and cultural conditions. Thus, these conditions are as their “carrying capacity” (Robinson
difficult to be imitated. In this context, tourism et al. 2013). Natural resources are renewable,
resources tend to have locality, irreversibility, and while cultural heritage and artwork are not; their
Resource 793
loss is irreversible. In any case, the use of such with the concept of sustainability. For example,
resources for tourism should be done under the ▶ ecotourism is of low impact mainly because it is
principle that utilization does not hamper renewal based on natural resources and has taken into
or does not damage nonrenewable resources. This account its impact on the environment (Fennell
is the condition for ▶ sustainable tourism that 2003). ▶ Rural tourism is another instance of soft
allows both maintenance and utilization of tourism, which is based on local resources
resources at the same time (World Commission (Sharpley and Sharpley 1997). In a narrow
on Environment and Development 1987). Thus, it sense, agritourism or farm tourism is based on its
is safe to say that carrying capacity is a condition own resources (Ohe and Ciani 2011). What is
for sustainable tourism in terms of resource common among these typologies is that they are
management. If this condition is not satisfied, superior in sustainability while the economic
then external dis-economies, or negative external effects are smaller than those of hard tourism.
effects such as congestion and traffic jams, will In prospect, for any types of tourism activities,
come into existence in a tourism area, which will it is necessary to take into account the factor of
subsequently lead to the deterioration of resources sustainability in the use of resources. Conse-
and result in an eventual decline of the quently, to achieve the goal of sustainability, it is
tourism area. imperative for stakeholders of local tourism
In developed countries, it is no longer a com- development, including operators and
mon practice to implement large-scale develop- policymakers, to create a balance between long-
ment such as building resort hotels by the input of term utilization and management of resources and
capital and labor from the outside of a local area. short-term maximization of benefits through
Nevertheless, it has been pointed out that such enlarging tourist inflow.
development practices have resulted in environ-
mental degradation by the increase in the amount See also ▶ Carrying capacity, ▶ destination,
of trash and human waste due to a rise in ▶ tourist ▶ heritage, ▶ sustainability, ▶ sustainable
inflow in the peak season. In addition, economic tourism.
leakage to the outside of a local community can be
larger than initially expected. This exogenous
type of development is termed “hard tourism”
(Slee et al. 1997), derived from an image of hard- References
ware structure such as resort hotels, ski resorts,
Fennell, D. 2003 Ecotourism Second Edition. London:
golf resorts, and so on. Notably, the era of the Routledge.
creation of artificial resources by this type of Ohe, Y., and A. Ciani 2011 Evaluation of Agritourism R
large-scale tourism development was terminated Activity in Italy: Facility Based or Local Culture
at the end of the twentieth century. In developing Based? Tourism Economics 17:581-601.
Robinson, P., M. Luck, and S. Smith 2013 Tourism.
countries, on the other hand, from the expectation London: CABI.
of large-scale economic effects, hard tourism is Sharpley, R., and J. Sharpley 1997 Rural Tourism: An
often considered an important strategy for eco- Introduction. London: International Thomson
nomic development. Business Press.
Slee, B., H. Farr, and P. Snowdon 1997 The Economic
In contrast, endogenous development by the Impact of Alternative Types of Rural Tourism. Journal
utilization of local resources is called “soft tour- of Agricultural Economics 48:179-192.
ism” (Slee et al. 1997). Because of its local Stabler, M., A. Papatheodorou, and M. Sinclair 2010 The
resource-based nature, this type of development Economics of Tourism (2nd Ed.). Abingdon:
Routledge.
is of a smaller scale and has a lower ▶ impact on World Commission on Environment and Development
the environment than that of hard tourism. Thus, it 1987 Our Common Future. Oxford: Oxford University
is safe to say that soft tourism is more consistent Press.
794 Responsible tourism
▶ product. Therefore, accountability is required

Responsible tourism in ▶ planning, policy, and development to ensure
benefits are created and distributed among stake-
Karla Boluk1 and Clare Weeden2 holders (Harrison and Husbands 1996). The con-
1
Department of Recreation and Leisure Studies, cept is about responsibility, responding, and
University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, taking actions to address issues that arise in desti-
Canada nations. As such, “people can change the way
2
School of Sport and Service Management, tourism works” (Goodwin 2012:4–5) and ulti-
University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK mately create benefits. Operationally, it necessi-
tates “respect for the locality and people but also
acting responsibly in terms of one’s own actions
Responsible behavior derives from moral philos- and, moreover, in the ▶ management and opera-
ophy. One’s responsibility is considered in relation of business” (Leslie 2012:20).
tion to a common understanding of it within a The notion emerged in the 1980s alongside
society. Therefore, what is considered responsible other approaches such as eco-, sustainable, alter-
to a ▶ culture or society dictates how one should native, pro-poor, and community as a response to
behave. In tourism, responsibility has the most tourism ▶ development and its negative conse-
significant application, since it involves the quences for environments and communities
mixing of cultures and values and various under- (Leslie 2012). The need for such alternative
standings of being good. Quintessentially, respon- approaches clarifies that there are various prac-
sibility requires a concern for humanity. tices that have in the past and continue to create
negative impacts.
An influential catalyst of this was Krippendorf,
Concept and its use whose vision for a “cooperative world in which
each part is a center, living at the expense of
The Cape Town Declaration on Responsible Tour- nobody else, in partnership with nature, in soli-
ism is the most comprehensive and oft-cited def- darity with future generations,” centered on a
inition. The principal interest is to improve the form for which the goal is “to develop and pro-
communities in which hosts live, and in turn mote new forms of tourism, which will bring the
enhance the experiences for visitors. Therefore, greatest possible benefit to all participants without
it should “minimize negative impacts, generate causing intolerable ecological and social damage”
wider benefits for the local people. . ., improve (1987:105–106). To reeducate tourists about their
the working conditions. . ., involve local role, Krippendorf proposed the launch of a “Learn
people. . ., make positive contributions. . ., pro- to Travel Campaign,” which coincided with the
vide more enjoyable experiences. . ., provide idea of the World Commission on Environment
access for physically challenged people,” and and Development in 1987. Collectively, these out-
operate in a way that it is “culturally sensitive, puts focused public attention on the
[and] encourages respect between tourists and unsustainability of increasing levels of mass con-
hosts, and builds local pride and confi- sumption in terms of the planet’s human and eco-
dence”(2012:3). The Declaration establishes that logical ▶ resources, which have sustained public,
all stakeholders have a responsibility, specifically academic, and industry debates about responsible
referring to governments, product owners tourism.
and operators, transport operators, community
services, non-governmental organizations, com-
munity-based organizations, tourists, local com- Applications
munities, and ▶ industry associations.
Responsible tourism has been promoted as a ▶ South Africa is recognized as a global leader in
way of doing tourism instead of being a specific responsible tourism. In 1996 the government
Responsible tourism 795
produced the White Paper on the Development provide opportunities for businesses to showcase
and Promotion of Tourism. The document and market their corporate social responsibility.
established that had the historical past been However, if businesses are not transparent about
different, the country would host a thriving their progress and achievements, there is a risk of
industry. Therefore, defining responsible tourism being accused of greenwashing and growing con-
and establishing the responsibilities of key sumer cynicism.
stakeholders would afford guidance for the coun- From the tourist’s perspective, responsibility
try. Subsequently, the Responsible Tourism conflicts with hedonistic interests in rest and
Guidelines was published in 2002 and the relaxation. An increasing understanding of sus-
Responsible Tourism Handbook in 2003, provid- tainability may act as an impetus for tourists to
ing examples and advices for businesses to oper- consider how they behave and consume on holi-
ate responsibly. days. From the perspective of host communities,
Simultaneously, the world’s first certification engaging in responsible tourism can define
program incorporating the principles of fair trade whether the industry is sustainable and provides
was established in 2002. The goal of Fair Trade in benefit over time. Goodwin (2012) and Leslie
Tourism South Africa was to promote responsible (2012) argue that a lack of progress is evident in
tourism, encourage businesses to operate sustain- the promotion and practice of responsible tourism.
ably, and award businesses that adhere to the Therefore, a significant challenge is to establish
standards. The ▶ certification has broadened the how to communicate the message in a way to
potential and created opportunities for businesses encourage stakeholders to take actions.
in surrounding countries. The future relies on the action of those
The adapted certification, from a shift of focus involved in responsible tourism, which
on businesses in South Africa to those in Southern should assume a multi-stakeholder approach.
▶ Africa, has expanded to create opportunities However, in reality, there is often a lack of
for country-specific criteria and potential devel- accountability. Therefore, communications to
opment of an international certification program. ensure that people are aware of their tourism-
In 2011, the National Department of Tourism related impacts and appreciate how they can con-
developed the National Minimum Standard tribute more responsibly is the key to creating
for Responsible Tourism. The primary objective opportunities for sustainability and positive
was to establish a common understanding by change.
the development of standards, which consist of
criteria in sustainable operations and
management. See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ corpo- R
rate social responsibility, ▶ equity, ▶ ethics,
▶ governance.
Challenges and opportunities
One of the significant challenges lies in identify-

ing or deciding who is responsible within the References
intricate makeup of the industry. The response
should be everyone. However, there is evidence Cape Town Declaration 2012 Responsible Tourism in
Cape Town <www.responsibletourismpartnership.
to suggest that not all stakeholders are necessarily org/CapeTown.html> (2 September 2013).
able to prioritize accountability. Goodwin, H. 2012 Ten Years of Responsible Tourism.
In conflict with the main goals are the eco- Progress in Responsible Tourism 2:4-33.
nomic interests that prevail and dominate the Harrison, L., and W. Husbands 1996 Practicing Responsi-
ble Tourism. New York: Wiley.
agendas of the stakeholders, who demonstrate an
Krippendorf, J. 1987 The Holiday Makers. Oxford:
interest in growth while earning a reputation via Heinemann.
hosting large-scale events. Such engagements can Leslie, D. 2012 Responsible Tourism. Wallingford: CABI.
796 Restaurant
A 2011 report of the European Union estimated

Restaurant restaurant sector revenues at $489.2 billion,
representing 3 % growth over the 2007–2011
Sandra M. Sánchez-Cañizares period. The number of employees in this sector
Faculty of Law and Business, University of reached 14 million in 2011, with a 1.3 % increase
Cordoba, Andalusia, Spain in employment over the same period.
Restaurants are commercial establishments Restaurant in tourism

designed to serve refreshments and meals, which
are either prepared fresh or partially produced Foods and drinks account for about 25–30 % of
elsewhere and finished in on-site. Although “res- the daily expenditure of tourists. Dining and
taurant” derives from the French verb restaurer, drinking is not simply a question of fulfilling a
meaning “to restore or refresh,” the term was basic need but is another way to experience and
allegedly coined in Paris by an innkeeper called learn about the identity and culture of a ▶ desti-
Boulanger in 1765 (Kiefer 2002). But the fact is nation. Over the years, studies on ▶ culinary tour-
that establishments providing foods and drinks to ism have been increasing and have demonstrated
tourists have existed since ancient Rome and that local cuisine is a source of ▶ leisure and
▶ Greece, the so-called thermopolia. The wide entertainment that influences tourist memories
range and prices currently available in such estab- and experiences. For example, Kivela and Crotts
lishments as upmarket, gourmet, functional, (2006) contend that gastronomy plays an impor-
casual, and themed restaurants make it difficult tant role in the way tourists experience a destina-
to classify them into a single, homogeneous tion and that some would return to the same
group. destination just to savor its unique gastronomy.
The importance of restaurants in tourism is Other studies have categorized two kinds of
linked to the fact that they complement other tourists in relation to the importance they place
products and services as well as the global need on this aspect of tourism: those for whom food is
that tourists wish to experience no matter where an additional reason to ▶ travel and those for
they go. Because tourists do not merely seek to whom the desire to experience a particular food
satisfy their appetite when dining out, but pursue is the major motivation (Mitchell and Hall 2006).
the added value of unique and memorable experi- In this sense, given that different cuisines are
ences, there are now numerous and varied gastro- usually classified according to their origin (such
nomic offerings catering to different types of as Chinese, Italian, Thai, and Mexican), there is an
customers. The provision of foods and drinks is opportunity for market positioning by associating
a tourism product, as ▶ tourist expenditure on the restaurant establishments with the cuisine of a
supply and demand accounts for a substantial destination. However, restaurants are not the
share of the economy. exclusive domain of culinary tourism, but are
According to reports of the National Restau- present in all forms (ranging from cultural trips
rant Association (2013), the US restaurant sector, to conferences and conventions), hence the impor-
with 980,000 establishments nationwide, consti- tance of these culinary establishments in both the
tuted 4 % of the country’s GDP in 2013, with sales restaurant sector and in the tourism industry in
of about US$650.5 billion (a figure which is close general.
to double the $379 billion in early 2000). These Recent analyses focus on different facets of
figures are reinforced by the relation between the restaurants. On the one hand, there are studies on
food industry and employment. The restaurant restaurants as a product, such as tourist motivation
sector employed 13.1 million people in 2013, or and restaurant selection behavior (fast-food estab-
nearly 10 % of the US workforce, with employ- lishments, restaurants serving local or traditional
ment expected to reach 14.4 million by 2023. cuisine, and hotel restaurants). On the other hand,
Revenue management 797
research highlights the dual role restaurants play Kiefer, N. 2002 Economics and the Origin of the Restau-
as a significant and attractive feature of the desti- rant. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration
Quarterly 43(4):58-64.
nation, as well as a source of concern in terms of Kivela, J., and J. Crotts 2006 Tourism and Gastronomy’s
food quality, hygiene, and authenticity related to Influence on How Tourists Experience a Destination.
the destination culture (Cohen and Avieli 2004). Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research
30:354-377.
Mitchell, R., and M. Hall 2006 Wine Tourism Research: The
State of Play. Tourism Review International 9:307-332.
New trends National Restaurant Association 2013 Restaurant Industry
Pocket Factbook www.restaurant.org/Downloads/
The growing culinary tourism offers destinations PDFs/News-Research/Factbook2013_LetterSize.pdf
(28 January 2014).
the opportunity to create unique competitive Okumus, B., F. Okumus, and B. McKercher 2007
advantages (Okumus et al. 2007; WFTA 2014) Incorporating Local and International Cuisines in
due to the role that local or special foods and the Marketing of Tourism Destinations: The Cases
drinks play in the tourist experience. Indeed, of Hong Kong and Turkey. Tourism Management
28:253-261.
cuisine and restaurants contribute to and can WFTA 2014 World Food Travel Association www.
enhance the positive image of cities, regions, and worldfoodtravel.org/ (28 January).
even countries.
There are several lines for future research on
this topic that have been frequently pinpointed.
From the point of view of supply, disciplines such
as geography or marketing highlight, for example, Revenue management
the analysis of the maximum potential capacity of
certain regions when supporting the creation of Brendan M. Richard1 and William P. Perry2
1
restaurants, both in general and by categories. Rosen College of Hospitality Management,
Furthermore, differences of the types of restau- University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA
2
rants could be related to the population size and Cii Hotels and Resorts, (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg,
the districts where they are located. South Africa
With regard to the demand side, the focus is on
analyzing in depth the different types of tourists,
distinguishing those who choose their destination Over the past 50 years, revenue management has
by taking into account the quality of food and played a significant role in the ▶ development and
restaurants. In this regard, future research should growth of many industries, including tourism.
explore the differences between tourists who are Defined as “sell[ing] the right inventory item to R
primarily motivated and those who are less right customer at right time at right price” (Smith
influenced by food and restaurants in their desti- et al. 1992:8), revenue management utilizes a
nation choice behavior. series of levers, such as pricing, inventory, ▶ mar-
keting, and distribution channels in order to max-
imize revenue. Developed initially to optimize the
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ culinary tourism, pricing of perishable products, the refinement of
▶ experience, ▶ recreation, ▶ service. its theory and application has coincided with its
expansion in the ▶ airline, hotel, cruiseship, and
▶ other tourism sectors.
Prior to 1970, revenue management existed
primarily as reservation controls put in place by
References airlines in order to control overbookings and to
Cohen, E., and N. Avieli 2004 Food in Tourism: Attraction
predict cancelations and no-shows. In the early
and Impediment. Annals of Tourism Research 1970s, this sector began to experiment with pric-
31:755-778. ing controls and discounts. In order to effectively
798 Risk
generate the optimal business mix, airlines were References

forced to move away from simple rules; instead,
they analyzed booking data in order to develop Anderson, C., S. Kimes, and B. Carroll 2009 Teaching
Revenue Management at the Cornell University School
predictable statistical models. Seat inventory rules
of Hotel Administration. INFORMS Transactions on
were developed based on the interplay between Education 9(3):109-116.
discounted rates and expected full fare revenue. Kimes, S. 2010 The Future of Hotel Revenue Manage-
From these humble beginnings, revenue management. Journal of Revenue and Pricing Management
10:62-72.
ment systems evolved to make real-▶ time book-
McGill, J., and G. Van Ryzin 1999 Revenue Management:
ing decisions, with models that incorporate such Research Overview and Prospects. Transportation Sci-
elements as customer behavior, demand forecast- ence 33:233-256.
ing, control systems, revenue and cost factors, Milla, S., and S. Shoemaker 2007 Three Decades of Rev-
enue Management: What’s Next? Journal of Revenue
operational considerations, and code sharing
and Pricing Management 7:110-114.
(McGill and Van Ryzin 1999). Smith, B., J. Leimkuhler, and R. Darrow 1992 Yield Man-
Research on revenue management began in the agement at American Airlines. Interfaces 22:8-31.
airlines and quickly transitioned to other
interconnected tourism sectors. The ▶ theory
behind the subject has continued to evolve, with
developments incorporating customer behavior Risk
and relationship ▶ management, improving the
accuracy of ▶ forecasting and analytical pricing Ada Lo
models, incorporating all revenue streams in the School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
firm, and focusing on gross operating profit (Milla The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
and Shoemaker 2007). Hong Kong, China
Revenue management has become an integral
component to ▶ hospitality and tourism curricu-
lum at many ▶ universities. Students are taught Traditionally, risk has been identified as one of
how the subject aligns with ▶ economics, market- tourists’ major concerns. It is a situation or event
ing, pricing, and operational principles; they are where something of human value is at stake and
introduced to concepts such as ▶ demand model- where the outcome is uncertain (Aven and Renn
ing, overbooking, and discount allocation; and 2009). Risks do not exist independently of the
they become familiar with ▶ industry-specific assessor and are difficult to measure and manage
applications through elective coursework (Covello 1984). Perceived risk is an individual’s
(Anderson et al. 2009). awareness of the overall negativity of a course of
The ▶ future of revenue management in tour- action based upon an assessment of the possible
ism will increasingly be driven by organizational negative outcomes and the likelihood that those
▶ strategy, operating in an ▶ environment of outcomes will occur. It can be influenced by facts,
increased technological and analytical capabilities scientific risk assessments, an individual’s own
and higher levels of competition. Revenue man- calculations and assessments, and personality
agers will be needed to face the challenges factors.
imposed by an ever-increasing amount of data, Tourists’ risk perception is a multidimensional
the global economy, pressure from ownership to phenomenon. Reisinger and Mavondo (2006)
drive revenue and profitability, and shifts in con- summarized ▶ travel risks into 13 different cate-
sumer expectations (Kimes 2010). gories: crime, cultural, equipment, financial,
health, performance, physical, political, psycho-
logical, satisfaction, social, terrorism, and time.
See also ▶ Cost-benefit analysis, ▶ competitive They also found significant differences in percep-
advantage, ▶ demand modeling, ▶ financial man- tions of these risks among tourists from different
agement, ▶ forecasting countries and regions.
Rite of passage 799
Risk influences an individual’s perceptions Reisinger, Y., and F. Mavondo 2006 Cultural Differences
toward a ▶ destination, its related products, and in Travel Risk Perception. Journal of Travel & Tourism
Marketing 20:13–31.
the decisionmaking processes involved. When Ryan, C. 2003 Risk Acceptance in Adventure Tourism:
tourists become aware of a risk associated with a Paradox and Context. In Managing Tourist Health and
particular destination or the consumption of cer- Safety in the New Millennium, J. Wilks and S. Page,
tain products or services, they may adopt certain eds., pp.55-66. Oxford: Elsevier.
strategies to avoid or reduce it. Risk reduction
strategies are the processes or actions by which
customers seek to reduce uncertainty or
dissatisfaction. Rite of passage
However, it is not always true that tourists will
avoid risk as much as they can. Some people Tom Sel€anniemi
regard a ▶ vacation as the time and space where Corporate Relations, Finnish Committee for
they can feel less restrained and more prone to UNICEF, Helsinki, Finland
venture outside their comfort zone. Some tourists
participate in adventurous activities, from which
they deliberately seek for risk and the uncertainty Rites of passage, or transition rites, are anthropo-
of outcome (Ryan 2003). Some risk-taking tour- logical terms for rituals where a person is trans-
ists choose destinations threatened by terrorist ferred from one status into another (van Gennep
attacks or issued with governmental travel advi- 1960). Examples include initiation and puberty
sories (Fuchs et al. 2013). rites or those where the boundaries between the
Risk is a double-edged sword which can profane and the sacred or the natural and the
deter or encourage tourists to visit a destination supernatural are crossed, as in secularization,
or to participate in tourism activities. Research rites of desacralization, and purification.
has evolved from studying perceived travel- In transition rites, the ritual subjects go through
related risk and its reduction strategies, to phases that are called preliminal, liminal, and
understanding how different types of risks can postliminal. The first is the normal profane state
motivate travel and still enhance tourists’ satis- of being; the second is sacred, anomalous, abnor-
faction. An emerging body of research examines mal, and dangerous; and the third is the normal
risk rationalizations and political orientation state of things to which the ritual subject reenters
of tourists who visit destinations with terror- after the transition. The liminal is a state of
related risks. liminality, a process in the transition phase during
which the ritual subjects pass a cultural area or R
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ crisis manage- zone that has minimal attributes of the states pre-
ment, ▶ novelty, ▶ safety and security, ceding or following the liminal, and where the
▶ terrorism. norms and sanctions of society do not necessarily
apply. The word “liminal” comes from the Latin
word limen that means threshold or boundary,
References thus describing aptly the notion of betweenness
of liminality – no longer in this room but not yet in
Aven, T., and O. Renn 2009 On Risk Defined as an Event the other.
Where the Outcome is Uncertain. Journal of Risk
Research 12:1–11.
Graburn (1989), relying on van Gennep (1960)
Covello, V. 1984 Social and Behavioral Research on Risk: and Turner and Turner (1978), has shown how
Uses in Risk Management Decision Making. Environ- tourism can be understood as a journey to the
ment International 10:541–545. sacred in an analogy with transition rites. The
Fuchs, G., N. Uriely, A. Reichel, and D. Maoz 2013
Vacationing in a Terror-stricken Destination: Tourists’
stage in tourism that resembles the liminal in
Risk Perceptions and Rationalizations. Journal of rites of passage can be termed the liminoid or
Travel Research 52:182–191. quasi-liminal. This is produced and consumed
800 Ritual
by individuals, while the liminal is believed by the integrating individuals into social structures and
members of society to be of divine origin and is bridging social divisions.
according to its nature anonymous. The liminoid Among the first attempts to integrate the con-
is also fragmentary when compared to the liminal. cept of ritual into tourism theories was
In art, popular culture, entertainment, and tour- MacCannell’s (1999) The Tourist. Observing the
ism, products that promise to remove the con- “ritual attitude” of tourism, he conceptualized the
sumer from everyday experiences are made for general consensus of ▶ tourist ▶ sightseeing
consumption by individuals and groups. They behavior. He argued sightseeing is a modern ritual
promise a transition into a stage that resembles in the Goffmanian sense: “a perfunctory,
the liminal for a limited time span, and can be conventionalized act through which an individual
argued to form one of the key pull factors in portrays [. . .] respect and regard for some object
tourism even though they are not site specific of ultimate value to its stand-in” (1999: 42). Ritual
(Sel€anniemi 2001). This liminal stage of the tran- in modern society takes on a sense of duty. Thus,
sition rite – the stage where social structure partly the act of sightseeing, which lies at the heart of
loses its significance – has and will continue to tourism, becomes an outlet for this ritual attitude
inspire many anthropologists studying tourism. by offering the individual the potential of social
integration, albeit at the macrostructural level.
See also ▶ Pilgrimage tourism, ▶ play, ▶ quest, While also examining the ritual aspects of
▶ religion, ▶ sacred journey. tourism, Graburn (1983) uses a different scale.
To him, “tourism is one of those necessary struc-
tured breaks from ordinary life which character-
References izes all human societies [. . .] a separation from
normal ‘instrumental’ life” (1983:11). So while
van Gennep, A. 1960 The Rites of Passage. Chicago: MacCannell’s (1992, 1999) ritual attitude culmi-
University of Chicago Press.
nates in the arrival at the sight, Graburn’s ritual of
Graburn, N. 1989 Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In Hosts
and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism, tourism ends with the return home. As such, he
V. Smith, ed., pp.21-36. Philadelphia: University of identifies stages accompanied by specific rites.
Pennsylvania Press. The tourism ritual begins with the rites of prepa-
Sel€anniemi, T. 2001 Pale Skin on Playa del Anywhere:
ration for departure (booking accommodations,
Finnish Tourists in the South. In Hosts and Guests
Revisited: Tourism Issues of the 21st Century, packing). The period of time away from home is
V. Smith and M. Brent, eds., pp.80-92. New York: liminal. Separated from everyday work/home life,
Cognizant. one instead relaxes, plays, adventures, and so on
Turner, V., and E. Turner 1978 Image and Pilgrimage in
and engages in rites of touring, including sight-
Christian Culture. New York: Columbia University
Press. seeing, photography, and buying souvenirs. This
ritual culminates with the return home, accompa-
nied by rites of re-entry, such as unpacking,
displaying souvenirs, and distributing gifts.
Ritual In this regard, Graburn argues, tourism serves
both a social and personal function. Similar to
Jillian M. Rickly MacCannell’s discussion of sightseeing, tourism
Business School, The University of Nottingham, is a ritual of social solidarity. It is a socially
Nottingham, UK acceptable and expected way to spend ▶ leisure
time, as well as signifying deeply held values
regarding freedom, health, and self-improvement.
Theories of ritual have their roots in religious Further, tourism functions as a way to mark the
studies. Because rituals are both symbolic and passage of ▶ time, from repetitive ▶ travel
performative, and thereby communicative, they (annual vacations) which mark cyclical time to
perform a double social function: as a means of once-in-a-lifetime trips (honeymoon, gap-year
Role 801
travel) that work to structure linear time and nonempirical conceptualizations. Pearce (1982)
thereby also function as rites of passage was among the first to recognize the limitation of
(Graburn 1983). this type of research. He conducted a comprehen-
Ritual’s symbolic and performative nature sive quantitative study leading to the identifica-
forms a foundation for considering the function tion of 15 roles. While his work had a significant
of tourism, from the individual to social scales. ▶ impact on the study and understanding of tour-
Tourist experiences are not just about seeing ist behavior, he did not distinguish between ▶ lei-
sights but are more importantly about performing sure and business tourists, which is crucial
places. The places one chooses to visit, however, considering the different underlying motivational
are not accidental. They relate to individual as influences.
well as social needs. Understanding the rituals of In 1992, Yiannakis and Gibson developed their
tourism that persist and those that change over tourist role preference scale, identifying
time suggests the ever-evolving role of tourism 13 leisure-based tourist roles. These can be
in society. described using a three-dimensional typology:
familiarity-strangeness, stimulation-tranquility,
See also ▶ Culture, ▶ experience, ▶ perfor- and structural-independence. They suggest people
mance, ▶ semiotics, ▶ sightseeing. enact their preferred tourist role in a ▶ destination
that offers an optimal balance of these dimen-
sions. Further analysis and later work by Gibson
References (1994) led to modification of the typology to
describe 15 tourist roles (sun lover, action seeker,
Graburn, N. 1983 The Anthropology of Tourism. Annals of anthropologist, archaeologist, organized mass
tourist, thrill seeker, explorer, jet-setter, seeker,
MacCannell, D. 1992 Empty Meeting Grounds: The Tour-
ist Papers. London: Routledge. independent mass tourist, high-class tourist,
MacCannell, D. 1999 The Tourist: A New Theory of the drifter, escapist, sport tourist, and educational
Leisure Class. Berkeley: University of California Press. tourist). The developmental work for this typol-
ogy was undertaken in the ▶ United States, but
has since been replicated in ▶ Greece (Yiannakis
et al. 1990) and ▶ Australia (McGuiggan and Foo
Role 2004). Although some differences are evidenced,
for example, in gender in the Australian sample
Robyn McGuiggan that were not found in the US sample, findings of
Division of Global Strategy and Engagement, these studies support the existence of Yiannakis R
James Cook University, Cairns, Australia and Gibson’s 15 leisure tourist roles and the
underlying three dimensions across cultures. But
the typology has yet to be tested in a non-Western
Research on the ▶ tourist role distinguishes clus- culture.
ters of people who exhibit similar and relatively These studies identify relatively stable pat-
stable patterns of behavior in various tourism sit- terns of behavior and lend credence to the sug-
uations. Sociologist Erik Cohen was one of the gestion that optimal destination characteristics
first researchers to suggest that tourists could be are requisite for people to enact their preferred
classified on the basis of similar observable roles. They can be used as a basis for market
behaviors. He argues that the enactment of the segmentation. However, further perspectives on
role reflects a relationship between a tourist’s the psychological motivations behind the selec-
motivation and the resultant behavior. His work tion of the role would lend insight into why
in the 1970s inspired numerous researchers to tourists behave the way they do and provide for
develop various typologies. The early versions a more comprehensive understanding of their
resulted from phenomenological research and behaviors.
802 Romance tourism
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ segmentation, ▶ sociol- transformation of gender roles and identity
ogy, ▶ tourist, ▶ typology, tourist. (Pruitt and LaFont 1995). Often, neither female
tourists nor local men perceive their relationships
as prostitution or a sex-for-money exchange.
References However, local men romancing female tourists
can be conceptualized as romantic entrepreneur-
Gibson, H. 1994 Some Predictors of Tourist Role Prefer- ship, since many of them perceive tourist girl-
ence for Men and Women over the Adult Life Course.
friends as an economic strategy to make a living
Unpublished PhD Dissertation, University of Connect-
icut, United States. and secure their future.
McGuiggan, R., and J. Foo 2004 Who Plays Which Tourist The concept of romance tourism is controver-
Roles? An Australian Perspective. Journal of Travel sial, generating a debate over whether the distinc-
and Tourism Marketing 17:41-54.
tion between male sex tourism and female
Pearce, P. 1982 The Social Psychology of Tourist Behav-
iour. London: Pergamon. romance tourism is adequate. Scholars arguing
Yiannakis, A., and H. Gibson 1992 Roles Tourist Play. against the distinction, placing women among
Annals of Tourism Research 19:287-303. the ranks of sex tourists, propose that the similar-
Yiannakis, A., S. Leivadi, and Y. Apostolopoulos 1990
ities lie in the privileged economic, class, and
Some Cross-cultural Patterns in Tourist Role Prefer-
ences: A Study of Greek and American Tourist Behav- racial status of Western tourists vis-à-vis their
iors. Paper presented at the XIIth World Congress of local sexual partners. Conversely, proponents of
Sociology, Madrid, Spain. the distinction argue that an ungendered approach
to understanding sex in tourism obscures the pro-
found differences readily apparent when careful
attention is paid to gendered power relations, con-
Romance tourism text, and the outcomes of embodied sexual liai-
sons (Jeffreys 2003). In this perspective, the role
Liza Berdychevsky romance and courtship play, as opposed to sex and
Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism, money, highlights the differences between
College of Applied Health Sciences, University of romance and sex tourism, as do the characteristics
Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Champaign, IL, USA of local sexual partners, the motivations, the
degree of emotional involvement and control,
and the feasibility of long-term relationships.
The term “romance tourism” was coined by Pruitt Both of the aforementioned approaches, how-
and LaFont (1995) to describe intimate relation- ever, neglect intra-gender differences, polarize
ships between female tourists from economically between demonization and idealization, and fail
affluent countries (typically in Europe and North to unveil the complex power relations associated
America) and local men in developing countries with embodied romantic/intimate/sexual
(typically in the Caribbean, Southeast Asia, and encounters between female tourists and local
Africa), involving some form of material-erotic men. Romance and sex tourism can be conceived
exchange. Women’s quests for romance and differ- as opposite ends of a continuum of
ence fuel these sexual encounters, and racialized, motivations, rather than as distinct categories
exoticized, and hypersexualized stereotypes about (Herold et al. 2001). Furthermore, these
local men commonly underpin such relationships. liaisons – entangled with sexuality, gender, race,
The term distinguishes these relationships exoticism, embodiment, manipulation, and
from those between male tourists and local exploitation – are intricately related to the forma-
women, typically referred to as “sex tourism”, tion of sexual subjectivity and agency (Frohlick
emphasizing that female tourists’ affairs with 2013). Exploring this kaleidoscopic complexity
local men are constructed through the discourses further will allow tourism scholars to understand
of romance and emotional involvement and offer these encounters, and the potential tourism prac-
an arena for experimentation with and tices have for the perpetuation and/or
Romania 803
transformation of power relations, racialized ste- 20

POLAND 24 28
reotypes, gender roles, and identities. UKRAINE

SLOVAKIA CA
RP
AT
HI
See also ▶ Exoticism, ▶ gender, ▶ power, 48
AN
48
▶ race, ▶ sex tourism.
M
HUNG.
OU
MOL.
NT
Oradea Cluj- Iasi
AIN
Napoca IA
VAN Bacau
S
SYL Târgu-
References Arad TR
AN
Mures
Timisoara Sibiu
Brasov
Frohlick, S. 2013 Sexuality, Women, and Tourism: Cross- Moldoveanu Galati
TRANS PS Braila
Border Desires through Contemporary Travel. London: YLVANIAN AL
Pitesti Ploiesti Tulcea
Routledge.
BUCHAREST
Herold, E., R. Garcia, and T. DeMoya 2001 Female Tour- SERBIA
WALACHIA
Craiova Constanta
ists and Beach Boys: Romance Tourism or Sex Tour- 44 Dan 44
ube Giurgiu
ism? Annals of Tourism Research 28:978-997.
Jeffreys, S. 2003 Sex Tourism: Do Women Do It Too? Black
Leisure Studies 22:223-238. BULGARIA Sea
Pruitt, D., and S. LaFonte 1995 For Love and Money: KOSOVO 0 50 100 km
24 28
Romance Tourism in Jamaica. Annals of Tourism 0 50 100 mi
Romania, Figure 1 Map of Romania
Maramures‚ , wooden churches, and local customs.

Romania Transilvania differentiates itself by means of
medieval cities and ▶ Moldova and Bucovina by
Aurelia-Felicia Stăncioiu and Andreea Botos‚ religious heritage. This variety explains the diffi-
The Bucharest University of Economic Studies, culty in building Romania’s tourism brand. The
Bucuresti, Romania role of the state concerning tourism is limited at
this time, with only a few main products appeared
and designed in the 2007–2026 tourism ▶ devel-
Romania, a semi-presidential republic, is the sec- opment masterplan. These products include
ond largest country in Central and Southeastern balneotherapy, rural, seaside tourism, cruises on
Europe, with a population of 19,631,292 people the Danube, and ▶ business tourism.
as of January 2014. Having all the advantages to At present, balneotherapy, “the oldest and most
influence tourism ▶ development, Romania facil- specific type of tourism in Romania” (Cândea R
itates the economic and touristic connection with et al. 2012:77), ▶ cultural tourism, and ▶ ecotour-
▶ Europe and other continents and ensures ism are the main development trajectories. The
▶ tourist transits between Southeastern Europe cultural-historical heritage, represented by archae-
and Western, Eastern, Central, and Northern ological vestiges and historical, architectural, and
Europe (Glăvan 2012), encouraging the premises art monuments, is “based on cultural areas with
of developing European and Balkanic tourism own features, such as the Mousterian culture,
products (Figure 1). Hamangia, Boian, Cucuteni, Getic-Thracic-Dacic
Romania has a variety of resources, related to culture in general” (Neacs‚ u et al. 2011:89–90). The
the identity of its historical regions. Banat-Crişana ethno-folkloric heritage has “over 50 ethnographic
is renowned for mineral waters, parks, and the areas, which are divided in valuable subzones”
nature reserves, while Muntenia excels in histori- (Cocean 2010: 128). The natural heritage repre-
cal resources and Oltenia (with many UNESCO sents “a fundamental element of a territory in
and European heritage monuments) in mineral order to create tourism products” (Glăvan
waters and monasteries. Furthermore, Dobrogea 2000:22), with protected areas comprising 20 %
has the Danube Delta and the Black Sea, of the country’s territory.
804 Rule and regulation
Tourism is an important economic component economic benefit, social and health improvement,
of Romania, with a contribution of 1.82 % to the environmental risk reduction, equity and fairness,
country’s GDP and 374,887 jobs in 2011. From and political expediency. They are formulated and
2011 to 2012, the number of recorded tourists enforced by a variety of institutions, including
increased from 1.5 to 1.6 million, with domestic local or national governments, state and private
numbers accounting for 7.0–7.7 million, respec- bodies, as well as professional organizations such
tively. On the other hand, the average length of as legal and auditing agencies.
stay has decreased for all types of tourism, a situ- There are extensive multidisciplinary researches
ation which was explained by various reasons, on positive and negative impacts of tourism
such as the lack of modern infrastructure, increased (Goeldner and Ritchie 2012; Pearce et al. 1996).
number of holidays per year, etc. Tourism studies Tourism can generate many benefits for host com-
are taught in all major institutions both in tourism- munities. At the same time, it can destroy
related and such auxiliary fields as sports and natural environment and habitats and cause harm-
agriculture-related faculties, with Master’s pro- ful social and cultural consequences. This
grams available under business administration. two-sided nature requires its policymakers and
business practitioners to maximize the benefits
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ ecotourism, and minimize the costs of tourism. For example,
▶ health tourism, ▶ rural tourism. the World Tourism Organization intends to
formulate “tourism law” for the sustainable devel-
opment, management, and regulation of this
References industry through specifying the rights and obliga-
tions of national governments, suppliers, and con-
Cândea, M., T. Simon, and E. Bogdan 2012 Patrimoniul sumers, respectively, in the sustainable use of
Turistic al României. Bucures‚ ti: Editura Universitară.
natural and cultural resources for development
Cocean, P. 2010 Patrimoniul Turistic al României. Cluj
Napoca: Editura Presa Universitară Clujeană. (UNWTO 2013).
Glăvan, V. 2000 Turismul în România. Bucureşti: Editura In developing countries, authority and
Economică. ▶ power tend to be concentrated within central
Glăvan, V. 2012 România Turistică de azi şi ieri. Bucureşti:
government and its bureaucracies. The shift of
Liga Culturală Pentru Unitatea Românilor de
Pretutindeni şi Editura Semne. authority from central to lower ties of govern-
Neacs‚ u, N., V. Glăvan, P. Baron, and M. Neacs‚ u 2011 ments would enhance the efficiency of
Geografia şi Economia Turismului. Bucureşti: Editura decisionmaking and improve quality of service
Pro Universitaria.
delivery. In ▶ China, for example, before the
1980s, one purpose of tourism development is to
promote the establishment and achievement of
Rule and regulation Socialist China. Today, it is made explicit that
efforts from both central and local governments,
Jian Ming Luo1 and Hanqin Qiu Zhang2 organizations, collectivities, and individuals
1
Faculty of International Tourism and should be employed to build up China’s tourism
Management, City University of Macao, Macao, infrastructure and facilities. Tourism is a new
China focal point of China’s national economic growth
2
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, and a pillar industry in national economy (Zhang
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, et al. 2005).
Hong Kong, China In prospect, rules and regulations in tourism
are associated with nationalization, the role of the
public sector and restrictions of competitions. In
In general terms, rules and regulations serve as a an industry where competition is heavily regu-
governance structure for various sectors. They are lated, firms will have to be less concerned with
developed with different purposes, including the market and more preoccupied with the
Rural tourism 805
regulators (Porter 1990). Thus, the impacts of Environmental interests also encourage rural
rules and regulations on tourism will have to be tourism, sometimes called ▶ ecotourism, by
carefully monitored and managed. Notwithstand- urbanites in search of peace and quiet, fresh air,
ing, monitoring and evaluation have largely and open space. In general, the sites of such tour-
remained a neglected area of research in tourism ism include national and state parks, mountains,
public policy; there is a need for more critical and lakes. Such areas are enjoyed actively through
evaluations of the assumptions behind rules and such activities as mountain climbing, skiing, hik-
regulations in tourism. ing, cycling, and golf (Roberts and Hall 2001).
The first two activities need steep slopes and a
See also ▶ Governance, ▶ law, ▶ policy and climate with adequate snow, while the last two
policymaking. need areas of generally flat land. Thus, in Western
Hungary, one of the earliest forms of post-Soviet
rural tourism aimed at international groups was
References that of the provision of green trails for cyclists,
served by bed and breakfast inns along the routes.
Goeldner, C., and J. R. B. Ritchie 2012 Tourism: Princi- Other sports such as fishing, sailing, canoeing,
ples, Practices, Philosophies. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
and houseboats obviously require water in the
Pearce, P., G. Moscardo, and G. Ross 1996 Tourism Com-
munity Relationships. Oxford: Pergamon. form of lakes, rivers, and canals. Unpopulated
Porter, M. 1990 The Competitive Advantage of Nations. rural areas attract tourists from bird and whale
New York: The Free Press. watchers to game hunters. Increasingly tourists
UNWTO, 2013, Tourism Legislation and Regulation.
from the global North are looking to the global
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. www2.unwto.
org/en/technical-product/tourism-legislation-and-regulat South for such opportunities as in the Galapagos
ion (12 December). Islands and East Africa.
Zhang, H., R. Pine, and T. Lam 2005 Tourism and Hotel Furthermore, archaeological sites are usually
Development in China: From Political to Economic
found in rural areas, ranging from Machu Picchu
Success. New York: Haworth.
in ▶ Peru and temples in Southeastern Asia to
Roman remains in North Africa and battle sites
in the ▶ United Kingdom. Thus, this is a form of
cultural ▶ heritage tourism. These specialist
Rural tourism attractions provide employment for the local pop-
ulation as guides and ▶ hospitality providers, as
Janet Momsen well as in the production and sales of souvenirs.
Department of Human Ecology, University of Such occupations are usually undertaken by R
California, Davis, USA women in rural areas where other job opportuni-
ties are limited.
A recent development is the spread of the
For the last decade, more than half of the world interest in rural tourism to the urban middle class
population has been living in cities. This has led to in the global South (George et al. 2012). Indian
a growth of rural tourism as a counterbalance to and Brazilian tourists are building second homes
urbanization (Hall et al. 2003). In many cases, this in their countryside. In locations close to large
has meant a return to rural roots, whether of the urban conglomerations, some villagers are laying
same generation or earlier. Cottages and second concrete pathways and providing ▶ accommoda-
homes of North America are often situated by a tion to attract urban tourists. This renewed search
lake in remote wooded areas. In ▶ Hungary, even for the rural idyll has led to pressures on the
during the Communist period, some urban fami- sustainability of rural landscapes. Future research
lies had a summer house in the country with a might need to consider the links between rural
piece of land on which they could produce food tourism and production of local specialist foods
and even wine to supplement their diets. and the interaction between tourists and locals.
806 Russia
See also ▶ Agritourism, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ land- to ▶ Europe. In the late nineteenth century, pil-
scape, ▶ second home, ▶ village tourism. grimages to the Holy Land became popular. At the
end of the nineteenth and beginning of the twen-
tieth century, the Russian Tourist Society played
References an important role in popularizing tourism in Rus-
sia. Sixty resorts with the capacity for a thousand
George, E., H. Mair, and D. Reid 2012 Rural Tourism were operating by 1913, and the Russian Tourist
Development: Localism and Cultural Change. Bristol:
Society had representation in 135 cities and in
Channel View.
Hall, D., L. Roberts, and M. Mitchell 2003 New Directions most European countries (Zorin et al. 2005).
in Rural Tourism. Aldershot: Ashgate. During the Soviet period (1917–1991),
Roberts, L., and D. Hall 2001 Rural Tourism and Recrea- ▶ international tourism was administered by
tion: Principles and Practice. Wallingford: Oxford.
Intourist, a state organization. It had responsibili-
ties for both inbound and ▶ outbound tourism.
The Soviet Union had 100,000 arrivals between
1931 and 1941. There were 1,828 hotels and
Russia 1,270 guesthouses in Soviet Union by 1939. The
highest growth of ▶ inbound tourism was experi-
Vadim Pshtyka1 and Denis Tolkach2 enced during 1976–1980 (10 % per annum). In
1
Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 1985, tourism organizations provided services to
Kaliningrad Oblast, Russia 38 million domestic and international tourists.
2
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, Cross-cultural exchange, health and wellbeing,
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, and education were among the stated purposes
Hong Kong, China of tourism (Andreeva 2011).
Both domestic and inbound tourism have
grown rapidly in the first decade after the collapse
The Russian Federation (Russia) is located in of the Soviet Union. The most popular destina-
Northern Eurasia, occupying most of Northeast- tions are Moscow and Saint Petersburg. Major
ern Europe and the whole of Northern Asia routes in Russia include a journey around the
(Figure 1). At 17,075,400 km2, it is the largest Golden Ring of ancient cities, Volga River
country in the world. Russia is the ninth most cruises, and Trans-Siberian Railway journeys.
populous nation of 143.4 million (Federal State Other important destinations include Kazan (the
Statistics Service 2013). Its economy largely capital of Tatarstan portraying a mix of Russian
relies on export of commodities, such as oil, nat- Orthodox and Muslim Tatar cultures), Sochi (the
ural gas, coal, steel, and aluminum. In 2012, its most popular Black Sea resort and the site of the
GDP was US$2.56 trillion, or $18,000 per capita 2014 Winter Olympics), and Northern Caucasus
(CIA 2013). (which contains popular ski resorts). The most
famous natural destinations include Lake Baikal,
the deepest lake in the world, Kamchatka with its
History of tourism volcanoes and geysers, Karelia with its lakes and
granite rocks, the Altai Mountains, and the
Tourism in Russia started during the reign of Peter steppes of Tyva.
the Great (1682–1725). After he traveled to West-
ern Europe for enlightenments, subsequent jour-
neys for similar purposes became common among Current status of tourism development
the Russian society. Peter the Great also ordered
the construction of the first built resort town Some 22.7 million international tourists
located in Karelia. By the end of the eighteenth visited Russia in 2011 and total tourism
century, the first organized ▶ tour groups traveled receipts amounted to nearly $11.3 billion
Russia 807
Russia, Figure 1 Map of Russia
(UNWTO 2013). The Federal Agency for Tour- a 2013–2020 federal program to deal with the
ism (government agency responsible for tourism development of culture and tourism. It aims to
policy) states that the number of arrivals declaring significantly increase the numbers of hotels, to
tourism as the purpose of visit was only 2.3 mil- restore existing ones, and to develop new cultural
lion in 2011. Therefore, a large number of arrivals and natural heritage sites in order to promote
may have been groups under business, employ- ▶ mass tourism. By 2020, according to this pro-
ment, visiting friends and family, medical treat- gram, Russia will have been hosting 38.6 million
ment, or education (Government of Russian arrivals. The program describes the main issues for
Federation 2012). development as follows: the poor state of physical
The number of inbound tourists in the post- infrastructure and public transport, low service
Soviet period increased until 2003, declined dur- quality, high ▶ travel and ▶ accommodation
ing 2004–2005, and has since leveled out. As a costs, limited number of well-developed tourism
result, the number of ▶ tourist arrivals was at most products, and a negative image of the country R
the same level in 2005 and 2011 (2,385,000 and abroad.
2,335,000 respectively). However, there was In order to overcome these limitations, the
13 % growth in arrivals in 2012. The overall government acknowledges the need to create
contribution to GDP is 5.9 %, if direct (1.4 %), more favorable conditions for international
indirect (3.1 %), and induced (1.4 %) impacts are investments, support domestic entrepreneurs
considered. Indirect and induced economic through low interest loans, promote Russia as a
impacts are considerably higher than those in ▶ destination, and improve service quality
other countries (Government of Russian Federa- through delivering ▶ hospitality and tourism
tion 2012). More detailed information on tour- ▶ education (Government of Russian Federation
ism’s contribution to the economy, such as 2012). As to the latter, the Association of Univer-
employment, is not available. Russia plans to set sities for Tourism and Service was established in
up a Tourism Satellite Account to address this 2008. In 2013, the association had 17 members.
issue. The industry is represented through Association
In order to increase inbound and ▶ domestic of Tour Operators of Russia, which has 50 mem-
tourism, the government is currently implementing bers servicing 70 % inbound and 40 % domestic
808 Rwanda
markets. There is a need for stronger collaboration countries in the world (26,000 km2, 10,038 mi2).
between Russian and international tourism acade- Its neighboring countries include the Democratic
mia. Russia represents one of the growing out- Republic of Congo, ▶ Burundi, ▶ Tanzania, and
bound markets, yet very little is known about ▶ Uganda (Figure 1).
it. Russia possesses a variety of natural and cul- Rwanda is one of the most densely populated
tural assets that have great tourism potential. countries in ▶ Africa. Its population is estimated
Future research could focus on the niche products at 11.5 million people, with an average population
such as adventure, ▶ heritage, and ▶ Arctic density of 416 persons per km2 and a growth rate
tourism. of 2.6 % annually (NISR 2012). In some areas, the
population exceeds 1,000 persons per km2 (NISR
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ nature tourism, 2012). Its economy is primarily driven by subsis-
▶ image, ▶ destination, ▶ arctic tourism. tence agriculture (NISR 2008, 2012). Over the
past decade, however, Rwanda has steadily regis-
tered growth in other economic sectors such as
cash crop growing and tourism. In fact, tourism as
References an economic sector has overtaken cash crop grow-
ing of tea and coffee as the top foreign exchange
Andreeva, E. 2011 Tourism in the USSR: Organizational earner in the post-Civil War and Genocide era
Structure of Tourism and International Exchange in the
Second Half of Twentieth Century. In Global Changes
(Nielsen and Spenceley 2010). The total contribu-
and Cultural Transformations in Contemporary Tour- tion of tourism to Rwanda’s GDP is estimated at
ism, T. Cherevichko, ed., pp.98-102. Saratov: Saratov 8.4%, creating about 150,000 jobs in 2012
State University. (WTTC 2012).
CIA 2013 The World Factbook. Russia https://www.cia.
gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/rs.
Rwanda’s tourism growth is primarily attrib-
html (15 September). uted to mountain gorillas (Nielsen and Spenceley
Federal State Statistics Service 2013 Russia in 2010). The country’s strategic decision to position
Figures www.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_main/ tourism as a key driver of its economy has signif-
rosstat/en/figures/population/ (15 September).
Government of Russian Federation 2012 Development of
icantly contributed to its rapid growth. For exam-
Domestic and Inbound Tourism in Russian Federation ple, Rwanda’s development vision recognizes
(2011-2018). Moscow: Government of Russian
Federation.
UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights http://mkt.unwto.org/ 29 30
1 UGANDA Kage
ra 1
en/highlights (29 September). DEM. REP.
Zorin, I., V. Kaverina, and V. Kvartalnov 2005 Tourism as a OF THE
S.
Sphere of Business. Moscow: Finance and Statistics.

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Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Lake
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Cyohoha Sud
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Oregon State Univesity, Corvallis, Oregon, USA
go
2 Cyangugu Lac
The Department of Parks, Recreation, and Rweru
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Tourism Management, Clemson University, Butare

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Clemson, SC, USA

3 BURUNDI 0 20 40 km 3
29 30 0 20 40 mi
Rwanda, located in East Africa, a few degrees
south of the equator, is one of the smallest Rwanda, Figure 1 Map of Rwanda
Rwanda 809
competitive tourism services to be the primary actively developed in Kigali, to improve service
engine of its economy by the year 2020 (GOR quality through the Rwanda Tourism University
2007). College and other institutions.
The Rwanda Development Board, an institu-
tion responsible for tourism, has embarked on a See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ nature tour-
campaign to improve the quality of tourism ser- ism, ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ safari.
vices. For example, it has partnered with United
States Agency for International Development to
develop a canopy walkway in Nyungwe National References
Park, thus improving a rainforest hiking experi-
GOR 2007 Economic Development and Poverty
ence. Bird hides have been developed at Volca- Reduction Strategy, 2008-2012. Kigali: Ministry of
noes National Park to facilitate this experience. Finance and Economic Planning, Government of
Rwanda is currently consolidating the growth Rwanda.
of tourism by making strategic regional alliances. Nielsen, H., and A. Spenceley 2010 The Success of Tour-
ism in Rwanda‚ Gorillas and More. Washington DC:
For example, efforts have been made to work with World Bank.
partner states to promote the country as part of the NISR 2008 Rwanda in Statistics and Figures 2008. Kigali:
East African Community ▶ destination through a National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda.
single East African ▶ tourist visa initiative. This NISR 2012 Population and Housing Census. Kigali:
National Institute of Statistics of Rwanda.
initiative, launched in 2014, is envisaged to link WTTC 2012 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact
Rwanda to the already established East African 2012: Rwanda. London: World Travel and Tourism
Safari market. Tourism ▶ education is being Council.
R
S
Sacred journey century work, Graburn presents an engaging dis-

cussion which juxtaposes the profane/workaday/
Razaq Raj stay-at-home life with a touristic/nonordinary/
Carnegie Faculty, School of Events, Tourism and sacred one. This sacred world closely resonates
Hospitality, Leeds Beckett University, Leeds, UK with the concept of “communitas” (Turner and
Turner 1978) which relates to spontaneously
entering a spiritual and social state while traveling
In today’s secular world, the relationship between on a pilgrimage. Whereas Graburn’s work deals
tourists and their beliefs plays a major role in primarily with a secular, touristic state of “sacred-
influencing individuals’ pilgrimages to sacred ness,” the study of the Turners specifically focuses
sites. Their visitation patterns all depend on the on pilgrimage.
strength of religious beliefs. Since religious tour- The sociologist Erik Cohen, whose under-
ism journeys are motivated by a combination of standing of tourism is widely acknowledged,
sacred experience and ▶ travel, it would be easy takes this idea of sacred journey further. Building
to characterize all such journeys as religious tour- on Rudolf Otto’s “numinous” (or godly) experi-
ism. In this context, tourists engaged in a sacred ences, and the religious historian Mircea Éliade’s
journey are defined as “those who travel with the concept that “center” is something which society
intention of undertaking spiritual practices and/or is constantly striving to reach, Cohen (1979) con-
of attaining a sacred state or spiritual growth” centrates his discussion on individuals’ sacred
(Norman 2011:200), involving participation in journeying via spiritual ascension to reach their
both religious and nonreligious activities. “center.” While derived from theological founda-
tions, this “center out there” can either be religious
or cultural. But in all situations, it symbolizes
Thoughts on the sacred journey some profound ultimate meaning for a given per-
son. Developing these ideas further, spiritual jour-
When discussing the sacred journey, it is impor- neys may in fact be an internal experience, rather
tant to begin by acknowledging the work under- than an external physical one.
taken by scholars who have laid the foundations
for the current understanding of this concept.
Graburn’s (1989) seminal contribution, Tourism: The sacred and the profane
the Sacred Journey, is a case in point. Building on
a range of classical writings such as Émile Mircea Éliade’s 1959 treatise on the nature of
Durkheim’s late nineteenth-/early twentieth- religion, The Sacred and the Profane, deals with
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
812 Sacred journey
an issue that has preoccupied writers on sacred culture and language, experience the same faith,
journeys: the level of spirituality experienced by since all are devoted to the worship of their single
the tourist, irrespective of the individual’s spiritual creator.
or profane motivations. Over time, various The sacred travel has grown substantially in
authors have explored this topic. The first is a recent years, both in proportional and absolute
group of researchers who analyze spiritual tourists terms. Nevertheless, the investigation of the
based on their activities and travel patterns. For topic is still in its infancy. Increasingly, studies
these authors, there is a blurred boundary between of this nature, in addition to the work of Raj and
the tourist and the pilgrim, as both groups share Morpeth (2007) and the new International Jour-
the fundamentals of travel and in many instances nal of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage (Sharma
cannot be differentiated from each other. The 2013), go some way toward interrogating this idea
other school of thought clearly separates tourists of sacred journeys in a tourism context. While
and pilgrims based on their motivations and vir- there is a continuum of sacred to secular sites,
tues. While Graburn points out that the pilgrim- the majority are sites which are the focus of sacred
age/religion vs. tourism/secular contrast cannot be visitation, but have yet to respond to increasing
entirely avoided, he maintains that this duality secularization. Future research should look into
may be a “particularly Christian tendency to sep- the acute pressures or tension in relation to reli-
arate religion from (the rest of) life” (2004:136). gious venues trying to cater for both sacred and
Graburn’s (2004) observations regarding this secular visitation.
duality and its basis in Christianity most likely
arises from his work on Buddhism and Shinto in See also ▶ Hajj, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, ▶ reli-
Japan. Similar challenges to the Western view-
gion, ▶ rite of passage, ▶ ritual.
point are expressed by authors writing about
sacred journeys in other traditions. Sharma
(2013), for instance, points out that the end
which people seek in sacred journeys depends References
on where they start out from. Her suggestion is
that because Christians see a separation between Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences.
body and soul, their goal for a spiritual journey Sociology 13:179–201.
will always be to transcend the physical and attain Graburn, N. 1989 Tourism: The Sacred Journey. In Hosts
and Guests: The Anthropology of Tourism,
the spiritual. V. Smith, ed., pp. 21-36. Philadelphia: University of
Thus, the dichotomies discussed above, Pennsylvania Press.
between the “self” and the “Other” or between Graburn, N. 2004 The Kyoto Tax Strike: Buddhism,
“sacred” and “secular,” bear little significance at Shinto, and Tourism in Japan. In Inserting Journeys:
The Anthropology of Pilgrimage and Tourism,
a sacred level for Hindus. Sharma (2013) goes on E. Badone and S. Roseman, eds., pp.125-139. Cham-
to warn that any research on sacred journeys that paign: University of Illinois Press.
attempts to study the visible without understand- Norman, A. 2011 Spiritual Tourism: Travel and Religious
ing what lies beneath is doomed to failure. On a Practice in Western Society. London: Continuum.
Raj, R., and N. Morpeth. 2007 Religious Tourism and
global level, the Hajj and the holy places in Saudi Pilgrimage Management: An International Perspective.
Arabia have a sacred quality in the world of Islam, Wallingford: CABI.
with this act of pilgrimage becoming a defining Sharma, V. 2013 Faith Tourism: For a Healthy Environ-
moment in lives of adherents. The Hajj has a ment and a More Sensitive World. International Journal
of Religious Tourism and Pilgrimage <http://arrow.dit.
unique spiritual aspect: it brings together people ie/ijrtp/vol1/iss1/3> (14 May 2014).
from every part of the world in such immense Turner, V., and E. Turner. 1978 Image and Pilgrimage in
diversity. These people, with vast differences in Christian Culture. New York: Columbia University Press.
Safari 813
1992). Facilitated by ▶ globalization, African ani-

Safari mals have become universal symbolic imagery
around the world, with films like The Lion King,
Moren T. Stone1 and Lesego S. Stone2 Jungle Jim, Bomba the Jungle Boy ▶ film series,
1
Department of Environmental Science, and Out of Africa; travel magazines and guides,
University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana advertisements, and other marketing media have
2
Okavango Research Institute, University of helped develop this ▶ image (Bresler 2011).
Botswana, Maun, Botswana However, lack of systematic empirical research
on safari tourism undeniably produces inadequate
strategic and policy guidance.
Safari is an overland expedition, commonly taken Research on safari tourism has concentrated on
by tourists to the African continent to explore the elucidating demand and flows from developed
▶ culture, geography, scenery, and wildlife. It is countries, with minuscule devotion to developing
linked to the ▶ development of national parks, countries, and even less to illuminating safari
and its origins can be traced back to the period tourism in ▶ Africa. The focus has been more on
of big game hunting expeditions in Southern and the effect of the exchange rate on receipts and little
Eastern Africa during colonial rule (Anderson and on country-specific determinant needs and adap-
Grove 1987). The centralized political and admin- tive socio-ecological management. Furthermore,
istrative institutions that emerged during the colo- there is not much research-based evidence dedi-
nial era generated the preliminary socioeconomic cated to safari as a form of nature-based tourism
and political environment which prompted and despite the fact that the latter is blamed for open-
remained to shape safari tourism. ing up pristine and ecologically sensitive environ-
Originally, safari tourism focused on consump- ments to agents of biodiversity degradation
tive tours through game hunting, but currently through tourism activities. There is, however, an
such explorations may be dedicated to game view- increase in integrating safari activities with other
ing, filming, research, and ▶ photography. Safaris forms such as ▶ cultural tourism to benefit com-
have evolved over time and have become eco- munities living within or adjacent to related
nomic drivers for many Eastern and Southern resources. Experts call for its advancement
African countries, surpassing traditional indus- and motivation for local ownership, control,
tries such as farming. Safari experiences include ▶ equity, and ▶ stakeholder involvement in both
guided, mobile, self-drive, walking, hiking, fly-in, the ▶ planning and implementation of safari
elephant back, river-boating, primate, horseback, projects.
balloon, night game-viewing, photographic, and
mobile tented journeys. Some safari activities are See also ▶ Biological diversity, ▶ nature tour-
regarded as forms of ▶ ecotourism, in which the ism, ▶ sustainable tourism. S
public can become educated on the ecosystems
and wildlife of indigenous regions. Through the
use of professional guides, tourists are provided
References
with safe ▶ transportation, proficient educational
services, discovery, photography, and Anderson, D., and R. Grove 1987 The Scramble for Eden:
▶ recreation. Past, Present and Future in African Conservation. New
African wildlife safaris tend to focus primarily York: Cambridge University Press.
Bresler, N. 2011 On Safari in Botswana: Describing the
on the so-called “Big Five” (lion, leopard, ele-
Product. Tourism Analysis 16:67-75.
phant, rhinoceros, and buffalo) attractions and Sinclair, M. 1992 Tour Operators and Policies in Kenya.
the uniqueness of African resources (Sinclair Annals of Tourism Research 19:555-558.
814 Safety and security
plan for the protection of tourist safety was for-

Safety and security mulated. In 1994, UNWTO Experts Meeting on
Safety and Security was held in ▶ Spain, marking
Xiangmin Zheng and Yongguang Zou the official approval of safety and security as a
College of Tourism, Huaqiao University, fundamental human right, with seven such mea-
Quanzhou, Fujian, China sures approved.
In 1995, the Center of Tourism Safety Risk was
established in ▶ Sweden (Sharpley 1995).
In broad terms, ▶ safety and security refer to Despite the above global ▶ attention, tragic
▶ tourist activities within a tolerable risk. It events happened. In 1997, the Asian Financial
means all subjects of the ▶ industry such as tour- Crisis dragged the ▶ development of tourism,
ists, tourism businesses, and ▶ resources are free especially in South and Southeast Asia. Many
from pressure, danger, and damage. Safety and enterprises were affected and went broke. In
security are the foundation of tourism operation. 2001, the September 11th event slowed down
In terms of subjects, there are safety of tourists as worldwide tourism industry. Ever since this tragic
well as security of enterprises and resources. In event, tourism academics and practitioners alike
terms of the industry, there are safety and security have realized that security affects a specific
of food, ▶ accommodation, ▶ transportation, ▶ location, country, or ▶ region as a whole
▶ sightseeing, and shopping. Further, in terms of (Mansfeld and Pizam 2005, 2006).
objects (to be damaged), there are safety and In 2003, SARS (severe acute respiratory syn-
security in respect to personal, property, reputa- drome) also traumatized worldwide tourism, with
tion, privacy, and ▶ image (Zheng 2003). the first ever negative growth of world ▶ inbound
tourism since 1983. Asia and America were
affected enormously. It was another huge
attack on tourism in America since the 9/11
Global attention event. In 2004 and 2008, respectively, the ▶ Indo-
nesia Tsunami and Wenchuan Earthquake in
Global attentions to safety and security in tourism ▶ China threatened tourists’ lives directly,
can be seen from a number of international events where safety and security as the most important
organized by intergovernmental agencies. In concern were stressed. After this series of tragic
1985, the 6th ▶ UNWTO General Assembly events, rules have been formulated and theories
was held in ▶ Bulgaria. It adopted the “Tourism applied to the realities of safety and security in
Bill of Rights and Tourist Code”, wherein the tourism.
rights of tourists’ personal safety and property With its own phenomena, features, and rules,
security were defined. Furthermore, the bill studies on safety and security in tourism have
makes it an obligation of every member state been conducted at both macro- and microlevels.
that tourist safety is protected, best sanitary con- Early attempts were about the influence of
dition and ▶ service are offered, and preventions ▶ crime on tourism. In the 1990s, the first
against infectious diseases and incidents are book on this topic, Tourism, Crime and Security
guaranteed. Issues (Pizam and Mansfeld 1996), was
In 1989, the 9th UNWTO General Assembly published, marking the popularity of subjects
was held in ▶ Argentina and adopted such as ▶ terrorism, crime, war, and political
“Recommended Measures for Security in Tour- instability in tourism. Studies also include the
ism,” which declared the significance of protec- safety of scenic spot, food, hotel, and
tions and respects for tourists. After this, a global ▶ transportation.
Saint Kitts and Nevis 815
Future directions
Saint Kitts and Nevis
Research on this topic has been of different stages.
For example, Chinese scholars started their stud- Kennedy Calvin Craig Pemberton1 and
ies much later than their Western counterparts. Acolla Cameron2
1
There were only two academic papers about this Research and Development, Mas Transformation
subject from 1990 to 1998 in Tourism Tribune. Secretariat, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago
Greater ▶ attention has been paid to the topic 2
Department of Management Studies, University
since 2000, especially after SARS in 2003 and of the West Indies, St. Augustine, Trinidad and
Wenchuan Earthquake in 2008. Tobago
Most of current studies adopt qualitative
approaches to describing incidents which contrib-
ute to the construction of theories. However, this Saint Kitts and Nevis, known as the Federation of
is not enough for tourism today. More theories of Saint Christopher and Nevis, is a twin-island
prevention mechanism need to be developed. Fur- nation located in the ▶ Caribbean Sea (17 210
thermore, due to practical demands of the tourists, 49.4892 N, 62 450 16.5348 W). It is the smallest
▶ insurance of tourism safety and security will be sovereign state in the Western Hemisphere
popular subjects for ▶ future research. More stud- (261 km2, or 101 mi2), has English as its official
ies need to be conducted on safety and security by ▶ language, has an approximate population of
market segments. As foundation of tourism activ- 51,000, and is the 81st highest in GDP per capita
ities, the subject has its own features, rules, and (CIA 2014) (Figure 1).
presentations. Cooperation between the industry, Declining profits from sugar production
local communities, and governmental authorities prompted the country’s focus on tourism ▶ devel-
at different levels should be established to prevent opment in the 1980s. By 2005, ending 350 years
or reduce the number of incidents, to mitigate their of sugar manufacturing, tourism was declared “a
impacts, and to assure sustainable development of major strategic sector for enhancing economic
tourism. growth and development” (MSD 2006: 27). The
major tourism appeals are the natural ▶ environ-
ment, the year-round tropical climate, and a pack-
See also ▶ Crisis management, ▶ disaster,
age of “sun, sea, and sand.” Its 2002 strategic
▶ risk, ▶ security meta-framing.
tourism plan highlighted favorable ▶ visitor rat-
ings in adventure products like hiking, bird
watching, diving, snorkeling, and all-terrain vehi-
cle tours. Further diversification efforts include
References
developing duty-free shopping, sporting events, S
Mansfeld, Y., and A. Pizam. 2005 Safety and Security in and meeting opportunities (OTF-G 2006). Asso-
Tourism: Relationships, Management and Marketing. ciate level hospitality training is offered at
Annals of Tourism Research 32:814-817. Clarence Fitzroy Bryant College, and state sup-
Mansfeld, Y., and A. Pizam. 2006 Tourism Security
port is available for further ▶ training at the Uni-
and Safety: From Theory to Practice. New York:
Pergamon. versity of the West Indies to develop human
Pizam, A., and Y. Mansfeld. 1996 Tourism, Crime and ▶ resources for the ▶ industry.
International Security Issues. New York: Wiley. The country attracts overnight arrivals and
Sharpley, R. 1995 Security and Risks in Travel and Tour-
cruise passengers from the ▶ United States, the
ism. Tourism Management 16:548-549.
Zheng, X. 2003 Tourism Safety. Beijing: China Travel and Caribbean, the ▶ United Kingdom, and ▶ Can-
Tourism Press. ada. Between 1990 and 2012, air arrivals grew
816 Saint Lucia
▶ Satellite Account ▶ development and to assess

▶ cruise tourism’s economic sustainability.
See also ▶ Sun, sand, sea and sex, ▶ Caribbean,

▶ cruise tourism, ▶ island tourism.
References
CIA 2014 World Factbook. Washington DC: Central Intel-

ligence Agency.
MSD 2006 Adaptation Strategy in Response to the New
EU Sugar Regime 2006-2013. Basseterre: Ministry of
Sustainable Development.
OTF-G 2006 Saint Kitts Tourism Sector Strategy: Draft for
Discussion. Basseterre: OTF Group.
STA 2014 Saint Kitts and Nevis Visitor Arrivals
1978–2013. Basseterre: Saint Kitts Tourism Authority.
Saint Kitts and Nevis, Figure 1 Map of Saint Kitts and WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact
Nevis 2014 – Saint Kitts and Nevis. London: World Travel
and Tourism Council.
41 % (from 76,000 to 107,000), cruise arrivals

grew 1,450 % (from 34,000 to 528,000), and
visitor expenditure grew 116 % (from 44 to 95 mil- Saint Lucia
lion). From 2004 to 2013 tourism directly contrib-
uted approximately 6–11 % of total employment Mechelle Best1 and Winston Phulgence2
1
(1,400–2,500 jobs), with 2013 contributing 6.1 % Recreation and Tourism Management, California
of total employment or 1,500 jobs (STA 2014; State University, Northridge, CA, USA
2
WTTC 2014). Sir Arthur Lewis Community College, Castries,
Tourism has been a catalyst for infrastructural Saint Lucia
development like new air and sea ports, interna-
tional accommodation stock, sporting facilities,
and road enhancements. The country continues Saint Lucia is an island in the Windward group of
to experience reliability problems with its electric- islands in the Caribbean Sea (Figure 1). ▶ Saint
ity supply, but efforts are under way to utilize Vincent and the Grenadines and Martinique are its
geothermal energy to overcome this hindrance. closest neighbors. The island is 617 km2 (238 mi2)
Other challenges include limited source market with a population of about 166,000. In 2012, Saint
air access, vulnerability to natural hazards, and Lucia was ranked 12th in the world in relative
maintaining product quality to price terms for direct and total contribution of tourism
competitiveness. to GDP, US$168.8 million (13.3 %) and $299.9
Overnight tourism in Saint Kitts and Nevis million (39 %), respectively (WTTC 2013). Agri-
struggles to rebound as global economic condi- culture (mainly bananas and coconuts) and
tions have partially eroded gains made in the manufacturing are also important industries.
mid-2000s. A recovery strategy has been to prior- Saint Lucia initially developed by focusing on
itize boosting per capita visitor expenditure over sun, sand, and sea tourism. More recently it has
arrivals, and this has resulted in a thrust to attract diversified through heritage, adventure, commu-
investments in upscale luxury accommodations. nity, agritourism, ▶ ecotourism, yachting, and
However, tourism ▶ impact assessment data is ad sailing. Special events such as the Saint Lucia
hoc, and research is needed to enable Tourism Jazz Festival are a special appeal. The country is
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines 817
0 4 8 km 61°00′ 60°50′
The Saint Lucia Hotel and Tourism Associa-
ucia Channel
0 4 8 mi int L tion is a membership-based organization compris-
Sa
Gros ing mainly small to medium tourism businesses.

Islet The association undertakes marketing in addition
Caribbean
to advocacy and product development. Tourism
14°00′ 14°00′
Sea CASTRIES dominates the economy and will likely continue to
Cul de Sac
do so into the future. Given the Incentives Act, it
NORTH is clear that greater interest in initiating new or
Dennery
ATLANTIC enhancing existing products is anticipated. The
Mount
Gimie OCEAN challenge is to continue supporting emerging
Soufrière niches while facilitating opportunities for a
13°50′ Petit Piton 13°50′
Gros Piton
Micoud wider range of stakeholders to contribute to and
benefit from tourism development.
Hewanorra
International
Airport
See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ heritage, ▶ sun, sand,
Vieux Fort
t Pas
sag
e
sea and sex, ▶ yachting tourism.
S aint Vincen
61°00′ 61°00′ 60°50′
Saint Lucia, Figure 1 Map of Saint Lucia

References
also a popular ▶ cruise tourism port. In 2000, CTO 2013 Latest Statistics 2012. St. Michael: Caribbean
there were about 269,900 arrivals, rising to
Ministry of Tourism 2014 Saint Lucia Ministry of Tourism,
312,000 in 2011. The main source markets are Heritage and Creative Industries http://tourism.govt.lc/.
the ▶ United States, the ▶ United Kingdom, com (17 January 2014).
other ▶ Caribbean countries, and ▶ Canada. WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2013:
Saint Lucia. London: World Travel and Tourism
Cruise passenger arrivals in 2012 stood at
Council.
572,000, a 9 % decline from 2011 (CTO 2013).
In 2012, 13,500 persons were employed in
tourism, accounting for 18.6 % of total employ-
ment. Most employees have secondary education
only; thus human resource development is Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
through on-the-job training. Education options
exist at secondary and tertiary levels. The Sir Mechelle Best
Arthur Lewis Community College offers associ- Recreation and Tourism Management, California
ate degrees in ▶ hospitality and tourism studies. State University, Northridge, CA, USA S
The University of the West Indies, a regional
institution, offers baccalaureate and postgraduate
degrees in this field. Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is an archipel-
The Ministry of Tourism, Heritage and the ago in the Eastern Caribbean (Figure 1). At
Creative Industries is responsible for the develop- 344 km2 (129 mi2), Saint Vincent is the largest
ment and implementation of legislation and pol- of the 32 islands and cays making up the chain,
icy, while the Saint Lucia Tourist Board is charged with a land mass of 389 km2 (150 mi2). In 2012,
with ▶ destination marketing (Ministry of Tour- the population was estimated at 108,570 (SVG
ism 2014). Key legislation includes the Tourism 2013). Agriculture (bananas, sweet potatoes, and
Development Act of 1981 and the Incentives Act coconuts) is the main industry, but tourism is
of 2006. The latter is to be reviewed to better becoming increasingly important. In 2012, tour-
facilitate projects in emerging areas such as health ism’s direct contribution to GDP was US$43.3
and adventure tourism. million (6 %), with its total contribution of about
818 Saint Vincent and the Grenadines
61°40′ 61°20′ Vinc

ent Passage 61°00′
University of the West Indies, a regional institu-
int
Sa
13°20′ La Soufrière 13°20′ tion, offers baccalaureate and postgraduate
Chateaubelair
Georgetown degrees in this field.
Saint The Ministry of Tourism develops and imple-
Vincent KINGSTOWN ments ▶ legislation and policy. Key legislation
Caribbean includes the 2007 Tourism Authority Act and
Bequia Channel
Sea Bequia
the 1988 Hotel Aid Act. The Tourism Authority
13°00′
Island Port Elizabeth promotes the country and regulates service
13°00′
Battowia Island
standards. The Hotel and Tourism Association is
E S
Isle à Quatre Balliceaux Island
Mustique a private-sector membership organization focus-

I N
Petit Mustique Island ing on advocacy, product development, ▶ market-

D
Savan Island
Petit Canouan ing, and human resource development and
A
▶ training.
N
Canouan
E
Recent investments include the Argyle Inter-

R
12°40′ 12°40′
G
Mayreau TOBAGO CAYS
Prune Island
national Airport and the 2-year-old Buccament
Union Island
Patit San Vincent Island 0 5 10 km Bay Resort. Other hotel projects are in varying
61°40′ 61°20′
GRENADA 0 5 10 mi
stages of development. The government has
pinpointed tourism as an essential growth and
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines, Figure 1 Map of
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines social development strategy (SVG 2013).
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines has signifi-
cant economic and social ▶ constraints; efforts to
$156.8 million (22 %). By 2023, these contribu- overcome them through tourism and other strate-
tions are forecasted to increase by around 3.8 % gies continue to be thwarted by natural disasters
and 4 %, respectively (WTTC 2013). and global recession. A major challenge for tour-
Tourism in Saint Vincent and the Grenadines is ism ▶ development is exploiting natural
primarily natural resource based. Though not in ▶ resources while maintaining their vitality and
the “sun, sea and sand” style, yachting, scuba appeal to a discerning market. Community partic-
diving, hiking, and whale and dolphin watching ipation and local ▶ entrepreneurship are nascent
are main attractions, with exclusive accommoda- and offer largely untapped potential for a more
tion on islands like Mustique, Canouan, and sustainable approach to tourism development.
Young Island playing an important role. Between
2000 and 2012, there were 1,049,302 arrivals,
peaking at 97,432 in 2006 and steadily dropping See also ▶ Caribbean, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ vol-
to 74,364 in 2012. The main source markets are cano tourism, ▶ yachting tourism.
the ▶ United States, other Caribbean countries,
and the ▶ United Kingdom. Cruise passenger
arrivals were 88,925 in 2011 and 76,996 in 2012 References
(CTO 2013).
CTO 2013 Latest Statistics 2012. St. Michael: Caribbean
Some 8,500 individuals were employed in the Tourism Organization.
▶ industry in 2012 or 19.9 % of the total employ- SVG 2013 National Economic and Social Development
ment. The labor force has mainly secondary level Plan 2013-2025. Government of Saint Vincent and the
education; thus human resource development Grenadines. Saint Vincent: The Ministry of Finance
and Economic Planning – Central Planning Division.
requires on-the-job training. The community WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Saint
college offer associate degrees and certificate pro- Vincent and the Grenadines. London: World Travel and
grams in ▶ hospitality and tourism studies. The Tourism Council.
Samoa 819
172°30′ 172°00′
13°00′ 13°00′
Samoa
SOUTH PACIFIC
Tracy Berno1 and Sonja Hunter2 OCEAN
1
Faculty of Environment, Society and Design, Savai ‘i
Lincoln University, Christchurch, New Zealand 13°30′
2 re Matavai
ef
Samoa Tourism Authority, Apia, Samoa Mount Silisili
Salelologa
it Vaitele
tra Faleasi‘u
lim
aS APIA
Apo Manono Mulifanua
Situated halfway between ▶ New Zealand and Upolu
Hawaii and comprising 2,934 km2 (1,133 mi2) 14°00′
Nuusafee Nuûfele
Nuûlua
of land, Samoa’s main islands of Upolu and SOUTH PACIFIC
Savai’i and eight islets are home to about OCEAN
188,000 people. Samoa has a small developing
0 10 20 30 km
economy based on agriculture, with a high depen- 14°30′ 0 10 20 30 mi 172°00′
dence on remittances and foreign aid. Its GDP is

US$505.8 million or GDP per capita of $2,714. Samoa, Figure 1 Map of Samoa
Tourism plays a leading role in ▶ foreign
exchange earnings, representing over 20 % of
the GDP. Approximately 10 % of the workforce This was followed by cyclone Evan in 2012 and
is employed in tourism (Small Business Enter- flooding in 2013. By the end of 2012, arrivals
prise Center of Samoa 2010) (Figure 1). reached about 134,000, a 5.5 % increase from
Samoa’s attributes include its rugged land- 2011, but 2013 numbers (up to June) showed a
scape and tropical coastlines, along with Fa’a 14.3 % decrease from the equivalent period
Samoa, the distinctive Samoan way of life in 2012.
(Kiddell 2012). Its main tourism markets are Samoa is well serviced for tourism ▶ educa-
New Zealand, ▶ Australia, and American Samoa tion. Two ▶ universities, one technical college,
and, to a lesser extent, the ▶ United States and the Samoan Tourism Authority, the Chamber of
▶ Europe. Almost half of them fall in the visiting Commerce, and the Small Business Enterprise
friends and relatives category. Center all offer tourism education ranging from
Tourism to Samoa started during World War II in-service ▶ training to pre-degree and postgrad-
and grew slowly; it was only in the 1990s that uate qualifications. Additionally, tourism is soon
tourism was actively promoted by the govern- to be incorporated into the national competency
ment. In subsequent years, a 56.8 % increase in standards.
arrivals was realized, growing from about 78,000 Despite setbacks and slow recovery, tourism S
in 1998 to 129,000 in 2009. During this time, the remains important. In 2013, the ▶ tourist author-
government became increasingly involved and ity initiated a review of its 2009–2013 plan in
passed its 2003 tourism and hotel incentive act. order to develop the 2014–2018 plan. Signifi-
Samoa’s tourism ▶ development plan for the cantly, the government has committed up to $16
2009–2013 period sought to further increase million over 5 years (commencing 2011–2012)
arrivals by 50 %. This growth however was for tourism development, with an additional $3.2
impeded by a series of catastrophic natural disas- million approved for the tourism rebuild post-
ters. The tsunami of 2009 killed 143 people, cyclone. Prospects for future research include
destroyed vital infrastructures, and devastated addressing Samoa’s vulnerabilities to externali-
the tourism ▶ industry (Tagomoa-Isara 2010). ties, including natural disasters, effects of climate
820 San Marino
change, the global economic context, transporta- 12°25′ 12°30′

44°00′ 44°00′
tion links, and foreign exchange rates.
I TA LY Falciano
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ disaster,
Dogana
▶ island tourism, ▶ visiting friend and relative. Torren
t eA
us
a
ia
ch Serravalle
ec
M ar
References Acquaviva
Domagnano
Borgo Maggiore
To n Ma
Sa
Kiddell, E. 2012 Samoa’s Culture, Tourism and Develop- SAN MARINO
rre rino
o
nte
ran
ment: Exploring the Impact of Tourism Development
Ma
di
Monte Faetano
on the Changing Fa’a Samoa. Master of International Titano
te
Development and Management thesis, Lund Univer- Monte
ren
43°55′ 43°55′
Poggio di
Tor
sity, Sweden. Giardino
Chiesanuova
Small Business Enterprise Center of Samoa 2010 Tourism Fiorentino
Sector Profile. Apia: Small Business Enterprise Center I TA LY
of Samoa.
0 1 2 km
Tagomoa-Isara, T. 2010 Tourism Recovery after the 2009 12°30′
0 1 2 mi
Tsunami in Samoa. Master of Tourism thesis, Univer-
sity of Otago, New Zealand.
San Marino, Figure 1 Map of San Marino
country is a member of the United Nations but has

San Marino not applied to accede to the UNWTO (2012).
Marinus of Rab, a Christian stonemason, flee-
Catherine Culver and Holly Donohoe ing religious persecution of the Roman Emperor
Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Diocletian, founded San Marino in 301 AD. He
Management, College of Health and Human built a stone church on Mount Titano and founded
Performance, University of Florida, Gainesville, a Christian community. The historic center of the
FL, USA city includes numerous structures, which remain
inhabited and have preserved their institutional
functions. Much of the country’s tourism results
The Republic of San Marino is the third smallest from its uniqueness as an independent state and
microstate in ▶ Europe at 61.2 km2 (24 mi2). It is inclusion of Mount Titano and San Marino His-
officially known as the Most Serene Republic of toric Centre on the list of UNESCO world heritage
San Marino. It does not belong to the European sites in 2008. The country is inscribed on
Union but cooperates with it, using the euro as UNESCO’s list as a testimony to the continuity
its currency. Located on the northeastern side of of a free republic since the Middle Ages. Its posi-
the Apennine Mountains and 23 km from the tion on top of Mount Titano has insulated it from
Adriatic Sea, it is surrounded by ▶ Italy the surrounding urban transformations (UNESCO
(Figure 1) and has a population of 31,000. Tour- 2014). San Marino boasts an exceptional tradition
ism is San Marino’s main economic industry (over of hospitality and it is in appreciation for this
50 % of GDP as of 2007). It also has an active tradition that it has not become part of the Italian
financial sector (19 % GDP), electronics, and state.
ceramics industries. The GNP of US$55,000 The Union of Tourism Operators Sammarinese
(€39.872) per capita is one of the highest in the began collaboration with the Republic of San
world (OECD 2011). Marino to develop and promote tourism in 1961.
San Marino hosts over three million tourists In 2009, its Convention and Visitors Bureau
annually. Arrivals have increased from 50,000 in began marketing of all San Marino’s tourism
2005 to 156,000 in 2011 (UNDATA 2014). The products. In 2011, a serious decline in commercial
Sao Tome and Principe 821
tourism was recognized. Tourism education and inhabitants, concentrated in the capital, Sao Tome,
programming refocused on three specific areas: and surrounding districts.
cultural and conferences, wellness, and college The tropical and humid climate of Sao Tome
education with the aim of managing seasonality and Principe is influenced by its ▶ location on the
of tourism and creating new, dependable markets equator. This in turn has promoted its ecosystem
for the future (USOT 2011). and biological environment, including endemism.
The soil is volcanic. There are several protected
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ his- areas as well as other ecological zones, such as Obo
torical tourism, ▶ world heritage. Natural Park which occupies 30 % of the country.
In 2012, its natural heritage was recognized by
UNESCO, with biosphere reserve world heritage
References expected to attract international tourists.
Despite the existence of oil in its territorial
OECD 2011 Global Forum on Transparency and Exchange waters, the economy is still dependent on external
of Information for Tax Purposes Peer Reviews (2011).
aid, with about 50 % of the budget financed by
Supplementary Review Report – Phase 1: Legal and
Regulatory Framework – San Marino www.oecd.org/ international donors (African Economic Outlook
tax/transparency/48929617.pdf (2 March 2014). 2012). The main economic activities remain tradi-
UNDATA 2014 A World of Information. San Marino tional and are nature based and subsistence oriented.
Enterprises and Tourism www.statistica.sm/contents/
Cocoa is the main export commodity (WTTC 2013).
instance15/files/document/14067946Tav_Afflusso_tur.
pdf (2 March). In 2000, tourism was recognized as a relevant
UNESCO 2014 World Heritage Center. San Marino His- industry for national development. In 2001, the
toric Centre and Mount Titano http://whc.unesco.org/ country’s first strategic tourism ▶ development plan
en/list/1245 (3 March).
was developed by the Directorate of Tourism and the
UNWTO, 2012, World Trade Organization (15 December
2012). A Handbook on Accession to the WTO: A WTO United Nations Development Program. The country
Secretariat Publication. Madrid: World Tourism now participates in ▶ international tourism exhibi-
Organization. http://download-business-book.net/ tions in order to promote and attract investment.
25615-a-handbook-on-accession-to-the-wto-a-wto.html
International arrivals increased from 7,000 in
(3 March 2014).
USOT 2011 Union of Tourism Operators Sammarinese 2000 to 10,500 in 2005 and to 13,000 in 2012,
www.cvb.sm/source/Atto-costitutivo-CVB.pdf (2 March representing a growth rate of 21 % (UNWTO
2014). 2013). Revenue has also increased from US$11
to $15 million between 2010 and 2011. In 2012,
3,000 direct new jobs were created, representing
13.4 % of the GNP (African Economic Outlook
Sao Tome and Principe 2012). ▶ Portugal is an important source market
(Correia et al. 2007) as Portuguese is the main S
Brígida Rocha Brito spoken language.
Universidade Autónoma de Lisboa, Lisbon, The education system is fragile without a uni-
Portugal versity tradition; higher education in tourism
starts in 2014, though there is professional train-
ing. In 2014, the Ministry of Tourism, Trade and
The Democratic Republic of Sao Tome and Industry was created to further improve the indus-
Principe (Figure 1) is a small state (1,001 km2, try. Considering the natural and cultural potential,
621 miles2) comprised primarily of two islands: foreign investment has grown. International
Sao Tome (859 km2, 533 miles2) and Principe groups have built and are operating hotels, restau-
(142 km2, 88 miles2). The archipelago is located rants, bars, discos, a casino, and ▶ travel agencies.
in the Gulf of Guinea, Central Africa, and the The increase in the number of beds and of com-
nearest countries are ▶ Gabon and ▶ Equatorial plementary services is a promising indication of
Guinea. In 2012, the country had over 187,000 Sao Tome and Principe’s tourism into the future.
822 Satisfaction
0 20 40 km 7’00’ llhéu Bornbom

llha do Santo
0 20 40 mi
Principe Antonio
1’30’ Tinhosa llhéu 1’30’
Pequena Caroço
Tinhosa
Grande
1’00’ 1’00’
Gulf of
Guinea
0’30’ llhéu 0’30’

das Cabras
Neves
SÄO TOMÉ
Trindade
Pico de Sant’Ana
llha de SäoTomé
Säo Tomé
llhéu
0’00’ Equator 0’00’
das Ròlas
6’30’ 7’00’ 7’30’
Sao Tome and Principe, Figure 1 Map of Sao Tome and Principe
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ environ- consumer’s response to “a pleasurable level of

ment, ▶ gaming tourism, ▶ world heritage. consumption-related fulfillment” (Oliver 1997:
13). It emerges from an overall purchase evalua-
tion (Kozak and Rimmington 2000) that is the
References result of a comparison of expectations with levels
of satisfaction (Ryan 1995). According to the
African Economic Outlook 2012 Sao Tome and Principe “disconfirmation paradigm of satisfaction,”
2012 www.africaneconomicoutlook.org/en/countries/
expectations may then be either not met, met, or
west-africa/sao-tome-principe/ (11 February 2013).
Correia, A., P. Oom do Valle, and C. Moço 2007 Modeling overfulfilled leading to surprise which may or
Motivations and Perceptions of Portuguese Tourists. may not be considered as entirely pleasant
Journal of Business Research 60:76-80. (Oliver 1997).
Satisfaction is considered important because it
ism Organization.
WTTC 2013 Economic Impact 2013: Sao Tome and is seen as a performance measure for providers,
Principe. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. related to word-of-mouth advertising and the pre-
diction of ▶ loyalty or repeat visits. However,
these conceptualizations are problematic and
pose challenges for tourism research. It has not
Satisfaction been sufficiently discussed what an expectation
actually constitutes in current measurements of
Juergen Gnoth satisfaction, nor how satisfaction as a state can
Department of Marketing, University of Otago, be related to future experiences.
Dunedin, New Zealand The construct of satisfaction in consumer
behavior emerged as a result of industrialization,
the democratization of consumption across all
Satisfaction research is traditionally dominated by classes of society, and the ensuing materialism in
those interested in tourism consumption pro- nineteenth-century ▶ Europe. These develop-
cesses. Overall satisfaction is defined as the ments tied in with the Cartesian belief taking
Satisfaction 823
hold that promotes the individuality of the think- Satisfaction, loyalty, disconfirmation
ing human being. Simultaneously, Francis
Bacon’s development of the empirical method Product marketing often equates repurchase behav-
that created a posteriori understanding of physical ior with loyalty and satisfaction. In tourism
phenomena through observation had begun to be research, however, this has been held as belonging
applied in the emerging social sciences. The ensu- to a list of “myths” (McKercher and Prideaux
ing materialistic empiricism also began to rule 2014) with researchers finding no relationship
▶ ethics, with Jeremy Bentham establishing that between intentions to return and repeat visitation.
“it is the greatest happiness of the greatest number Furthermore, while it has proven difficult to con-
that is the measure of right and wrong” ceptualize and measure loyalty as a construct, sat-
(A Fragment on Government 1776). Henceforth, isfaction is turning out to be less a driver of loyalty
satisfaction [from the Latin satisfacere – doing than previously thought (Dolnicar et al. 2011).
enough] became a managerial tool by which, ret- Reasons include that the conceptualization of sat-
rospectively, (▶ service) activities could be isfaction in cross-cultural research has been shown
judged quantitatively as to how much pleasure to suffer from response-style effects, which under-
they provided. score findings elsewhere of tourists’ different affec-
tive reactions both in response to their differing
states of being and their emotional sensemaking.
Furthermore, the disconfirmation paradigm’s psy-
Overall satisfaction versus satisfaction chophysical measures of “disappointing,” “meeting,”
with service quality or “exceeding” expectations are now common con-
cepts in everyday language, yet the notion of “exceed-
Due to the historical associations of satisfaction ing” expectations still holds challenges. These relate
with management concerns, its research con- particularly to felt expectations of yet-to-be experi-
ceptualization tends to confound ▶ service enced futures for which there is no memory but often
quality with holiday satisfaction. While the only anticipating drives (Gnoth 1997).
facilitation of holidays often depends on service
provision, individual firms and leisure providers
contribute to overall holiday satisfaction only to The future
the extent that tourists depend on them for their
experience; they thus help cocreate the experi- The importance of satisfaction research in tourism
ence. If a themepark tourist or a hotel-resort studies cannot be disputed. However, the retrospec-
guest were to be considered as a passive, tive focus needs to be strengthened by further research
merely sensuously entertained consumer of ser- into its relations with prospective activities and states
vices, the reliance on the provider for the of being, particularly happiness. In tourism, emotional S
amount of pleasure, and hence satisfaction, drives rather than any cognitive content underlie
would be near total, indeed. expectations of the future to be and one that is expe-
Yet, the more active a tourist becomes and the rienced as different from the past. Having expecta-
more tourists explore for themselves, the more tions and being satisfied are very different states; the
they are creating their experience independently former relates to an intensity of drives and its persis-
of service providers. Such content is unrelated to tence while the latter relates to their absence.
service quality. In situations where tourists The questions that future tourism research
reported little need for recreation, the need for needs to answer are the following: Why do tour-
service quality has been found to be far less ists seek satisfaction? What does it mean for their
important than for those in need of total future? Regarding measuring the disconfirmation
relaxation and passive enjoyment provided of expectations, if expectations were to be
through services they are familiar with (Gnoth exceeded by service providers, why did the
and Martin 2014). ▶ tourist not expect that and, unless the surprise
824 Saudi Arabia
still happened within the existing measures, how East, is rated as one of the top 20 economies in
could such a “surplus” of pleasure be conceptual- the world, and is a member of the G-20. Saudi
ized and measured? In other words, what can Arabia contributes 25 % to the total Arab GDP
tourists realistically envisage in their expecta- (of 22 countries) and ranks first in global produc-
tions, especially when they are visiting a new tion and export of oil.
destination? Measuring satisfaction as a retro- Saudi Arabia has entered into the era of tour-
spective outcome thus has its limitations. ism at the right time, as it has the required ele-
Experiencing tourism differs from experiencing ments and characteristics to be a world-class
products or services per se, certainly as far as the ▶ destination. To support this vision, the Saudi
conceptualization of expectations regarding a Commission for Tourism and Antiquities (SCTA)
vaguely discerned, yet-to-be future is concerned. was established in 2000 as a national body respon-
sible for the development and marketing of this
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ loyalty, ▶ psychology, industry. Since its establishment, this agency has
▶ repeat tourism, ▶ service quality. provided pathmaking direction for tourism
▶ development nationwide (SCTA 2001).
The SCTA has established a ▶ national tourism
development program to promote industry sustain-
References ability. With the participation of key stakeholders,
this project will be implemented, over a period of
Dolnicar, S., K. Grabler, B. Grun, and A. Kulnig 2011 Key 20 years in three phases: development of an overall
Drivers of Airline Loyalty. Tourism Management
32:1020-1026.
national tourism strategy, followed by a 5-year
Gnoth, J. 1997 Motivation and Expectation Formation. action plan, and concluding with provisional tour-
Annals of Tourism Research 24:283-304. ism development strategies (SCTA 2004).
Gnoth, J., and B. Martin 2014 Recreational Needs and In 2013, the tourism contribution to the King-
Service Performance Expectations. Tourism Analysis
19:477-490.
dom’s GDP was 2.7 %, while its contribution to
Kozak, M., and M. Rimmington 2000 Tourist Satisfaction non-oil private GDP was 7.3 %. Direct tourism
with Mallorca, Spain, as an Off-Season Holiday Desti- jobs accounted for 7.3 % of the total employment.
nation. Journal of Travel Research 38:260-269. Since 2004, this proportion has increased by
McKercher, B., and B. Prideaux 2014 Academic Myths of
Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research 46:16–28.
125 %, accounting for 750,856 jobs in 2013,
Oliver, R. 1997 Satisfaction. New York: McGraw-Hill. 48.1 % of which was absorbed in the food and
Ryan, C. 1995 Researching Tourist Satisfaction: Issues, beverages sector and 13.4 % by the ▶ accommo-
Concepts, Problems. London: Routledge. dation sector. Currently, 27 % of the tourism
employees are Saudis (UNWTO 2014).
With 13.4 million international tourists in 2013
(an increase of over 56 % since 2004), the King-
Saudi Arabia dom was ranked 19th globally. Hence, tourism is
playing a successful role in the overall national
Prince Sultan Bin Salman Bin Abdulaziz economic development, in addition to its signifi-
Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities, cant role in the social and cultural advancement of
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia local communities (MOE 2013). The importance
of tourism has resulted in the creation of several
▶ hospitality and tourism ▶ education and train-
The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has a total popula- ing programs. State and private sector universities
tion of 30,770,375 in 2014, of whom 20,702,536 provide trained graduates for the labor market and
are Saudis. Located at the crossroads of ▶ Europe, thus facilitate employment and job creation in
Asia, and ▶ Africa, it occupies almost 80 % of the tourism businesses and services.
Arabian Peninsula (Figure 1). It has one of the With the Kingdom’s unique geographical
largest and richest economies in the ▶ Middle ▶ location, SCTA has identified a number of future
Scenic drive tourism 825
Saudi Arabia, Figure 1 Map of Saudi Arabia
development options, including summer, sports, SCTA 2004 National Tourism Development Project in
coastal, desert inns, and resort tourism, in addition the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia: Phase 1: General
Strategy www.scta.gov.sa/en/AboutSCTA/Documents/
to health, conference and exhibition, ecological, and GENERALSTRATEGY.pdf (22 December 2014).
▶ shopping tourism. The SCTA is emphasizing the UNWTO, 2014, Compendium of Tourism Statistics 2013. S
existence of diversity and multiplicity of ▶ sustain- Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
able tourism development in accordance with its
size, components, and multiple opportunities.
Scenic drive tourism
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ heritage,
▶ investment, ▶ sustainable tourism. Jens Kr. Steen Jacobsen
Norwegian School of Hotel Management,
University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway
References
MOE 2013 Ministry of Economy and Planning www.mep.

gov.sa (22 December).
Scenic drive tourism is related to panoramic
SCTA 2001 Sustainable Tourism Development Plan. routes and journeys through interesting and iconic
Riyadh: Saudi Commission for Tourism and Antiquities. landscapes from a distance. While destinations
826 Scholarship
have been habitually understood as places to lookouts or roadside picnic and rest areas with
▶ travel to and stay in, scenic routes are areas amenities (Spraggins and Mitchell 1996). Some
that tourists travel through, even though some scenic route programs commonly demand a min-
choose to stay for a night or more along a route imum array of services such as lodging, restau-
(Denstadli and Jacobsen 2011). rants, grocery stores, and gas stations. Future
Scenic drive tourism became more popular with research might include scenic route perceptions
the private car, partly related to freedom from the and experiences, itinerary development and pro-
constraints of railroad and steamer timetables and motion, public/private partnerships, and route
the possibility to access places “off the beaten designation procedures.
track.” Early scenic drives were often developed
by tourists themselves and typically made known See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ destination, ▶ experi-
through acquaintances and guidebooks. In most ence, ▶ landscape, ▶ sightseeing.
countries, systematically organized scenic tourism
route programs were established from the 1990s
onwards. In many rural areas, scenic routes are References
vital to tourism-related commerce.
Scenic drives are influenced by the romantic Denstadli, J., and J. Jacobsen 2011 The Long and Winding
Roads: Perceived Quality of Scenic Tourism Routes.
turn in the nineteenth century tourism, character-
ized by more private and passionate sensations of Hoel, L., and M. Perfater 1992 Designing Scenic Byways in
what were perceived as beautiful, dramatic, and Virginia. Transportation Research Record 1363:14-18.
sublime landscapes. In the twenty-first century, Jacobsen, J. 2001 Nomadic Tourism and Fleeting Place
Encounters. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and
scenic road trips are a common choice in many
Tourism 1:99-112.
countries for holidaymaking and weekend outings. Spraggins, H., and M. Mitchell 1996 Scenic Byways
As with other forms of tourism, scenic motoring Planning. Transportation Quarterly 50(3):95-112.
also represents an escape from everyday life, along
with a variety of experiences. The core of scenic
drives is the passing glance, itinerant windscreen
▶ sightseeing that may also offer profound impres- Scholarship
sions. The visual sensations of roaming tourists
seem influenced by the cinema, as numerous Stephen L. J. Smith1, Larry Dwyer2 and
motorists ▶ travel through landscapes as if they Philip L. Pearce3
were watching a film or experiencing the surround- 1
School of Hospitality, Food, and Tourism
ings through a continual flux (Jacobsen 2001). The Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON,
epic aspect of travel also implies that some well- Canada
2
established routes serve as scenic narratives. Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana,
Scenic route planning is not only a matter of Ljubljana, Slovenia
3
governing strategies but encompasses the devel- College of Business Law and Governance, James
opment of attractions and services, traffic safety Cook University, Townsville, Australia
concerns, and marketing/promotion. Systematic
route developments are often based on practical
applications of attraction theory (Hoel and Tourism scholarship is the production, communi-
Perfater 1992). Most scenic routes represent and cation, and application of knowledge that builds
link secondary (minor) attractions as clusters, the field. Its scholars use diverse media to dissem-
while some routes are linked to a major attraction, inate their work, including journals, books, con-
such as a national park. ferences, and teaching. As a themed area of
Roadside facilities are important in achieving scholarship, tourism has been constructed princi-
satisfaction and loyalty among scenic drive tour- pally since the 1970s with contributors from dif-
ists, for instance, the possibilities to pull over at ferent disciplines shaping the dynamic and
Scholarship 827
expanding the scope of tourism. The efforts of the tourism activities and the businesses and organi-
academic pioneers are especially important, and zations that serve managers, employees, and
their work appears throughout this Encyclopedia. suppliers – such as tour wholesalers, workers,
Some of the disciplinary contributions of these and managers of transportation services (airport,
pioneers are described in Dwyer (2011), Nash cruise ports, train stations), call center operators,
(2007), Pearce (2011), and Smith (2011). Addi- porters, staff at destination marketing organiza-
tionally, a set of biographies are being developed tions, government officials working in tourism,
and published in Anatolia: An International Jour- marketing and product development consultants,
nal of Tourism and Hospitality Research. educational institutions, and professional and aca-
demic associations. As Nash puts it, tourism is a
“pan-human, historically conditioned social pro-
The pioneering disciplines cess” (2007:4).
Other topics examined by anthropologists and
This section reviews the contributions of the five sociologists include the lingering effects of colo-
social sciences – anthropology, sociology, eco- nialism and its role in shaping the experience
nomic, geography, and psychology – responsible among service providers and tourists (Talal
for the largest opus of tourism scholarship. Asad), the nature of authenticity in tourism expe-
Anthropologists and sociologists approach tour- riences and products (Dean MacCannell and Ning
ism in similar ways, although sociologists tend to Wang), tourist arts and souvenirs (Nelson
emphasize work in their own culture, whereas Graburn), ▶ semiotics (Graham Dann), feminist
anthropologists tend to focus on other cultures. perspectives (Margaret Swain), pilgrimages
Both fields share an interest in social relation- (Nelson Graburn and Erik Cohen), and ▶ myth
ships, social structures, and the role of cultural and ▶ modernity (Benjamin Hillman). Within a
forces on individuals. generation, the anthropological and sociological
While some scholars as early as the 1940s study of tourism had grown from a purely descrip-
examined tourism phenomena, the anthropologi- tive endeavor by a few scholars working largely
cal and sociological analysis of tourism began in alone to an international field characterized by the
earnest in the 1970s. A theme of this early development of increasing sophisticated models,
research is what Jafari (2001) calls the “cautionary a growing diversity of questions to be explored
platform,” a response to the “advocacy platform,” from multiple perspectives, and substantial cross-
which emphasized the benefits (primarily eco- fertilization of ideas by myriad scholars.
nomic) from tourism. Much early scholarship In tourism ▶ economics, early scholars faced
was simplistic, devoid of conceptual models or the challenge of applying economic models and
even systematic data collection and analysis. concepts in nontraditional contexts. The challenge
Cohen (1972) was one of the firsts who attempted was exemplified by a prolonged debate about the S
to rectify this situation with an untested model that nature and scope of the industry, the boundaries of
classified tourists according to willingness to be which were considered by many to be artificial
attracted to “strangeness” and styles of travel. (Neil Leiper and Stephen Smith). The ▶ develop-
A recurring theme is the social and cultural ment of Tourism Satellite Accounts (Douglas
effects of tourism ▶ activity, including host/ Frechtling and Stephen Smith) helped to defuse
guest interactions and the social changes resulting this debate. The primary concern of early tourism
from the expansion of tourism activity. As a mul- economists, including Boris Vukonic, Norbert
tifaceted ▶ phenomenon, tourism encompasses Vanhove, Brian Archer, Peter Grey, and John
not only tourists and those who serve them but Fletcher, has been with “applied” rather than
also residents of destinations who have no direct “pure” economics and particularly with tourism
involvement but nonetheless are affected by the as a tool for ▶ economic development. Early
presence of tourists. The field of tourism also issues also included the effects of tourism taxes
examines the ▶ infrastructure that supports (James Mak), tourism and the environment (John
828 Scholarship
Pigram and Clem Tisdell), project analysis methods, morphology, forecasting, and planning.
(Stephen Wanhill), and approaches to forecasting Attention was particularly given to developing
(Stephen Witt, Lindsay Turner, and Haiyan Song). models and forecast techniques for trip volumes
While policymakers in developing countries and patterns using variants on tools, such as the
often had (and still have) overly optimistic views gravity model (Roy Wolfe, Carlton Van Doren,
of tourism’s potential to enhance the welfare of and Stephen Smith). Much of this work could be
residents, analysis has indicated that this view characterized as examining either location (such
must be heavily qualified (Brian Copeland). as why some places are more popular as destina-
From an early emphasis on leakages, which limit tions than others) or travel patterns (directions and
tourism’s multiplier effects, there evolved a grow- volumes of flows, the effects of borders and other
ing recognition that the economy-wide effects impediments to travel) (Stephen Smith). Other
must be taken into account in determining the geographers have examined the evolutions of des-
impacts of increased tourism ▶ expenditure in a tinations, including resident attitudes toward
destination (Thea Sinclair). As an expanding development (George Doxey, Richard Butler,
industry, it tends to crowd out other economic Robin Nunkoo, and Stephen Smith).
activities. By implication, its growth generates Over time, geographers, especially in Europe
losers as well as winners, an understanding of and North America, began to apply subjective
which is of crucial relevance to policymakers paradigms, even critical research, to the study of
(Adam Blake, Larry Dwyer, and Peter Forsyth). tourism (Gareth Shaw, Michael Hall, and Peter
While research on tourism ▶ economics has Williams). However, those working in developing
increased substantially over the past five decades economies, such as ▶ China and ▶ India, are
(Song et al. 2012), the discipline itself has more likely to focus on empirical research designs
attracted relatively few academic economists related to landscapes and morphology, resorts,
compared to other topics. Tourism economics and destination planning (Bao Jigang, Tej Vir
has become increasingly quantitative over time, Singh, and Wu Bihu).
paralleling developments in the mainstream liter- These national geographic distinctions and
ature. This raises a concern that statistically based specializations are not as clear-cut as this descrip-
research has become the orthodoxy for tourism tion may suggest. Many geographers working in
economists, preventing them from addressing Europe, as well as in India and China, focus on
problems in a more holistic way appropriate to conservation and heritage topics (Myriam Jansen-
the complexity of tourism phenomena. Diverse Verbeke), while those in North America and
global trends will continually pose challenges to ▶ Australia/▶ New Zealand are more likely to
economic theory and policy and the ways to ana- explore social, environmental, and economic
lyze tourism activities, suggesting that a pluralis- impacts as well as power relationships and con-
tic attitude is required, with cross-fertilization of flicts (Alison Gill). Other geographers, especially
concepts, theories, and methods within and from Europeans such as John Urry, Kevin Hannam, and
outside the discipline. Jonas Larsen, explore mobilities in tourism. Some
Geographic work on tourism in ▶ Europe and other geographers study globalization (Tim
North America can be traced back to the 1930s, Coles) or materialities and soundscapes (Tim
although the Great Depression and World War II Edensor). Contemporary tourism geographers
caused a major disruption in tourism’s growth. As use a wide variety of research designs, including
economies recovered and grew, interest in parks, statistical modeling, structured questionnaires,
outdoor recreation, and tourism began to flourish. focus groups and nominal group techniques, field-
In the early 1960s, the US Outdoor Recreation work including ethnographic methods, climate
Resources Review Commission was a watershed change modeling, case studies, and traditional
in this area, which included substantial tourism hypothesis testing as well as critical approaches.
content. Early tourism geographers such as Roy Perhaps even more than scholars working in
Wolfe and Lisle Mitchell emphasized empirical other fields, tourism geographers migrate across
Scholarship 829
disciplines, academic departments, and nations. community wellbeing, as well as the rise of pos-
A high percentage of professionally trained tour- itive psychology since the year 2000, and cross-
ism geographers work in academic departments cultural perspectives associated with the global
other than that of their parent discipline. This growth of tourism linked to China have all pro-
pattern reflects geography’s interest in looking at vided fresh opportunities for researchers. Younger
relationships and interconnections among numer- scholars active in this research space, like their
ous types of variables relevant to understanding senior colleagues, seek to use psychological tools
destinations and travel patterns. This perspective, and show a willingness to employ individually
by its very nature, implies openness to both empir- based conceptual schemes to better understand
ical and subjective research designs. quality-of-life issues and tourist experiences.
Contributions from both academically trained
psychologists and those who apply a psychologi-
cal perspective in their research began with a Other disciplines
focus on tourists’ motivation. Leaders in this
area were John Crompton, Stanley Plog, Seppo In addition to the fields discussed above, tourism
Iso-Ahola, and Philip Pearce. Some adapted the scholars may be found working in many other
personality and motivational perspectives of disciplines. Xiao and Smith (2005) conducted a
mainstream psychologists. Their work was often content analysis of citations used in articles
linked to destination choice models that appearing in Annals of Tourism Research. They
described, in strictly rational terms, why tourists found the following distribution of disciplines or
visited, for example, the Bahamas rather than academic fields represented by the authors: tour-
Brazil. Scholars involved in these formative ism (26 %), sociology/anthropology (12 %), mar-
models included John Crompton, but also those keting/business/management (10 %), geography/
with a strong business psychology orientation environment (10 %), planning/development
such as Arch Woodside and Fred van Raaj. (8 %), economics/statistics (9 %), recreation/lei-
The commercial imperatives of tourism, ▶ rec- sure/health (5 %), psychology (3 %), and politics/
reation, and ▶ leisure prompted some with a psy- political science/law (4 %). ▶ Political science, in
chology background to consider the topics of particular, has clear contributions to make in terms
▶ loyalty, repeat visits, and satisfaction. Scholars of international relations, governance structures,
who contribute to this tradition included Joseph power relationships among countries, and the rise
O’Leary, John Crotts, and Muzaffer Uysal. The of multinational bodies and agencies that shape
on-site experiences have been another area of the functioning of tourism systems around the
interest for those who study tourists from a world (Linda Richter). Beyond the diversity of
broadly psychological orientation. Research in contributing fields, perhaps the most significant
museums, visitor centers, and at attractions has finding of Xiao and Smith was the dominance of S
been conducted by Chris Ryan, Gianna Moscardo, tourism itself as a parent field. In other words,
and Stephen Bitgood. Some of the work of the tourism scholars increasingly rely on the literature
pioneering psychology-oriented writers has been in tourism studies itself as a source of information.
linked to more macro issues including approaches Scholars working in disciplines not obviously
to assessing experience, ▶ marketing, and tourism connected to tourism also contribute to the field.
systems. These include literary studies and languages
John Hunt and Jost Krippendorf were early (travel journalism, guidebooks, blogs, and diaries)
scholars who researched marketing and tourist and history (some scholars trace tourism back to
experience, while Josef Mazanec, Abe Pizam, travel in ancient Greece or Sumeria). Public health
and many others used the quantitative traditions and medicine are increasingly interested in tour-
in psychology to build strongly empirical assess- ism topics, especially because of the role of com-
ment schemes analyzing tourists and industry per- mercial aviation in permitting the spread of
formance measures. A broad interest in diseases, such as malaria and SARS.
830 Seasonality
The ▶ future of tourism scholarship will see season.” Many destinations have two seasons,
scholars continue to ask new questions, develop one of high demand and one of limited or no
new tools, and explore more fully the methods, demand, but few (generally mountainous loca-
benefits, and challenges of interdisciplinary tions) have both a summer and a winter season.
research as well as apply new methods and con- A common definition of seasonality is “a tem-
cepts from other social sciences. Tourism as a poral imbalance in the phenomenon of tourism,
phenomenon is a meeting ground for scholars which may be expressed in terms of such elements
from both within the field and beyond. as numbers of visitors, expenditure of visitors,
traffic on highways and other forms of transpor-
See also ▶ Knowledge, ▶ multidisciplinarity, tation, employment and admissions to attractions”
▶ theory, ▶ tourism. (Butler 2001:4). Seasonality has been portrayed in
most cases as a problem that affects the optimal
efficient operation of tourism enterprises.
References
Causes of seasonality
Cohen, E. 1972 Towards a Sociology of International
Tourism. Social Research 39:164-182.
Dwyer, L. (ed.) 2011 The Discovery of Tourism Econom-
Variation in the volume of tourism is a result of
ics. Bingley: Emerald. both natural and human-induced causes. The sim-
Jafari, J. 2001 Scientification of Tourism. In Host and plest form of seasonality reflects the natural cli-
Guests Revisited, V. Smith and M. Brent, eds., pp.28- matic seasons, which vary considerably with
41. Elmsford: Cognizant.
Nash, D. (ed.) 2007 The Study of Tourism: Anthropolog-
▶ location, the greatest range being experienced
ical and Sociological Beginnings. Amsterdam: at locations in high latitudes, furthest from the
Elsevier. equator.
Pearce, P. (ed.) 2011 The Study of Tourism: Foundations Seasonality in tourism is also caused by human
from Psychology. Bingley: Emerald.
Smith, S. (ed.) 2011 The Discovery of Tourism. Bingley:
activities and policies. Traditionally many coun-
Emerald. tries scheduled school holidays during the sum-
Song, H., L. Dwyer, G. Li, and Z. Cao 2012 Tourism mer months so children could participate in
Economics Research: A Review and Assessment. agricultural work. This practice has continued
Xiao, H., and S. Smith 2005 Source Knowledge for Tour-
despite there no longer being a need for child
ism Research. Annals of Tourism Research 32:275- labor on farms, and this anachronism is the main
277. reason for seasonality among the major tourism-
generating countries. School holidays tend to
force families with children in ▶ education to
take holidays during that period. As this period
Seasonality also coincides with the most suitable weather for
many outdoor activities, summer is generally the
Richard Butler season of peak demand for most forms of ▶ rec-
Department of Management, University of reation and for visitation to destinations.
Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK Other human-induced causes of seasonality
include holidays (“holy days”), which reflect the
greater significance of ▶ religion in earlier socie-
Seasonality has long been noted as a characteristic ties. Religious influences are reflected in statutory
of tourism and is viewed as an almost insurmount- days off ▶ work on Sabbaths and their equiva-
able problem (Baum and Lundtorp 2001). It has lents, and other periods of significance such as
been present in ▶ leisure from the earliest times Christmas and Easter, as well as traditional
with particular periods known as “seasons” for pagan celebrations such as New Year and
specific leisure activities, such as “the hunting Halloween.
Seasonality 831
Very few places experience a constant level of supply in destinations. More ▶ attention needs to
tourism throughout the year. Even major urban be paid to modifying perceptions on the demand
centers of the world close to the equator experi- side, focusing on the “push” rather than the “pull”
ence some variation in their levels of visitation, motivations.
reflecting seasonal levels of demand in the For both physical and sociocultural environ-
▶ tourist-generating countries. When their resi- ments, seasonality can be viewed more positively
dents have designated vacation periods, their as a necessary period of relief from tourists and
seasonal demand will be reflected in their chosen tourism. ▶ Flora and fauna all suffer impacts
destinations. Because seasonality has both natural (Wall and Matheison 2006). The “off-season”
and institutional causes and is present in both the provides the ▶ resources with a chance to recu-
▶ supply and demand aspects of tourism, it is perate from the impacts of human use and regen-
difficult to overcome and to achieve a constant erate prior to the next season. Residents of many
flow of arrivals year round. destinations also appreciate a ▶ time free from
Those ▶ tourist activities which require natural visitation, to allow them to repair, renovate, and
attributes (such as snow for skiing; wildlife for improve facilities, as well as being freed from
hunting, fishing, and ▶ ecotourism; large waves serving tourists and being able to return to a
for surfing) are most prone to seasonality. The pre-tourism way of life for a part of the year.
more specialized a ▶ destination is, the more sea- It would be a mistake to view seasonality as
sonal it is likely to be. It has also been argued that only negative. If, in the ▶ future, ▶ sustainability
the more remote a destination is, the more likely it is to be a major factor in tourism ▶ development,
is to be seasonal (Butler 1998). Prior research has then consideration of the physical and sociocul-
argued that temporal polarization mirrors and per- tural environments and their need for recuperation
haps reinforces spatial polarization. It seems periods means that seasonal fluctuations in the
likely that inertia is a major factor in the presence level of tourism should perhaps be viewed and
of seasonality, with refusal to change conven- addressed in future research as a necessity rather
tional holiday periods by governments and reluc- than an inconvenience. Research attention should
tance to change ▶ vacation habits by many greatly be focused more on identifying ways of modify-
affecting the temporal pattern of demand. ing demand in the origin regions rather than on
amending supply in the destinations.
The complex nature of seasonality

See also ▶ Demand modeling, ▶ destination,
Seasonality is seen as a problem because of ▶ leisure, ▶ recreation, ▶ supply.
uneven (inefficient) use of facilities throughout
the year. Yacoumis (1980) was the first to explore S
the ways in which destinations attempted to over-
come this difficulty. However, despite a wide and
References
long-standing range of attempts to modify season-
Bar-On, R. 1975 Seasonality in Tourism. London: Econo-
ality (Butler 2001), relatively little has been mist Intelligence Unit.
achieved. In some cases, promoting off-season Baum, T., and S. Lundtorp, eds. 2001 Seasonality in Tour-
travel has resulted in increased peak-season travel ism. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Butler, R. 1998 Seasonality in Tourism: Issues and Impli-
and a smaller increase in “shoulder” period, cations. The Tourist Review 3:18-24.
accentuating rather than diminishing the problem Butler, R. 2001 Seasonality in Tourism: Issues and Impli-
of seasonal visitation (Bar-On 1975). Efforts to cations. In Seasonality in Tourism, T. Baum and
change viewpoints and opportunities for ▶ travel S. Lundtorp, eds., pp.5-22. Amsterdam: Pergamon.
Wall, G., and A. Matheison 2006 Tourism: Change,
among populations in tourist-generating regions
Impacts, and Opportunities. Harlow: Prentice Hall.
might be more successful in alleviating seasonal- Yacoumis, J. 1980 Tackling Seasonality: The Case of Sri
ity than the traditional focus on modifying the Lanka. Tourism Management 1(2):84-98.
832 Second home
permanent residence in order to use them on a

Second home more regular basis.
Second homes were visited on weekends to
Serena Volo relax from busy city life and for family activities
Faculty of Economics and Management, in nature. To some extent, modern units can still
TOMTE, Free University of Bozen-Bolzano, be seen in the same light as their historical pre-
Bolzano, Italy decessors: they both represent escape from every-
day life, the need for relaxation, contact with
nature, and family time. The more modern phe-
Second homes are dwellings used for the sole nomenon includes further motives, such as real
purpose of ▶ leisure. They include stationary, estate investment, opportunities to live multiple
semimobile, and mobile dwellings that can be identities, experience different locations and cul-
converted or purpose-built homes. Second tures, and mobility of retired households. Further-
homes are used by owners, by their extended more, second homes have taken on different
family and friends, or by paying guests. forms. Recently, they are increasingly owned or
Numerous terms are used to designate the most used by multiple dwellers, on the basis of home or
traditional forms of these recreational lodgings: time-sharing.
▶ holiday or ▶ vacation homes, cottages,
country houses, farmhouses, cabins, mansions,
villas, or shacks. Urban apartments, time-share
units, camping vehicles, and sailing boats are Studies on second homes tourism
also included in the umbrella definition of second
home dwellings (Hall and M€uller 2004; Theoretical and empirical studies on second
Tress 2002). Their users are placed at the homes have flourished since the seminal work of
conceptual transition point between tourists and Coppock (1977). Subsequent studies reflect dif-
seasonal or lifestyle migrants. The characteristic ferent disciplines and convey international expe-
of nonpermanent residence makes all riences. Early scholarly works focused on
dwellers tourists – no matter whether they are research questions related to second homes’ oper-
owners, renters, or nonpaying guests. Thus, the ational definition, spatial distribution, ▶ impact
term second home tourism refers to activities, on the host community, nature, and usage. The
characteristics, and behavior of second home next wave of research continued investigating the
usage. same issues in different countries (M€uller 2007;
Visser 2006). These studies demonstrated the
important contribution of this market to ▶ domes-
History, evolution and purposes tic tourism and their role in the growth of mobility
patterns.
Originally meant as a retreat for the social elite to Despite the difficulties and inconsistencies
escape everyday life and restore health, second in collecting statistics on second homes,
homes were generally located in areas with favor- approximate estimates of the number of second
able climate and expressed as a luxurious lifestyle. homes and their geographical distribution are
At the beginning of the twentieth century, the available for several regions. Published studies
desired characteristics of second homes changed. cover the ▶ United States, ▶ Canada, Latin
Users started seeking nature and wilderness and America, ▶ South Africa, ▶ New Zealand and
no longer just belonged to the nobility. Thus, less ▶ Australia, and most European countries. Due
known settings were discovered and less luxuri- to their strong second home tradition, such
ous homes built. In the 1960s, ownership of such studies are abundant in the Scandinavian coun-
dwellings increased even further. Middle class tries and in the ▶ United Kingdom (Gallent
invested in affordable properties close to their et al. 2005).
Security meta-framing 833
Motivations and impacts official accommodations, and thorough investiga-

tions are necessary to uncover the deeper layers of
Published research contributed particularly to this multifaceted phenomenon.
defining the motivations for using second homes
(including the issues of mobility and attachment) See also ▶ Accommodation, ▶ lifestyle,
and investigating their impacts on the hosting ▶ migration, ▶ mobility, ▶ seasonality.
communities (e.g., displacement effects). Many
motives have been identified in literature, cover-
ing natural and cultural environment, traditions,
social activities, and emotional connections. References
Escaping from a predictable and alienating world
of everyday life has been acknowledged, while a Coppock, J. 1977 Second Homes: Curse or Blessing?
Oxford: Pergamon.
more recent shift shows second homes as places Gallent, N., A. Mace, and M. Tewdwr-Jones 2005 Second
for identity building. Due to greater mobility and Homes: European Perspectives and UK Policies.
second home ownership across countries, their Hampshire: Ashgate.
role has evolved into a place for shaping one’s Hall, C., and D. M€
uller (eds.) 2004 Mobility, Tourism and
Second Homes: Between Elite Landscape and Com-
multiple and transactional identities. Family ties mon Ground. Clevedon: Channel View.
and heritage connections are also documented as M€uller, D. 2007 Second Homes in the Nordic Countries:
motives. Finally, usage relates to seasonal migra- Between Common Heritage and Exclusive Commod-
tion and life cycle with a growth of interregional ity. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and Tourism
7:193-201.
and often international retirement migration Tress, G. 2002 Development of Second-home Tourism in
flows. Denmark. Scandinavian Journal of Hospitality and
Impact studies on second homes encompass Tourism 2:109-122.
economic, environmental, and social perspec- Visser, G. 2006 South Africa Has Second Homes Too! An
Exploration of the Unexplored. Current Issues in Tour-
tives. Among the former impacts, at least three ism 9:351-383.
positive and negative effects have been acknowl-
edged: on the housing market, general impact on
the ▶ destination, and the induced impact on the
primary residence area. From an environmental
viewpoint, the concerns for nature, climate, and Security meta-framing
landscapes have been on the research agenda.
Considering the social perspective, the issue of Vida Bajc
second homes being a curse or a blessing for Department of Sociology, Methodist University,
local communities has attracted the attention of Fayetteville, NC, USA
researchers with alternating positions. While the S
interaction between second home owners and
communities creates socioeconomic benefits Security meta-framing refers to practice and
that vary among regions, most governments ▶ discourse through which security is elevated
seem to fail to recognize the depth of the phe- to the level of a dominant ordering principle of
nomenon, with many planning and management social organization by competing with other such
issues remaining unresolved (Hall and M€uller principles in contemporary societies, particularly
2004). inclusion, equal participation, freedom of move-
Despite the difficulties in judging the desirabil- ment, and the right to privacy (Bajc and de Lint
ity of second homes, they are certainly an impor- 2011). In a meta-framing dynamic, security dom-
tant part of tourism and of contemporary lifestyles inates as a particular kind of logic which seeks to
and mobilities. Their contribution to tourism reduce social complexity in order to minimize
development needs further investigation, reliable uncertainty by controlling human behavior
statistics are needed for comparisons with flows at through the means of surveillance.
834 Segmentation
This reasoning that surveillance of human ▶ architecture and urban ▶ planning. Security
behavior can be effectively used to control uncer- meta-framing also shapes the lives of the people
tainty encourages the rise and expansion of an who reside in proximity of destinations where
extensive apparatus of technologies, institutions, daily existence is characterized by poverty, envi-
operatives, and procedures in the ▶ service of ronmental disasters, or ethnic, political, and racial
security. These dynamics become most obvious conflicts.
at planned global events, airports, and border
crossings, where security meta-framing has See also ▶ Border tourism, ▶ immigration,
become an effort to minimize spontaneity, ▶ risk, ▶ safety and security, ▶ visa.
▶ humor, unstructured festivities, the right of
assembly, equal access, open participation, strong
emotional expressiveness, unplanned sociality, or References
subversive behavior which may question such
order (Bajc 2007a). In their place, maximum spa- Bajc, V. 2007a Debating Surveillance in the Age of Secu-
rity. American Behavioral Scientist 50:1567-1591.
tial and temporal control over human ▶ mobility
Bajc, V. 2007b Surveillance in Public Rituals: Security
and interpersonal interaction is imposed through a Meta-ritual and the 2005 U. S. Presidential Inaugura-
scheme of classifications of people and spaces tion. American Behavioral Scientist 50: 1648-1673.
first into categories of inclusion and exclusion Bajc, V. 2014 Surveilling and Securing the Olympics:
From Tokyo 1964 to London 2012 and Beyond. Lon-
and then into hierarchies of access. In the case of
don: Palgrave Macmillan.
global events, the following is observed: shift of Bajc, V., and W. de Lint 2011 Security and Everyday Life.
public attention from routine daily life toward the New York: Routledge.
event, during which security rises to the top of
priorities; appeal to collective memory; specific
role of the ▶ media; mobilization of all possible
▶ resources; expectation that everyone will coop- Segmentation
erate toward the goal of security; and transforma-
tion of social and physical spaces into a sterile Josef A. Mazanec
zone of safety, within which all aspects of event Department of Tourism and Service Management,
▶ performance are further subjected to security MODUL University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
meta-framing. These characteristics have
acquired a ▶ ritual form, named security meta-
ritual, which has become standardized and Segmentation is one of the domains of strategic
imposed on all kinds of global planned events marketing. Matching a producer’s or service pro-
(Bajc 2007b, 2014). vider’s capabilities with customer needs is greatly
It remains to be studied how security meta- facilitated by specialization and selective opera-
framing shapes social life in ▶ tourist spaces tion in one or more market segments. Marketing
such as resorts, hotels, beaches, clubs, shopping theory suggests that segments be composed of
malls, city centers, museums, galleries, open-air target customers who respond homogeneously to
markets, or restaurants. In these spaces, order is the marketer’s promotional activities (response-
facilitated in at least two ways: one, by using based segmentation). Following this guideline
technologies and techniques of identification and requires a validated and segment-specific market
classification of tourists and two, through surveil- response model to predict customer reaction.
lance friendly ▶ landscape and architectural Where such an advanced predictive instrument is
design. The former includes passport regimes, unavailable, marketing managers rely on cus-
state ▶ travel advisories, risk ▶ insurance poli- tomers’ past behavior. A segmentation strategy
cies, preferred traveler programs, multiple citizen- determines the number and size of the segments
ship privileges, and discriminatory ▶ visa and the classification criteria used for profiling
policies. The latter is focused on touristic segment members. Marketing managers evaluate
Segmentation 835
segment attractiveness and decide on which and segments from scratch. Nonparametric methods
how many segments should be actually targeted are employed in perceptions-based segmentation,
and what promotional budget should be allocated. which analyzes stated (buying intentions) and
Marketers relying on customers’ past behavior revealed preferences (actual brand choice) in seg-
may choose one of two approaches. First, in a ments exhibiting group-specific brand images
priori segmentation (criterion segmentation), cus- (Mazanec and Strasser 2000, 2007). In a second
tomers are classified into predetermined groups step after cluster formation with a set of active
according to one characteristic. Such a priori cri- variables, the segments are subject to subsequent
terion either represents aspects of past purchasing profiling with passive variables. This descriptive
behavior (buying volume or frequency) or a per- step is particularly important for the a posteriori
sonal attribute that correlates with consumption approach. There, the segments are most fre-
patterns. Second, in a posteriori segmentation quently generated in terms of psychographics
(post hoc or similarity segmentation), the number and do not directly manifest themselves for
and composition of segments are initially being selectively targeted.
unknown and emerge from data analysis Consumer behavior research has greatly
(Dolnicar 2008). It is driven by the hypothesis extended the range of personal characteristics eli-
that subgroups in a consumer population are gible as segmentation criteria. Composite psycho-
homogeneous in terms of psychographics graphic variables like lifestyles, personality traits,
(motives, ▶ attitudes, benefits sought) or pre- or value systems complement the traditional tool-
ferred activities. This homogeneity is expected box of geographic, demographic, socioeconomic,
to make them react to product offerings and pro- behavioral, and conventional psychographic
motional efforts in a similar manner. attributes.
Extreme variants of segmentation aim at ever
smaller and more specialized customer groups
Methods and recent developments (niche markets and microsegmentation). They
culminate in the ▶ eCommerce strategies promot-
The analytical methods used for building seg- ing individually customized products. These
ments follow either single- or double-step proce- attempts are indicative of the web economy’s
dures. A priori segmentation applies a ambition to facilitate individual value cocreation
straightforward single-step approach. After defin- by service providers and customers. Under the old
ing the segments by means of a predetermined segmentation philosophy, researchers and man-
criterion (e.g., first-timer vs. repeater), it examines agers assumed that market segments already
personal attributes for segment profiling. This exist and are independent of a decisionmaker’s
search for descriptive correlations (with ▶ dis- intervention. Under the new philosophy, segmen-
criminant analysis, ▶ automatic interaction detec- tation has become an instrument for seeking S
tion, or classification and regression trees) is ▶ competitive advantage. Managers and analysts
needed for selective targeting and segment do no longer aspire to detect the “true” segment
reachability through advertising ▶ media and dis- structure in the market. Rather, they continuously
tribution channels. Sophisticated single-step invent and create new consumer typologies and
methods such as finite mixture models are segmentation schemes. Being the first to practice
required for response-based segmentation as such an inventive scheme secures, at least tempo-
they simultaneously estimate segment-specific rarily, a competitive edge.
response parameters and customer segment mem-
bership (Wedel and Kamakura 2000).
Double-step methods typically apply a classi- Application in tourism
fication method (▶ cluster analysis, latent class
analysis, vector quantization, and Segmentation was among the core marketing con-
neurocomputing techniques) for building the cepts that received quick and broad attention in
836 Semiotics
tourism ▶ marketing research and practice. Strategy, A. Woodside and D. Martin, eds.,
▶ Tourist typologies developed by sociologists pp. 129-150. Cambridge: CAB International.
Dolnicar, S., and F. Leisch 2004 Segmenting Markets by
were soon recognized to represent potential mar- Bagged Clustering. Australasian Marketing Journal 12:
ket segmentation schemes. Popular a priori seg- 51-65.
mentation criteria in tourism marketing are the Mazanec, J. 2001 Neural Market Structure Analysis: Novel
country of origin, purpose of trip, length of stay, Topology-Sensitive Methodology. European Journal of
Marketing 35: 894-914.
daily expenditure and spending patterns, fre- Mazanec, J., and H. Strasser 2000 A Nonparametric
quency of visitation or destination loyalty, and Approach to Perceptions-based Market Segmentation:
tourist experience. ▶ Special interest tourism tar- Foundations. New York: Springer.
gets segments of any size from ▶ wine tourism to Mazanec, J., and H. Strasser 2007 Perceptions-based Anal-
ysis of Tourism Products and Service Providers. Jour-
bird and whale watching. A posteriori segments nal of Travel Research 45:387-401.
are frequently construed from symptomatic bun- Wedel, M., and W. Kamakura 2000 Market Segmentation:
dles of benefits sought (benefit segmentation), Conceptual Methodological Foundations (2nd ed.).
travel motives, AIO variables (activities, interests, Boston: Kluwer.
opinions), and perceived destination attributes or
symptomatic combinations of ▶ leisure prefer-
ences. Tourism market segmentation has explored
tourists’ group-specific perceptions of products, Semiotics
service providers, and destinations and has
experimented with ▶ vacation styles that deviate Hasso Spode
from everyday lifestyles. The classification Historical Archive on Tourism, Technische
methods adopted range from classic partitioning Universit€at Berlin, Berlin, Germany
techniques such as k-means clustering (Arimond
and Elfessi 2001) to topology representing neural
networks (Mazanec 2001) and tailor-made proce- Semiotics is the study of signs. This research field
dures for binary data (Dolnicar and Leisch 2004). is also called semiology or, where the focus is on
Microsegmentation and customized trip prod- meaning, semantics. The prefix “sem-” is derived
ucts are priority issues in ▶ eTourism. As the from Greek semeion = “sign.” Signs occur
▶ travel counseling systems are becoming throughout living nature, in plants, animals, and
smarter, they learn from user-system interaction humans. As a sociocultural phenomenon, they
how to adjust to individual user knowledge and characterize ▶ language, gesture, imagery,
preferences. The so-called dynamic packaging music, clothing, ▶ architecture, and so on and
systems offered by online travel agencies let the constitute formal languages such as software.
users configure their own personalized combina- A ▶ sign is something that “stands for” something
tion of trip product elements. other than itself. It contains information about this
“Other” and so allows an exchange of informa-
See also ▶ Cluster analysis, ▶ information tech- tion. There is no communication without signs.
nology, ▶ market, ▶ marketing, ▶ mapping, But only in a given context does a sign gain
perceptual. “meaning” or “sense.” The fact that in the social
world a sign usually carries more than one mean-
ing becomes a key issue of semiotics.
References
Roots and usages of the term semiotics
Arimond, G., and A. Elfessi 2001 A Clustering Method for
Categorical Data in Tourism Market Segmentation
Research. Journal of Travel Research 39:391-397.
Medical diagnosis of ancient times comprised a
Dolnicar, S. 2008 Market Segmentation in Tourism. In theoretical and an empirical division; the latter,
Tourism Management: Analysis, Behavior and semeiotikon meros, dealt with the observable
Semiotics 837
signs of diseases. Under the name of “semeiotics” The notion of a “sign” as principally different
(today better known as symptomatology), it from the “object” is alien to the “wild thinking” of
reemerged in the seventeenth-century medical simple societies. It is a feature of complex socie-
discourse, namely, as an empirical counterweight ties. The nature of signs had already been
to speculative theories of the body. At the same discussed in antiquity. However, not until the
time, the term found its way into the humanities. scholastic “dispute over universals” during the
In 1632 John Poinsot published a detailed Middle Ages did a highly sophisticated ▶ dis-
Tractatus de Signis, and in 1690 John Locke pro- course set in. The exponents of (traditional) real-
posed a “branch” of science that “may be called ism stated that the general terms represented
Semeiotike, or the doctrine of signs” (but did not “ideas” which were ante rem (before the thing);
develop this “doctrine”). they were of a timeless existence independent of
Research in semiotics has taken two directions. human beings. The advocates of the (novel) nom-
First, semiotics stands for a limited empirical inalism argued that general terms were “names”
“branch” of various disciplines. After its introduc- which originated post rem (after the thing); they
tion in medicine, ▶ history followed the suit were the result of abstraction or even mere con-
around 1800. Today it is also found in linguistics, vention. In this connection, William of Ockham,
▶ marketing, media research, jurisprudence, who in his Summa Logicae (circa 1323) declared
and tourism research. As the suffix “-tics” that universals were just “signs of signs,” became
(from Greek techne = “skill”) indicates, semiotics a founding father both of constructivism and
here refers to a set of topics and methods. In semiotics.
addition, but sometimes avoiding the label of
semiotics, a handful of smaller disciplines have
also developed tools to analyze signs
(iconography, information theory, visual studies, Modern semiotics
and more).
Second, in the age of constructivism, semiotics What is now called semiotics dates from around
stands for a virtually unlimited approach based on the 1900s. One pillar is the “semeiotic” of Amer-
an epistemological core assumption. Here, semi- ican philosopher Charles Pierce (1839–1914).
otics has an intrinsic tendency toward academic Although an admirer of Ockham’s rigorous think-
imperialism. Once there is agreement that the ing, his writings form anything but a consistent
social world (if not life in general) consists in ▶ theory (logicians detected 88 different defini-
communication and that communication consists tions of the sign). Nonetheless, they contain useful
in the making, interpreting, and connecting of assumptions, mainly the distinction of signs into
signs, all research on humans (if not on all animate “icon” (likeliness of sign and object – the picto-
beings) can be reassembled under the heading of gram of a dog warns visitors of a savage dog), S
semiotics – more of a philosophical passe-partout “index” (indirect hint – a ringing of a doorbell
than a concrete science. Umberto Eco, a protago- announces a ▶ visitor), and “symbol” (denotation
nist of this approach, remarked that nearly all by convention – the word “bell” denotes a class of
major thinkers were implicitly semioticians. sound-producing devices). Furthermore, Pierce
Such claims to hegemony are not very popular introduced a triadic model of mutual relations
with scholars. No wonder, the far-reaching pre- among object, sign, and “interpretant,” the mean-
tension contrasts with the small number of ing affected by the sign. Nowadays, such “semi-
research institutions. After its heyday in the otic triangles” mostly consist of object, sign, and
1960–1980s, the semiotics’ star was waning. mind (as Aristotle had already suggested). Unlike
Nonetheless, with a growing awareness of Ockham, Pierce stuck to realism and combined
▶ globalization and the need for intercultural his semiotics with the attempt to prove the “reality
communication since the millennium, it has of God.” Perhaps this is why until the late twenti-
regained momentum. eth century, Pierce was little known outside
838 Semiotics
America albeit Popper counted him among the inner logic. The challenge is to reveal that logic. In
“greatest philosophers.” this connection, Roland Barthes (1915–1980),
Meanwhile, over in ▶ Europe, it was Swiss half structuralist scientist, half Marxist essayist,
linguist Ferdinand de Saussure (1857–1913) had the strongest inclinations to semiotics. For
who made semiotics popular. His sémiologie example, in 1957, he applied it to the “myth” of
deals solely with ▶ language. Comparable to Spain as produced by guidebooks: a country
Poinsot and Ockham, he regards language as a reduced by the “culture industry” to a “collection
self-referential system (to use the Luhmannian of monuments.”
term). The hidden ▶ system of rules, meanings, Far from such cultural criticism, but also
and relations (langue or competence) becomes deciphering myths, is the “philosophy of sym-
manifest in the act of speaking (parole or ▶ per- bolic forms” by Ernst Cassirer (1874–1945):
formance). Together, both levels form language human’s world is a world of signs (animal
(langage) and both operate with signs. There is no symbolicum). Later Clifford Geertz (1926–2006)
bond between the sign and the chose réelle (real made the same core assumption the foundation of
thing). The only exception to this “arbitrariness” his “symbolical anthropology.” These theories
is the “symbol,” the onomatopoetic sign (such as offer further pillars to semiotics. However, they
interjections) which has a “natural relation” to the have little bearing on that field. Instead Cassirer
object. Saussure’s definition is thus the very oppo- influenced Niklas Luhmann (1927–1998) whose
site of the Peircean. A sign – usually a systems theory analyzes the reduction of com-
word – consists of two elements: the signifié or plexity via symbolically mediated communication
mental concept (signified) and the significant or in sense-producing systems.
acoustic image (signifier). However, this notion
often (even in encyclopedias) is misinterpreted as
a dyadic model that simply relates sign and object. Semiotics in the sociology
In the course of the twentieth century, these and anthropology of tourism
two starting points of semiotics were modified
and amended. Influenced by George Herbert It is difficult not to speak of signs when speaking
Mead’s ▶ symbolic interactionism and the Vienna of social phenomena. This is of course also true of
Circle, Charles Morris (1901–1979) developed a tourism. Thus, when Hans-Joachim Knebel in
“theory of signs” (Morris and Neurath 1938). To 1958 published the world’s first sociological dis-
the Peircean triangle, he added a fourth factor: the sertation on tourism, he asserted (like Barthes)
human “interpreter.” Together, they constitute the that tourism reduces “reality” to “symbols” and
process of “semiosis” in which something func- “stereotypes.” They prepare the “stage” for tour-
tions as a sign (which he also called symbol). For ists, “relieve” them from “uncertainty,” and trig-
Morris, there are three sorts of relations signs can ger predictable “sequences of action” – in other
have: to objects, to interpreters, and to other signs. words they reduce complexity.
Accordingly, semiotics consists of three dimen- Admittedly, it took two decades until semiotics
sions: semantics, pragmatics, and syntactics. was seriously introduced into tourism research. In
Despite its obsolete behaviorist and pragmatist 1978 José Febas Borra, originally a theologian,
foundations, this theory can still serve as a guide- published the first thorough study of the “semiol-
line for (tourism) studies in semiotics. ogy of the ▶ tourist language.” Based on structur-
On European thought, the impact of Saussure alist theories, he developed a scheme of
was immense. Above all, his view on language as communicational triangles in order to analyze
a well-ordered “synchronic” totality distinct from the promotional material of the Spanish Tourist
the “real” world led to structuralism. Its expo- Board. His findings reinforced the (already well-
nents, like Lévi-Strauss and (the early) Foucault, known) fact that the advertised “image” of Spain
stated that thinking and acting are structured by turned a blind eye to the “real” industrialization
symbolic “orders” which unconsciously follow an and urbanization experienced by the people.
Semiotics 839
In doing so, it aimed at the traditional sightseeing universalism of the semiotic paradigm. Applied
tourism; the brochures of the ▶ tour operators, by without caution, the specifics of the ▶ tourist
contrast, targeted the new ▶ mass tourism on the semiosis must remain opaque. Findings, then,
beaches. Yet, outside of ▶ Spain, Febas’ are read as traits of tourism which in actual fact
pioneering work received scant attention. are of a universal nature (such as the reduction of
But as far back as 1976, in his seminal work, complexity).
The Tourist, sociologist Dean MacCannell also
had made use of semiotics. Tourist attractions
were signs (be they icons, indices, or symbols) The future of semiotics in tourism
affecting “staged authenticity” and channeling
tourist behavior. This was not far from the posi- The character and function of semiotics in the
tions of Barthes and especially Knebel. social sciences remain ambivalent, last but not
MacCannell, too, drew a cultural critical conclu- least in tourism research. On the one hand, it is
sion when he maintained that modern individuals an analytical tool, a method. Here, it serves well in
have lost the unity and the solid ground of reality studies of a short or medium range. On the other
in which ▶ knowledge and ▶ identity were once hand, it claims to be a grand theory. Here, it is
rooted – and tourism is part and parcel of this loss potentially a “theory of everything” and
of certainty. Similarly, in 1981 the literary scholar, thus – unlike the grand theories of Marx, Parsons,
Jonathan Culler, deplored the taming of “Other- and so on – an empty theory. As a sort of logic, its
ness” through stereotyped symbols and called benefit for syntheses of a wider range in tourism
tourists semioticians “fanning out in search of research therefore is doubtful, unless they are of a
signs.” Yet, this critical master narrative is based highly universal, abstract kind. Unfortunately, the
upon a transfigured picture of the past. People, not borders between the two levels of semiotics are
only today’s tourists, always communicate via blurred. There is the danger that semiotic tourism
signs (as already Ockham knew), and the warmth studies are taking a theoretical sledgehammer to
and security of the good old days is a romantic crush an empirical nut. But instead of trying to
projection. In any case, it was in particular retrace the ramifications of the Saussurean or
MacCannell (1989) who rendered outstanding Peircean heritage, often a simple methodic flow-
services to popularize semiotics in tourism chart is sufficient to analyze the signs hidden in a
research. given source. ▶ Future semiotic research should,
Meanwhile numerous studies, varying in range as a rule, avoid theoretical overload and treat
and theoretical background, have appeared. They semiotics simply as one useful approach of
extend from english sociologist Graham Dann many. Then it helps – preferably together with
who rediscovered Febas’ work and included hermeneutic intuition – to clarify numerous con-
sociolinguistics in his anatomy of The Language crete empirical questions, in particular about the S
of Tourism (1996) to german geographer Marlen modes of constructing and commodifying tourist
Schlaffke who in 2007 drew on Cassirer when she spaces, perceptions, and practices.
analyzed the invention of the “imaginary Black
Forest.” A good overview of Anglophone tourism
research is provided by Richard Tresidder (2011). See also ▶ Language, ▶ marker, ▶ sign, ▶ soci-
All in all, these studies enrich tourism social sci- ology, ▶ symbolism.
ence with fresh (empirical) insights. However,
they prefer “sights” – which so apparently func-
tion as signs – as their object and hence suffer
from the general “ocularcentric” bias of tourism References
studies. Accordingly, the “de-located” beach hol-
Barthes, R. 1957 Mythologies. Paris: du Seuil.
iday and other “common” tourist practices are Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism. Wallingford:
underrepresented. Another pitfall lies in the CABI.
840 Senegal
Febas Borra, J. 1978 Semiologia del lenguaje turístico.

Revista de Estudios Turísticos 57/58:17-203.
Knebel, H.-J. 1958 Soziologische Strukturwandlungen im
modernen Tourismus. Hamburg: Diss. Phil.
MacCannell, D. 1989 The Semiotics of Tourism. Amster-
dam: Elsevier.
Morris, C., and O. Neurath 1938 Foundations of the The-
ory of Signs. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Tresidder, R. 2011 Semiotics of Tourism. In Research
Themes for Tourism, P. Robinson, ed., pp.59-68.
Wallingford: CABI.
Senegal
Samba Ndiaye1 and Thiago Allis2

1
Universidade do Minho, Braga, Portugal
2 Senegal, Figure 1 Map of Senegal
Department of Geography, Tourism and
Humanities, Universidade Federal de São Carlos,
São Carlos, Brazil
2012, the industry generated 11 % of its GDP
and provided 282,800 jobs. As a result of the
The Republic of Senegal is a country in West 2014–2018 strategic tourism plan covering new
Africa, covering 196,700 km2 (76,000 mi2), bor- infrastructure, as well as fiscal, financial, and
dering ▶ Mauritania to the north, ▶ Mali, juridical conditions, 1.5 million arrivals are
▶ Guinea, and ▶ Guinea-Bissau to the east, and expected by 2016 (Leitão 2012; WTTC 2013).
Atlantic Ocean and ▶ Gambia to the west The country’s major tourism appeals are sun
(Figure 1). Its population of 12 million is mostly and sea (54 %), business (33 %), and natural and
Muslims. The capital Dakar is inhabited by almost cultural attractions (13 %) (BES 2013).
three million people. Casamance, South of Dakar, a Portuguese settle-
At the beginning of the sixteenth century, the ment handed over to France in 1888, is renowned
Portuguese navigated through the rivers of Caheu for its historical and natural attractions. Numerous
and Gambia in search of wax, ivory, and slaves. UNESCO world heritage sites are also key attrac-
During the sixteenth to the nineteenth centuries, tions, including Gorée Island established in 1978,
due to its strategic ▶ location, the island of Gorée Island of Saint-Louis in 2000, the former capital
was the largest slave-trading center on the African of Senegal, Djoudj Bird Sanctuary in 1981, and
coast, successively under Portuguese, Dutch, Brit- Niokolo-Koba National Park in 1981.
ish, and, after 1817, the French rule. In 1960, The African Development Bank recommends
Senegal achieved independence from ▶ France, the development of various niche segments,
but French remains an official language among including seaside resort in South Niayes and
six other native languages (Esteves 1988). Casamance delta; ▶ urban tourism in Saint Louis
During the quatrième plan quadriennal de and “Grande Côte”; ▶ ecotourism in Thiès and
développement économique et social period “Petite Côte,” Saloum Island; and business in
(1973–1977), the government, supported by the Dakar (ADB 2010). Gaston Berger, Thiès, and
World Bank, used tourism as a tool for develop- Ziguinchor Universities deliver tourism ▶ educa-
ment. Today, the country accounts for 4 % of all tion at undergraduate and postgraduate levels.
African tourism, from only 0.5 % in 1965. In Additionally, in 2011, there were around
Senior tourism 841
10 private institutions providing professional edu- Furthermore, as the number of seniors has
cation in tourism, hotel management, and increased, so has their proportion in the overall
gastronomy. population. This phenomenon connects to a
decrease in the fertility rate, and is all the more
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ beach tourism, ▶ decoloni- important from a tourism market standpoint,
zation, ▶ world heritage. since it places the emphasis on the senior market
size in comparison with the rest of the
population.
References On average, when contrasted with the previous
generations of seniors, the current cohort has
ADB 2010 Republic of Senegal: Country Strategy Paper, higher savings and incomes. Combined with
2010–2015. African Development Bank www.afdb.
demographic characteristics, their new economic
org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-
Operations/SENEGAL%20-%202010-2015%20CSP. buying power has captured the attention of mar-
pdf (29 December 2013). keters. The industry has become all the more
BES 2013 International Kit Support of Opportunities: interested in this growing population, as retired
Senegal. Banco Espírito Santo www.bes.pt/sitebes/
individuals constitute a core lucrative target mar-
cms.aspx?plg=f7bfc3a0-0a64-4695-9b8b-a4bb946ed
6d4 (28 December). ket for tourism companies (UNWTO 2000). As
Esteves, M. 1988 A Questão do Casamansa e a soon as the seniors are retired, they have more free
Delimitação das Fronteiras da Guiné. Lisbon: Centro time to travel and they are both willing and able to
de Estudos de História e Cartografia Antiga.
visit near and far destinations.
Leitão, F. 2012 Paraísos Cruzados: Itinerários Simétricos
em Carabane, uma ilha Turística no Sul do Senegal. Despite the growing size and richness of the
Lisbon: Universidade Nova de Lisboa. segment, tourism marketers find it challenging to
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Senegal. attract senior tourists, as these new members
London: World Travel and Tourism Cuncil.
behave differently from previous senior genera-
tions. Having benefited from improved living
conditions and from advances in medicine,
Senior tourism seniors are enjoying better quality of life and, on
average, feel 10 years younger than their chrono-
Delphine Le Serre logical age (Barak 1987). The amelioration in
ISTEC Business School, Paris, France health status and self-perception has influenced
their tourism activities.
Contrary to the attitudes and behavior of their
Over the past 20 years, senior tourism has pro- parents, seniors favor longer distances and prefer
gressively changed as an increasingly older pop- to travel with families and friends rather than with
ulation has emerged almost everywhere. This other social groups. In particular, they welcome S
market is characterized by its size, buying adventure, sports, and social interaction while on
power, improved health status, and differing tour- holiday. Nonetheless, the senior tourism niche is
ism behaviors. not homogenous. Future research could look at
Currently 11 % of the worldwide population is segmentation of the senior tourist market
60+ years old, a market which is expected to reach according to such criteria as motivations, percep-
20 % by 2050 (United Nations 2010). This aging tions of risks, and cultural and behavioral differ-
phenomenon began during the last century in the ences, as well as chronological and subjective age.
industrialized countries. The baby booms after In addition, industry responsiveness to the grow-
World War II in North America, Western Europe, ing senior market will remain a topic of interest.
Japan, and Australia, augmented with better living
conditions, explain the significant increase of the See also ▶ Allocentric and psychocentric,
elderly population in these and similar countries ▶ cruise tourism, ▶ demography, ▶ family
and regions. tourism.
842 Senses
References anthropology and ▶ sociology of tourism. Topics

such as gender and sensuality are addressed by
Barak, B. 1987 Cognitive Age: A New Multidimensional research, approaching the body receptors as active
Approach to Measuring Age Identity. International
and as culturally connecting individuals to social
Journal of Ageing and Human Development
25(2):109-128. existence (Pritchard et al. 2007). The idea of
United Nations 2010 World Population Prospects: The “sensescapes,” carved in human geography, sug-
2012 Revision. Department of Economics and Social gests that all the senses can be spatially ordered,
Affairs www.un.org/en/development/desa/publica
each sensory modality of environments’ experi-
tions/world-population-prospects-the-2012-revision.html
(31 May 2015). ences being particularized: visual landscapes for
UNWTO 2000 Major Tourism Trends in Tourism Market- sight, “hearingscape” for the auditory,
ing Strategy 2000-2005. Montréal: Tourisme Québec. “smellscape” for the olfactory, “tastescape” for
the gustatory, and “hapticscape” for touch
(Rodaway 1994). This construct involves the
assumption that destinations have unique sensory
qualities that can support destination experiences
Senses (Dann and Jacobsen 2003).
Accordingly, the managerial approach to
Dora Agapito tourism couched in the experiential paradigm
Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve, and consumer behavior research is directing
Faro, Portugal attention to sensory stimuli as environmental
factors which engage individuals emotionally
and intellectually. The ▶ tourist experience
The role of the senses in human knowledge has relates to the sensory dimension of the individ-
been a topic of discussion since the early days of ual and subjective evaluations of events associ-
philosophy. The paradigm changes occurred in ated with tourism activities, resulting in specific
the scientific foundations of psychological outcomes and involving anticipation and recol-
research in the twentieth century boosted studies lection stages in addition to the activity at the
on the physiological basis of human perception destination. With this vein, frameworks aiming
that stressed the senses as key to the construction to manage satisfying environments where mem-
of meaning about the world. Apart from the inter- orable tourist experiences are more likely to
oceptive senses pertaining to body awareness, the emerge stress the role of sensory stimuli in
exteroceptive senses refer to the so-called five composing the physical/virtual setting and in
senses – sight, hearing, smell, taste, and facilitating social interactions (Gretzel and
touch – which are responsible for conveying the Fesenmaier 2010).
external environment stimuli to the brain. As a By acknowledging that tourists are bodily
result, sensations initiate the perceptual process engaged in sense making of their experiences,
through which individuals shape and add meaning tourism studies are currently following holistic
to their experiences of the surroundings approaches to the senses. In doing so, research is
(Goldstein 2010). Further developments in exploring both qualitative and quantitative meth-
researching the subject have attracted the attention odologies and highlighting policy, managerial,
among different academic disciplines to the and cultural issues.
human body as the vehicle of the travel art.
Indeed, the study of the relationship between
embodiment and tourism has grown in signifi- See also ▶ Escape, ▶ experience, ▶ gaze,
cance in terms of its contribution to the fields of ▶ landscape.
Serbia 843
References billion – 8.2 % higher than the total income in

2013 (MTTT 2015).
Dann, G., and J. Jacobsen 2003 Tourism Smellscapes. In 2007, Serbia Convention Bureau was
Tourism Geographies 5:3-25.
formed in the capital Belgrade, and since then,
Goldstein, E. 2010 Sensation and Perception (8th ed.). Bel-
mont: Wadsworth. the number of international meetings held has
Gretzel, U., and D. Fesenmaier 2010 Capturing Sensory increased from 11 in 2007 to 66 in 2013. Today,
Experiences through Semi-structured Elicitation Ques- Serbia ranks 5th among meeting destinations in
tions. In Tourism and Leisure Experience: Consumer
Southeast Europe, while Belgrade is ranked 4th
and Managerial Perspectives, M. Morgan, L. Lugosi
and B. Ritchie, eds., pp.137-160. Bristol: Channel View. among city destinations in that region (ICCA
Pritchard, A., N. Morgan, I. Ateljevic, and C. Harris 2007 2014; SCB 2015).
Tourism and Gender: Embodiment, Sensuality and In 2005, Serbia produced its first tourism
Experience. Oxfordshire: CABI.
▶ development ▶ strategy for the period until
Rodaway, P. 1994 Sensuous Geographies: Body, Sense and
Place. London: Routledge. 2015 and identified 9 tourism products. Potential
attractions include ▶ urban tourism in Belgrade,
▶ cultural tourism based on the ▶ heritage of the
late Marshal Tito and Roman Emperors Route, as
Serbia well as the EXIT festival, long acclaimed as one
of the world premier music festivals.
Bojan Zecevic1 and Milan Culic2 The Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Services
1
Faculty of Economics, University of Belgrade, was reorganized in 2014. Tourism functions are
Belgrade, Serbia now housed in the Ministry of Trade, Tourism and
2
Centre for Tourism Research and Studies, Novi Telecommunications. Efforts are made to build
Sad, Serbia and support a network of key stakeholders from
the whole Danube region by investing in people
and skills as well as enhancing transnational coop-
The Republic of Serbia is located in the central eration. A National Tourism Organization of Ser-
part of the Balkan Peninsula and has an area of bia (NTOS 2015) initiative will enhance
88,407 km2 (34,134 mi2). It is on the most impor- ▶ sustainable tourism development along the
tant land route linking ▶ Europe and Asia and is river Danube. UNDP and German Organization
referred to as the crossroads of Europe. Its river for International Cooperation are the most active
valleys are the shortest link between Western and international organizations aiming at promoting
Central Europe, on the one side, and the ▶ Middle youth ▶ employment, slow-food ▶ culture, and
East, Asia, and ▶ Africa, on the other (Figure 1). improvement of environmental protections for
Serbian rivers belong to the basins of the Black, tourism and rural development.
Adriatic, and Aegean Seas. The longest river is the Five ▶ universities offer postgraduate degree S
Danube, with 588 km of its 2,857 km course programs in tourism. Facilitation measures
flowing through the country. Its temperate conti- include easier visa procedures, a visa-free zone
nental climate marks transitions of 4 seasons. for Russian tourists, and reduction of transporta-
An estimated 1,029,000 international and tion costs. Similar to ▶ other models of ▶ desti-
1,163,500 domestic tourists took overnight trips nation competitiveness through ▶ MICE tourism,
in 2014. ▶ International tourism contributed 59 % Serbia is ▶ planning to make the most of its rural
of the total tourism ▶ expenditure. Arrivals tend development strategy through local community
to exhibit higher-than-average spending with stay empowerment. In addition, future directions will
in more expensive accommodation. The total include efforts in structuring the framework for
income from tourism for 2014 was US$1.139 Belgrade waterfront development and
844 Service quality
Serbia, Figure 1 Map of Serbia
international partnership with globally recognized

developers such as Eagle Hills. Service quality
Julio da Costa Mendes

See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ MICE.
Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve,
Faro, Portugal
References
ICCA 2014 International Congress and Convention Asso-

In an increasingly competitive environment, the
ciation www.iccaworld.com (24 April). survival and success of tourism businesses
MTTT 2015 Ministry of Trade, Tourism and Telecommu- strongly depend on their ability to differentiate
nications, Republic of Serbia www.mtt.gov.rs (1 April). from competition by developing cost-effective
NTOS 2015 National Tourism Organization of Serbia
www.serbia.travel (24 March).
strategies that allow the production and offering
SCB 2015 Serbia Convention Bureau www.scb.travel of high-quality services to their customers. Hence,
(24 April). service quality has become a key competitive
Service quality 845
factor for the service sector in general and more so model, service expectation is determined by a set
for the tourism industry. Currently, the latter is of four factors: word of mouth, personal needs,
facing a new business culture in which quality past experience, and external communication.
and continuous improvement play a pivotal role Between service expectation and service delivery,
(Bouncken 2002). a discrepancy can occur, which, in turn, could lead
Although service quality is recognized as crit- to other discrepancies (or gaps).
ical to the competitive performance of tourism The implementation of quality systems has
organizations, so far it has been particularly diffi- been based on two distinct yet complementary
cult to achieve consensus on its definition, mainly approaches: the certification of quality assurance
due to the intangible nature of services. It is systems and systems for total quality manage-
accepted that the perception of service quality ment. The former relies on the establishment of a
varies from person to person, and from one con- quality assurance system based on minimum qual-
text to another, a situation which challenges oper- ity standards, while the latter proposes the adop-
ational efforts. Tourism quality has to do with “the tion of a process for continuous improvement
ability of a product or service to satisfy con- toward excellence. Managers committed to qual-
sumers’ needs when compared to expectations” ity must consider the internal dimension of quality
(Pizam 1991:83). However, it remains a subjec- of the organization involving all aspects of oper-
tive measure because sensations, emotions, and ations, including competence and satisfaction of
psychological experiences are relative to the indi- internal customers, their direct impacts on produc-
vidual and thus difficult to measure. tivity, and indirect effects on production costs.
Service quality has direct impacts on customer
satisfaction and indirect impacts on loyalty and
Quality management revenue.
In most circumstances, quality occurs during
It is understood that service quality is a service delivery when interactions between cus-
multidimensional construct and that the general tomers and employees take place. In the sense that
dimensions used to assess service quality apply to quality service delivery also depends on
tourism as well (Otto and Ritchie 1996). Quality employees’ performance and organizational
management involves the definition and imple- resources, research demonstrates that service
mentation of quality policies. As an organization, quality evaluation requires more than a mere
the system should be designed and applied as a approach to customers’ perceptions. In the case
means to achieve its goals, which are implicitly or of tourism, customers cannot experience products
explicitly guided by quality-related policy. Qual- before their purchase, so actually they are buying
ity is managed through techniques commonly the expectation of a benefit, or a set of promises of
used in the management of other organizational satisfaction. S
functions supported by methods designed to sub-
stantiate a process of cultural change.
One of the most used models in the world to Quality of tourist experience
evaluate service quality is SERVQUAL
(Parasuraman et al. 1985). According to these As Pine and Gilmore (1999) claim, businesses in
authors, service quality is perceived by customers the Western world are operating in the experience
as corresponding to the magnitude of the discrep- economy and no longer in the economy of goods
ancy between the expectations or needs of cus- and services. In this context, tourism is no excep-
tomers and their perceptions of the service tion; in fact, it is in the business of creating and
received. From the comparison of their expecta- selling experiences rather than services.
tions about the service, measured a priori, with the During their stay at a destination, consumers
perceptions of the performance, comes the mea- experience a wide variety of interactions, and the
surement of the service quality. According to the entire service chain influences the process of
846 Service
perception formation rather than the specific prod- International d’Experts Scientifiques du Tourisme,
ucts or services. Regardless of perceptions of dis- AIEST. Mahé (Seychelles), pp.79-87.
Ryan, C. 1997 The Tourist Experience: A New Introduc-
crete service quality, tourists evaluate the tion. London: Cassel.
experience “within a holistic framework which
includes tourists, providers, governments, com-
munities and the ▶ environment bearing in mind
glocal and global contexts” (Jennings 2010:88). Service
“The context, meanings, and experiences of
tourism can vary from holiday to holiday, and Beverley Sparks
from tourist to tourist” (Ryan 1997:28). It is this Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel
contextual combination in addition to satisfaction Management, Griffith University, Nathan,
with specific services purchased and consumed Australia
throughout the experience that determines the
tourists’ overall level of satisfaction. Experience
quality has been recognized as more subjective The study of services ▶ marketing and ▶ manage-
than service quality. The latter focuses on a spe- ment grew in the latter part of the twentieth cen-
cific transaction, while the former usually tury. The term “service” can take on two different
includes a wide range of transactions. meanings: the service provided in the delivery of a
In prospects, a broader conceptualization and tangible product to the customer or the ▶ product
temporal frame are needed to better understand itself (such as travel booking service). Some
and contextualize the experience quality and the defining characteristics of service offerings
hedonic components involved in the interactions include that they tend to be intangible (the con-
that occur between tourists and destinations. sumer does not take a physical product home),
perishable (if not sold today, they cannot be
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ service, ▶ satisfaction. stored), heterogeneous (the service offering can
be highly variable), and inseparable (the con-
sumer and the provider both usually need to be
present). Some of the key areas of scholarly
References research include service encounter, customer sat-
isfaction, ▶ service quality, customer loyalty, ser-
Bouncken, R. 2002 Knowledge Management for Quality vice failure or recovery, and, more recently,
Improvements in Hotels. Journal of Quality Assurance
in Hospitality and Tourism 3:25-59.
customer experience.
Jennings, G. 2010 Research Processes for Evaluation Tourism encapsulates many industries, and
Quality Experiences: Reflections from the “Experi- each may vary in respect of the service offered.
ences” Field(s). In The Tourism and Leisure Experi- Some of the key experiences a ▶ tourist is likely
ence, Consumer and Managerial Perspectives,
M. Morgan, P. Lugosi and J. B. Ritchie, eds., p.98.
to encounter include ▶ accommodation, attrac-
Bristol: Chanel View. tions, ▶ travel agents, transport (airlines, trains,
Otto, J., and J. B. Ritchie 1996 The Service Experience in buses), restaurants, and retail. Destinations may
Tourism. Tourism Management 17:165-174. also focus on the idea of service, but this is mostly
Parasuraman A, V. Zeithaml, and L. Berry 1985
A Conceptual Model of Service Quality and Its Impli-
to encourage individual operators to deliver a
cations for Future Research. Journal of Marketing certain level of customer service. Like most ser-
49:41-50. vices, tourism offerings are a bundle of core,
Pine, J., and J. Gilmore 1999 The Experience Economy: facilitating, and supporting services (Gronroos
Work is Theatre and Every Business a Stage. Boston:
Harvard Business School Press.
1987). The service experience of a national park,
Pizam, A. 1991 The Management of Quality Tourism for instance, could be made up of a core product
Destinations. 41-ème Congrès de l’Association (nature reserve), facilitating services (entry
Sex tourism 847
tickets), and supporting services (guide booklets,

interpretation signs). Sex tourism
In the services marketing literature, a key focus
of research has been on the service encounter David Harrison
(Czepiel et al. 1985; Shostack 1985). This is the Middlesex University, London, UK
period of ▶ time during which the customer and
the service firm interact in person, over the tele-
phone, or through the Other media. The interest in Tourism and sexual adventure often go together
the service encounter has occurred because inter- (Bauer and McKercher 2003), but their links are
actions between a tourist and the tourism operator complex. Sexual services can be assessed across
can enhance or detract from what is experienced. several continua, including the independence of
The service experience is very important for tour- and control exercised by the provider; human
ism businesses as it is likely to be associated with rights enjoyed by sex workers, as against victims
word of mouth recommendations and/or repeat (children and those who are trafficked); the extent
patronage. of his or her emotional involvement and the
One of the most pervasive changes in the commoditization of the exchange; the physical
twenty-first century is the growth of technology presence or otherwise of participants, whether
in delivering or facilitating service. Tourism has or not sexual intercourse occurs; and the degree
been a significant user of ▶ technology. Online of social inequality of the participants
booking portals for airlines, accommodation pro- (Oppermann 1998). Other variables affecting the
viders, and ▶ tour operators are commonplace or encounter include time taken in traveling, the
even a necessity. Tourism researchers continue to journey’s purpose (for ▶ tourist or sex provider),
assess and seek to improve the quality of services and the extent the exchange is condoned socially
offered through the ▶ internet and digital and legally.
▶ media. Much writing has focused on sex tourism in
developing countries, especially Southeast Asia,
parts of the ▶ Caribbean, and ▶ Kenya. Econo-
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ satisfaction, ▶ service mies may benefit, but the moral and social conse-
quality. quences are problematic, particularly where
children are involved (though official ages of
consent vary). Ways of countering child sex tour-
ism have justifiably preoccupied academics
References and the industry, and nearly 40 countries have
enacted legislation to enable prosecution of
Czepiel, J., M. Solomon, C. Surprenant, and E. Gutman
1985 Service Encounters: An Overview. In The Service
nationals who have committed offenses against S
Encounter: Managing Employee/Customer Interaction
children overseas. There are similar concerns
in Service Businesses, J. Czepiel, M. Solomon and over health, and many studies have examined
C. Surprenant, eds., pp.3-15. Lexington: Lexington tourism’s role in the spread of sexually transmitted
Books. diseases, especially HIV-AIDS, describing the
Gronroos, C. 1987 Developing the Service Offering:
problem, increasing awareness, and promoting
A Source of Competitive Advantage. In Add Value to
Your Service, C. Suprenant, ed., pp.81-85. Chicago: policies to reduce the incidence of such
American Marketing Association. occurrences.
Shostack, G. 1985 Planning the Service Encounter. In The Even in Southeast Asia, though, the nature of
Service Encounter: Managing Employee/Customer
transactions between sex providers and clients
Interaction in Service Businesses, J. Czepiel,
M. Solomon and C. Suprenant, eds., pp.243-254. Lex- varies considerably. Like prostitution, sex tourism
ington: Lexington Books. is not a clear-cut phenomenon. Each can exist
848 Seychelles
without the other. While tourism exacerbates

prostitution, most prostitutes anywhere cater to Seychelles
local clients. Moreover, many forms of sex tour-
ism do not involve prostitution. They include Jack Carlsen1 and Ralph Hissen-Lee2
heterosexual and same-sex “romantic” encounters 1
Curtin Business School, Curtin University,
with other tourists or with a range of local resi- Bentley, WA, Australia
dents and – while attracting less 2
Victoria, Seychelles
condemnation – are more likely to involve
young male and female tourists than the stereo-
typical elderly male. The Republic of Seychelles is located in the
For political economists, colonialism and cap- Western Indian Ocean (Figure 1). It is an island
italism (along with war and migration) facilitate country with a population of around 90,000
and reflect the commoditization of the body, but inhabiting the main islands of Mahe, Praslin,
perceptions of sex work differ. Some feminists La Digue, and Silhouette. In 2012, the country
present female sex workers (and female sex tour- had a GDP of US$1.03 billion ($14,301 per
ists) as liberated. Others emphasize continued capita). The land area is 459 km2 (or 160 mi2),
patriarchal oppression of women everywhere, but the 115 Seychelles islands are spread over an
within and outside marriage, referring to “prosti- exclusive economic zone of 1,374,000 km2
tution tourism” rather than “sex tourism,” and (or 530,504 mi2).
consider female tourists seeking sex with men Tourism remains the main pillar of the econ-
(but not women) as equally oppressed (Jeffreys omy, providing around 15 % of direct ▶ employ-
2003). ment and contributing about 30 % to GDP in
More studies of gay tourism and female sex 2012. From 2008 to 2012, international arrivals
tourism should be welcomed. Similar objectivity to Seychelles increased by around 30 % (from
is required to understand why men engage in (paid 159,000 to 208,000). In 2012, ▶ Europe provided
or unpaid) sex tourism while recognizing that the
topic is still taboo. If it is so unnatural or perverse,
55
why is it so common? 0 5 km
55°30′
0 5 mi
Morne VICTORIA
Seychellois
4°40′ 4°40′
See also ▶ Gender, ▶ power, ▶ romance tour- Seychelles

Praslin
VICTORIA
Mahé International
ism, ▶ sun, sand, sea and sex, ▶ Thailand. Island Airport

Mahé 5
LES
Island
55°20′ AMIRANTES
Île Plate
Alphonse Island
Coëtivy
INDIAN OCEAN
References ALDABRA
ISLANDS
Atoll de PROVIDENCE
Cosmoledo ATOLL
Bauer, T., and B. McKercher (eds.) 2003 Sex and Tourism: 10 10
ATOLL DE
Journeys of Romance, Love and Lust. Binghamton: FARQUHAR Agalega Islands
Haworth. (MAURITIUS)
Jeffreys, S. 2003 Sex Tourism: Do Women Do It Too? Îles Glorieuses
Leisure Studies 22:223-238. (FRANCE) 0 100 200 km
Oppermann, M. (ed.) 1998 Sex Tourism and Prostitution: MADAGASCAR 30 0 100 200 mi 55
Aspects of Leisure, Recreation and Work. New York:

Cognizant. Seychelles, Figure 1 Map of Seychelles
Shopping tourism 849
70 % of the total tourist arrivals, the ▶ Middle References

East 9 %, ▶ Russia 6 %, and ▶ China and the Far
East 4 %. Major airlines provide ▶ transportation Gossling, S. (ed.) 2003 Tourism and Development in Trop-
ical Islands: A Political Economy Perspective. London:
to the islands. Efforts are also being directed to
Edward Elgar.
improve air access to the growing and major mar- Ghosh, R., A. Muhammed, and R. Siddique (eds.)
kets, especially China and the Far East and 2003 Tourism and Economic Development: Case
▶ India, and to draw from major tourism market Studies from the Indian Ocean Region. London:
Ashgate.
such as ▶ Australia and the ▶ Americas.
STB 2011 Seychelles 2012-2020 Tourism Master Plan.
Home to two UNESCO ▶ world heritage sites, Seychelles: Seychelles Tourism Board.
the country is probably the best example of sus- STB 2013 Seychelles Sustainable Tourism Label www.
tainable ▶ island tourism in the world. Ecological, seychelles.travel/sstl/ (12 December).
sociocultural, and economic sustainability are all
equally important and supported by the Sey-
chelles 2012–2020 tourism masterplan (STB
2011). The government has worked together
with locals to conserve more than 50 % of the Shopping tourism
land area and to protect the marine ▶ environment
and the Creole ▶ culture upon which the industry Changsup Shim1 and Carla A. Santos2
1
depends. The government uses a community- Department of Tourism Management, Gachon
based approach to ▶ planning that encourages University, Seongnam-si, Gyeonggi-do,
residents to take ownership (Gossling 2003). South Korea
2
This creates opportunities for locally owned Department of Recreation, Sport and Tourism,
small business entrepreneurs to become environ- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign,
mental and cultural custodians and to ensure that Champaign, IL, USA
wealth generated from tourism is distributed
throughout the local population as much as possi-
ble (Ghosh et al. 2003). Shopping is an ever-growing and popular ▶ activ-
Seychelles continues to increase its capacity ity that increasingly serves as a primary motiva-
for the local population to maximize tourism ben- tion for tourists (Timothy 2005). While most
efits through its newly refurbished Seychelles tourists have long participated to some degree in
Tourism Academy. Students will have better facil- various shopping activities such as buying local
ities and opportunities to gain ▶ knowledge and products or visiting duty-free shops, shopping has
experience in the ▶ industry. A Seychelles sus- not traditionally been considered a major part of
tainable tourism label has recently been launched, their vacations, but rather an ancillary aspect.
with an incentive for tourism businesses to com- However, many tourists have recently begun to S
plete ▶ sustainability assessment in return for pro- ▶ travel to destinations, particularly overseas,
motional benefits through the Seychelles Tourism with the express purpose of experiencing new
Board (STB 2013). Although accreditation shopping opportunities that may be unavailable
scheme remains voluntary, the intent is that the at home.
benefits can uphold the country’s vision and lead- In contemporary tourism, shopping is not lim-
ing role in ▶ sustainable tourism. ited to purchasing souvenirs or indigenous prod-
ucts at ▶ tourist-oriented shops, but has grown to
encompass a wide range of consumption activi-
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ island ties, from perusing street stalls to visiting spe-
tourism, ▶ sustainability, ▶ sustainable tourism. cialty shops, large shopping centers, or outlet
850 Sierra Leone
malls. In particular, shopping increasingly entails References

more than the acquisition of goods; it also
involves hedonic, emotional, and fun experiences Guiry, M., A. Magi, and R. Lutz 2006 Defining and Mea-
suring Recreational Shopper Identity. Journal of the
that speak to shopping as a recreational and
Academy of Marketing Science 34:74-83.
entertainment activity. Experiential aspects such Lau, L., and B. McKercher 2004 Exploration Versus
as browsing at local stores, walking around shop- Acquisition: Comparison of First-time and Repeat Vis-
ping streets, and meeting local people are per- itors. Journal of Travel Research 42:279-285.
Timothy, D. 2005 Shopping Tourism, Retailing and Lei-
ceived as special opportunities for tourists to
sure. New York: Channel View.
experience unique local cultures (Guiry, Magi Wang, D. 2004 Tourist Behavior and Repeat Visitation to
and Lutz 2006). Moreover, research suggests Hong Kong. Tourism Geographies 6:99-118.
that, after their first trip to a particular ▶ destina-
tion, tourists are more likely to participate in
shopping-related activities than in exploring
attractions (Lau and McKercher 2004). It is Sierra Leone
also suggested that tourists’ shopping behavior
is different from their ordinary occasions, Desmond O. Brown
due to the relaxed, playful, and liminal atmo- Department of Retailing and Tourism
sphere of settings away from their routine Management, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
(Wang 2004). KY, USA
Shopping tourism results in considerable ben-
efit to local economies because tourists are likely
to spend more money and to visit a particular Republic of Sierra Leone is bordered by the North
destination more frequently than ▶ other tradi- Atlantic Ocean, ▶ Guinea, and ▶ Liberia
tional types of visitors (Timothy 2005). Hence, (Figure 1). With a population of about 5,613,000
destinations increasingly strive to make their in 2013, it has an area of 71,740 km2 (27,700 mi2)
shopping environments more appealing to tour- and an economy dependent on agriculture
ists, by developing new venues and streets, hold- (51.5 %), industry (14.9 %), and services
ing nationwide shopping events such as grand (33.6 %).
sales or festivals, or providing ▶ tax incentives
to international shoppers. It is evident that mega-
consumption destinations such as Hong Kong,
New York, and Tokyo have already benefitted
from their hospitable shopping environments,
with other destinations increasingly seeking to
capitalize on the rise of shopping tourism. There
is little doubt that shopping is to remain an indis-
pensable part of all contemporary travel, serving
as the chief motivation for tourists who will
occupy an ever-increasing share of the ▶ future
tourism market. This ▶ trend, however, faces
some challenges given that the rapid ▶ develop-
ment of borderless online shopping poses a new
threat to the growth of the shopping tourism
market.
See also ▶ Conspicuous consumption, ▶ con-

sumerism, ▶ expenditure, ▶ souvenir. Sierra Leone, Figure 1 Map of Sierra Leone
Sightseeing 851
From 1991 to 2002, Sierra Leone engaged in a According to the World Bank (2006), the industry
bitter civil war over diamonds that spread from the has the potential growth value to US$150–200
main mining district to Freetown, the capital. million by 2015 provided that the beach subsector
While the country possesses substantial mineral, is reestablished. This will make it necessary to
agricultural, and fishery resources, its physical develop large-scale beach resorts and the imple-
and social infrastructures have not yet fully recov- mentation of hard and soft infrastructure neces-
ered from the civil war, and serious social disor- sary to sustain them.
ders continue to hamper economic development.
Still nearly half of the working-age population is See also ▶ Africa, ▶ colonialism, ▶ constraint,
engaged in subsistence agriculture. Offshore oil ▶ crisis management, ▶ heritage.
was found in 2009 and 2010.
In 2012, the country received 60,000 interna-
tional tourists, an increase of 13.9 % from the References
previous year (UNWTO 2013). Tourism’s direct
contribution to GDP increased from US$101 mil- IMF 2011 Sierra Leone: Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper:
Progress Report, 2008–2010. Country Report
lion in 2012 to $109 million in 2013, an increase
No. 11/195. Washington DC: International Monetary
of 4.3 % (WTTC 2013). The industry directly Fund.
employed 30,000 people or 2.5 % of the work- UNWTO, 2013, Compendium of Tourism Statistics, Data
force in 2011. The country’s main attractions are 2007-2011. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
World Bank 2006 Sierra Leone: Adding Value through
African-American genealogy colonial sites,
Trade for Poverty Reduction: A Diagnostic Trade Inte-
▶ ecotourism sites (wildlife, woodland savanna, gration Study http://enhancedif.org/en/system/files/
and rare flora and fauna), and beaches. Generally, uploads/sierra_leone_dtis.pdf (15 October 2014).
tourism ▶ infrastructure remains poor despite the WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic
Impact – Sierra Leone. London: World Travel and
government’s promise to pay greater attention to
Tourism Council.
the industry (IMF 2011).
The Ministry of Tourism and Cultural Affairs
was established in 1973, and in 1975, the previ-
ously autonomous Hotels and Tourist Board
became an integral part of the Ministry. In 1991,
Parliament passed the act for tourism ▶ develop- Sightseeing
ment which established the National Tourist
Board as an independent entity supervised by the Hazel Andrews
Ministry. A strategic plan has been developed, and Faculty of Education, Health and Community,
other plans are underway to develop a ▶ national Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool,
tourism policy and to review the 1990 Tourism UK S
Development Act. A small college trains ▶ tour
guides, housekeepers, and food service workers.
There is limited graduate or postgraduate educa- While tourism and sightseeing appear to go hand
tion or research. in hand, Adler (1989) maintains that such a con-
While tourism has been one of the hardest hit nection should not be taken for granted. She notes
industries during the global recession, it remains that the origins of the ▶ Grand Tour were origi-
an important one for Sierra Leone. The country nally based on the practices of listening to the
has a strong potential for tourism development. It great thinkers of the day, engaging in ▶ discourse,
has pristine beaches, islands and mountains, rich and learning another language. As such, it was
biodiversity (including wildlife), as well as “hearing,” and not “seeing,” that was important.
friendly people. Further, its rich cultural history The preeminence and privileging of observation
as “the land of the free” marks it a special place in came into being as part of a change in sensory
the world history of antislavery movements. organization witnessed in ▶ Europe through the
852 Sightseeing
development of modernity and the attendant fea- gaze,” the tourist gaze is “socially organized and
tures of rationality and scientific investigation. systematized” (Urry 1990: 1), leading to sightsee-
From 1600 to 1800, seeing things for oneself ing being the central organizing feature of tourism
became better than reading or hearing about them. ▶ activity in which discursive cultural materials
Going to see the sights became a method pro- are used to construct its sights. Drawn by the
moted through the writings of European geogra- desire to view something different (a binary oppo-
phers. In Europe, a “courtly ideal” developed sition between the ordinary of the home-world
during the seventeenth century of the gentleman- occupied by potential tourists and the
scholar who followed the instructions of guide- non-ordinary tourism places visited), tourists
books and ▶ travel itineraries which drew atten- ▶ gaze by following the direction of the mediators
tion to “objects of curiosity” (Adler 1989: 15). involved in constructing their experiences of
With the emergence of the Romantic Movement, structuring places and peoples as sites of visual
the idea of the detached, objective gaze was chal- consumption. Part of this consumption that Urry
lenged and emotion became an integral part of the identifies is the process of legitimizing the expe-
experience (Adler 1989). rience of having seen and visited the ▶ attraction
which is manifest in recording the event through
the use of ▶ film and ▶ photography.
Seeing tourism
Within the canon of tourism studies, sightseeing To gaze or not to gaze

has become a central facet of inquiry given the
links between seeing the sights and the pleasure The ▶ work of both MacCannell and Urry has
traveler. One of the earliest contributions to the been criticized based on their privileging of sight
theoretical developments in this respect is in tourists’ practices over other senses, the role of
MacCannell’s (1976) The Tourist. His thesis was the body in general, and the idea of ▶ perfor-
responding to the claim of Claude Lévi-Strauss mance. Writing from a perspective that sought to
that an ethnography of modernity was impossible counter the male ▶ gender bias found in much of
because structure had been destroyed. Therefore, the theorizing of tourists’ activities, according to
modern subjects are driven by a ▶ quest to Veijola and Jokinen, “[s]o far the tourist has
recover a sense of the whole missing in their lacked a body because the analyses have tended
lives. For MacCannell, this search could be to concentrate on the gaze” (1994:149, emphasis
found in acts of sightseeing as practiced by the in original).
figure of the ▶ tourist. His argument brings to the In his more recent work, The Ethics of Sight-
fore the decidedly visual consumption of places. seeing, MacCannell maintains his argument with
The process begins in the off-sight marking found respect of the importance of sightseeing, claiming
in the various forms of tourism discourses of that it “is one of the most individualized, intimate,
people, monuments, landscapes, works of art, and effective ways we attempt to grasp and make
etc., as worthy of being seen. The importance of sense of the world and our place in it” (2011:6).
markers is developed further in the argument that He goes on to argue that sightseeing, as it is
on-sight markers, which allow the tourist to rec- constructed by market forces, is part of the post-
ognize the sight, often become more important modern imperative of enjoyment and fun: “the
than the sight itself. lines may be long, it may be hot, they may be
A second influential argument in discussions spending money they don’t have, their children
of sightseeing is that developed in sociologist may have upset stomachs. . .but one thing is cer-
Urry’s (1990) The Tourist Gaze. Based on ideas tain. They are having fun.” By extending his main
explored by Foucault (1976) of the “medical thesis, MacCannell counters his critics by arguing
Sign 853
that the main point missed when considering the MacCannell, D. 2011 The Ethics of Sightseeing. Berkeley:
importance of bodily sensations in tourism expe- University of California Press.
Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in
riences is that in these descriptions an image is Contemporary Societies. London: Sage.
created for the mind’s eye which is akin to looking Veijola, S., and E. Jokinen 1994 The Body in Tourism.
at tourism promotional material. In both cases, Theory, Culture and Society 11(3):125-151.
“the reader” can imagine the bodily feelings:
“Tourist imagery never intended to grab only the
eye. It grabs the whole person and always has,
even when it is initially visual” (2011:52,189). Sign
Jillian M. Rickly1 and Daniel C. Knudsen2

1
Looking forward Business School, The University of Nottingham,
Nottingham, UK
2
Sightseeing is seen as an integral part of tourists’ Department of Geography, Indiana University,
activities. The importance placed on the ocular is Bloomington, USA
shown to be socially and culturally constructed. The
trajectory of tourism studies from a social science
perspective owes much to discussions about the The sign in tourism dates from MacCannell’s
salience of sightseeing to touristic practices. This (1976) original formulation and was reinforced
is in relation to both the insistence on the signifi- by Culler’s (1981) remark that all tourists are,
cance of sightseeing as the central feature of tourism effectively, semioticians. Yet, it has only been
and to counterarguments related to embodiment, with recent work by Metro-Roland (2009, 2011)
performance, and the ▶ senses more generally. that semiotics has come to the fore in tourism
Given that most of the debate about sightseeing ▶ theory. Thus, the task here is to explicate tour-
has taken place from a Western perspective and ism sites as signs by examining what constitutes
that ▶ international tourism is now witnessing the term “sign” and how tourism is illustrative of
growth in tourism markets from non-Western the complex and intersubjective processes of
countries, one way forward would be to examine ▶ interpretation and meaning making.
the centrality, or not, of sightseeing to these The use of “sign” in tourism has traditionally
groups of tourists. However, given the emerging been tied to Peircean as opposed to Saussurean
emphasis on the senses other than the visual, the semiotics (MacCannell 1976; Metro-Roland
value of the term “sightseer” itself should perhaps 2009, 2011). The Peircean sign is composed of
be subject to an even more critical gaze. three interconnected parts: “object,”
“representamen” (the mental image of the object),
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ gaze, ▶ Grand Tour, and “interpretant” (the meaning of the object). S
▶ marker, ▶ semiotics. Both the interpretant and the object can be further
defined as an immediate, dynamical, and final
interpretant (Metro-Roland 2009, 2011). This
splitting is crucial, because it points to the fact
References that meaning must always be made of an object, as
well as the ever-receding nature of a final inter-
Adler, J. 1989 The Origins of Sightseeing. Annals of Tour- pretation (Eco 1976). In Peircean semiotics,
ism Research 16:7-29. meaning is always in process because it is derived
Foucault, M. 1976 The Birth of the Clinic. London:
Tavistock.
from what Peirce defines as “collateral informa-
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the tion” or the accumulated knowledge and experi-
Leisure of the Class. New York: Schocken. ences of the individual. Thus, the interpretants
854 Simulation
must be thought of as dynamical. While meaning Metro-Roland, M. 2011 Tourists, Signs and the City:
making is reflexive, it is also an intersubjective The Semiotics of Culture in an Urban Landscape.
Burlington: Ashgate.
process.
Many tourism sites were not created as such,
but rather became so only later (Taj Mahal or
Versailles). The relationship may be thought of
in the form of the question, “What is noteworthy Simulation
about this place?,” which suggests the ideological
underpinnings of collateral information. While Deanne Williams-Bryant
the site has meaning to the actors charged with Department of Hospitality Management, Virginia
organizing tourism campaigns, as an immediate State University, Petersburg, USA
interpretant, it will also have meaning to tourists.
An immediate interpretant does not simply result
in conceptual meaning, but also in action or habit Simulation is a tool to virtually observe and inves-
(Metro-Roland 2011). How one interprets a site tigate the behavior of systems under study. The
translates into how one acts in that space, includ- combination of tourism and simulation creates a
ing consideration for what is appropriate attire and powerful vehicle for the advancement of the
behavior on a beach versus a museum, for exam- study, communicating related information virtu-
ple. Thus, inaccurate interpretations and actions ally. This allows tourists to visit different destina-
contribute to collateral information, including the tions via simulations. It hinges upon
cues and disapproval of others. developments in technology and expansion of
Tourism is a ▶ performance that necessitates the industry globally, an emerging concept that
thinking of a tourism site as sign. As such, the may gain popularity over time. Simulation
site connects actors who have marked it as requires development of models representing the
worthy of touristic interest with tourists who key characteristics, behaviors, or functions of the
visit, draw meaning, and enact the site. The con- targeted physical or abstract systems or processes
struction of meaning does not cease at the site that enable predictions about the behavior of the
itself, but continues long afterward, as experi- system by altering the variables. An example of a
ences, stories, souvenirs, and photographs are simulation model is the Hamburg tourism
shared. This is why semiotics has proven so useful ▶ model created to depict ▶ climate change and
a framework for understanding the connections its effect on global demand. The model was devel-
between tourists meaning making and tourism oped using different scenarios of changes in
▶ marketing. ▶ travel patterns related to changes in climate
conditions, per capita income, and population sta-
tistics. It showed that although individuals travel
See also ▶ Image, ▶ marker, ▶ marketing, erratically, tourism models can be developed to
▶ performance, ▶ semiotics. predict mass movements and generalize outcomes
connected to human impacts on the
▶ environment.
References Since its inception, simulation studies have
been conducted by Bigano et al. (2005) and others
Culler, J. 1981 Semiotics of Tourism. American Journal of
Semiotics 1:127-140.
who used an extension of the Hamburg model to
Eco, U. 1976 Peirce’s Notion of Interpretant. MLN measure ▶ domestic tourism expenditures and its
91:1457-1472. effects on population growth, economic and cli-
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory for the mate change, and the ▶ impact of rising sea levels
Metro-Roland, M. 2009 Interpreting Meaning: An Appli-
on the demand. A similar model by Hamilton
cation of Peircean Semiotics to Tourism. Tourism et al. (2003) was replicated in a regional study of
Geographies 11:270-279. ▶ Ireland, ▶ Germany, and the ▶ United
Singapore 855
Kingdom to predict the impact of climate change.

An econometric simulation model of domestic Singapore
flows in 207 countries was also done by (Bigano
et al 2005). Other uses of simulated models Joan C. Henderson
include computer replications to study market Nanyang Business School, Nanyang
conditions through customized experiments to Technological University, Singapore
gain insights into the actual world (Buchta
and Dolnicar 2003). Through augmented
reality, a live view of a physical, real-world envi- Singapore comprises a main and several smaller
ronment, whose elements are manipulated by islands lying at the southern tip of the Malay
computer-generated sensory input, allows tourists Peninsula, to which it is connected by causeway
to experience simulations of historical events, and bridge (Figure 1). It occupies approximately
places, and objects by adapting them into their 716 km2 (276 mi2) of land and has a population of
current vision. about 5.4 million, of whom 3.3 million are citi-
This approach is useful for tourism impact zens. The average gross national income per
analysis, but using experimental methods is chal- capita in 2012 was US$51,588 (S$64,310),
lenging due to random selection and treatment among the highest in Asia (Department of Statis-
definition being problematic, producing inconsis- tics 2013).
tent results (Taylor 2010). The outcomes of such Formerly a British colony, Singapore became
models can form basis for consistent cost-benefit an independent republic in 1965 and set out
analysis and can be extended to focus on specific transforming itself into a modern city state. It
outcomes, social groups, or post-intervention has an open economy in which trade and services
analysis of different types of approaches used for are key sectors. Official interest in tourism is long-
tourism promotion. Many avenues exist for standing and the forerunner of the current Singa-
▶ future research, including the impact of simula- pore Tourism Board was established in 1964.
tions on tourism with emphasis on ▶ ecotourism. International arrivals rose steadily in subsequent
decades, increasing from 7.6 million in 2002 to
14.4 million in 2012 when spending reached
See also ▶ Image, ▶ imaginary, ▶ innovation,
$18.4 billion (S$23 billion). According to the
▶ technology, ▶ virtual reality.
WTTC (2013), tourism’s direct contribution to
GDP is 5.2 % and it supports 141,500 jobs
directly, or 4.4 % of the total. Over 75 % of
References
tourists come from Asia; the leading generators
Bigano, A., J. Hamilton, and R. Tol 2005 The Impact of
are ▶ Indonesia, ▶ China, and ▶ Malaysia, with
Climate Change on Domestic and International relatively short average lengths of stay. There are S
Tourism: A Simulation Study. Working Paper no figures for ▶ domestic tourism which is
FNU-58 www.fnu.zmaw.de/fileadmin/fnu-files/publica constrained by the country’s size and limited
tion/working-papers/htm12wp.pdf (4 March 2015).
Buchta, C., and S. Dolnicar 2003 Learning by Simulation-
resources.
Computer Simulations for Strategic Marketing Traditionally advertised as a place where East
Decision Support in Tourism. International Journal of and West meet, a range of attractions is on offer.
Tourism Sciences 3:65-78. Several relate to the island’s multicultural heritage
Hamilton, J., D. Maddison, and R. Tol 2003 Climate
Change and International Tourism: A Simulation
and notions of a garden city. There is increasing
Study. Working Paper FNU-31 www.mi.uni-hamburg. emphasis on purpose-built facilities and events,
de/fileadmin/fnu-files/publication/working-papers/tour demonstrated by the 2010 opening of two inte-
ism_simstudy.pdf (25 April 2015). grated resorts combining casinos (previously
Taylor, J. 2010 Technical Guidelines for Evaluating the
Impacts of Tourism Using Simulation Models http://
banned) with hotels and other entertainments
idbdocs.iadb.org/wsdocs/getdocument.aspx?docnum= and the inaugural Formula 1 Grand Prix in 2008.
35607915 (4 March 2015). There are also attempts to encourage ▶ cruise
856 Singapore
Singapore, Figure 1 Map of Singapore
tourism and the city’s shopping and food are reg- raise the stature of tourism as an ▶ industry. Sin-
ularly highlighted. A reputation for safety, secu- gapore merits study as an example of what small
rity, and efficiency, in combination with states can achieve in terms of development as
international air connectivity by way of the ▶ tourist destinations. Maintaining growth is,
award-winning Changi Airport, also favors however, a challenge and directions for future
▶ business tourism. Medical and ▶ education research include the effectiveness of responses to
tourism are other target markets (STB 2012). capacity constraints and rising competition.
Tourism has been encouraged by a proactive
government, led by the same party since indepen-
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ casino tour-
dence, which has invested in infrastructure and
ism, ▶ island tourism, ▶ medical tourism.
facilities and engaged in long-term planning.
The principal organization is the Tourism Board
which acts as a development and marketing
References
agency. Looking ahead, strategies highlight the
importance of high-yield tourism, improving Department of Statistics 2013 Singapore in Figures. Sin-
industry competitiveness and ▶ destination gapore: Department of Statistics.
appeal, engaging locals, and ensuring a quality STB 2012 Singapore Tourism Board Annual Report 2011/
2012. Singapore: Singapore Tourism Board.
workforce. A variety of vocational courses are
available at educational institutions and there are Singapore. London: World Travel and Tourism
formal skills certification programs designed to Council.
Slovakia 857
large corporations responded investing millions

Skiing tourism in ski resorts as tools for regional economic
investment and development (Fry 2006).
John Hull By the twenty-first century, an estimated
Faculty of Adventure, Culinary Arts and Tourism, 65 million people participated in skiing tourism.
Thompson Rivers University, Kamloops, BC, As the number of participants has grown, diverse
Canada “snow sports” activities such as snowboarding,
heli-skiing, cat skiing, kite skiing, and freestyle
skiing have grown (Dickson 2008). The ▶ future
Skiing tourism is a subset of winter ▶ sports tour- scenarios for skiing tourism remain unclear due to
ism. It is defined as traveling to participate in the climate change, environmental/cultural conflict,
activity or sport of gliding or moving over snow energy and economic shocks, declining market
on wood, plastic, or metal curved upward in the share, and increasing global competition which
front, attached to shoes or boots (Saur 1999). Ski have prompted efforts to adopt sustainable prac-
originates from the Old Norse word “skith” mean- tices (Dickson 2008).
ing stick of wood. Originally, skiing was for util-
itarian purposes as a means of survival. Skis See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ mountain tourism,
improved ▶ travel, exploration, hunting, herding, ▶ Norway, ▶ resort development.
and gathering in areas of heavy snowfall (Allen
2007; Huntford 2008). Its origins date back
approximately 6,500 years to prehistoric rock References
carvings discovered in ▶ Norway and Siberia
(Fry 2006). Allen, E. 2007 The Culture and Sport of Skiing. Amherst:
University of Massachusetts Press.
Reports from the Chinese Han Dynasty
Dickson, T. 2008 Profiling Australian Snowsport Injuries:
(206 BC to AD 220) provide some of the first A Snapshot from the Snowy Mountains. Journal of
documentation of skiing in Asia (Allen 2007). Sport and Tourism 13:273-295.
During the Middle Ages, the Norsemen of Scan- Fry, J. 2006 The Story of Modern Skiing. Hanover: Uni-
versity Press of New England.
dinavia are described as “moving at breakneck Huntford, R. 2008 Two Planks and A Passion: The Dra-
speed on flying pieces of wood. . . with the matic History of Skiing. London: Continuum.
greatest skill in attacking and fleeing” (Huntford Saur, L. 1999 Norske Ski - til glede og besvaer. Hogskolen i
2008:33). The growth of modern skiing as an Finnmark.
activity for ▶ recreation, exercise, and competi-
tion occurred in the second half of the nineteenth
century. Norwegian Fridtjof Nansen’s On Skis
Across Greenland, published in 1890, inspired Slovakia S
millions to take up skiing, revolutionizing gear
and equipment for the new ▶ leisure classes Marica Mazurek
(Allen 2007; Fry 2006). Matej Bel University, Banska Bystrica, Slovakia
Nordic skiing was replaced by alpine skiing as
downhill and slalom skiing gained in popularity
with the first modern ski races in Tromso, Nor- Slovak Republic (Figure 1) is a small country of
way, in 1843 (Huntford 2008). Ski clubs served as 49,035 km2 or 18,932 mi2 with 5.43 million citi-
the foundation for organizing the sport, building zens and a growing tourism ▶ industry, with a
new membership, teaching people how to ski, share of 2.5 % of GDP in the economy of Slova-
and running trips to resorts. By the 1950s and kia. The expectation of growth in the ▶ future will
1960s, the number of skiers doubled every be 2.8 % in 2016 and 3.2 % in 2020. About 52,000
5 years as post-World War II baby boomers people were employed in tourism in 2012
adopted the sport. Government planners and (Ministerstvo Dopravy Výstavby a Regionálneho
858 Slovakia
0 20 40 km 18 20 P OLA N D 22
0 20 40 mi
O U N T A I N
M S
CZECH REPUBLIC I A
N
H Žilina Gerlachovsky Štít
T VYS
A OKÉ TATR Y
49 h Martin Poprad Prešov 49
Vâ
P
R
Trencin
Prievidza
A
Košice
Banská
C
Bystrica
UKR.
Bodrok
River
Tmava
Nitra Lucenec
z a
BRATISLAVA Tis
AUS.
48 48
Gabcíkova
an HUNGARY
D
ube Komárno
18 20 22 ROM.
Slovakia, Figure 1 Map of Slovakia
Rozvoja 2013a, b). Over the past 25 years, Slova- Slovakia is well known for 1,300 mineral
kia has experienced deep economic and social springs with high-quality curative water. These
changes and has transformed from a centrally thermal spas are divided into balneological
planned to a market-driven economy. It is a mem- (Piestany, Sliac, Trencianske Teplice, Bardejov,
ber state of a number of international organiza- Dudince, Rajecke Teplice, and Vysne Ruzbachy)
tions including the ▶ UNWTO. It has a well- and climatic (Strbske Pleso, Novy Smokovec,
educated labor force and a stable economy. Recent Stos, and Tatranske Matliare). Most of these pro-
major investments have been mostly focused on vide treatments for medical conditions
car production. In 2012, GDP grew by 4 %. Dur- (respiratory, digestive, cardiovascular, immuno-
ing the 2005–2011 periods, there was a 71 % logical, and infertility disorders) as post-surgery
increase in the number of accommodation estab- visits or for wellness.
lishments and tourism revenue grew by 184 %. Tourism is developing as an important part of
Lonely Planet evaluated Slovakia as among the the society; this is reflected in the ▶ education
top ten emerging destinations on the portal Budget sector. Bachelor and master degree tourism pro-
Travel. Its top attractions include Bojnice and grams are available at four universities, with one
Spissky hrad castles, which are among the offering PhD degrees. Some of the programs are
25 most magnificent ones in ▶ Europe taught in English and others are in German. One
(OfftoEurope 2013). Only 20 % of Slovakia cas- of the institutions celebrated its 50th anniversary
tles (out of 160) are used for tourism purposes of higher education in tourism, ▶ hospitality, and
(Zamky 2013). Some of them have been rebuilt services in 2014. The ▶ future of tourism research
and adapted as tourism ▶ accommodation, such and ▶ development is to be influenced by
as Chateau Béla in Southern Slovakia. attempts such as improving the awareness of Slo-
Banska Stiavnica and Spissky hrad are UNESCO vakia in the world, building a strong brand, and
world heritage sites. Other attractions include developing successful branding strategies, to
wooden churches, water mills, museums, and cul- focus not only on its traditional source markets
tural and heritage routes, including the Matus (the ▶ Czech Republic, ▶ Poland, ▶ Hungary,
Kingdom road and Malokarpatska and Tokai ▶ Austria, and ▶ Germany) but also on potential
wine routes. long-haul markets such as the ▶ United States,
Slovenia 859
▶ Japan, South Korea, ▶ China, ▶ India, and 0 20 40 km 15 16
▶ Brazil. 0 20 40 mi
Mux
47 47
See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ Europe, ▶ medical AUSTRIA HUNG.
tourism, ▶ spa tourism. Dr

av
a
Mu
ra
Drava Maribor
Ptuj
Jesenice Velenje
Triglav
References Kamnik Celje
Kranj Trbovlje
IT. S a va
Ministerstvo Dopravy Výstavby a Regionálneho Rozvoja 46 46
Nova Gorica
LJUBLJANA
2013a Stratégia Rozvoja Cestovného Ruchu do Roku
2020 http://mindop.sk (15 September). Novo
Sa
Mesto va
Ministerstvo Dopravy Výstavby a Regionálneho Rozvoja Koper
2013b Štatistika Cestovného Ruchu (Tourism Statis-
tics) http://mindop.sk (18 September). P ir a n C R OAT I A
B ay
OfftoEurope 2013 Bojnický Zámok aSpišský Hrad Patria
Gulf
Medzi Najkrajšie v Európe. http://OfftoEurope.com of
BOS.
(20 September). Venice
& HER. 45
15 16
Zamky 2013 Hrady, Zámky, Kaštiele a Ostatné Pamiatky
na Slovensku www.zamky.sk (15 September).
Slovenia, Figure 1 Map of Slovenia
The country’s independence resulted in

democracy, a market economy, and a shift from
Slovenia a predominantly manufacturing to a service-
oriented economy. The services industry in the
Sonja Sibila Lebe GDP reached 68.3 % of total value added based
Faculty of Economics and Business, University of on 2013 data (WTTC 2014). Tourism contributed
Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia 12.3 % to the national GDP; it had a share of more
than 40 % to the total export of services (or 8.8 %
of total exports in goods and services) and had a
The Republic of Slovenia is a small (20,273 km2; share of 9.9 % of total investment. With 32,500
7827 mi2) nation-state in the southern part of direct jobs (4.0 % of total employments) and
Central Europe, with a population of 2.06 million 105,000 indirect jobs (13.1 % of total employ-
(SURS 2014). It borders ▶ Austria, ▶ Hungary, ments), tourism is an important job provider in
▶ Croatia, ▶ Italy, and the Adriatic Sea the country. The 2013 Travel and Tourism Com-
(Figure 1). Four major European geographical petitiveness Index placed Slovenia in the 36th S
units meet in the territory of Slovenia: the Alps, position.
the ▶ Mediterranean, the Pannonia Plain, and the In the same year, the country hosted more than
Karst, which makes its tourism offer diverse with 3.3 million tourists and registered 9.4 million
cultural landscape, gastronomy, and biodiversity. overnight stays (UNWTO 2014). The share of
Formerly part of Yugoslavia, Slovenia gained international tourists is 67 %. The most important
independence in 1991. In 2004, it became a Euro- source markets are Italy, ▶ Germany, Austria,
pean Union member, joined the North Atlantic Croatia, the ▶ Netherlands, ▶ Serbia, the
Treaty Organization, and shifted from being a ▶ United Kingdom, ▶ France, and ▶ Russia
World Bank borrower to a donor country. In (SURS 2014).
2007, it adopted Euro as its national currency In 1996, the Tourism Board was established
and became a member of the Organization for and in 1998 Slovenia passed its first law on tour-
Economic Cooperation and Development ism development. Since 1996, the country has had
in 2010. four strategic ▶ development programs. The
860 Slow tourism
2012–2016 plan is based on sustainability and pilgrimages, and early drifter and ▶ backpacker
social responsibility, with “sLOVEnia: Green! tourism (Dickinson and Lumsdon 2010), the con-
Active! Healthy!” being its motto. temporary concept is tied to the emergence of the
The main products are thermal spas with slow food phenomenon. Initiated by Carlo
extended wellness and spa programs (33 %), Petrini’s resistance against the opening of a
Alpine destinations with services based on McDonald ▶ restaurant near the Spanish Steps
sports/▶ recreation (23 %), Mediterranean in Rome (Honoré 2005), slow food is now a
(22 %) with 3S program during the school-holiday large, worldwide movement with over 100,000
time, and sophisticated ▶ MICE and wellbeing members (Slow Tourism 2013).
offered outside the main season. About 16 % of Tapping into a rejection of “fast,” slow food
tourists go to the cities for the cultural and creative has subsequently led to a range of other “slows”
offer; increasingly, the countryside (farms and including slow cities (Cittaslow), slow living,
outdoor activities) has gained popularity at 6 %. slow money, and slow design (Fullagar
The country has several secondary schools for et al. 2012). Slow philosophy rejects speed and
tourism and numerous vocational colleges. Tourism its multiple implications for social and environ-
is taught at all three public universities (bachelor, mental relations. Slow is associated with the
master, and doctoral studies). The University of tenets of anti-globalization and anti-consumerism
Ljubljana holds ▶ UNWTO TedQual accredited (Honoré 2005). Embedded within slow is a set of
program in tourism. Social responsibility and sus- values that relate to environmental integrity and
tainability in line with governmental strategies are sustainability, social justice, place, and culture.
subjects for ▶ future tourism research. Slow food, for example, is not simply anti-fast
service but celebrates local cuisines and adopts
See also ▶ Governance, ▶ Mediterranean, ▶ spa sustainable practices in food production and
tourism, ▶ wellbeing. distribution.
Slow tourism is an amorphous concept and
thus difficult to “define.” However, it can be
References understood as an alternative, responsible form of
tourism practice that rejects modernist preoccupa-
SURS 2014 Statistical Office of the Republic of Slovenia tions with speed and consumerist ideologies. It
www.stat.si/ (24 November).
seeks alternative modes of ▶ travel that con-
UNWTO, 2014, World Tourism Organization: Tourism High-
lights. Madrid: World Tourism Organization 514-1http:// sciously embrace principles of ecological and
mkt.unwto.org/publication/unwto-tourism-highlights- social sustainability, including low carbon travel
2014-edition (24 November). (Dickinson and Lumsdon 2010). Slowing down
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic
the pace of travel by using bicycles, canoes, or
Impact – Slovenia. London: World Travel and Tourism
Council. even feet provides opportunities for tourists to
gain a more nuanced and closer encounter with
the local. No longer simply a sightseer, the slow
▶ tourist enters into the world of the local,
Slow tourism adjusting his/her own temporality to that of the
place being visited.
Kevin Markwell and Erica Wilson Slow tourism eschews the ▶ mass tourism
School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross model with its emphasis on large-scale, global-
University, East Lismore, Australia ized, homogenized, and commodified mobilities
and experiences. Instead, proponents of slow tour-
ism emphasize its small-scale focus, experiential
The concept of slow tourism emerged from grow- nature, and the quest for quality and personal
ing interest in the “slow movement.” While ante- fulfillment. Ultimately, slow tourism refers to the
cedents can be seen in the ▶ Grand Tour, “particularities of place [that] can evoke and incite
Slum tourism 861
different ways of being and moving, as well as opportunities for residents to sell goods and ser-
different logics of desire that value travel experi- vices through the growth of small enterprises in
ences as forms of lived knowledge” (Fullagar the slums, which encourages them to actively
et al. 2012:4). The scholarship on slow tourism participate in economic activities and which even-
is relatively nascent. As such, there is a need for tually leads to increased personal income
further studies situated in the broader context of (Mekawy 2012). In terms of residents’ participa-
▶ alternative tourism and the slow movement. tion in making decisions, it is argued that strong
There is also potential for future research to exam- involvement is facilitated by including slum
ine the propensity for people to embrace the ideals inhabitants in the design, implementation, and
and philosophy of slow tourism and the conse- evaluation of slum tours in a meaningful way,
quences of slow tourism and travel for taking into account the obstacles they face in
destinations. their daily lives. This inclusion allows residents
to participate in decisionmaking about what
See also ▶ Alternative tourism, ▶ mobility, should be done, which in turn reduces the possi-
▶ responsible tourism, ▶ restaurant, ▶ sustain- bility of residents being humiliated. In this light,
able tourism. slumming is considered an appropriate form of
▶ pro-poor tourism (Mitchell and Ashley 2010).
Recently, slum tourism has become increas-
References ingly popular in developing countries (Mekawy
2012); however, its practice is not entirely new. Its
Dickinson, L., and D. Lumsdon 2010 Slow Travel and origins date back to the nineteenth century, when
wealthy Londoners went “slumming” in the
Fullagar, S., K. Markwell, and E. Wilson (eds.) 2012 Slow
Tourism: Experiences and Mobilities. Bristol: Channel poorer neighborhoods. Today, slum tours exist
View. around the world in cities such as Rio de Janeiro,
Honoré, C. 2005 In Praise of Slow: How a Worldwide Cape Town, Mumbai, and Cairo. This form of
Movement is Challenging the Cult of Speed. London:
tourism is known locally by different names,
Orion.
Slow Tourism 2013 About Us: Slow Food International depending on where one visits. For example, in
www.slowfood.com (19 October). ▶ Brazil where organized one-day slum visit that
aims at providing wealthy tourists with a taste of
the favela (slum) life is referred to as “favela
tourism.” In ▶ South Africa and ▶ India, targeting
Slum tourism foreign special interest, tourists interested in vis-
iting cultural and heritage attractions and seeing
Moustafa A. Mekawy the traditional arts and crafts of the poor are called
Tourism Studies Department, Faculty of Tourism “shantytown tourism.” In ▶ Egypt, organized S
and Hotels, Sadat City University, Sadat City, half-day tours intended to show tourists how the
Egypt poor live are known as “ashwa’iyyat tourism”
(Mekawy 2012; Saint-Upéry 2010).
Despite its growing popularity, there is much
Slum tourism, slumming, or poorism is a trend criticism of it. To some, it boosts the local econ-
whereby tourists visit poor neighborhoods. This omy and raises tourists’ social awareness and
form of ▶ sightseeing allows tourists to discover understanding of this hidden world. However,
poverty-blighted districts and acquire a sense of there is a large gray area between creating con-
how the poor live. This practice targets disadvan- sciousness and indulging in voyeurism. Some feel
taged inhabitants by unlocking opportunities for that slum tourism treats poverty as an immoral
economic improvement and participation in entertainment that insults the dignity of the disad-
decisionmaking. Economic enhancement seems vantaged and treats dwellers as zoological speci-
to happen when slum tourism activities provide mens (Freire-Medeiros 2009). However, it helps
862 Smart tourism
poverty relief in the context of broader discus- But until recently there has been no consensus on
sions on tourism (Frenzel 2013). Future studies the definition. The above definition was initiated
should explore how tourism in developing coun- in ▶ China and has been gradually adopted and
tries can be implemented to enhance the lives of popularized (Wang et al. 2013). Proposed by the
its disadvantaged inhabitants. government, China ▶ National Tourism Adminis-
tration opted to comprehensively informationize
See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ devel- tourism business activities, to develop tourism
oping country, ▶ pro-poor tourism, ▶ volunteer into an information and ▶ knowledge-intensive
tourism. modern ▶ service ▶ industry, and to achieve an
▶ information technology-based “smart tourism”
in about 10 years (Xinhuanet 2011).
References ▶ UNWTO called on state and industry repre-
sentatives to strive for “smart tourism,” which was
Freire-Medeiros, B. 2009 The Favela and its Touristic defined as “clean, green, ethical and quality at all
Transits. Geoforum 40:580-588.
levels of the service chain” (2009: 1). However,
Frenzel, F. 2013 Slum Tourism in the Context of the
Tourism and Poverty (Relief) Debate. DIE ERDE such definition differs from the stated one. Smart
144:117-128. tourism technology consists of three main com-
Mekawy, M. 2012 Responsible Slum Tourism: Egyptian ponents: cloud services, the internet of things, and
Experience. Annals of Tourism Research 39:20922113.
information communication technology including
Mitchell, J., and C. Ashley 2010 Tourism and Poverty
Reduction: Pathways to Prosperity. London: Earthscan. mobile communication technology and artificial
Saint-Upéry, M. 2010 Left at the Crossroads: Ogling the intelligence. It is an integrated application and
Poor http://en.ria.ru/columnists/20101021/161035393. innovation of technology and is mainly used in
html (10 April 2014).
positioning, guiding, touring, and booking. In
contemporary China, smart tourism is used in
▶ destination construction and ▶ attraction
▶ management for several purposes, including
Smart tourism prediction of ▶ tourist numbers and flows,
▶ travel preferences, and consumption structure
Lingyun Zhang1 and Jingjing Yang2 based on big data and data mining technology;
1
Tourism Institute, Beijing Union University, destination ▶ location-based services based on
Beijing, China mobile intelligent terminal; application programs
2
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, based on tourists’ smartphone; destinations’
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK access monitoring systems based on a variety of
card reading technology and radio frequency
identification; positioning, guiding, touring, and
Smart tourism is an advanced stage of tourism booking based on GPS and location-based ser-
informationization. It consists of digital, intelli- vices; exhibition and ▶ interpretation systems
gent, and virtual tourism based on digital, intelli- based on augmented reality and virtual realities;
gent, and virtual ▶ technology. Information and new ▶ marketing based on eCommerce,
relating to ▶ tourist activities, the consumption mobile commerce, ▶ social media, and social net-
of products, and tourism and social ▶ resources working services.
can be instantly integrated based on information ▶ Future research directions will be consistent
and communications technology; it provides to with the use of smart tourism above, especially on
tourists, enterprises, and organizations with a vari- tourist behavior, tourism ▶ statistics and predic-
ety of end-user devices (Zhang et al. 2012). tion, tourist satisfaction survey, and demand anal-
The concept of “smart tourism” was inspired ysis. Smart tourism provides a new research
by IBM’s “Smarter Planet” and “Smarter City.” method, a new tool, a new content, and a new
Smuggling 863
angle. It is a component of a smart city. Thus, it sneak in alcohol or tobacco products or other
becomes a comprehensive solution for tourism items that are curbed or taxed by customs to
based on information and communication tech- avoid paying prohibitive duties. In other cases,
nologies. It is a revolution and brainchild of enter- tourists try to import restricted items such as
prise resource planning, business process seeds, meat, or plant materials that are restricted
redesign, as well as tourists’ consumer behavior. by home or host governments. Other more severe
infractions include efforts to import narcotics,
See also ▶ eTourism, ▶ information technology, child pornography, firearms, endangered antiqui-
▶ innovation, ▶ marketing, ▶ technology. ties, large sums of money, or goods prohibited by
international law such as ivory and animal skins.
In many borderlands, there is an active trade in
References smuggling cigarettes and alcohol from one coun-
try to another, which has been classified by
UNWTO 2009 UNWTO Tourism Resilience Committee observers as a form of “smuggling tourism”
Stresses Need for “Smart Tourism” http://climate-l.iisd.
(Saba et al. 1995; Timothy 2001).
org/news/unwto-tourism-resilience-committee-stresses-
need-for-%E2%80%9Csmart-tourism%E2%80%9D/ Research on smuggling for tourism focuses on
(20 August 2013). serious human rights and ethics issues, including
Wang, D., X. Li, and Y. Li 2013 China’s “Smart Tourism human trafficking, illegal trade in human organs,
Destination” Initiative: ATaste of the Service-dominant
and the black market for looted antiquities. Travel
Logic. Journal of Destination Marketing and Manage-
ment 2:59-61. agencies are known to traffic people on tourist
Xinhuanet 2011 China National Tourism Administration visas for prostitution or low-wage indentured ser-
Director: To Achieve Smart Tourism in 10 Years http:// vitude, and the international media is riddled with
news.xinhuanet.com/fortune/2011-07/12/c_121657795.
stories of smuggled immigrants dying in shipping
htm (25 August 2013).
Zhang, L., N. Li, and M. Liu 2012 On the Basic Concept of containers while being traded for work in the
Smarter Tourism and its Theoretical System. Tourism service industries. Child trafficking is especially
Tribune 27(5):66-73. heinous but continues to occur throughout the
world to support the sex trade, including tourism
(Adepoju 2005; Webb and de la Vega 2012).
Organ smuggling has fueled extensive debate in
Smuggling recent years about the ethics of selling body parts
and tissues to the highest bidder. Organ trafficking
Woojin Lee and Dallen J. Timothy has stimulated in large part what Budiani-Saberi
School of Community Resources and and Delmonico (2008) referred to as “transplant
Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix, tourism.” Looting and the cross-border trade in
AZ, USA illegal antiquities are also encouraged by tourism S
where artifacts are sold to tourists and then smug-
gled home for display.
Cross-border trafficking of humans and illicit Human and merchandise smuggling are timely
goods has long been a concern of global propor- issues that affect tourism in many ways. Future
tions. In tourism studies, very little has been writ- studies must address the role of tourism in fueling
ten about smuggling, although the phenomenon is these problems, particularly those related to the
pervasive throughout the world. It manifests in trafficking of human beings to work in the indus-
several ways, and it can best be considered as try and protected species and looted antiquities as
smuggling by tourists and for tourists/tourism. tourist souvenirs.
Smuggling by tourists ranges from fairly
innocuous to severe violations of international See also ▶ Border tourism, ▶ export, ▶ import,
law. At points of entry, many tourists attempt to ▶ law.
864 Social accounting matrix
References “Production Activities” are stimulated by

final demands for goods and services coming
Adepoju, A. 2005 Review of Research and Data on Human from the “Institutions,” and in exchange, they
Trafficking in Sub-Saharan Africa. International
receive payments. When “Production Activities”
Migration 43:75-98.
Budiani-Saberi, D., and F. Delmonico 2008 Organ Traf- are stimulated, they need both intermediate
ficking and Transplant Tourism: A Commentary on the inputs from other industrial sectors in the econ-
Global Realities. American Journal of Transplantation omy and labor and capital inputs from “Factors
8:925-929.
of Production.” In exchange, when labor and cap-
Saba, R., T. Bear, R. Ekelund, and R. Ressler 1995 The
Demand for Cigarette Smuggling. Economic Inquiry ital are found useful in production, wages are
33:189-202. paid for labor and rents for capital (Miller and
Timothy, D. 2001 Tourism and Political Boundaries. Blair 1985).
London: Routledge.
“Factors of Production” can be considered as
Webb, D., and L. de la Vega 2012 Security and Wellbeing
in the Triple Frontier Area of Latin America: Commu- an exchange market for labor and capital. Notably,
nity Awareness of Child Trafficking, the Smuggling of just placing labor and/or capital to the market
Persons and Sex Tourism. In Subjective Wellbeing and would not guarantee labor income or profits.
Security, D. Webb and E. Wills-Herrera, eds., pp.291-
Labor and/or capital must be utilized for “Produc-
322. Amsterdam: Springer.
tion Activities” to receive wages or rents. On the
basis of this framework, the structure of a social
accounting matrix is often presented in an input-
output table (Hara 2008).
Social accounting matrix In the modeling or actual use of social account-
ing matrix, it should be noted that additional
Tadayuki Hara expenditures by the “Institutions” may cause
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, additional rounds of demands for goods and ser-
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA vices. The additional ▶ impact is captured as
“Induced Effect” (induced impact or induced
shock), which is traceable in the expanded social
Social accounting matrix is an extension of the accounting matrix framework, optimized and
input-output framework into analytic content pre- derived from the input-output model. Nonethe-
sentation in a matrix format. Based on the frame- less, such additional induced impacts would
work of Thorbecke (1998), the basic structure of show relative changes of income to different
social accounting matrix can be described by the households.
interactions between and/or among the three enti- In prospect, while econometrics or time-series
ties of “Production Activities,” “Factors of Pro- frameworks have been employed in tourism
duction,” and “Institutions,” which explain how research, the use of social accounting matrix
the money flows in an economy in question. with household disaggregation would enable
Notably, “Institutions” include factors such as future researchers to fill the gap by quantifying
household, firms, and governments. While house- how tourists’ expenditures or the impacts of
holds can be understood in terms of labor and implementing a specific tourism policy would be
capital, the mere ownerships of these endowments distributed in the forms of extra income to the
(of labor and capital) would not guarantee labor richer and/or poorer households in the region
income and profits. Only after labor and capital under investigation (Hara 2008).
are put into the market (the “Factors of Produc-
tion”) could they then be employed for “Produc- See also ▶ Computable general equilibrium
tion Activities,” and in return, people receive model, ▶ input-output analysis, ▶ Tourism Satellite
wages for labor and rents for capital. Account.
Social capital 865
References attention from a variety of fields and disciplines,

including business and entrepreneurship, social
Hara, T. 2008 Quantitative Tourism Industry Analysis: work, education, community and economic
Introduction to Input-Output, Social Accounting
development, organizations, governance, social
Matrix Modeling, and Tourism Satellite Accounts.
Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann. movements, and the environment (Zahra and
Miller, R., and P. Blair 1985 Input-Output Analysis: Foun- McGehee 2013).
dations and Extensions. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-
Hall.
Thorbecke, E. 1998 Social Accounting Matrices and Social
Accounting Analysis. In Methods of Interregional and
Regional Analysis, W. Isard, ed., pp.281-331. Alder- Deconstructing social capital
shot: Ashgate.
Social capital has a number of unique qualities. It
is fluid and dynamic, constantly changing and
modifying its form, requiring investment and cul-
Social capital tivation (Portes 1998). While the term capital is
most often associated with money or hard goods,
Nancy McGehee1 and Kathleen Andereck2 it can also mean anything of value in which it is
1
Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia collected or saved and invested in so that it can
Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg, grow and provide returns (or, conversely, spend,
VA, USA shrink, and eventually have no worth). A common
2
School of Community Resources and way to typologize social capital has been via the
Development, Arizona State University, networks view. This perspective recognizes the
Phoenix, AZ, USA differentiation of bonding from bridging social
capital. The internal relationships, networks, and
trust that occur within a community are bonding
social capital. Conversely, bridging social capital
Social capital was first defined by Hanifan as occurs when bonded groups within a community
“those tangible substances [that] count for reach out to groups and institutions outside the
most in the daily lives of people: namely community to seek information, resources, or
goodwill, fellowship, sympathy, and social support.
intercourse among the individuals and families An example of bonding social capital within
that make up a social unit. . . the community as tourism might be the organization of an infor-
a whole will benefit by the cooperation of all mal stakeholder’s support group that meets to
its parts, while the individual will find in his discuss issues and offer guidance. An example
associations the advantages of the help, the of bridging social capital within tourism might S
sympathy, and the fellowship of his neighbors” be the decision by the informal group to invite a
(1916: 130). local legislator to a meeting in order to deter-
Its most common elements consist of collec- mine what resources are available that might
tive action, cooperation, reciprocity, networks, assist the group. This example illustrates the
relationships, shared norms and values, social argument that bonding social capital is a neces-
interaction, and trust (Flora 2004). These ele- sary antecedent for bridging social capital. It
ments are cultivated to gain access to power, also exemplifies what some in the area of devel-
benefits, and resources that are instrumental in opment have learned: bonding social capital is
decision-making and policy formulation. Since useful leverage for communities to “get by,” but
Hanifan’s seminal definition of nearly a century bridging is necessary to “get ahead” (Zahra and
ago, social capital has received a great deal of McGehee 2013).
866 Social class
Tourism development interaction, and the role of community conflict

(over tourism development and ▶ other sociopo-
As with other forms of capital, the presence of litical unrest), both as generators and as destroyers
social capital in a community is not a given, but is of social capital, have all emerged and will remain
regarded as a critical element for success (Putnam as important research themes.
1993). When social capital is strong within com-
munities, they are more likely to be in position to See also ▶ Community development, ▶ net-
take advantage of economic, community- work, ▶ planning, ▶ sociology.
building, and capacity-enhancement opportuni-
ties in general. Likewise, when they are weak,
communities are less likely to be in position to
take advantage of the same opportunities. Social References
capital in general has the potential to provide
access to start-up capital, tips about business Flora, C. 2004 Community Dynamics and Social Capital.
In Agroecosystems Analysis, D. Rickerl and
opportunities, access to markets, and a skilled C. Francis, eds., pp.93-107. Madison: American Soci-
labor force (Portes 1998), but the question of the ety of Agronomy.
importance of social capital in tourism ▶ devel- Hanifan, L. 1916 The Rural School Community Center.
opment remains underexplored. Annals of American Academy of Political and Social
Science 67:130-138.
There are three key roles of social capital for McGehee, N., S. Lee, T. O’Bannon, and R. Perdue 2010
general economic success within communities: Tourism-Related Social Capital and its Relationship
information sharing, coordination of activities, with other Forms of Capital: An Exploratory Study.
and collective decisionmaking (McGehee Journal of Travel Research 49:486-500.
Moscardo, G., A. Schurmann, E. Konovalov, and
et al. 2010). All of these are also crucial to suc- N. McGehee 2013 Using Tourism to Build Social Cap-
cessful tourism development. Information sharing ital in Communities: New Pathways to Sustainable
can be vital as this process is important to the Tourism Futures. Kuala Lumpur: BEST EN Sustain-
success of such an elastic industry. For example, able Tourism Educational Network Think Tank XIII.
Portes, A. 1998 Social Capital: Its Origins and Applica-
accurate and timely information about the market tions in Modern Sociology. Annual Review of Sociol-
is very important to correct investment in market- ogy 21:1-24.
ing activities. A second key role is coordination of Putnam, R. 1993 The Prosperous Community: Social Cap-
activities. An understanding of the destination as ital and Public Life. The American Prospect 13:35-42.
Zahra, A., and N. McGehee 2013 Host Perceptions of
being a package of accommodations, restaurants, Volunteer Tourism: A Community Capital Perspective.
and attractions that requires coordination and col- Annals of Tourism Research 42:22-45.
laboration is vital to success. The last key role,
collective decisionmaking, depends heavily on
the conflict management capabilities of a commu-
nity that emerge from the aforementioned ele-
ments of social capital. In tourism, the most Social class
successful destinations have found ways to
engage in collective decisionmaking grounded in Julio Aramberri
the goals of the community and how they can be School of Tourism and Hospitality Management,
met through the development of a cohesive Dongbei University of Finance and Economics,
product. Dalian, Liaoning, China
According to Moscardo et al. (2013), research
in tourism and social capital falls into two main
areas: how tourism benefits from and impacts Broadly speaking, social classes are stable groups
existing social capital. The role of tourism-based with differential and unequal access to societal
events, the value of networks developed for coor- travails and rewards. They are closely linked to
dination and ▶ planning, the role of host-guest the production and reproduction of collective life
Social class 867
and thus to the division of labor and its different capitalism, people remained remarkably divided
historical forms. Yet, it is not clear why humans in politics, family values, moral orientations, and
need to differentiate themselves within social lifestyles, but such differences were also remark-
groups that are otherwise collectively subject to ably indifferent to class cleavages. In fact, recent
discrimination. In colonial India, strictly enforced social theories (deconstructionism and cultural
protocols singled out 77 separate ranks among criticism) have been more interested in the inter-
locals. Evolutionary explanations signal that play of group identities than in class conflict.
class divisions play an important role in the suc- Classes have therefore shown a more stubborn
cessful adaptation of human groups to their resilience to irrelevance than explanations of
changing environments. Though resenting and social behavior based on class struggles. The sec-
often lambasting them, their past critics viewed ond hurdle was conceptual. Key elements of the
classes as an enduring and even legitimate com- classist hypothesis, such as exploitation and
ponent of social order. oppression, only achieved meaning when pre-
ceded by an allegedly invariant notion of human
nature that existed prior to historical development
Class division and, at the same time, was its inevitable product
(Kołakowski 2005).
This forbearance changed in the nineteenth cen-
tury. Far from being a benighted though bearable
charge, the existence of social classes provided Social classes and tourism
critics with a key explanation of historical change
and with a moral case to enforce their abolition. ▶ Mass tourism is a recent historical occurrence;
Classes were in constant conflict with each other hence, canonical class theory did not address
and their struggle explained the transition from a it. Different views of social classes have notwith-
mode of production to another. Karl Marx and standing impacted research. The oldest may hark
Friedrich Engels coined the most successful back to MacCannell (1999). Tourists, he stated,
formula – “the history of every hitherto existing are the best metaphor for the plight of modern
society is the history of class struggles.” people. In tourism and in any other social rela-
Class struggle, in their view, reached topmost tions, they look for authenticity, but theirs is a self-
acuity under capitalism. Previously, the existence defeating quest. For MacCannell, authenticity
of numerous divisions blurred opposing interests, should be the reverse of the alienation experi-
but capitalism decisively spawned two main clus- enced in all class societies. As Marx had noted,
ters: owners of means of production and providers in the world of private property, workers could not
of labor force. Over time, all the other enjoy the true pleasures of life. Workers were not
non-capitalist fractions would dissolve into the irretrievably lost to the wealth of human experi- S
latter, thus breeding a social majority that would ence; but in all class societies, as prisoners of
impose a classless society and an end to the divi- need, they could not appreciate the value of fine
sion of labor. foods or great plays in themselves – only as objec-
This promise inspired many social movements tified powers. MacCannell concurred with this
in the twentieth century, but it faced two serious position. ▶ Authenticity, for him, would only be
challenges. One was factual. As capitalism possible after the end of money as the main social
evolved, class divisions became more compli- mediator and the waning of the division of labor.
cated than their foretold binary opposition; social This is a daunting goal whose attainment
mobility blurred fixed boundaries; many interme- MacCannell has portrayed over time in
diate positions between capitalists and workers contradictory ways.
appeared (especially the so-called new petite Urry (2002) imported Foucault’s key ideas into
bourgeoisie); classes remained a fixture even in tourism research. Tourists ▶ gaze at their objects
post-revolutionary societies. Under mature in a socially constructed way, and their construed
868 Social exchange theory
world reflects the views of the hegemonic groups References

in their societies. As tourists are mostly interna-
tional, and as affluent societies are the main gen- Bourdieu, P. 1984 Distinction: A Social Critique of the
Judgment of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University
erators of tourism, their gaze is a conduit for the
Press.
imposition of Western values and norms. Through Kołakowski, L. 2005 Main Currents of Marxism. New
this prism – allegedly objective, but in fact sub- York: Norton.
servient to the needs of the dominant strata or MacCannell, D. 1999 The Tourist. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
classes – tourists see what they want to see or,
Piketty, T. 2014 Capital in the Twenty-First Century. Cam-
better, what they are trained to look for. Urry bridge MA: Belknap.
added to his notion of the gaze some other views Urry, J. 2002 The Tourist Gaze. London: Sage.
originally expressed by Bourdieu (1984). Taste or Wang, N. 2000 Tourism and Modernity. Bingley: Emerald
distinction in human endeavors reflects conditions
of existence that, at their root (the opposition of
“distinguished” and “vulgar”), coincide with
the polarity of classes under market conditions. Social exchange theory
On cue, Urry found in the allegedly aloof tourist
gaze a touch of class. Even the sense of sight had Raquel García Revilla and Olga Martinez Moure
first been unduly lionized and later forcibly UDIMA Universidad a Distancia de Madrid,
commandeered by the Western bourgeoisie. Collado Villalba, Madrid, Spain
Critiques of commoditization come to similar
conclusions, though from a different
viewpoint – that of the Frankfurt School of social Tourism is configured as a constantly changing
thought. They initially agree with Marx and with phenomenon. Among other reasons, the study of
MacCannell in defining modernity as merchan- tourism is linked to social change. Thus, many
dise fetishism, but then demur by limiting their examine how its forms and types vary, based on
critique of commoditization to the expansion of the changes occurring in a given society. It is
mass production. Modern tourism is nothing but a assumed that tourists vary by their expectations,
commodity that is sold for money; the industry’s prospects, and behavior and conduct in accor-
services are predictable, reliable, and trite; its pro- dance with trends and social change.
duction is usually left to big corporations that As tourism is a complex or multifaceted phe-
offer similarly meaningless products, morphing nomenon, it is necessary to have theoretical inter-
human relations into heaps of banal and hedonis- pretations. Social exchange theory is one of the
tic experiences (Wang 2000). Ultimately, com- articulations on community perceptions of and
moditization caters to the poor taste of the attitudes toward tourism and its development.
subaltern capitalist classes. Such are the kaleido- This theory shows that people prioritize their
scopic strands that pell-mell coalesce in today’s exchanges after assessing the costs and benefits
mainstream view of the role of ▶ social class in of a given selection. So far, this construct has been
tourism research. most often used to explain residents’ perceptions
In spite of its weak factual basis, the notion of of tourism in community development.
class struggle will survive for a long time. An The social exchange theory is also used in the
interesting strand for research will be the debate analysis and interpretation of tourism as a domain
of the allegedly growing inequality in affluent of social behavior, using Homans’ (1961) expres-
societies (Piketty 2014) and its weight on tourism sion by taking into account the costs and benefits
▶ development. of a specific destination choice or any selection
related to vacation or tourist experience. The the-
ory has great explanatory power, since it falls
See also ▶ Alienation, ▶ authenticity, ▶ com- squarely in the realm of attitudes. In fact, when
mercialization, ▶ gaze. assessing how a tourist chooses a specific
Social media 869
destination (or how the host community perceives

tourism), it is necessary to consider not only the Social media
background of the tourist and the local
populations but also the traditions and cultures Ana María Munar
of both origin and destination countries. It is also Department of International Economics and
mandatory to assess the cultural exchange that Management, Copenhagen Business School,
each experiences. More specifically, according to Frederiksberg Palace, Denmark
social exchange theory, attitudes of tourists and
locals are clearly influenced by the resulting
exchange through tourism. The costs for tourists Social media encompass a variety of information
can be interpreted as the economic cost of the trip, and communication technology tools and take
while the costs for members of the host commu- many different forms. They enable users to
nity could be seen as negative impacts, for exam- develop online communities and networks by col-
ple, saturation derived from an excessive flow of laborating and distributing web-based content and
visitors. customizing ▶ internet applications. Some of the
While tourists perceive benefits as the psycho- most popular tools and platforms are wikis, blogs
social experience, enriching their lives through and microblogs, social networks, media sharing
experiential learning from the journey or the des- sites, review sites, and voting sites. Social media,
tination society visited (Eagly and Chaiken 1993), also popularly known as the Web 2.0, is claimed
the host community tends to perceive benefits of to be more participatory and inclusive, as it allows
tourism development as providing infrastructure users to create, publish, and comment on digitized
and generation of diverse employment opportuni- content worldwide.
ties. On the other hand, the costs are often seen as The progression of social media has led to the
the negative impacts or consequences caused by emergence of new tourism cultures and practices.
tourism development through, for example, the Tourists share information online and form virtual
loss of traditions derived from excessive commer- communities on a whole array of social media
cialization of culture and heritage for tourism. As software (Munar et al. 2013; Sigala et al. 2012).
illustrated by Harrison (1992), negative conse- Tourism social media is a heterogeneous and fast-
quences or social impacts of tourism are particu- changing virtual space consisting of technological
larly notable on communities in developing or less tools and platforms that have tourism as their core
developed countries. In prospect, future research value, including TripAdvisor or Couchsurfing, as
on this subject could take a comparative perspec- well as tourism-related content uploaded by tour-
tive on the behavior of tourists to mature versus ists and organizations on generic sites, such as
emerging destinations. Facebook and YouTube. With millions of tourists
using social media, the participatory Web has S
See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ community development, enabled new kinds of tourism interactions (such
as electronic word of mouth), which complement
▶ impact, ▶ perception, community,
and expand the experience of physical travel.
▶ phenomenon.
Tourists’ perception, ▶ evaluation, and relation
to their social and material worlds are
transformed, due to the possibilities embedded in
References
these new technological tools.
Eagly, A., and S. Chaiken 1993 The Psychology of Atti-
tudes. Fort Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich.
Harrison, D. 1992 Tourism to Less Developed Countries: Evolution of the knowledge field
The Social Consequences in Tourism and Less Devel-
oped Countries. London: Bellhaven.
Homans, G. 1961 Social Behavior: Its Elementary Forms. Tourism social media research appeared first as a
New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. subset of the well-established field of tourism
870 Social media
information technologies. Since the turn of the studies discuss patterns of technology adoption
millennium, research production on social media of the industry and describe the managerial chal-
has fast increased both in the number of articles lenges that tourism organizations face when using
and books and in the number of conferences and social media for marketing or product
academic courses (Leung et al. 2013). The first development.
stages were dominated by empirical studies on Additionally, scholars in the field of digital
▶ marketing and ▶ management related topics, tourism studies examine the social use of technol-
typically driven by an applied business research ogies in tourism, the interrelationships between
agenda. This approach dedicated to the “business technologies and their affordances, as well as the
of social media” was hegemonic in the field and way in which people and institutions make use of
still is the most frequent type of research enquiry. those affordances (Munar and Gyimóthy 2013).
However, its research is increasingly conceptual- These critical approaches comprehend technology
ized and envisioned as a subset of the emerging as deeply embedded in sociocultural structures.
field of digital tourism studies. This evolution By analyzing the structures, social rules, and cul-
results from studies that apply critical or tural values that new technological platforms con-
interpretivist approaches and a rich mixture of form to, these contributions aim to reveal how
novel academic perspectives from various disci- social media influences, augments, and trans-
plines, including anthropology, sociology, philos- forms tourism interactions and relationships.
ophy, and cultural studies (Munar et al. 2013).
The managerial study of social media can be
divided between customer-focused and supply- The way forward
focused research, the former being the most com-
mon type of studies in this field. A number of Social media allow novel forms of value creation.
preliminary studies aim to classify tourism social Increasingly, the commercialization of tourist-
media according to types of tools, platforms and generated content is transforming social media
content, types of tourism, types of tourists con- platforms into global virtual marketplaces. The
tributing to these sites, and the like (Wang ▶ management and exploitation of this digital
et al. 2002). These categorizing approaches aim capital change power relations, alter value chains,
to develop taxonomies and provide definitions to and transform tourism encounters and relation-
address this new phenomenon. Another popular ships. There is a fast expansion of knowledge
stream of research examines the impact of these production in the field, but most research efforts
technologies on tourist decisionmaking, travel are still limited to the managerial aspects of this
information search, and the sharing of tourism phenomenon. Further research efforts should aim
experiences (Bronner and de Hoog 2011). at revealing the complex relationship of techno-
Consumer-centered research approaches are also logical change with power relations, justice, and
often adopted in other studies of electronic word- the establishment and transformation of norms,
of-mouth and location-based services and in arti- values, and beliefs; the impacts of technological
cles that analyze tourists’ behavior and motivation change on human cognition; digital mediation of
on social media platforms (Yoo and Gretzel 2011). humor, love, and emotion; the complex interrela-
Supply-oriented research deals with the chal- tionships of technology with nature and environ-
lenges that social media and tourist-generated ment; and how all these different phenomena are
content represent for tourism organizations. Stud- embedded in and transformed through tourism.
ies examine the strategies used by these organiza-
tions to interact with the virtual world of social See also ▶ eTourism, ▶ information technology,
media and their impact on value chains, interme- ▶ online review, ▶ social network analysis,
diation, and the touristic marketplace. Other ▶ technology.
Social network analysis 871
References egocentric-network designs. As the basic units of

a network, the nodes (or actors) in social network
Bronner, F., and R. de Hoog 2011 Vacationers and eWOM: analysis are not limited to persons or organiza-
Who Posts, and Why, Where, and What? Journal of
tions. They could also be journal articles,
Travel Research 50:15-26.
Leung, D., R. Law, H. van Hoof, and D. Buhalis 2013 websites, countries, neighborhoods, or animals.
Social Media in Tourism and Hospitality: A Literature The relations among network actors usually fall
Review. Journal of Travel & Tourism Marketing in one of the four broad categories: similarities,
30(1-2):3-22.
social relations, interactions, and flows.
Munar, A., and S. Gyimóthy 2013 Critical Digital Tourism
Studies. In Tourism Social Media: Transformations in Survey and interview are the two major
Identity, Community and Culture, A. Munar, methods for collecting data from members. Net-
S. Gyimóthy and L. Cai, eds., pp. 245-262. Bingley: work data can also be gathered through tracing
Emerald.
archives and historical materials, as well as elec-
Munar, A., S. Gyimóthy, and L. Cai (eds.) 2013 Tourism
Social Media: Transformations in Identity, Community tronic communications. The earliest social net-
and Culture. Bingley: Emerald. work analyses were qualitative. Researchers
Sigala, M., E. Christou, and U. Gretzel (eds.) 2012 Social analyzed ethnographic and interview data to
Media in Travel, Tourism and Hospitality: Theory,
understand the network structures and relation-
Practice and Cases. Farnham: Ashgate.
Wang, Y., Q. Yu, and D. Fesenmaier 2002 Defining the ships among its members. Quantitative analysis
Virtual Tourist Community: Implications for Tourism is mainly conducted through calculating measures
Marketing. Tourism Management 23:407-417. of the properties of network positions, dyads, and
Yoo, K.-H., and U. Gretzel 2011 Influence of Personality
network as a whole. A number of software pro-
on Travel-related Consumer-generated Media Crea-
tion. Computers in Human Behavior 27:609-621. grams are available for analyzing social networks
(UCINET, PAJEK, MultiNet, R, P*/ERGM,
ORA, MAGE, SONIA, and NodeXL).
In recent years, there has been a growing inter-
Social network analysis est in applying social network analysis in tourism
studies. Its application in research has been
Tianyu Ying observed in various areas such as business collab-
Department of Tourism, University of Otago, orations and partnerships, policymaking and
Dunedin, New Zealand ▶ governance, information flow, trade, websites
and hyperlinks, knowledge networks and ▶ man-
agement, ▶ recreation and tourism behaviors, and
As the primary building blocks of the world, destination systems. Early studies were predomi-
social networks are defined as a set of nodes nantly qualitative, but there is a trend toward
(or actors) that are tied by one or more types of adopting quantitative network analysis techniques
relations (Wasserman and Faust 1994). To analyze by researchers. Despite this growing popularity, S
their structures and effects, network analysis has social network analysis in tourism studies is still at
emerged as a set of distinctive theoretical perspec- its initial stage of development.
tives and analytical methods in the 1960s and Tourism has been conceptualized as a
1970s (Scott 2000). networked system. It fits naturally with the struc-
Distinctive from conventional statistical tural and relational perspectives that social net-
(or variable-based) analysis that focuses on the work analysts hold. ▶ Future research in this area
attributes of individual actors, social network needs to further investigate the tourism ▶ network
analysis treats causation as something located in dynamics at different scales (tourists, businesses,
social structures and thus focuses on the relations sectors, and destinations) and in different
among the actors (Marin and Wellman 2011). The contexts (real-life and online networks). It has
majority of studies use either whole- or potential to contribute significantly to the
872 Social tourism
understanding of tourism as a complex and chang- countries, charities usually play a key role,
ing ▶ phenomenon. whereas in mainland ▶ Europe and several coun-
tries in Latin America, the public sector is a key
See also ▶ Network, ▶ quantitative research, stakeholder. In those countries, social tourism is
▶ system, ▶ sociology. provided at either very limited cost to the state or
in ways which simultaneously stimulate the local
economy and increase the income of the state via
References taxation and a reduction of unemployment
benefits. Where the public sector plays a role,
Marin, A., and B. Wellman 2011 Social Network Analysis: the concept has been implemented in different
An Introduction. In The SAGE Handbook of Social
ways to suit national contexts: several countries
Network Analysis, J. Scott and P. Carrington, eds.,
pp.11-25. London: Sage. such as ▶ France and ▶ Hungary operate
Scott, J. 2000 Social Network Analysis: A Handbook. ▶ holiday voucher schemes, and other countries
London: Sage. or regions such as ▶ Spain, ▶ Portugal, and
Wasserman, S., and K. Faust 1994 Social Network Analy-
Flanders, ▶ Belgium, have established public-
sis: Methods and Applications. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press. private partnerships (McCabe et al. 2011).
Both the implementations and the justifications
and goals of social tourism can differ greatly. The
▶ development of the working classes, better
Social tourism health for inner-city children, wider access to the
benefits of tourism, ▶ loyalty to unions or com-
Lynn Minnaert panies, and ▶ economic development of regions
Preston Robert Tisch Center for Hospitality and have all been, and in some cases still are, seen as
Tourism, New York University, New York, USA valid reasons for such provisions (Minnaert
et al. 2011).
A final difference concerns the types of prod-
Social tourism refers to initiatives aimed to ucts that are offered. Some schemes offer one
include groups that would otherwise be excluded product only, whereas others have a range to
from tourism. Its earliest definition refers to “the choose from. The IMSERSO program in Spain,
relationships and phenomena in the field of tour- for example, has only one product: group holidays
ism resulting from participation in ▶ travel by exclusively for senior citizens, including coach
economically weak or otherwise disadvantaged transport, ▶ accommodation, meals, and activities
elements in society” (Hunzicker 1951:1). (Imserso 2009). In contrast, the Family Holiday
▶ Other scholars have defined it as tourism with Association (2013), a UK-based charity, offers
an added moral value, of which the primary objec- more choices: it funds week-long holidays for
tive is to benefit the host or the ▶ tourist individual families (usually in domestic caravan
populations (Minnaert et al. 2011). In practice, parks) and group holidays which may be shorter.
social tourism usually refers to budget-friendly The Tourism Participation Centre in Flanders
domestic holidays. In some cases, day trips to (Belgium) also offers individual and group holi-
themeparks, museums, and attractions are funded days, but has an additional range of affordable day
or made available at highly reduced rates by char- trips.
ities or agencies in the public sector.
Social tourism impacts

Structure and operation
Beneficiaries of social tourism are people who
Social tourism initiatives can be provided by the would like to travel but cannot due to a certain
public or the ▶ voluntary sector. In Anglo-Saxon disadvantage, lack of money, health problems, or
Sociolinguistics 873
disability, that inhibits participation in tourism. In how the choice of product can be best tailored to
several countries of the European Union, social certain characteristics of the beneficiaries.
tourism is provided at either very limited cost to
the state or in ways which simultaneously stimu- See also ▶ Policy and policymaking, ▶ quality
late the local economy and increase the income of of life, ▶ social capital, ▶ social class.
the state via taxation and reduce unemployment
(Minnaert et al. 2011). Social tourism is often used
as a socioeconomic regeneration measure.
Scholars have conducted research on the social References
impacts of this practice (McCabe 2009; Minnaert
et al. 2010). Their studies suggest that benefits Family Holiday Association 2013 The Family Holiday
Association www.familyholidayassociation.org.uk
from social tourism range from increases in self- (5 March 2015).
esteem, improvement in family relations, and wid- Hunzicker, W. 1951 Social Tourism: Its Nature and
ening of travel horizons to more proactive ▶ atti- Problems. Berne: International Tourists Alliance
tudes to life and participation in ▶ education and Scientific Commission.
Imserso 2009 Instituto de Mayores y Servicios Sociales
▶ employment. www.imserso.es (5 March 2015).
The potential economic benefits have also McCabe, S. 2009 Who Needs a Holiday? Evaluating
received increasing levels of attention. A much Social Tourism. Annals of Tourism Research
cited example is the IMSERSO program in Spain, 36:667-688.
McCabe, S., L. Minnaert, and A. Diekmann 2011 Social
which offers domestic holidays for senior citizens Tourism in Europe: Theory and Practice. Bristol: Chan-
in coastal areas during the shoulder season. nel View.
The holidays are financed through contributions Minnaert, L., R. Maitland, and G. Miller 2011 What is
by beneficiaries (70 %) and the public sector Social Tourism? Current Issues in Tourism 5:403-415.
Minnaert, L., B. Quinn, K. Griffin, and J. Stacey 2010
(30 %). The public sector investment yields cost Social Tourism for Low-income Groups. In Tourism
savings and earnings, including longer seasons and Inequality, S. Cole and N. Morgan, eds., pp.38-57.
and increased employment in the coastal regions, Wallingford: CABI.
with the expenditure prompting higher tax
income.
Around 300 hotels participate in the scheme,
benefiting around one million participants in Sociolinguistics
the 2008–2009 season and generating and/or
maintaining an estimated 80,000 jobs. Kazuyoshi Takeuchi
The Spanish government has allocated US$118 English Communication, Jissen Women’s Junior
million (€105 million) for the 2009–2010 season. College, Shibuya-ku, Tokyo, Japan
It is believed that for every Euro invested yields S
$4.5 (or €4) in tax, spend and reduction in benefit
payments (Imserso 2009). To stimulate similar Linguistics, diachronically or synchronically, ana-
initiatives throughout the region, the European lyzes the mechanism of language through phonet-
Commission for Enterprise and Industry launched ics, semantics, and syntax. One of the earliest
the Calypso program in 2008 in order to produce analytic contributions to the study of language,
such exchanges and opportunities among Euro- which appeared in ancient history, was a gram-
pean countries (Minnaert et al. 2011). matical approach to Classical Sanskrit. Modern
The social tourism literature makes limited linguistics began with the work of Ferdinand de
distinctions among related products and their Saussure in the nineteenth century, based on struc-
respective suitability and attractiveness to differ- turalism that focused on the system of language.
ent types of beneficiaries. Further exploratory Transformational grammar, introduced by Noam
research is required to uncover the usefulness of Chomsky in the twentieth century, concentrates
offering a range of different holiday options and on linguistic competence and assumes that all
874 Sociology
humans possess the same language acquisition according to the language into which it was trans-
devices. lated. Since the 1980s, the volume of sociolinguis-
The frame of ▶ sociolinguistics, itself a tic research has widely grown in the study of
subdiscipline of linguistics, emerged in the twen- tourism, because tourism as a social phenomenon
tieth century. It stands on the premise that both is grounded in communication colored with
language and society complementarily interact language.
and evolve, while linguistics deals only with the
functions of language. In sociolinguistics, the cor- See also ▶ Discourse, ▶ interpretation, ▶ lan-
relations of language and society are examined guage, ▶ social tourism, ▶ tour guide.
with individual attributes (static) and negotiation
activities (dynamic) in social contexts by way of
sociological procedures. References
An early stage of sociolinguistic research in the
study of tourism was found in the 1980s, which Cohen, E., and R. Cooper 1986 Language and Tourism.
focused on the communications of ▶ tour guides
Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism:
and postcards. Among those works, Cohen and A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Wallingford: CABI.
Cooper (1986) analyzed cross-cultural interac- Takeuchi, K., and L. Minnaert 2011 Sociolinguistic Bar-
tions between tourists and destination people. riers to the Study of Tourism. In Proceedings of JITR
Annual Conference 26:253-256 (December), Hannan
Appropriated with speech accommodation theory,
University, Japan Institute of Tourism Research.
in which people adjust their ways of conversation
to accommodate others in order to reduce their
social differences, they argued that when tourists
and local people interacted on a temporary basis,
there was considerable linguistic accommodation Sociology
that ensued on account of the perceived status
differences and the resultant need to respectively Graham M. S. Dann
talk down or up to each other. UiT Arctic University of Norway, Alta, Norway
It was not until 1996 that the first book (Dann
1996) to identify the sociolinguistic traits of tour-
ism was published. Tourism has information- Whereas there is often an overlap between (the)
providing channels, such as tour guides, word of sociology and ▶ anthropology of tourism, there is
mouth, newspapers, computer-mediated reality, no gainsaying that arguably these two social sci-
etc. Dann demonstrated that this language of tour- ence disciplines have contributed disproportion-
ism attempted to attract people and convert them ately more to the academic theorizing of tourism
from potential clients into actual ones. Tourists than ▶ economics, geography, ▶ history, ▶ polit-
had their own ways of constructing images from ical science, and psychology (Dann 2005). This
the information they sought. theoretical predominance of anthropology and
Takeuchi and Minnaert (2011) proclaimed that sociology is confirmed in a book edited by Nash
the sociolinguistic factors found in the tourism (2007) which, from its very title, focuses on the
literature were hindering the advancement of the “anthropological and sociological beginnings” of
study of tourism. One such factor was a lack of the study of tourism. This important volume com-
definitional consensus of the basic terms used in prises solicited offerings from the following rep-
tourism, due to the aesthetic or scholarly usage of resentatives of (the) ▶ sociology of tourism: Erik
the language of research. Another factor was the Cohen, Graham Dann, Marie-Françoise Lanfant,
issue of global inconsistencies. Although the term Dean MacCannell, Michel Picard, and Pierre van
“▶ social tourism” was an established part of the den Berghe. These writers, who first made their
industry, the concept had been developed in dif- mark in the 1970s, constitute some of the “golden
ferent directions. Its connotation shifted oldies” in this field (Dann 2010).
Sociology 875
Indeed such a designation is reflected in the expression “sociology of tourism” since its inclu-
contrast between their extensive Google Scholar sion presumes theoretical consensus when the real
citations and those more modestly attained by the state of affairs may more closely approximate
“rising stars” of today. Here the main difference is theoretical infancy (Dann and Cohen 1991:158).
that whereas the former leaders can easily be Hence brackets are used throughout this entry to
identified with their own original theoretical offer- designate such lack of agreement.
ings, the same cannot be equally attributed to their
followers. Even so, there are some key “golden
oldies” that have been strangely overlooked (such Sociology of tourism and immaturity
as the much quoted sociologist, John Urry, and his
well-received book, The Tourist Gaze). Other sig- That any sociology of tourism may be far from
nificant omissions include the ancient and modern mature can be due to at least four principal rea-
likes of Joffré Dumazedier, Keith Hollinshead, sons. First, there is a prevailing uncertainty as to
Jens Christian Steen Jacobsen, Scott McCabe, which mainstream branch of sociology the under-
Chris Rojek, Tom Selwyn, Richard Sharpley, developed field of tourism should be treated
Jean Didier Urbain, and Ning Wang, to name but (▶ leisure, ▶ migration, the family, ▶ religion,
a few. mobilities, etc.). Second, since tourism is multi-
It should also be noted that only two of Nash’s faceted, it requires more than one social science
“pioneers” have English as their first language, discipline to form its kaleidoscopic theoretical
thereby bucking the current trend of only includ- base. In order to achieve a genuine multidis-
ing authors whose works have been produced ciplinary understanding, it is surely senseless to
mainly by Anglophones for Anglophones (Dann claim that sociology has all the answers, a quasi
2011). Nevertheless, those sociologists without monopoly on truth.
English as their first language who were invited Third, within sociology itself, there are many
to contribute to Nash’s tome often cho(o)se to different intra-theoretical approaches that can act
publish in predominantly Anglophone books and as suitable frameworks for understanding and
journals. For this reason, a more appropriate title explanation. Historically, they range from Positiv-
for this encyclopedia entry should perhaps be ist Organicism (Émile Durkheim), Functionalism
“(The) Anglophone Sociology of Tourism” or (Talcott Parsons), and Conflict Theory (Karl
even “Towards an Anglophone Sociology of Marx) at one extreme to Formalism (Georg
Tourism.” Simmel), Social Action Theory (Max Weber),
This point becomes all the more salient with ▶ Symbolic Interactionism (George Herbert
the realization that much of the early work in (the) Mead), Ethnomethodology (Harold Garfinkel),
sociology of tourism dates back to ▶ France and ▶ Phenomenology (Alfred Schutz), and ▶ Post-
▶ Germany of the 1920s and 1930s, with leading modernism (Jean Baudrillard) at the other. Yet S
figures such as Leopold von Wiese, Hans-Magnus being totally committed to one of these schools
Enzensberger, Hans-Joachim Knebel, and Kurt (intra-disciplinary perspectives) may be too
Krapf, about half a century before it appears in restrictive. In other words, if sociology is to pro-
English (Dann and Liebman Parrinello 2009). gress, should an eclectic approach not be adopted
Thus, ironically in (the) sociology of tourism, as advocated by Dann and Cohen (1991)?
most students and their teachers today, the major- Finally, there is the whole question of ideology
ity of whom are typically monoglot Anglophone, in (the) sociology of tourism as evident in Jafari’s
may not even be aware of important earlier studies (1985) dialectical platform approach. While some
in languages other than their own. If they are so theorists may still be adhering to the advocacy
conscious, they tend to airbrush them out of their platform of solely stressing tourism’s benefits,
reading lists, if they ever were featured there in the others may only have advanced to the cautionary
first place. The other problem is the unjustified platform (emphasizing the negatives of tourism’s
employment of the preceding definite article in the impacts) or adaptancy platform (examining
876 Sociology
alternative forms of tourism). To contribute more meaning to experiences, even the experiences of
to the understanding of tourism, sociology surely death and ▶ disaster as in ▶ dark tourism
needs to secure itself on the knowledge-based (or thanatourism).
platform, without succumbing to the fallacy of The third advance is captured in the process of
tourismology whereby tourism is unrealistically interaction. Originally this was described in terms
regarded as a science. of disparities of wealth between ▶ host and guest,
particularly in the visitation of developing coun-
tries by denizens of the so-called developed
Theoretical advances world. However, there are additional differences
that are increasingly being analyzed. Following
In spite of the provisos of the previous section, it is on from the work of Edward Said who examines
still possible to speak of advances that have been the contrast between the West and the rest in his
made in the sociological treatment of tourism frequently cited book on Orientalism, sociologi-
(Dann 2000). Commencing with a number of cal attention has become more specifically
classical state-of-the-art reviews (Cohen 1984; focused on alterity and ▶ gender with their con-
Dann 2005; Dann and Cohen 1991; Sharpley comitant loss of voice in the acts of promotion and
1994), the conclusions of which have not been experience and with corresponding intellectual
since superseded; one can trace at least eight pos- gains in role play and social interaction.
itive theoretical developments that have taken The fourth advance deals with the transition
place. from regarding tourism as a ▶ system to consid-
The first of these advances is the progression ering it more in terms of the macro-processes of
from the use of typologies to motivational under- ▶ globalization and commoditization. With the
standing and explanation. The former state is a largely discredited underpinning of Functionalism
Durkheimian classificatory device that permits a in both sociology and anthropology, there are now
heuristic overview of how tourism operates, while greater opportunities for (re)establishing the con-
the latter state seeks to reveal why people ▶ travel nection with political economy. In sociology, the
beyond the confines of their daily existence in leading figure here is undoubtedly Marie-Fran-
terms of motivational push and pull factors. çoise Lanfant whose work on tourism as an inter-
A similar transition is evident in the works of national social fact (after Émile Durkheim and
Erik Cohen (arguably the leading sociologist of Marcel Mauss) is extensive.
tourism) who initially deals with types of tourists The fifth advance is demonstrated in a preoc-
based on the dichotomy of familiarity and cupation with various specific negative social
strangerhood before subsequently exploring their impacts of tourism and in its stead to open the
phenomenological characteristics. investigation to studies of social change in gen-
The second advance is from considering the eral. Here, the analysis becomes more compara-
▶ tourist as the cultural dope of Daniel Boorstin tive, as, for example, in the work of the Vienna
who is led on by the impersonal machinations of Center in the late 1980s and the round table dis-
the ▶ mass tourism industry to an alternative per- cussions of Marly-le-Roi held in ▶ France at
sonal quest for authenticity, as in the writings of roughly the same period. With the accent shifting
Dean MacCannell. This focus in turn can lead to towards social change in general, there is now
an analysis of nostalgia and imagery via the use of scope to examine forces other than tourism for
▶ semiotics, whereby attractions as markers are altering the situation and even to consider tourism
treated as signs pointing to covert reality. Now the as a spurious variable in modifying the sociocul-
emphasis turns on the use of language and tural environment when it could equally or more
how this is used to promote tourism. Seen in this be laid at the door of such a factor as
light, tourism can be considered as giving modernization.
Sociology 877
The sixth advance marks a point of conver- the social sciences, let alone sociology, today
gence in (the) sociology and anthropology of there are persons such as Graham Dann, John
tourism, namely, the issue of observer identity. Tribe, and Tazim Jamal who nevertheless main-
Here the emphasis is on the person of the investi- tain that there is still a place for paradigms in (the)
gator and the concomitant use of the first person sociology of tourism. One important argument for
singular. Now the accent is on reflexivity and the their presence is the multi-theoretical quality of
sort of ▶ knowledge outlined by Alfred Schutz in paradigms, for example, “the tourist as child” and
his Phenomenology of personal projects as “in “tourism as a form of social control” in “the lan-
order to” motivational explanations of behavior. guage of tourism,” as also the paradigms of
The seventh advance has witnessed a transition ▶ authenticity, ▶ play, and strangerhood.
from the ocular-centric to multisensory analyses Although these constituent theories may not all
of the ▶ phenomenon. Initially, there was a quasi- endure, they can still be accommodated in
total emphasis on the sense of sight with the Thomas Kuhn’s “paradigm shift” and hence by
corresponding activity of sightseeing. Vehicles definition are open to change. Whether or not such
of promotion concentrated on signs, markers, transformation is beneficial to (the) sociology of
and images that pointed to the corresponding tourism, only time will tell.
semiotics of sight in the ▶ destination. Indeed
pictures were taken of cultural icons with perhaps
See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ gaze,
a foreground of members of friends and family as
▶ motivation, ▶ postmodernism, ▶ theory.
an act of confirmation that they had actually been
there, seen this, and done that. This reliance on
sight and the tourist gaze became the central mes-
sage in the writings of such luminaries as Dean References
MacCannell and John Urry. However, with a
greater and more sympathetic awareness of dis- Cohen, E. 1984 The Sociology of Tourism: Approaches,
ability, especially among the dual impaired Issues and Findings. Annual Review of Sociology
“deafblind,” studies of motivation and behavior 10:373-392.
Dann, G. 2000 Theoretical Advances in the Sociological
that rely on ▶ senses other than sight and hearing Treatment of Tourism. In The International Handbook
are gradually becoming more frequent, though not of Sociology, S. Quah and A. Sales, eds., pp.367-384.
as regular as warranted. Even so, some change in London: Sage.
the right direction still counts as an advance. Dann, G. 2005 The Theoretical State of the Art in the
Sociology and Anthropology of Tourism. Tourism
Finally, there has been some progress in the Analysis 10:13-25.
sociological treatment of tourism from a paradig- Dann, G. 2010 Golden Oldies or Rising Stars: Whither
matic viewpoint. Based on the work of Thomas Tourism Research? Études et Rapports (Studies and
Kuhn, and a sociological conference on Guba’s Reports), série L, no. 15. Aix-en-Provence:
Centre International de Recherches at d’Études
S
“paradigm dialog,” sociologists of tourism are Touristiques.
increasingly turning their attention to such para- Dann, G. 2011 Anglophone Hegemony in Tourism Stud-
digms as post-positivism, critical theory, and con- ies. Enlightening Tourism: A Path-Making Journal
structivism, as, for example, in a series of 1(1):1-30.
Dann, G., and E. Cohen 1991 Sociology and Tourism.
seminars on “the critical turn” held in ▶ Croatia. Annals of Tourism Research 18:155-169.
Earlier still, the research committee on ▶ Interna- Dann, G., and G. Liebman Parrinello 2009 Setting the
tional Tourism of the International Sociological Scene. In The Sociology of Tourism: European Origins
Association was the first group to hold a 1996 and Developments, G. Dann and G. Liebman
Parrinello, eds., pp.1-63. Bingley: Emerald.
colloquium on “paradigms in tourism research” Jafari, J. 1985 The Tourist System: ATheoretical Approach
in Jyv€askyl€a, ▶ Finland. Although Thomas Kuhn to the Study of Tourism. Ann Arbor: University Micro-
himself did not entertain the idea of paradigms in film International.
878 Soft power
Nash, D., ed. 2007 The Study of Tourism: Anthropological attractiveness of the destination while countering
and Sociological Beginnings. Oxford: Elsevier. negative ones (Morgan et al. 2011). Destination
Sharpley, R. 1994 Tourism, Tourists and Society. Hunting-
don: Elm. branding thus becomes effective soft power tac-
tics. The Place Branding and Public Diplomacy
journal accentuates this angle.
Three, mega events such as the Olympic
Soft power Games and World Expositions are also important
in building geopolitical influence. They attract
Can-Seng Ooi tourists, showcase the destination, and communi-
Department of International Economics and cate its capabilities (Ooi 2014). Four, outbound
Management, Copenhagen Business School, tourists transmit messages of the countries they
Frederiksberg, Denmark come from. There are various stereotypes of tour-
ists based on different source countries, such that
visitors from certain origins are perceived as
A country with strong global influence is more richer, rowdier, or more courteous than others.
effective in attracting tourists, garnering invest- As a result, for instance, Chinese authorities
ments, exporting products, drawing in talented have ongoing campaigns reminding their citizens
workers, and getting one’s way in foreign of how to behave while traveling abroad.
policies. Such geopolitics is conducted through Tourism is regarded as a force for world peace
military and economic means, often known as (Pernecky 2010). Building mutual understanding
“hard power.” It is also conducted through and empathy is also part of the geopolitical matrix.
affective and symbolic means or “soft power” From a soft power perspective, the tourist is a
(Nye 2004). geopolitical subject and object. As such, soft
Soft power is transmitted through culture, power has been an implicit area of tourism studies.
political values, and foreign policies in geopoliti- It will become more explicit as policymakers and
cal competition. It is about winning the hearts and scholars are now venturing into the implications
minds of people around the world. The goal is to of global perceptions, country image, and desti-
get others to tacitly accept, emulate, and aspire to nation marketing in geopolitical and international
the country’s values, beliefs, and agenda. business terms.
A country has strong soft power if global audi-
ences empathize and feel sympathetic toward it. See also ▶ Culture, ▶ destination branding,
Global pop cultures, national promotion institu- ▶ political science.
tions (e.g., British Council, Goethe Institute),
international newspapers, and developmental aid
are some soft power channels. References
Soft power, exemplified through tourism, is
most effective when it is insidious. There are at Morgan, N., A. Pritchard, and R. Pride (eds.) 2011 Desti-
least four interrelated ways of looking at tourism nation Brands: Managing Place Reputation. Oxford:
Elsevier.
and soft power. One, tourists will develop a deeper
Nye, J. 2004 Soft Power: The Means to Success in World
understanding of the destination, which often Politics. New York: Public Affairs.
leads to greater empathy for the place. Such empa- Ooi, C. 2014 The Making of the Copy-cat City: Accreditation
thy translates into familiarity and likeability. Two, Tactics in Place Branding. In Branding Chinese Mega-
Cities: Policies, Practices and Positioning, P. Berg and
tourism authorities are tasked to present an attrac-
E. Björner, eds., pp.232-248. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
tive image of the country to the world. The mes- Pernecky, T. 2010 The Being of Tourism. Journal of Tour-
sages are meant to glorify and elevate the ism and Peace Research 1:1-22.
Solomon Islands 879
battles as part of World War II. Solomon Islands

Solomon Islands today is an independent constitutional monarchy
with Queen Elizabeth II as its head of state. In the
Kuan-Huei Lee1 and Noel Scott2 early 2000s, civil unrest led to an Australian-led
1
Singapore Institute of Technology, Singapore security mission.
2
Griffith Institute for Tourism, Griffith University, Solomon Islands’ per capita GDP is US$600,
Gold Coast, QLD, Australia ranked as one of the least developed countries by
the United Nations. More than 75 % of its work-
force is involved in subsistence/cash crop agricul-
Solomon Islands is an archipelagic country ture and fishing. The majority of export earnings
consisting of 992 islands divided into nine prov- come from logging, fishing, and mining. Tourism
inces. It is located in the South Pacific Ocean to is an important service industry. Attractions
the east of ▶ Papua New Guinea and northwest of include scuba-diving, World War II heritage,
▶ Vanuatu (Figure 1). The land mass is indigenous culture, and unspoiled nature. There
284,000 km2 (11,000 mi2). The population is were 13,700 arrivals in 2007, with Australians
around 550,000, mostly (95 %) Melanesian. The accounting more than one-third of the total
official language is English and the capital, Honi- (National Statistics Office 2013). Growth is hin-
ara, is located on Guadalcanal, the largest island. dered by the lack of infrastructure and ▶ transpor-
The earliest inhabitants arrived from New tation. Many parts of Solomon Islands are remote
Guinea. The first Spanish explorer Alvaro de from medical services and transportation is
Mendaña discovered the islands in 1568 and unreliable.
named them the Islas Salomón after finding Tourism policy is under the control of the Min-
gold. The ▶ United Kingdom established a pro- istry for Culture and Tourism while the Visitors
tectorate in 1893. In 1942 and 1943, the ▶ United Bureau undertakes promotion. There is a school
States and ▶ Japan engaged in fierce land and sea of tourism and ▶ hospitality in one of the three
Solomon Islands, Figure 1 Map of Solomon Islands

880 Somalia
Solomon Islands College of Higher Education Kenya (Figure 1). It has 637,657 km2 (246,200
campuses, and the University of the South Pacific mi2) in size, with a population of about 10.5
offers undergraduate and graduate programs in million.
tourism, hospitality, and hotel management Somalia is unofficially divided into various
(Pacific Media Centre 2013). autonomous regions of Somaliland (northwest),
Tourism remains a developing industry in the Puntland (northeast), and south-central. The latter
Solomon Islands. There is a need for development two suffer political turmoil due to the ongoing
of basic statistical data on ▶ tourist arrivals and civil war, piracy, and ▶ terrorism, which discour-
departures. This is a small country that must manages all tourism. Many cultural attractions have
age economic and social development while been destroyed, including museums and archaeo-
maintaining its environmental resources (Sofield logical sites (Mire 2007). However, Somaliland,
et al. 1996). as a self-declared internationally unrecognized
Solomon Islands offers rich natural resources, country, which bases its borders on the British
including world-class attractions. Supportive gov- Protectorate of Somaliland (1884–1960), has a
ernment policy will assist in increasing the num- nascent tourism due to homegrown peace and
ber of tourists. Future research should address ▶ development. Its tourism is mainly based on
sustainable pathways for the ▶ development of cultural heritage, encouraged by recent archaeo-
tourism in this small island nation. logical discoveries (Mire 2008). The Department
of Tourism and Archaeology, established in mid
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ fishing tour- 2007, manages natural and cultural sites, includ-
ism, ▶ historical tourism, ▶ island tourism. ing the Daalo Mountains and the famous Laas
Geel and Dhambalin cave paintings (Mire 2011).
The Red Sea beaches, including Batalale at Ber-
References bera, are unspoiled, and a few hotels specialize in
diving activities.
Pacific Media Centre 2013 Solomon Islands College Recently, in collaboration with the Depart-
of Higher Education www.pmc.aut.ac.nz/content/
ment of Tourism, a Somaliland Travel Guide
solomon-islands-college-higher-education-siche (26
December). was published (Briggs 2012). Last year, the
Sofield, T., R. Butler, and T. Hinch 1996 Anuha Island first ▶ international tourism conference was
Resort, Solomon Islands: A Case Study of Failure. In held in Hargeysa, during which an interna-
Tourism and Indigenous Peoples, R. Butler and
tional tourism agency (Dunira Strategy) and a
T. Hinch, eds., pp.176-202. London: International
Thomson Business Press. local non-governmental organization (Horn
National Statistics Office 2013 Visitor Arrivals by Country Heritage) launched the Somaliland Tourism
of Residence by Year: 2000-2007. Solomon Feasibility Report (2014). The aim was to
Islands National Statistics Office www.spc.int/prism/
assist governmental and community agencies
solomons/index.php/migration-a-tourism/visitor-arrivals
(24 December). in tourism development and the creation of
alternative livelihoods. The importance of tour-
ism is indicated by the 5-year Somaliland
National Plan, which proposes a tourism center
Somalia in Somaliland.
Increasing groups of young people initiate
Sada Mire alternative livelihoods through tourism. However,
Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands ▶ training remains underdeveloped, as is tour
guide education. Currently, Horn Heritage trains
government staff and community. Obstacles,
The Federal Republic of Somalia is located in however, include ▶ governance, national strategy
Eastern Africa, bordered by Ethiopia, and ▶ infrastructure. Moreover, negative travel
Djibouti, the Gulf of Aden, Indian Ocean, and advice that once interrupted development has
Somalia 881
Somalia, Figure 1 Map

of Somalia
recently been abated. Tourism in south-central References

and Puntland remains hindered by serious security
issues. Somaliland, however, seems committed to Briggs, P. 2012 Somaliland with Addis Abbaba and East- S
ern Ethiopia: Brandt Travel Guide. Connecticut: Globe
industry development. International ▶ tour oper-
Pequot Press.
ators include it as a possible destination. Mire, S. 2007 Preserving Knowledge, not Objects:
Most footfalls are from the Gulf and Scandinavian A Somali Perspective for Heritage Management and
countries, the ▶ United States, and the Archaeological Research. African Archaeological
Review 24(3- 4):49-71.
▶ United Kingdom, as well as the Somali dias-
Mire, S. 2008 The Discovery of Dhambalin Rock Art Site,
pora. Because of this, Mogadishu, with its new Somaliland. African Archaeological Review 25(3-
ATM machines, is improving and diaspora busi- 4):153-168.
nesses are thriving. Mire, S. 2011 The Knowledge-centered Approach to the
Somali Cultural Emergency and Heritage Development
Assistance in Somaliland. African Archaeological
Review 29:71-91.
Somaliland Tourism Feasibility Report 2014 Dunira Strat-
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ cultural tour- egy and Horn Heritage Organization. Hargeysa:
ism, ▶ development, ▶ diaspora, ▶ heritage. Edinburgh.
882 South Africa
South Africa rates highly in the areas of

South Africa friendly people, good service, adequate ▶ infra-
structure, and beautiful scenery. The country is
William P. Perry1 and Brendan M. Richard2 currently focusing on safari experiences, relying
1
Cii Hotels and Resorts, (Pty) Ltd, Johannesburg, on the diversity of its plants and animals, espe-
South Africa cially the “Big Five” game animals, in addition to
2
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, its scenic environment. It is rich in ▶ heritage and
University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA cultural products “in the form of the arts, crafts,
festivals, oral history, storytelling and folklore,
heritage sites, places of historical and cultural
South Africa is located at the southernmost tip of significance, archeological remains, paleontolog-
Africa. It is the 25th largest country in the world ical evidence, and geological formations”
(1.22 million km2; 0.47 million mi2) and the 27th (SA Tourism 2012:16). Hosting the 2010 FIFA
most populous (48.6 million), with its 2012 GDP World Cup, the first held in ▶ Africa, expanded
about US$592 billion (R5.97 trillion) (CIA 2013) tourism, improved infrastructure, and enhanced
(Figure 1). its image as a destination.
South Africa,
Figure 1 Map of South
Africa
South Sudan 883
During 2011, South Africa had a total foreign References

direct spending of $7.33 billion (R74 billion),
with an average spending of $882 (R8,900) CIA 2013 South Africa, The World Factbook. Washington
per ▶ tourist and an average length of stay of 8.3 DC: Central Intelligence Agency.
SA Department of Tourism 2011 National Tourism Sector
nights. The direct contribution of tourism to the Strategy. Pretoria: South Africa Department of
GDP is $8.35 billion (R84.3 billion), with about Tourism.
598,000 directly employed in tourism, or SA Tourism 2012 Annual Tourism Report. Pretoria: South
being 4.5 % of total employment (SA Tourism African Tourism.
Statistics South Africa 2011 Tourism, 2011 Report
2012). The total number of tourist arrivals and No. 03-51-02. Pretoria: Statistics South Africa.
departures has increased by 77.8 %, from over
19 million in 2000 to 34 million in 2011. Domes-
tic tourists grew by 41 % (7.8–10.8 million),
while international tourists increased by 103 %
(11.65–23.2 million). Arrivals numbered South Sudan
8.4 million in 2011 (74 % Africa, 26 % overseas),
placing the country 34th in the 2012 world Desmond O. Brown1 and James F. Wani2
1
rankings (in terms of total arrivals). Tourists Department of Retailing and Tourism
were from Africa (74 %), ▶ Europe (15.4 %), Management, University of Kentucky, Lexington,
North America (4.1 %), and Asia (3.6 %) KY, USA
2
(Statistics South Africa 2011). DanChurchAid, Juba, South Sudan
The Department of Environmental Affairs
and the Department of Tourism are collectively
responsible for policy development and imple- The Republic of South Sudan is located in east-
mentation, funding, promotion, and ▶ develop- central Africa. Following a peaceful referendum
ment and ▶ marketing support. The Tourism, in 2011, it became the world’s newest nation. The
Hospitality (and Sport) Education and Training country is also the 42nd largest in the world
Authority has standardized training programs, (644,329 km2) with a population of 11.5 million
while the Training and Support for Resource (CIA 2014). It is bordered by Sudan to the south,
Management Project offers training to commu- ▶ Uganda and ▶ Kenya to the north, and ▶ Ethi-
nities located near protected areas. The opia to the west (Figure 1). It derives nearly 98 %
National Tourism Sector Strategy details the of its budget revenues from oil for almost the
2020 goals in terms of arrivals, contribution totality of exports (around 80 % of GDP), with
to the GDP, and job creation. These objectives vast and largely untapped natural resources and
will be achieved by focusing on domestic and opportunities (World Bank 2013).
regional tourism development, emerging mar- Although the country is one of the largest in S
kets, business events, and youth training ini- ▶ Africa, it is one of the least visited. This is partly
tiatives (SA Department of Tourism 2011). In because it became independent in 2011. After a
order to meet its goal of becoming a top protracted civil war between the north and the
20 global destination by 2020, future research south, the country is now under a separatist gov-
can contribute by focusing on how South ernment that has limited degree of autonomy.
Africa can enhance its ▶ destination competi- There is still much work required to improve
tiveness and ensure sustainability in its travel institutions and infrastructure required for better
and tourism ▶ industry. governance (Euromonitor 2014). Currently, tour-
ism infrastructure is limited beyond its
capital, Juba.
The share of ▶ international tourism to GDP
See also ▶ Developing country, ▶ ecology, grew from 1.3 % in 2012 to 3.6 % in 2013. In
▶ ecotourism, ▶ hunting tourism, ▶ safari. 2012, the total contribution of tourism to
884 Souvenir
25 30 35 and private investors must provide appropriate
Wh
South Sudan-Sudan boundary represents
skills as well as the infrastructure to deliver them.
ite
January 1, 1956 alignment; final alignment
Nile
pending negotiations and demarcation.
SUDAN See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ Africa,
Blu
e
Abyei
▶ developing country, ▶ forest tourism, ▶ hunt-
e
Area
Nil
t
ini
ef
ing tourism.
e
ind
10 ite
indetin
Aweil Bentiu Malakal

Raga
Warrap
The
Wau Sudd ETHIOPIA
References
Wh
Tonj
ite
CENTRAL
Nil
AFRICAN Rumbek Bor

e
REPUBLIC Boma Euromonitor 2014 Travel and Tourism in South Sudan.

5 JUBA 5 Euromonitor International www.euromonitor.com/
Yambio
Torit travel-and-tourism-in-south-sudan/report (14 January).
Nimule llemi
Kinyeti Triangle CIA 2014 Central Intelligence Agency.World Fact Book
https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/
DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC
geos/od.html (15 October).
OF THE CONGO
Co
ng
World Bank 2013 Country Reports. Washington, D.C:
o KENYA
0 100 200 km
UGANDA World Bank.
25 30 35
0 100 200 mi WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact – Sudan.
South Sudan, Figure 1 Map of South Sudan
employment was 350,000 jobs (2.9 % of total

employment), while government’s spending on Souvenir
the industry accounted for only 1.2 % (WTTC
2013). Apart from ad hoc international NGOs Graziela Scalise Horodyski1 and
skills training programs for small businesses, José Manoel Gonçalves Gândara2
1
there have been little or no established programs Department of Tourism, Universidade Estadual
that enhance the “low-skill/low-quality” equilib- de Ponta Grossa, Ponta Grossa, Brazil
2
rium. Therefore, the tourism education is sparse. Universidad Federal de Parana, Curitiba, Brazil
In 2013, the Ministry of Tourism has however
proposed the establishment of national tourism
training institutions at state levels, with training Souvenirs are objects commonly offered in areas
input from the private sector. of tourist flow and consumed by most tourists at
Recognizing the industry’s considerable poten- any destination in the world, who are eager to
tial to capitalize on the country’s wildlife, a new purchase items as mementos of their experiences
stand-alone Ministry of Tourism and Wildlife in a particular destination. Thus, the consumption
Conservation was created in early 2014. South of souvenirs is part of the tourist experience
Sudan features extensive forests, grassland, (Gordon 1986). Regardless of whether it is of
lakes, grass swamps, and rivers (Euromonitor local origin or not, any product that the tourist
2014). Other unique attractions include one of takes as a keepsake from a destination is deemed
the largest animal migration routes in the world a souvenir.
as well as possessing a sizable population of clas- Souvenirs may have several meanings for each
sic safari animals (elephants, giraffes, lions, and tourist consumer of these products, as they both
cheetahs). Moreover, future facilitation measures represent the destination’s image and embody
by the government include easier visa and luggage tourists’ experiences and are therefore related to
procedures, availability of lodging facilities at experiential consumption. Therefore their use or
international standards, as well as reduction in purpose is not of primary importance, since their
lodging and transportation costs. For the symbolic value, which is individual and subjec-
industry’s potential to be realized, the government tive, prevails.
Souvenir 885
The ▶ supply of souvenirs has existed since and experience at the ▶ destination. It is also
the beginning of touristic activity. In ▶ Europe worth highlighting the research by Kim and
in the eighteenth century, a ▶ time when the Littrell (2001) that aimed to understand tourists’
▶ Grand Tour was a hallmark in tourism, for motivations for souvenir consumption.
instance, there was a market for souvenirs pro-
duced by artists. In the twentieth century, post-
cards and replicas of the most recognizable Supply and consumption in destinations
monuments appeared, and all kinds of objects
would bear the inscription “a souvenir of. . .” Touristic areas are marked by the presence of both
(Schl€
uter 1998). formal and informal stores and fairs that sell a
wide variety of products as souvenirs for visitors,
as well as other items that are not meant to be
Understanding souvenirs souvenirs but are bought by tourists for such pur-
poses. Therefore, the souvenir market is an impor-
Some questions can guide research about souve- tant part of many economic structures of the
nirs: Why do tourists buy them? What do they world.
do with the souvenirs? Are products bought for The location of souvenir sales points is also an
collections? How do souvenirs relate to the tour- important issue when it comes to the understand-
istic area? Is there a cultural connection? How ing of this subject matter. In the context of touris-
does the financial aspect influence purchases? tic ▶ activity, the souvenir trade takes an
How long do these souvenirs last? Such issues opportunity from the presence of tourists in
must be considered because souvenirs are a mod- order to sell products at the time of the visit,
ern life phenomenon with economic, psychologi- based on the concept of convenience. A souvenir
cal, and cultural importance; and research about can be bought due to its ▶ symbolic value related
souvenir consumption is a means to understand- to the place visited at the time of the
ing the tourist experience (Gordon 1986). It is purchase – some products only take on meaning
evident that souvenirs are economically valued; when offered at a given venue, a relevant aspect
however, they need to be understood as a for souvenir merchants when they decide their
▶ phenomenon (Nyffenegger and Steffen 2010). location and organize their products.
In order to approach souvenirs, the breadth of
their universe must be considered without
restricting them to a specific type of product, Consumption experiences
which would make the approach stereotyped.
Moreover, it is not up to the researcher to judge Souvenir purchases can be understood from the
their aesthetic standards because the research aspect of experiential consumption, considering S
interest must be in the phenomenon. As they are these products’ individual meanings for each tour-
objects that arouse the interest of tourists world- ist consumer. In addition, souvenir consumption
wide, researchers should learn more about can be directly related to tourism experiences and
which experiences are involved in consumer visitor’s attitudes toward the touristic space they
motivations. visited.
Considering the variety in souvenir supply at Souvenir consumption can have both a rational
most destinations around the world, many authors and emotional nature. As for rational consump-
attempt to categorize souvenirs, focusing on their tion, it is observed that many tourists have social
descriptive aspects (Gordon 1986) or their mean- obligations regarding the consumption of these
ings (Love and Sheldon 1998). Decrop and goods during their trips. Nevertheless, tourists
Masset’s (2011) work can be considered a relevant perceive such obligations as something that is
progress in studies that address souvenirs because part of their tourist experience, a ritual that gives
it was elaborated from the ▶ tourist’s perspective them pleasure, consisting of a hedonic experience.
886 Spa tourism
In the context of rational purchases, tourists are

able to objectively describe the characteristics of Spa tourism
the products they especially wish to buy: small,
low-cost, transportation-resistant pieces that carry Vicente Ramos1 and Akarapong Untong2
1
the destination’s brand. Among the rational pur- Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic
chases, there is also the acquisition of items to Development, Universidad de Las Palmas de
enhance the collections of their loved ones. Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
2
With regard to emotional consumption, under- School of Tourism Development, Maejo
standing is more complex because tourists do not University, Chiang Mai, Thailand
explicitly show the desire to consume souvenirs
for themselves. Emotional consumption occurs
when tourists unexpectedly find a ▶ product that There are no unanimous agreements regarding spa
bears special meaning to them. Due to its particu- tourism among the definitions of terms such as
lar meaning, price becomes less important for health, wellbeing, medical, and wellness tourism.
such tourist consumers, as the product becomes Taking into account the diverse discussions and
almost like a compulsory purchase. All aspects controversies, one approach is to consider medical
exposed above suggest the need for future and wellness tourism as subdivisions of ▶ health
research that aims at understanding tourist- tourism. For each of these notions, the main ele-
consumer behavior during their experience at ments must be defined based on the characteristics
their travel destination, a theme that still lacks and motivations of potential tourists. Health tour-
in-depth investigation. ism includes all the health-related activities that
fulfill the definition of tourism.
Spa tourism is part of the wellness tourism in
See also ▶ Consumerism, ▶ experience, which the experience is associated with activities
▶ image, ▶ location. that involve health improvement through hydro-
therapy or balneotherapy. The International SPA
Association defines spa as a place devoted to
overall wellbeing through a variety of profes-
References sional services that encourage the renewal of
mind, body, and spirit. The concept of spa has
Decrop, A., and J. Masset 2011 ‘I Want This Ramses’
Statue: Motives and Meanings of Tourist Souvenirs. evolved from an initial definition of a ▶ location
In Sustainability of Tourism: Cultural and Environmen- with natural thermal springs that help relieve or
tal Perspectives, M. Kozak and N. Kozak, eds., pp.17- cure sickness to that of a place for physical, men-
41. Newcastle: Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
tal, and emotional alleviation primarily through
Gordon, B. 1986 The Souvenir: Messenger of the Extraor-
dinary. Journal of Popular Culture 20(3):135-146. water. Recently, spa therapy also involves alterna-
Kim, S., and M. Littrell 2001 Souvenir Buying Intentions tive medical treatments and the use of the five
for Self versus Others. Annals of Tourism Research senses to create a physical, mental, and emotional
28:638-657.
balance. Hence, spa therapy not only involves
Love, L., and P. Sheldon 1998 Souvenirs: Messengers of
Meaning. Advances in Consumer Research - Associa- water, but also includes other forms of therapies
tion for Consumer Research 5:170-175. such as massage or yoga that emphasizes relaxa-
Nyffenegger, F., and D. Steffen 2010 Souvenirs – Local tion and alleviation of the mind, body, and spirit.
Messages: An Exploration from the Design Perspec-
tive. In Design and Semantics of Form and Movement,
L. Chen, T. Djajadiningrat, L. Feijs, S. Fraser, J. Hu,
S. Kyffin and D. Steffen, eds., pp.135-144. DeSForM History and evolution
Conference Proceedings (3-5 November 2010,
Lucerne, Switzerland).
The literature provides different roots of the term
Schl€uter, R. 1998 The Role of T-shirts in the Creation of
Tourist Destination Images. Studies and Perspectives in spa. A very popular but weakly supported hypoth-
Tourism 1(7):5-23. esis states that it is the acronym of the Latin
Spa tourism 887
“Sanitas per Aquam” (health through water or spa with the development of healthy habits as
hydrotherapy). It seems more likely that the term primary purpose; hotel and resort spa located
is an eponym of the Belgian town of Spa, which is within a resort or hotel; and medical spa that offers
derived from the old Roman name of the city, a full-time licensed healthcare professional for
Aquae Spadanae. When the town became known on-site supervision in providing comprehensive
as a ▶ destination for hydrotherapy in the four- wellness and medical care.
teenth century, the name was adopted to refer to
the product.
As a phenomenon, since prehistoric times,
there are archaeological evidences in the use of Research and challenges
hot springs in ▶ France, ▶ Czech Republic, and
the ▶ United Kingdom. However, the extensive The conventional problem of data reliability that
use of hydrotherapy is often attributed to the affects tourism activities is exacerbated in the case
Greek culture (Tubergen and Linden 2002), with of spa tourism. Several reasons for this lack of
baths at the Knossos Palace of Crete (1700–1400 data were given in the commissioned research
BC) and bathtubs in Akrotiri, Santorini report of the Global Spa & Wellness Summit of
(1600–1450 BC), being the oldest findings. The 2011. Being a relatively new niche market, data
Roman Empire adopted the tradition of collection procedures are not yet well established.
thermal baths increasing the size of the In addition, the lack of a unanimous definition is a
buildings, thanks to new architectonic develop- drawback for its field research. With these limita-
ment and water movement technologies. With tions, information tends to be incomplete. The
the fall of the Roman Empire, the bath culture 2008 Global Spa & Wellness Summit estimated
was preserved in the form of the Turkish that 17.6 million international and 124.2 million
hammams combining the Roman and Central domestic “spa trips” were taken in 2007. Compar-
Asian Turkic traditions. ing the original data of 2007 with that of 2013,
Bathing as a source of health improvement Spafinder (2013) estimated that the number of
activity was slowly recovered in ▶ Europe since spas has increased worldwide from 71,600 to
the eighteenth century with the development of 87,000, and the value of the global spa economy
spa activities in the United Kingdom City of Bath has increased from US$60 billions to $73 billions
and the extension of the use of springwater among in the same period.
Italian, German, and English physicians. Later, in By estimated total revenue, the 2008 Global
the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, hotels and Spa & Wellness Summit ranked the ▶ United
guesthouses were developed at the springs States, ▶ Japan, Germany, France, ▶ Italy, the
throughout Europe and North America United Kingdom, ▶ China, ▶ Spain, ▶ Canada,
(Tubergen and Linden 2002), making the partici- and South Korea as the top ten destinations. The S
pation of tourists in spa a relevant activity in same reasons for the lack of quality data can
destinations such as Baden, ▶ Germany. In this explain the relative scarcity in its research, with
sense, spa is one of the oldest types of tourism. Its nearly 50 papers published in academic journals.
treatments are usually combined with other The focus moves from its evolution (Bacon 1998),
▶ vacation activities in a day spa, a hotel and regional analysis (Vetitnev and Dzubina 2013),
resort spa, or a destination spa. customer profiles (Mak et al. 2009) to managerial
Following International SPA Association, spas approaches of spa activities (Madanoglu and
can be classified into different types: mineral Brezina 2008). In prospect, the aging population
springs spa, which uses on-site sources of mineral, of the main source markets and the increasing
thermal springs, or seawater; club spa which has awareness of health will result in continuous
fitness as its primary purpose and offers a variety growth of spa tourism. However, the lack of
of professionally administered services of a day expertise is the main challenge for this sector in
spa to clients on a daytime-use basis; destination the decades to come.
888 Space tourism
See also ▶ Human resource management, The Russian space program and the Interna-
▶ medical tourism, ▶ product, ▶ segmentation. tional Space Station are primarily government-
funded operations. As such, they were never
designed with commercial space tourism in
mind. However, various entrepreneurs have been
References pursuing the private development of commercial
public space tourism over the past quarter century.
Bacon, W. 1998 Economic Systems and Their Impact on A US$10 million prize, the Ansari X Prize
Tourist Resort Development: The Case of Spa in
Europe. Tourism Economics 4:21-32.
(Dinerman 2004) was offered to encourage and
Madanoglu, M., and S. Brezina 2008 Resort Spas: How reward the first private team to successfully
Are They Massaging Hotel Revenues? International develop and fly a privately financed spacecraft
Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management capable of transporting tourists into space to an
20:60-66.
Mak, A., K. Wong, and R. Chang 2009 Health or Self-
altitude of at least 100 km above the Earth’s
indulgence? The Motivations and Characteristics of surface.
Spa-goers. International Journal of Tourism Research Over 20 teams registered to compete for this
11:185-199. prize eventually won by the private company,
SpaFinder 2013 Trend Report: Top 10 Global Spa and
Wellness Trends Forecast. New York: SpaFinder.
Scaled Composites, which designed, built, and
Tubergen, A., and S. Linden 2002 A Brief History of Spa flew a prototype (known as SpaceShipOne) to
Therapy. Annals of the Rheumatic Diseases 61:273- the required altitude in 2004. Upon this success,
275. Sir Richard Branson created a new company, Vir-
Vetitnev, A., and A. Dzubina 2013 Spa-services and
Sanatorium-resort Complexes of Russia. Tourism
gin Galactic, to finance the building of new, some-
61:187-200. what larger, craft, intending to begin commercial
operations as soon as feasible. A spaceport in New
Mexico has been under construction and will
serve as the base for Virgin Galactic and other
emergent private ventures.
Space tourism
Geoffrey I. Crouch Forms of space tourism

La Trobe Law School, Faculty of Business,
Economics and Law, La Trobe University, While an authentic experience is normally associ-
Melbourne, VIC, Australia ated with the act of traveling into a zero-gravity
environment, space may be experienced in a vari-
ety of forms (Figure 1).
As humankind’s exploration of space progressed Terrestrial space tourism enables the public to
through the second half of the twentieth century, experience “space” without leaving the Earth’s
people began to dream of a day when ordinary surface. For example, tourists to space museums
people could begin to experience space travel. In can view the artifacts of humankind’s exploration
the first year of the new millennium, this dream and history in space. Some limited physical and
became a reality with the world’s first commercial psychological features of the space experience
space tourist, Mr. Dennis Tito, who paid for the may also be achieved through virtual reality,
opportunity to accompany Russian cosmonauts high-altitude jet fighter flights, and zero-gravity
for several days’ accommodation within the Inter- flights. Zero-gravity flights enable passengers to
national Space Station. Soon thereafter, several experience periods of weightlessness during the
further space tourists have repeated Tito’s experi- peaks of parabolic flight in much the same method
ence and, in doing so, have helped to finance used to train astronauts to adapt to zero-gravity
▶ Russia’s efforts in space. conditions.
Space tourism 889
Space tourism, FORMS OF SPACE TOURISM

Figure 1 Forms of space
tourism
Terrestrial ST Quasi ST Sub-orbital ST Orbital ST
Virtual High- Zero-G

reality altitude flights
flights
Suborbital space tourism, the goal of Virgin realized over the longer term. The political envi-
Galactic, involves short flights just beyond the ronment, with strained national budgets but tech-
officially recognized beginning of space (100 km nological pride and prowess at stake, will ensure
altitude). Tourists would experience zero gravity an increasing role for the private sector in both
for a short time before beginning a controlled private and public space tourism, science, and
descent to Earth. But at approximately 10 times exploration.
the height above the Earth’s surface than commer- Legal and regulatory requirements will signif-
cial passenger flights, suborbital space tourists icantly constrain and govern the nature and poten-
will experience the blackness of space and the tial for commercial space tourism. At this time,
curvature of the Earth’s surface. In terms of the US Federal Aviation Administration has
energy and the cost required, suborbital space responsibility for ensuring the control and safety
tourism requires considerably lower velocities of the new industry. Various international treaties
compared to that required to launch a spacecraft covering jurisdiction, liabilities, insurance,
into orbit around the Earth. and rights and responsibilities will also play an
Therefore, orbital space tourism is a much important role in shaping the nature of space tour-
more difficult and expensive challenge. Yet, ism. At the same time, there seems to be a recog-
there are wealthy individuals who have the capac- nition that regulation needs to take a realistic
ity and motivation to experience higher and longer approach if the economic benefits of this impor-
periods in space. Ultimately, visionaries and tant new industry are to be allowed to establish.
entrepreneurs are working to eventually construct Nevertheless, safety will be paramount and the
orbiting hotels. evolutionary pathway followed as the industry
develops will be significantly affected by any
loss of life. S
Forces shaping the future The viability of a market for space tourism
will also require health and medical criteria
The development and evolution of space tourism and physical training requirements which can be
will be subject to several forces and constraints met by at least a sizeable segment of the
(Peeters 2000). Technology and the costs of it will general public (Berenstein 2002). Finally, any
significantly impact competition and determine significant impacts on the natural environment
the most efficient and competitive forms of will also shape its viable operations. Pollution in
space flight for commercial purposes. The Ansari space, as well as in the Earth’s atmosphere, is
X Prize saw numerous technological concepts likely to be a major issue if space tourism flights
for suborbital space tourism. Some of these will grow in number to the sorts of levels envisaged by
prove to be more cost-competitive than others as many of the proponents for a space tourism
economies of scale and learning effects are industry.
890 Spain
Consumer demand shtml (18 February 2014). Washington, DC: National

Aeronautics and Space Administration and the Space
Transportation Association.
The size and viability of a commercial public mar- Peeters, W. 2000 Space Marketing: A European Perspec-
ket has been a key area of interest since dreams of tive. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer.
this new industry first began. A number of studies
have been undertaken over the past couple of
decades in order to estimate potential consumer
demand (Crouch 2001, 2005; O’Neil et al. 1998). Spain
The majority of studies, however, have been quite
simplistic. While it is difficult to estimate demand Bartolomé Deya Tortella
for a potential but yet almost nonexistent market, Business Economics Department, University of
more reliable and sophisticated studies are needed Balearic Islands, Palma de Mallorca, Spain
(Crouch et al. 2009). Existing studies have sought
to place a number on the size of the market. How-
ever, its size, rather than being a particular number, Spain, located in the southeast of ▶ Europe
is really a probability distribution of possible out- (Figure 1) and full member of the European
comes where the probabilities will be ultimately Union since 1986, covers a total area of
dependent on the evolutionary pathway taken by 504,645 km2, has a population of 46,704,000,
the industry as a function of economies of scale, and has a GDP per capita at US$30,840
technology, the forces of competition and innova- (€22,772). Since 1975, the headquarters of the
tion, the record of safety, and the way in which World Tourism Organization has been located in
consumer preferences respond to the various ways the capital city, Madrid.
in which space tourism experiences are provided.
Tourism development in Spain

See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ alternative
tourism, ▶ experience. In 2013, Spain received a total of 60.7 million
international tourists (third position worldwide),
generating a total of $60.4 billions in tourism
receipts (second position worldwide) (UNWTO
References 2014). These numbers have experienced steady
growth during the last decade, only slowed by
Berenstein, P. 2002 Space and the Body: Are We Robust the effects of the world economic crisis which
Enough to Venture Out? In Making Space Happen:
began in 2008. Based on the World Economic
Private Space Ventures and the Visionaries Behind
Them, P. Berenstein, ed., pp. 81-94. New Jersey: Plexus. Forum Travel & Tourism Competitiveness
Crouch, G. 2001 The Market for Space Tourism: Early Index, the country ranks fourth in tourism com-
Indications. Journal of Travel Research 40:213-219. petitiveness (Blanke and Chiesa 2013) and enjoys
Crouch, G. 2005 After Tito, Where to from Here?: Mar-
keting Issues in the Development of Space Tourism. In
the largest rise since 2011.
Tourism Development: Issues for a Vulnerable Indus- Tourism represents one of the most important
try, Julio Aramberri and Richard Butler, eds., industries of Spain (contributing 11 % to its total
pp.243-256. Clevedon, UK: Channel View. GDP) and traditionally has been the main driver of
Crouch, G., T. Devinney, J. Louviere, and T. Islam 2009
economic recovery in recession years. It provides
Modelling Consumer Choice Behavior in Space Tour-
ism. Tourism Management 30:441-454. employment to about 12 % of the total workforce.
Dinerman, T. 2004 Space: The Tourist Frontier. The Wall Its main tourism regions are Catalonia (with 25 %
Street Journal, January 22, p. D6. of international tourists and 22 % of hotel beds),
O’Neil, D., I. Bekey, J. Mankins, T. Rogers, and
Balearic Islands (18 % and 13 %), Canary Islands
E. Stallmer 1998 Executive Summary. In General Pub-
lic Space Travel and Tourism, Vol. 1 www.spacefuture. (18 % and 13 %), and Andalusia (13 % and 13 %).
com/archive/general_public_space_travel_and_tourism. These four regions account for about 75 % of the
Spain 891
Spain, Figure 1 Map of

Spain
total ▶ international tourism in Spain. The organized through cultural societies and associa-
▶ domestic tourism policy has traditionally been tions). Later, during the second half of the twen-
undertaken by the National Secretary of Tourism tieth century, the government developed the first
(established in 1928), belonging to the Spanish ▶ national tourism plan in 1953, and Spain moved
Ministry of Industry, Energy and Tourism. from a domestic to a more international market
Tourism studies are offered either within the orientation, giving rise to the concept of “▶ mass
postsecondary vocational ▶ training ▶ system or tourism.”
at the university level. The Spanish Vocational The tourism ▶ industry of Spain, with a typical
Education and Training System offers a wide ▶ Mediterranean climate and 7,876 km (4,893 S
range of programs, such as hotel management, miles) of coastline, is highly specialized on the
▶ travel agency management, and ▶ MICE man- sun and sand market, with a clear leadership posi-
agement. At the university level, more than tion within the main European outbound markets
60 institutions offer studies in tourism, both for (the ▶ United Kingdom and ▶ Germany). The
undergraduate and postgraduate degrees. main competitors are primarily in the Mediterra-
The ▶ history of tourism in Spain presents a nean area (especially ▶ France, ▶ Italy, ▶ Croa-
similar pattern to that observed in other European tia, ▶ Greece, ▶ Turkey, ▶ Egypt, ▶ Tunisia, and
countries (Moreno Garrido 2007). In the early ▶ Morocco) and to a lesser extent some Caribbean
twentieth century, Spain developed an incipient destinations (especially Dominican Republic,
industry, mainly based on three principal prod- ▶ Cuba, and ▶ Mexico).
ucts: ▶ leisure and health (usually organized One of the main features of Spanish tourism is
around natural hot springs), nature (principally the high degree of ▶ seasonality in arrivals in
hiking and mountain sports), and culture (often warmer months. Based on the 2013 data (and
892 Spain
65,000
60,000
55,000
Tourists
50,000
45,000
40,000
35,000
30,000
2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012
Year
Spain, Figure 2 Annual international tourist arrivals (2001–2012) (Source: ▶ UNWTO reports)
9,000
8,000
7,000
6,000
Tourists
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
1,000
0
January
February
March
April
May
June
July
Agust
September
October
November
December
Month
Spain, Figure 3 Monthly international tourist arrivals (2012) (Source: Spanish Institute of Tourism Studies reports
(Frontur))
annually observed), Spain received 47 % of the Italy (7 %), and the ▶ Netherlands (6 %)
total international ▶ tourist arrivals during the 4- (Instituto de Estudios Turisticos 2013). Around
month period from June to September, while 86 % of the visits are for leisure purposes
August (with 14 %) was the peak month (followed by meetings and businesses at 7 %).
(Figures 2 and 3). About 80 % of the arrivals are by air. Hotel
Its main inbound markets are the United King- ▶ accommodation is favored by 65 % of tourists,
dom (24 %), Germany (16 %), France (15 %), with 12.5 % staying with friends and relatives and
Special interest tourism 893
10 % in rental homes. Spain also presents a high References

level of repeat visitation, with up to 80 % having
visited the country more than once and 40 % more Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa, eds. 2013 The Travel and Tour-
ism Competitiveness Report 2013. Geneva: World
than ten times.
Economic Forum.
While Spain is considered a world leader in Instituto de Estudios Turísticos 2013 Balance del Turismo
▶ inbound tourism, its ▶ outbound tourism is en España. Año 2012. Madrid: Instituto de Estudios
much smaller. Based on the 2012 data, 93 % of Turísticos.
Moreno Garrido, A. 2007 Historia del Turismo en España
the Spanish trips were made within the country,
en el siglo XX. Madrid: Editorial Síntesis.
and only 12.2 million trips were made abroad, UNWTO 2014 Annual Report 2013. Madrid: World Tour-
mainly to European countries (Instituto de ism Organization.
Estudios Turisticos 2013).
Future challenges and opportunities Special interest tourism
Spain nowadays holds a prominent position in Kelly J. MacKay

international tourism rankings and a leading posi- Ted Rogers School of Hospitality and Tourism
tion in attracting the European outbound sun and Management, Ryerson University, Toronto,
beach market. There are three main challenges Canada
that should be addressed in the years to come.
The first is the reduction in seasonality of arrivals.
This can be achieved through the development of
new products such as sports, health, senior, and At its most basic, special interest tourism is ▶ lei-
▶ cultural tourism. The second challenge is to sure ▶ travel where the ▶ activity of interest dom-
increase its market share of inbound tourism inates and directs ▶ destination selection. The first
from new emerging countries, such as ▶ Brazil, book on the topic was compiled by Weiler and
▶ Russia, ▶ India, and ▶ China, which today Hall (1992). Significant conceptual work by
only accounts for 3.2 % of all arrivals. The third Brotherton and Himmetoglu (1997) distinguishes
challenge is to reduce negative externalities that special interest tourists (activity focused) from
tourism generates over environmental resources, general (destination focused) and mixed interest
which usually results in increasing negative tourists. While variations and extensions of this
▶ attitudes among the local population. conceptualization abound, the common defini-
In recent decades, there has been a growing tional element of special interest tourism is the
recognition of the need to achieve long-term specific interest-based motivation (▶ history,
▶ sustainable tourism ▶ development, and public wildlife, rock climbing, ▶ ethnic tourism, art, S
institutions are being forced to develop initiatives and ▶ heritage).
that will reconcile tourism growth with sustain- Interest-based tourism is not new; for example,
able management of environmental resources. traveling to view nature and wildlife or to partake
Among the various environmental impacts, the in therapeutic sea bathing were popular upper-
effect of tourism development on water resources class pursuits in the eighteenth century. It was
is one of the most relevant impacts. Tourist not until the 1990s, however, that the industry
demand for water can generate serious problems and academics turned their attention to it as a
of overexploitation or depletion in places where product and/or segmentation strategy. Today, this
water resources are in scarcity, such as coastal and market’s explosive growth continues with increas-
small island destinations. ing categorizations. What started predominantly
as ▶ ecotourism and ▶ cultural tourism, in part as
See also ▶ Destination, ▶ Europe, ▶ mass tour- a reaction against more traditional forms of
ism, ▶ seasonality, ▶ sustainability. tourism to address economic, social, and
894 Sport tourism
environmental concerns, has splintered into a References

plethora of commoditized offerings (▶ dark tour-
ism, ▶ wine tourism, sport tourism, ▶ agritour- Brotherton, B., and B. Himmetoglu 1997 Beyond
Destinations: Special Interest Tourism. Anatolia
ism). Early ▶ work on special interest tourism
8(3):11-30.
mainly focused on eco-tourism, with Wight Trauer, B. 2006 Conceptualizing Special Interest Tourism.
(1996a, b) providing seminal insights on differ- Tourism Management 27:183-200.
ences between them and ▶ mass tourists in terms Weiler, B., and C. Hall (eds.) 1992 Special Interest Tour-
ism. London: Belhaven.
of demographics (middle-aged, higher income,
Wight, P. 1996a North American Ecotourists: Market Pro-
and ▶ education), behaviors (higher spending, file and Trip Characteristics. Journal of Travel Research
longer stays), and motivation (focus on 34(4):2-11.
▶ environment). Wight, P. 1996b North American Ecotourism Markets:
Motivations, Preferences, and Destinations. Journal of
Its classification is also one of degree.
Travel Research 35(1):3-10.
Brotherton and Himmetoglu (1997) propose sub-
divisions from dabbler to fanatic. Extension of
their work by Trauer (2006) considered the influ-
ences of serious leisure, ▶ recreation specializa-
tion, and enduring involvement on the nature of Sport tourism
activity interest. Tourism recognizes these seg-
ments as opportunities across the market spectrum Chollada Mongkhonvanit and Sean Meadows
and provides experiences that span from “hard” to Faculty of Liberal Arts, Siam University, Phasi
“soft” or “serious” to “casual,” both within and Charoen, Thailand
across activities. For example, cycle tourism
packages are available to suit novice-to-expert
riders based on distances traveled, terrain, recrea- Dating back to the ancient Olympic Games, sports
tional or competitive, presence/absence of support have long influenced ▶ travel. However, a large
vehicles, and the like. number of tourists seeking active or passive
The definitional ambiguity of this market also involvement in sports are a relatively recent
exists by its intersections with geography ▶ phenomenon (Delpy 1998). Sport tourism con-
(▶ rural tourism), events (festivals), and affinity siders sports as an ▶ attraction and can be defined
(seniors) groups (Trauer 2006). To illustrate, as a temporary ▶ leisure visit of excursionists,
rural tourism can be based on ▶ culture, food, tourists, and sport fans to observe and/or physi-
nature, or any variety of products, but the con- cally participate in the events (Green and Lau-
cept across its ever-growing list of forms rence 2003). Examples include football games,
includes both demand and ▶ supply compo- golf tournaments, and hallmark events, such as
nents: the ▶ tourist’s main motive for visiting the Olympic Games and the World Cups. The
and a destination’s offerings. Special interest concept also refers to visits to sports-related
tourism is a response to concerns of mass tour- venues, such as hallmark stadiums and homes of
ism’s ▶ sustainability and customized leisure athletes.
activities driven by tourists seeking quality expe- As a specialized segment of tourism, it is both
riences. Issues for future research on this topic attending a sporting event and visits to well-
point to corporate social responsibility and known sites or related museums such as nostalgia
▶ destination branding on the supply side and sport tourism (Gibson 2003). Major motivations
understanding increasingly knowledgeable and include fan pilgrimages and incidental visits to
skilled tourists on the demand side. events (Gibson et al. 2003). These visits usually
take place in locations where there is a sporting
legacy; hence, these tourists going to the particu-
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ nature tourism, lar ▶ destination are in search of nostalgia, ▶ cul-
▶ recreation, ▶ sport tourism. ture, and/or ▶ authenticity.
Sri Lanka 895
Research has gradually moved away from Green, C., and C. Laurence 2003 Sport Tourism as the
descriptive documentation toward explanation Celebration of Subculture. Annals of Tourism Research
25:275-291.
and understanding of sports tourism. Recent stud-
ies have analyzed the complex spatial and tempo-
ral relationships involved and have offered several
classifications of the concept. Gammon and Rob-
inson (2003) argue that the notion can be divided
Sri Lanka
into hard and soft sports tourism. The former
Nalaka Godahewa
refers to passive or active participation in a com-
Securities and Exchange Commission of
petitive event, while the latter includes active rec-
Sri Lanka and Sri Lanka Tourism, Colombo,
reational participation in the sport. Therefore,
Sri Lanka
sport tourism can be categorized into active,
event, and nostalgia (Gibson 2003).
The major factors affecting the growth of sport
The Democratic Socialist Republic of Sri Lanka
tourism include economic, political, and social-
(65,610 km2; 25,332 mi2) is located 31 km off the
demographic trends. ▶ Economic development
southern coast of ▶ India (Figure 1). It is home to
attracts tourists to sports destinations and a stable
a multiethnic, multireligious, and multicultural
political ▶ environment continues to be a precur-
society. Out of a population of 21 million, Sinha-
sor to any sports tourism growth. Tourism entre-
lese represents 74.9 %, Tamil 15.4 %, and others
preneurs, indigenous groups, multinational
9.7 %. While 70.2 % of the people practice Bud-
corporations, terrorists, transnational organized
dhism, more than a quarter of the population fol-
crimes, and other non-state actors will also influ-
lows other faiths such as Hinduism (12.6 %),
ence travel and attendance at hallmark events
Islam (9.7 %), Christianity (7.4 %), and others
through the promotion and ▶ marketing of ▶ eth-
(0.1 %).
nicity, culture, ▶ ideology, and presence of risks
The twelfth-century explorer Marco Polo
or threats of violence. ▶ Future studies can shed
described Sri Lanka as “the finest island in the
light on the nuanced relationship between sports
entire world.” Geographically well positioned on
and tourism, its niche markets, and travel flows
that give meaning to and create unique
experiences.
10 80 82 10
INDIA Jaffna
See also ▶ Activity, ▶ nostalgia tourism, Bay
Palk Bay of
▶ Olympic tourism, ▶ pilgrimage tourism, Bengal
▶ recreation. Mannar
S
Trincomalee
References Gulf Anuradhapura

8 of Puttalam
8
Mannar Polonnaruwa Batticaloa
Delpy, L. 1998 An Overview of Sport Tourism: Building
Towards a Dimensional Framework. Journal of Vaca- Matale
Kalmunai
Kandy
tion Marketing 4:23-38. Negombo
Pidurutalgala
Gammon, S., and T. Robinson 2003 Sport and Tourism: COLOMBO
A Conceptual Framework. Journal of Sport Tourism Badulla
Sri Moratuwa
8:21-26. Jayawardenepura Ratnapura
Gibson, H. 2003 Sport Tourism: An Introduction to the Kotte Beruwala
Special Issue. Journal of Sport Management 17:205- Galle
213. 0 30 60 km 6
Gibson, H., C. Willming, and A. Holdnak 2003 Small 0 30 60 mi 80 INDIAN OCEAN 82
Scale Event Sport Tourism Fans as Tourists. Tourism
Management 24:181-190. Sri Lanka, Figure 1 Map of Sri Lanka
896 Stakeholder
the sea route connecting the East and the West, Sri References
Lanka was a thriving sea port that was well
renowned for its spices, ivory, and precious CBSL 2010 Annual Report. Colombo: Central Bank of Sri
Lanka.
stones. The first European colonists to arrive in
Department of Census and Statistics 2013 Economic and
the country were the Portuguese in 1505, who Social Statistics of Sri Lanka. Colombo: Ministry of
were ousted by the Dutch in 1638. The British Finance and Planning of Sri Lanka.
captured the power from the Dutch in 1796 and Peebles, P. 2006 The History of Sri Lanka. Westport:
Greenwood Press.
ruled until the country gained independence in
SLTDA 2012 Tourism Development Strategy (2011-
1948 (Peebles 2006). 2016). Colombo: Sri Lanka Tourism Development
Sri Lanka is a tropical island which can be Authority.
explored fully within a few days. The central SLTDA 2013 Annual Statistical Report – 2012. Colombo:
Sri Lanka Tourism Development Authority.
part of the island is mountainous and the rest is
mostly flat. The average temperature varies from
27 C in the coastal lowlands to 16 C in the
central highlands. The country offers a variety of
tourism attractions, including 1,340 km of coast- Stakeholder
line; eight UNESCO world heritage sites that span
from ancient ruins to colonial era monuments; Azizan Marzuki1 and Iain Hay2
1
exotic wildlife such as elephants, leopards, School of Housing Building and Planning,
whales, and endemic birds; scenic mountains Universiti Sains Malaysia, Georgetown, Pulau
with waterfalls; long traditions of ayurveda, Pinang, Malaysia
2
yoga, and meditation practices; a wide range of School of Environment, Flinders University,
sports activities; and year-round cultural and reli- South Australia, Bedford Park, Australia
gious festivals.
Tourism in Sri Lanka was stagnant for several
decades due to a 30-year-long internal conflict The term “stakeholder” was coined first by
which ended in 2009. Arrivals were less than Stanford Research Institute in a 1963 internal
450,000 in 2009 and exceeded one million by memorandum to mean “those groups without
2012. The government forecasts 2.5 million whose support the organization would cease to
arrivals by 2016. Tourism is expected to be a exist” (Freeman and Reed 1983: 89). The expres-
new growth industry in the economy generating sion was expanded over time to acknowledge
around US$3.5 billion in annual revenue by 2016 broader sets of relationships (deKoninck 2007),
while providing employment for about 500,000 and in 1983 Freeman and Reed proposed
people (SLTDA 2012, 2013). Its contribution to usefully that the 1963 understanding be extended
GDP which was less than 1 % in 2009 is expected to recognize any “identifiable group or individual
to reach 3.5 % by 2016 (CBSL 2010; Department who can affect the achievement of an organiza-
of Census and Statistics 2013). tion’s objectives or who is affected by the
The Sri Lanka Institute of Tourism and Hotel achievement of an organization’s objectives”
Management is the premier academy that trains (1983: 91).
and educates industry professionals up to diploma
level, whereas a few universities have started
offering Master programs. There is high potential Stakeholders in tourism
for education, training and research in ▶ travel,
tourism, and ▶ hospitality management. From its ▶ management origins, the term stake-
holder was applied eventually to tourism in the
1980s. This has come to refer to any agent or
See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ heritage, ▶ island instrument affected by or influencing the actions
tourism, ▶ sport tourism, ▶ wildlife tourism. of tourism-related organizations, government
Stakeholder 897
agencies, companies, or associations. It relates to understood and synthesized into the strategic
those with legitimate interests in an organization’s framework of the business” (Robson and Robson
activities, irrespective of its interest in them. Some 1996:534). However, the boundary between who
scholars have argued that all stakeholders’ inter- is and is not a stakeholder is imprecise: a stake-
ests have intrinsic value (Donaldson and Preston holder in one place or ▶ time may be not a stake-
1995). That is, their views and opinions warrant holder in another situation. Moreover, groups and
attention in their own right, not because they individuals among them are neither homogenous
might advance the interests of the organization nor do they have equal access to ▶ resources and
or corporation. Major groups in tourism include opportunities to be involved in decisionmaking
tourists, residents, nongovernment organizations, activities.
and private and public sectors, each with different
and internally diverse interests, needs, and
expectations. Challenges in stakeholder involvement
Depending on the nature and extent of their
connection with an organization or tourism Stakeholder involvement has been emphasized as
initiative, stakeholders may be subdivided into a critical step within tourism development and
different conceptual and applied groups. For activity, particularly in decisionmaking processes.
example, some may have formal, official, or con- This is not only to ensure development of a shared
tractual ties to a tourism entity, while others main- vision but also to enhance tourism’s sustainability,
tain peripheral or less formal connections. Of broadly speaking, and to curtail fragmented devel-
course, many can be in both camps simulta- opments. Liaison and cooperation among stake-
neously (a local community member working holders can be central to achieving the various
with a tourism project proponent). benefits of tourism. Their collaboration can
In this sense, stakeholders can be classified as reduce the cost of conflict resolution, offer legiti-
either being primary or secondary parties. The macy to an initiative, and also draw from and
former are those upon whom the organization build upon their knowledge and capabilities.
depends directly for its immediate existence or However, as deKoninck (2007) observed, stake-
conversely for their own wellbeing (e.g., hotel holder involvement can be problematic, creating
shareholders); the latter are those who affect or situations where competing interests have equal
are affected by the initiative but are not critical, as access to decisionmakers, with no clear criteria for
they are not engaged directly with one another evaluating either their claims as stakeholders or
(e.g., fruit and vegetable provider to a large met- their potential agendas. Their multiple claims may
ropolitan hotel). Motivation to participate in also reduce the importance of more significant
an initiative is another basis upon which stake- interests. Other challenges arise from an array of
holders are identified or defined. Active stake- factors, including the level of stakeholders’ inter- S
holders seek involvement in the undertaking, est in the issues, their openness and accessibility
while passive ones have less motivation. An to decisionmaking processes, and power
example might be local farmers engaged in dis- relationships.
cussions about a new tourism ▶ development Some challenges may be resolved through bet-
[active] compared with an absentee landlord ter approaches to tourism decisionmaking pro-
whose property holding is affected by the same cesses: from project conception to operation.
development [passive]. Arnstein’s (1969) ladder of participation describes
Stakeholder theory presumes that there is a a continuum of stakeholder participation from
moral obligation to involve players meaningfully passive information circulation (manipulation) to
in decisionmaking and benefit (or harm) distribu- the highest level of involvement and empower-
tion processes. Relationships with stakeholders ment (citizen control). According to Reed, “stake-
are developed to “ensure that analyses of con- holder participation needs to be underpinned by a
cerns, goals, values and responsibilities are philosophy that emphasizes empowerment,
898 Statistics
equity, trust and learning. . .it must be institution-

alized, creating organizational cultures that can Statistics
facilitate processes where goals are negotiated
and outcomes are necessarily uncertain” Cristi Frent
(2008:2426). Icelandic Tourism Research Centre, Reykjavik,
Stakeholder involvement in tourism can be Iceland
improved by keeping all parties informed and
placated. Tourism developers and operators may
actually find efficiencies and improvements in The term statistics has several meanings. It could
their work by considering the interests of stake- be an activity of collection, organization, analysis,
holders and being sensitive to their needs. Proac- and interpretation of data. It could refer to figures
tive engagements may forestall future difficulties and numbers characterizing different phenomena.
and ensure long-term benefits for all. Self- Statistics could also designate a discipline which
evidently, the future of tourism stakeholder has its own methods of research. Meanwhile, sta-
research requires continuing exploration of all of tistics are applied to different fields of studies
these aspects. But more than this, future work including social sciences such as ▶ economics,
should include heightened critical examination sociology, and geography. Tourism, as a distinct
of the ways in which interests of some stake- activity, also relies on quantitative data and infor-
holders are deliberately or inadvertently margin- mation observed from a ▶ phenomenon. How-
alized and how such marginalization might be ever, due to its nature as an economic activity,
overcome. the measurement of it has challenged statisticians
and economists since the 1930s (Smith and
Massieu 2005). Sufficient and adequate data gen-
See also ▶ Community development, erate credible statistics enabling one to undertake
▶ decisionmaking, ▶ partnership, ▶ policy and different types of analysis of tourism (UNSD-
policymaking. UNWTO 2008: 1). Some scholars consider that
the way statistics has been used in tourism
research and the degree to which it has been
applied have largely depended on the quality of
the theoretical ▶ knowledge that has been gener-
References ated in this field over the last few decades (Palmer
et al. 2005).
Arnstein, S. 1969 A Ladder of Citizen Participation.
Journal of the American Institute of Planners 35:216-
224.
deKoninck, V. 2007 Deconstructing the Stakeholder:
A Case Study from Garig Gunak Barlu National Park, Tourism statistics
Australia. International Journal of Biodiversity Science
and Management 3:77-87.
Donaldson, T., and L. Preston 1995 The Stakeholder
In the field of tourism, both tourists and suppliers/
Theory of the Corporation: Concepts, Evidence, and producers of goods and services are observed.
Implications. The Academy of Management Review Consequently, there are two major pillars in
20:65-91. collecting tourism statistics: from demand and
Freeman, R., and D. Reed 1983 Stockholders and Stake-
holders: A New Perspective on Corporate Governance.
from supply sides. Thus, tourism is viewed in a
California Management Review 25:88-106. dual perspective, as a demand-side activity as it
Reed, M. 2008 Stakeholder Participation for Environmen- refers to all activities of tourists in their status as
tal Management: A Literature Review. Biological consumer of goods and services and as a supply-
Conservation 141:2417-2431.
Robson, J., and I. Robson 1996 From Shareholders to
side activity as a set of productive actions that
Stakeholders: Critical Issues for Tourism Marketers. serve tourists. However, it is considered that
Tourism Management 17:533-540. demand side is one of the more common
Statistics 899
perspectives, because it focuses on tourism as a In order to facilitate international comparabil-

human experience (Smith and Massieu 2005). ity of tourism statistics, ▶ UNWTO released two
From demand side, data are gathered on char- major documents in 2008 which are considered
acteristics of trips (purpose, duration, modes of international standards for tourism statistics:
transport, main destination, types of accommoda- International Recommendations on Tourism Sta-
tions, organization of trips – packaged or not, tistics (UNSD-UNWTO 2008) and Tourism Sat-
related expenditure) and characteristics of tourists ellite Account: Recommended Methodological
(age, ▶ gender, marital status, nationality, citizen- Framework (TSA:RMF 2008). These documents
ship, level of education, place of residence, occu- provide guidelines to ensure a standardization of
pation, household income). Supply-side statistics some tourism terminology, definitions, classifica-
are usually gathered from establishments which tions, and concepts at international level. Tourism
are defined as enterprises (or parts of it) that are Satellite Account is a statistical instrument that
settling in a single location and in which only a measures the economic contribution of tourism
single productive activity is carried out. The most to an economy by presenting in detail all aspects
common data gathered are on receipts/sales/reve- of goods and services purchased by tourists.
nues, operating expenses, ▶ employment, taxes It is important to mention that both of the 2008
paid, capacity, ▶ location, prices, occupancy, documents address tourism statistics at national
and amenities. Specific statistical indicators are level, and no international standards were being
used by the accommodation sector: revenue per released for measuring it at local or regional level.
available room, average daily rate, number of However, International Network on Regional
room/bed nights, room/bed occupancy, number Economics, Mobility and Tourism, a nonprofit
of guests/arrivals in accommodation establish- association operating in support of UNWTO, is
ments, and average length of stay. working for setting the foundations in order to
Tourism statistics are used for monitoring its facilitate the comparability of tourism statistics
development and its demand, establishing the at regional level. In this case, work is still under
▶ tourist profile, evaluating the effectiveness of progress.
marketing campaigns, forecasting its demand, Indeed, one of the greatest challenges in tour-
estimating its economic contribution and impacts, ism statistics is international comparability of
designing and implementing strategies and poli- data. Although there are international standards,
cies. Some scholars claim that the three most endorsed by organizations such as UNWTO,
frequently used statistical techniques in tourism Organization for Economic Cooperation and
research are linear regression model, factor and Development, or Statistical Office of the Euro-
▶ principal component analysis, and analysis of pean Communities (Eurostat), their applicability
variance (Palmer et al. 2005:175). to the particular situation to some extent might
limit the standardization process of tourism statis- S
tics worldwide. This is the reason why, at present,
International standards caution should be taken when comparing statistics
among countries. The situation becomes even
Since 1968, when the United Nations Statistical more complicated when international comparabil-
Commission endorsed definitions for ▶ interna- ity at subnational (regional) level is envisaged.
tional tourism, the development of statistical con- Another future challenge relates to the increas-
cepts and frameworks for tourism has not kept ing need to reduce the costs of producing tourism
pace with the changes in nature and significance statistics while maintaining or increasing their
of tourism worldwide (World Tourism Organiza- accuracy. This can be done at least by establishing
tion 1995: iii). One should take into account that new survey methods (e.g., online surveys), by
data should be comparable over time, comparable adding questions to existing surveys, or by using
within the countries, and comparable with other new data sources (Bartle 2015). Some of new data
fields of economic activities. sources are a consequence of emerging new
900 Stereotype
technologies such as mobile internet from For example, Pattaya, in ▶ Thailand, continues to
smartphones and other portable devices (e.g., be linked with ▶ sex tourism, despite its current
mobile positioning data). Exploring at full capac- diversity as a beach resort.
ity these new data sources would provide new Originally, the concept was developed in psy-
perspectives on ▶ development for tourism chology, with a number of interlinked definitions.
statistics. In tourism, stereotyping is of scientific interest in
connection with social groups. People perceive
See also ▶ Quantitative research, ▶ Tourism destinations and those at the scene, hosts and
Satellite Account, ▶ World Tourism Organization. guests, according to a categorizing ▶ gaze
(Caton and Santos 2009; Pritchard 2000). Some
tourists are considered to be “agreeable” or “dis-
agreeable,” as an example, depending on the soci-
References etally constructed views of the observers (Cohen
1993).
Bartle, D. 2015 The Use of Statistics to Evaluate Contrary to common belief, a stereotype is not
Tourism Policy. UNWTO Statistics and TSA Issue
Paper Series http://statistics.unwto.org/en/content/
necessarily negative; it can be neutral or positive.
papers (14 April). In fact, stereotyping is the common way by which
Palmer, A., A. Sese, and J. Montano 2005 Tourism and one attempts to understand the surrounding diver-
Statistics: Bibliometric Study 1998–2002. Annals of sity of phenomena, by filling the gaps of knowl-
Smith S., and A. Massieu 2005 Tourism Statistics. In
edge with generalizations, approximations, and
Encyclopedia of Social Measurement, Kimberly imagination in order to construct a full picture.
Kempf Leonard, ed., pp.863-868. Amsterdam: The result may not be altogether reliable, but still
Elsevier. it provides a reassuring sense of order and
TSA: RMF 2008 Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended
Methodological Framework http://unstats.un.org/unsd/
▶ knowledge.
publication/Seriesf/SeriesF_80rev1e.pdf (6 March In certain cases, a stereotype may be shared by
2015). those who are the subjects and objects of it, the
UNSD-UNWTO 2008 International Recommendations image thereby becoming a “sociotype,” or a social
on Tourism Statistics. Madrid: World Tourism
Organization.
stereotype. Some archetypal images may serve as
UNWTO 1995 Collection and Compilation of Tourism markers of collections of images and conse-
Statistics: A Technical Manual. Madrid: World quently become powerful in destination market-
Tourism Organization. ing. In other words, an image of the Taj Mahal
brings to mind other features thought to be char-
acteristic of ▶ India.
Tourism stereotypes are often (re)produced in
Stereotype the ▶ media and may be studied by analyzing
texts and imageries. Direct study of stereotypic
Petri Hottola perceptions, however, remains methodologically
FUNTS, University of Eastern Finland, challenging, because of the number of possible
Savonlinna, Finland attributes. Reducing their number for a
survey form by a guesstimate might easily bias
the result. Therefore, the primary need for future
A stereotype is a generalized perception of quali- research in tourism stereotypes lies in the devel-
ties attached to an object. The attachments may be opment of methodology. A collage method has
correct or not, or something in-between, but they been proposed to overcome the problem by letting
remain resistant to change. That is, a tourism tourists themselves decide the primary features of
▶ destination may have a widely adopted image, their perceptions, for instance in regard to the
with a set of characterizations, and this image ▶ United States and its typical inhabitants
lingers on, despite changes in the actual setting. (Hottola 2012).
Stranger 901
See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ ethnicity, Just like tourists, strangers are mobile, hav-
▶ gaze, ▶ image, ▶ methodology. ing left their place of origins and set foot in a
new space. They combine two opposites: wan-
dering and fixation or nomadism and territorial
References attachment. The stranger breaks away from his
native roots; his space opens up, becomes
Caton, K., and C. Santos 2009 Images of the Other: Selling more complex, and must be redefined. At the
Study Abroad in a Postcolonial World. Journal of
same time, the stranger becomes “a man with-
Travel Research 48:191-204.
Cohen, E. 1993 The Study of Touristic Images of Native out history.” He has been disconnected from
People: Mitigating the Stereotype of a Stereotype. In his past, and his future is a permanent question
Tourism Research: Critiques and Challenges, D. Pearce mark. Like the tourist, he has been associated
and R. Butler, eds., pp.36-69. London: Routledge.
with the postmodern nomad or the cosmopol-
Hottola, P. 2012 The Sociotype of USA and the Americans:
Mr. Brad and Mrs. Pamela America from California. itan “citizen of the world” who lives in various
Tourism Geographies 14:555-569. worlds without settling. The tourist, however,
Pritchard, A. 2000 Ways of Seeing “Them” and “Us”: has often been associated with a stranger who
Tourism Representation, Race and Identity. In Expres-
refused to leave his environmental “bubble”
sions of Culture, Identity and Meaning in Tourism,
M. Robinson, P. Long, N. Vans, R. Sharpley and (Cohen 1979).
J. Swarbrooke, eds., pp.245-262. Sunderland: Business The tourist has not been socialized in his new
Education Publishers. environment. He still belongs to the old environ-
ment of his origins. The question becomes in
which ways societies open up or not to new-
Stranger comers, from fear and rejection to tolerance and
even attraction. The stranger is in a confusing
Rami K. Isaac1 and Vincent Platenkamp2 position between participation and detachment.
1
Academy for Tourism, NHTV Breda University As an outsider, he seems to be objective but
of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands remains enclosed in his former perspective on
2
Centre for Cross Cultural Understanding, NHTV his new environment. As a new insider, he
University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The remains at some distance because of his unfamil-
Netherlands iarity to the new group. The ambivalence of this
position makes him the representative of a certain
strangeness of humans to themselves. The tourist
Strangers have been part of the lifeworlds across seems to avoid this strangeness through his envi-
time, place, and academic disciplines. The actual ronmental bubble, but he is searching for the
sociological discussion started with Georg unfamiliar as well.
Simmel. According to him, “the stranger is an In tourism discourse, the stranger becomes the S
element of the group itself, not unlike the poor tourist (MacCannell 1976). However, Cohen
and sundry ‘inner enemies’ – an element whose (1979) maintains that there is no such thing as
membership within the group involves both being the tourist; rather there are different types, includ-
outside it and confronting it” (Levine 1971: ing the drifter who experiences novelty the most.
143–144). Simmel treats the stranger as a natural Does the strangeness of modern man become the
member of the group. The stranger differs from rule in (post)modern society? Is the tourist a post-
the other “sundry inner enemies” because of his modern nomad, a citizen of the world, or does he
previous membership to another language- live on the surface of life, blasé and easily bored,
culture. He defines the formal position of the looking for new thrills?
stranger as “constituting a specific type of con-
stellation, which joins together various paradoxes
and tensions, notably distance and proximity” See also ▶ Cosmopolitanism, ▶ drifter, ▶ moti-
(Murphy-Lejeaune 2002:12). vation, ▶ novelty, ▶ Other.
902 Strategy
References such, strategy in tourism entails futuristic thinking

and developing a course of actions to meet goals
Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences. and objectives of an organization through utiliz-
Sociology 13:179-201.
ing ▶ resources and competences to ensure its
Levine, D., ed. 1971 George Simmel: On Individuality and
Social Forms. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. sustainability and satisfy its stakeholders
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the (Okumus et al. 2010).
Leisure Class. New York: Schocken. There are three levels of strategy. Corporate-
Murphy-Lejeaune, E. 2002 Student Mobility and Narrative
level strategy focuses on the overall purpose and
in Europe: The New Stranger. London: Routledge.
scope of a tourism corporation, how value can be
added, and how different business units under this
corporation can work together. Business-level
strategy is about how a unit/brand can compete
Strategy in particular markets in the tourism ▶ industry.
Finally, operational-level strategies focus on how
Fevzi Okumus different operational parts function, utilize, and
Rosen College of Hospitality Management, develop ▶ resources and competencies to support
University of Central Florida, Orlando, USA business- and corporate-level strategies. It is
assumed that establishing and maintaining link-
ages among these three levels of strategy can lead
The word strategy comes from the Greek to the creation of sustainable ▶ competitive
strategos, which means “general.” It means advantage for tourism organizations (Okumus
“leader of the army.” On the other hand, military et al. 2010).
strategy deals with ▶ planning and execution in a
war setting, while taking into consideration the
strategy and tactics required to execute the war
plan. Strategy literature has been particularly Strategy for tourism organizations
influenced by various disciplines including ▶ his-
tory, military, biology, psychology, ▶ political A tourism organization exists to create value for
science, ▶ economics, ▶ marketing, finance, and its stakeholders. In order to do so, it should have a
organizational behavior (Mintzberg et al. 1998). sustainable ▶ competitive advantage over its
Therefore, there are diverse and conflicting views competitors. Attainment of this goal requires
on defining strategy and strategic management. developing and following a formal approach for
Reflecting these different disciplines, strategy is an organization, which consists of four
seen as a design, plan, process, experience, ideas, overlapping phases: analysis, formulation, imple-
policies, and ▶ discourse (Johnson et al. 2008). In mentation, and control. Strategic analysis refers to
line with these different views, specific definitions defining the direction of a firm’s ▶ future and
of strategy have been proposed. For example, focuses on analyzing internal and external envi-
Schendal and Hofer (1979) define strategy as the ronments. Internal analysis leads to identifying
basic pattern of present and planned resource allo- strengths and weaknesses, whereas external anal-
cations and environmental interactions that deter- ysis helps in identifying opportunities and threats.
mine how the objectives of an organization can be This is also referred to as ▶ SWOT analysis.
achieved. According to Johnson, Scholes, and Strategy formulation is the process of developing
Whittington, “strategy is the direction and scope corporate-, business-, and functional-level strate-
of an organization over the long term, which gies. This includes making strategic decisions that
achieves advantage in a changing environment can have an effect on the firm’s long-term direc-
through its configuration of resources and compe- tion. Strategy implementation is the process of
tences with the aim of fulfilling stakeholder putting formulations into action. Finally, strategic
expectations” (2008:9, italics in original). As control is the process of evaluating whether the
Structural equation modeling 903
intended strategies and decisions are implemented See also ▶ Destination marketing organization,
(Okumus et al. 2010). ▶ entrepreneurship, ▶ management, ▶ planning.
Several key strategy terms should be defined.
For example, mission is a brief description of the
very purpose of creating a tourism organization.
A mission statement includes a clear purpose and References
states why the organization is in existence. Vision,
on the other hand, describes where the organiza- Harrington, R., and M. Ottenbacher 2011 Strategic Man-
agement: An Analysis of its Representation and Focus
tion wants to go from where it is at present. Goals, in Recent Hospitality Research. International Journal of
stated in abstract terms, refer to what the organi- Contemporary Hospitality Management 23:439-462.
zation aims to achieve in general, while objectives Johnson, G., K. Scholes, and R. Whittington 2008 Explor-
are definite, quantifiable, and measurable state- ing Corporate Strategy, Text and Cases. Essex:
Pearson-Prentice Hall.
ments. Programs clearly identify how the objec- Mintzberg, H., B. Ahlstrand, and J. Lampel 1998 Strategy
tives will be met in terms of tactics, key players, Safari: A Guided Tour through the Wilds of Strategic
and ▶ resources. Budget specifies where financial Management. New York: The Free Press.
▶ resources will come from and where, when, and Okumus, F., L. Altinay, and P. Chathoth 2010 Strategic
Management for Hospitality and Tourism. Oxford:
by whom they will be allocated and spent Elsevier.
(Okumus et al. 2010). Okumus, F., and A. Roper 1999 A Review of Disparate
Approaches to Strategy Implementation in Hospitality
Firms. Journal of Hospitality and Tourism Research
23:20-38.
Schendel, D., and C. Hofer 1979 Strategic Management:
Current state of the arts and prospects A New View of Business Policy and Planning. Boston:
Little Brown.
Previous studies have reviewed the strategy liter- Stokes, R. 2008 Tourism Strategy Making: Insights to
Events Tourism Domain. Tourism Management
ature in ▶ hospitality and tourism (Harrington and 29:252-262.
Ottenbacher 2011; Okumus and Roper 1999;
Stokes 2008) and stated that the strategy literature
in tourism is limited/embryonic and mainly con-
ceptual. More empirical research is therefore
recommended on ▶ competitive advantage, strat- Structural equation modeling
egy/structure relationship, strategy implementa-
tion, knowledge management, and business Robin Nunkoo
ethics. In recent years, research studies related to Faculty of Law and Management, University of
strategy in ▶ hospitality and tourism have made Mauritius, Reduit, Mauritius
some important advancements, and the strategy S
field is now more mature in terms of research
topics and methods compared to earlier years Structural equation models are “statistical proce-
(Harrington and Ottenbacher 2011). However, dures for testing measurement, functional, predic-
more empirical research is still needed on tive, and causal hypotheses” (Bagozzi and Yi
strategy-performance relationship, ▶ corporate 2012: 8). This method is more sophisticated than
social responsibility, social entrepreneurship, other multivariate statistical techniques and
▶ sustainability, and impact of information tech- enables researchers to assess and modify theoret-
nology applications in creating dynamic capabil- ical models (Anderson and Gerbing 1988). Hence,
ities in tourism organizations. It is also imperative it has gained increasing popularity in tourism
that tourism scholars go beyond replication stud- research.
ies, develop innovative conceptual strategy Nunkoo et al. (2013) found that its applications
models, and cultivate new techniques when in tourism studies could be explained by linear
researching strategy topics in tourism. and quadratic ▶ time effects. Structural equation
904 Study tour
modeling has allowed researchers to analyze asso- contexts. Thus, multilevel model estimation
ciations between a number of dependent and inde- using structural equation modeling has consider-
pendent variables simultaneously, investigating able potential for improving researchers’ under-
such topics as community support for tourism, standing of tourism, which is generally influenced
visitor satisfaction and behavior, travel demand, by variables operating at the micro and macro
and hospitality employees' behavior. Its increas- levels.
ing use to solve theoretical problems is driven by
and testifies the complex and multidimensional
nature of tourism. See also ▶ Methodology, ▶ model, ▶ statistics,
A researcher considering structural equation ▶ theory.
modeling should first specify a model, preferably
in the form of an illustration, although the use of
equations and matrix algebra is also common References
(Bagozzi and Yi 2012). A structural model is an
approximation of reality. This, together with con- Anderson, J., and D. Gerbing 1988 Structural
Equation Modeling in Practice. Psychological Bulletin
firmatory nature of the technique, means that it is
103:411-423.
prerequisite to have a very strong theoretical Bagozzi, R., and Y. Yi 2012 Specification, Evaluation, and
basis, failing which the technique would be Interpretation of Structural Equation Models. Journal
misused and results rendered meaningless of the Academy of Marketing Science 40:8-34.
Nunkoo, R., and H. Ramkissoon 2012 Structural
(Nunkoo and Ramkissoon 2012). A modeling
Equation Modeling and Regression Analysis in Tour-
study consists of two main parts: specification of ism Research. Current Issues in Tourism 15:777-802.
the measurement model (confirmatory factor Nunkoo, R., H. Ramkissoon, and D. Gursoy 2013 Use of
model) and testing of the structural equation Structural Equation Modeling in Tourism Research:
Past, Present, and Future. Journal of Travel Research
model. The former is a component of the general
52:759-771.
model in which latent variables are prescribed. Of
extreme importance is ensuring the reliability and
validity of the measurement model. Once the
assessment is deemed reliable and valid, the struc-
tural model is tested. Measurement and structural Study tour
models are evaluated using a range of fit indices.
Structural equation modeling has contributed Nicholas Wise
to the statistical sophistication of tourism Glasgow School for Business and Society,
research. However, its use in tourism is far from Glasgow Caledonian University, Glasgow,
maturity. Despite its applications across a range of Lanarkshire, UK
contexts, a number of aspects are still
underutilized. It has rarely been used as a
multigroup analysis technique, for testing moder- ▶ Universities continue to seek opportunities to
ating effects, for evaluating higher-order factor further promote international agendas. A semester
models, and in longitudinal studies. In addition, abroad is now seen as a way to strengthen one’s
there are several opportunities for improving the degree and gain firsthand experience of different
current state of tourism scholarship by extending cultures and customs (Hutchings et al. 2002).
the use of structural equation modeling beyond its Domestic and international study tours have long
traditional applications. One of the biggest advan- been an inherent part of higher education. Many
tages of using this technique in tourism studies programs are led by university professors/lec-
relates to its ability to estimate multilevel models turers to increase students’ global awareness, to
integrating micro-/macro-perspectives. Multilevel complement knowledge from the classroom, and
models embed the notion that microlevel tourism to further integrate theory and practice. Such pro-
phenomena are embedded in macro-level grams expand the traditional concept of the
Substitution 905
classroom and bring students into cultural See also ▶ Cross-cultural study, ▶ education,
settings through social activities consumed at the ▶ foreign exchange.
source.
There are numerous types of study tours:
semester’s abroad, short-term field studies, References
volunteer-study programs, or course-specific
itineraries. Each fulfills the intent to offer alter- Hallows, K., P. Porter Wolf, and M. Marks 2011 Short-term
Study Abroad: A Transformational Approach to Global
native educational activities. Due to the
Business Education. Journal of International Education
increased connectivity, international opportuni- in Business 4:88-111.
ties are increasing, and now more private busi- Hutchings, K., P. Jackson, and R. McEllister 2002
nesses are creating such opportunities. While Exploiting the Links between Theory and Practice:
Developing Students' Cross-cultural Understanding
much of the focus has been on international
through an International Study Tour to China. Higher
tours, domestic versions are also popular and in Education Research and Development 21:55-71.
high demand. Many domestic tours cost less, but Nyaupane, G., C. Morris Paris, and V. Teye 2011 Study
the motives are the same: to expose students to Abroad Motivations, Destination Selection and Pre-trip
Attitude Formation. International Journal of Tourism
different places.
Whether domestic or international, the motives Slotkin, M., C. Durie, and J. Eisenberg 2012 The Benefits
for ▶ travel differ from broad topical understand- of Short-term Study Abroad as a Blended Learning
ings of a ▶ region or country to very specific Experience. Journal of International Education in Busi-
ness 5:163-173.
reasons (Nyaupane et al. 2011), for instance, to
▶ work on an ▶ archaeology site collecting data
or to develop skills in the field. Notably, while
study tours are common all around the world, the
motive to develop and organize them depends on Substitution
the specific targets of the institution or research/
regional interests and/or expertise of the academic Robert van der Veen
staff leading the trip. Faculty of Business, Oxford Brookes University,
Due to the popularity of study tours, many Oxford, UK
organizations have been formed to deliver such
opportunities for students outside the university
they are currently enrolled and still offer academic The concept of substitution has its roots in eco-
credits. Such organizations tend to offer more nomics and occurs if (and only if) x is a substitute
adventurous opportunities for students but ensure for y, then y is a substitute for x (Newman 2008).
that there is a high level of educational attainment, Substitution in tourism follows when a particular
including specialist tours focusing on ▶ culture ▶ product or ▶ service can be replaced by another S
and nature. One of the critical concerns is access. comparable one. For example, ▶ rail service
Study tours come with a fee. While organizations between Paris and London offers a close substi-
attempt to offer competitive prices, costs are tute to air and sea ▶ travel between the two cities.
sometimes subsidized by universities through Tourists have alternative options and regard
scholarships – but there are discussions of inclu- different destinations, either national or interna-
sion/exclusion and who can access such opportu- tional, as partial substitutes (Forsyth et al. 2014).
nities. There will be more opportunities as For example, in the central European skiing mar-
students continually seek ▶ education abroad, ket, ▶ Switzerland, ▶ Austria, and ▶ France are
and many researchers believe there will be an to some extent substitutes, and changes in relative
emphasis on short-term opportunities that include prices will cause demand patterns to change
the professor/lecturer working directly with stu- (Tribe 2011). This effect is known as the substitu-
dents in the field (Hallows et al. 2011; Slotkin tion effect, which is the extent to which tourists
et al. 2012). will change from one ▶ destination, product, or
906 Sudan
service to another when the price of the former Forsyth, P., L. Dwyer, R. Spurr, and T. Pham 2014 The
rises, ceteris paribus. If there are close substitutes Impacts of Australia’s Departure Tax: Tourism versus
the Economy? Tourism Management 40:126-136.
for a given destination, product, or service, its Newman, P. 2008 Substitutes and Complements. In The
demand will be more elastic. New Palgrave Dictionary of Economics, S. Durlauf and
For example, if two substitute products have a L. Blume, eds., online reference (no page). London:
high cross elasticity of demand (Hertz and Avis), Palgrave Macmillan.
Stabler, M., A. Papatheodorou, and M. Sinclair 2010 The
then neither ▶ car rental firm can raise its price Economics of Tourism. London: Routledge.
much without losing customers to the other Tribe, J. 2011 The Economics of Recreation, Leisure and
(Baumol and Blinder 2011). Therefore, compa- Tourism. Oxford: Elsevier.
nies will try to reduce the degree of substitutabil-
ity by differentiation at various levels to avoid
pure price competition. Substitution in tourism
can take several forms and to some extent all Sudan
products or services compete for the tourists’ lim-
ited income and ▶ time (Tribe 2011). The same Christian Ritter
principle can be applied to wages and the demand School of Sociology and Applied Social Studies,
for ▶ leisure. Ulster University, Londonderry/Derry, UK
The substitution effect of a wage increase is the
resulting incentive to work more because of the
higher relative reward to labor, while the income The Republic of Sudan is the third largest country
effect of a rise in wages is the resulting rise of on the African continent (1,861,484 km2 or
worker’s purchasing power that enables them to 718,723 mi2). Its population is around
afford more leisure (Baumol and Blinder 2011). 34,850,000. Located in Northeast Africa, Sudan
The net effect depends on the personal preferences shares borders with ▶ Egypt, ▶ Eritrea, ▶ Ethio-
of the individual for income or for leisure (Stabler pia, ▶ South Sudan, ▶ Central African Republic,
et al. 2010). ▶ Chad, and ▶ Libya (Figure 1). Its 18 states are
Substitution is also related to import substitu- home to about 580 ethnic groups who speak hun-
tion which refers to the practice of importing dreds of different languages and dialects (Hale
products and services from overseas to replace 2009). Arabic and English are the official lan-
domestically produced substitutes. Tourists guages, while Bedawi, Fur, and Nubian are
should be encouraged to purchase domestically widely spoken as well. In the 2000s, oil produc-
produced goods and services to maximize the tion became the largest industry. Sudan’s GDP
multiplier effect of their expenditure. A full wel- rose to US$58,769 million in 2012. About 3.1 %
fare analysis of the ▶ impact of ▶ import substi- of Sudan’s economy was generated by its tourism
tution policies on tourism is a topic for ▶ future ▶ industry (WTTC 2014).
research. Between 1995 and 2013, the number of inter-
national tourists grew from 29,000 to 591,000.
Traveling (TWB 2015) along the river Nile on a
See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ economics, cruise boat, rafting, kayaking, and jungle and
▶ elasticity, demand and supply, ▶ import savanna trekking are among the most popular
substitution, ▶ willingness to pay. activities (Cooper 2009). The National Museum
in Khartoum, the Dinder National Park, the vol-
canic highlands of Jebel Marra, and the Red Sea
Coast are regularly frequented by tourists
References
(Boniface et al. 2012). The variety of attractions
Baumol, W., and A. Blinder 2011 Microeconomics: Prin-
is complemented by archaeological sites, such as
ciples and Policy. Mason: South-Western Cengage the pyramids of Meroe, the Karmah tombs, and
Learning. the temple of Sdeinga. About 80,000 employees
Sun, sand, sea and sex 907
References
Boniface, B., C. Cooper, and R. Cooper 2012 Worldwide

Destinations: The Geography of Travel and Tourism.
New York: Routledge.
Cooper, M. 2009 River Tourism: Sailing the Nile. In River
Tourism, B. Prideaux and M. Cooper, eds., pp.74-94.
Wallingford: CABI.
Hale, S. 2009 Locating Sudan Studies: A Context. Urban
Anthropology and Studies of Cultural Systems and
World Economic Development 38:1-32.
TWB 2015 Sudan. International Tourism. Washington:
The World Bank. Available at: http://data.worldbank.
org.
UNEC 2013 Sustainable Tourism Master Plan for the Inter-
Governmental Authority on Development Region
2013-2023. Addis Ababa: United Nations Economic
Commission for Africa.
WTTC 2014 Sudan - Travel and Tourism Total Contribu-
tion to GDP. London: World Travel and Tourism
Council.
Sudan, Figure 1 Map of Sudan
▶ work in tourism, constituting only 1.3 % of the Sun, sand, sea and sex
total Sudanese workforce (UNEC 2013). Despite
substantial investment, Sudan lacks a solid infra- João Filipe Marques
structure in comparison with most of its neighbor- Faculty of Economics, University of Algarve,
ing countries. As a result, the Ministry of Tourism Faro, Portugal
and Wildlife has pursued a strategy of develop-
ment that primarily envisages bolstering the pro-
tection of wildlife and developing further national Rather than a scientific concept, “sun, sand, sea,
nature reserves. In 2010, the Sudan International and sex” is a good example of a cliché or stereo-
University founded the Faculty of Tourism and typed expression imposed by its generalized use.
Hotels to offer education in this field. Graduates In its narrow sense, the “four Ss” of tourism is
bring accounting and management skills to the often used to refer to beach holidays and
industry. sex-related activities at seaside destinations.
Tourism ▶ development has been negatively From an investigation point of view, the last “S” S
affected by the long-standing conflict in Sudan, is the most problematic: the relationship between
and the country remains one of the lesser visited ▶ beach tourism and sex. But in its broad sense,
destinations in ▶ Africa. Recent investments the expression has been used by academics as well
have, however, boosted the tourism industry. as by the industry to refer not only to the holidays
Very little research has been carried out to under- by the seaside and their romantic and erotic poten-
stand tourism in Sudan. Future contributions can tial but also to a certain type of contemporary
examine how archaeological heritages are “▶ mass tourism.” It usually designates a type of
constructed as major tourism products and assess tourism experience where the warm weather, the
nature reserves as veritable bids to bolster ▶ sus- sensorial stimuli of the sun, and the sand and the
tainable tourism. sea are more important to the tourists than, for
instance, the identity of a place, culture, or heri-
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ heritage, ▶ marine tourism, tage. As a matter of fact, this expression belongs
▶ sustainable tourism. to a family of similar groups of words used to
908 Supply chain
characterize some types of tourism or to create Crick, M. 1989 Representations of International Tourism
typologies of ▶ tourist experiences. These include in Social Sciences: Sun, Sex, Sights and Servility.
Annual Review Anthropology 18:307-344.
sea, sex, and socialization; romanticism, regres- Dann, G. 1996 The Language of Tourism:
sion, and rebirth; happiness, hedonism, and A Sociolinguistic Perspective. Wallingford: CABI.
heliocentrism; and fun, fantasy, and fairy tales Diken, B., and C. Lausten 2004 Sea, Sun, Sex . . . and
(Dann 1996). Biopolitics. Lancaster: Department of Sociology, Lan-
caster University www.lancaster.ac.uk/fass/sociology/
In tourism studies, the “sun, sand, sea, and sex” research/publications/papers/diken-laustsen-sea-sun-sex-
cliché became a coda in relation to which biopolitics.pdf (29 December 2012).
researchers add their own variations. Malcolm
Crick’s (1989) paper subtitled “Sun, Sex, Sights,
Savings and Servility” drops “sea and sand” but
adds “sights, savings, and servility.” Nowadays, Supply chain
this expression continues to inspire researchers, as
one may see in titles such as “Sea, Sun, Sex. . . and Deepak Chhabra
Biopolitics” (Diken and Lausten 2004), “▶ Med- School of Community Resources and
ical Tourism: Sea, Sun, Sand and Surgery” Development, Arizona State University,
(Connell 2006), or “Sun, Sea, Sand and Tsunami” Phoenix, AZ, USA
(Calgaro and Lloyd 2008), to mention only three,
among many others.
Being a linguistic expression sometimes used A supply chain approach is particularly crucial to
as a synonym for mass tourism, “sun, sand, sea, the management of the distribution functions in
and sex” also refers to the tourist’s attitudes and tourism and long-term viability of a destination. In
behavior at seaside resorts, namely, body-centered a nutshell, tourism supply chain can be referred to
activities such as sunbathing, conspicuous as an array of tactics used to effectively administer
eating and drinking, clubbing, and the availability its subsidiary functions. An integrated supply
for romance and sexual activity. Future chain facilitates coordination across various enter-
research on the relationship between beach tour- prises in a manner that the host community needs
ism and sex will continue to focus on the negative and impacts on the immediate or surrounding
and exploitative dimensions of the phenomena of environment are taken into consideration
“▶ sex tourism” and “prostitution tourism,” but (Hoejmose et al. 2012; Zhang et al. 2009). The
the investigation will also turn into the less known intent is to “group” rather than “gather” using a
positive and rewarding dimensions of the articu- systems approach.
lation between ▶ travel, love, and human Chen and Yi (2010) present four models of
sexuality. tourism supply chain: purposes, space, relation-
ship, and the constitution way. The purposes cat-
See also ▶ Beach tourism, ▶ language, ▶ mass egory refers to ▶ resources and the tourism
tourism, ▶ romance tourism, ▶ sex tourism. market environment. The former aims to link sim-
ilar or complementary resources to produce an
integrated effect, thereby calling for holistic inte-
References gration of geographic space (such as a neighbor-
hood effect) and themes. The relationship type
Calgaro, E., and K. Lloyd 2008 Sun, Sea, Sand and Tsu- refers to reliance and equality. In other words, a
nami: Examining Disaster Vulnerability in the Tourism smaller-scale enterprise rallies around a larger-
Community of Khao Lak, Thailand. Singapore Journal
of Tropical Geography 29:288-306. scale one within a specific geographic setting.
Connell, J. 2006 Medical Tourism: Sea, Sun, Sand and Finally, the constitution way refers to selection
Surgery. Tourism Management 27:1093-1100. of “center” spots with a combination of other
Supply 909
stakeholders (such as travel agencies) and service-

related businesses (hotels and restaurants) to cre- Supply
ate a demand-based value chain for tourists. It also
encompasses cross boundary (spanning geo- Eugeni Aguiló-Pérez
graphic and administrative thresholds) and brand Department of Applied Economics, Universitat de
linkage perspectives. les Illes Balears, Islas Baleares, Palma de
Going forward, it remains to be seen whether Mallorca, Spain
using these various types of supply chain can help
promote sustainable supply networks.
A sustainable system, for instance, can facilitate Tourism supply is the provision of goods and
tour operators’ management of a multiple range of services that constitute the tourism ▶ product. Its
impacts such as suppliers’ environmental aim is to satisfy ▶ tourist demand for a satisfac-
impacts (waste, water, and energy management), tory experience. The complexity of this concept
economic impacts (fair payments, local purchas- arises from the actual nature of the product, as it is
ing, and philanthropic payments), and sociocul- a compound good, encompassing many
tural impacts (human rights, workplace resources, sectors, and activities carried out in a
conditions, health and safety management prac- ▶ destination. Until recently little importance has
tices, and community welfare) (Hoejmose been given to the analysis of the activities within
et al. 2012: 610). the service sector with the exception of transport.
Establishing mechanisms for an integrated and
viable supply chain is not an easy task. Several
constraints exist in the form of traditional Nature and component
organizational practices and the fact that human
beings are often slow to change. Future research A number of components join as one to supply or
direction can be towards identifying sustainable make tourism a special experience (Goeldner
supply chain management strategies for et al. 2005; Tribe 2011). Tourism products usually
tourism enterprises that create an ethics-based cannot be stored and, consequently, there is no
value to consumers and, at the same time, offer supply if the trip is not made. Likewise, products
a competitive edge over rival partners or mean that they result in experience-based ser-
destinations. vices. Among other things, tourism relies on
travel from the place of origin to the destination,
See also ▶ Co-integration, ▶ comparative hence relying on the role of intermediaries and the
advantage, ▶ distribution channel. various means of transportation. Nevertheless,
due to the nature and scope of tourism, supply
and demand are inseparable and occur simulta- S
References neously. From this perspective, the supplier faces
the challenge of how to ensure consumer satisfac-
Chen, D., and P. Yi 2010 Model Selection of Tourism tion in a given period of time (Dwyer et al. 2010).
Supply Chain and Its Management Innovation. Inter- Vanhove (2011) states that tourism does not
national Conference on E-Business and E-Government.
exist without attractions. There are three main
EEE Computer Society: 3388-3391.
Hoejmose, S., S. Brammer, and A. Millington 2012 Green categories of attractions: natural (climate,
Supply Chain Management: The Role of Trust and Top beaches, fauna and flora), built (buildings, urban
Management in B2B and B2C Markets. Industrial Mar- parks, shopping malls, museums, religious sites),
keting Management 41:609-620.
and sociocultural (way of life, language). In addi-
Zhang, X., H. Song, and G. Huang 2009 Tourism Supply
Chain Management: A New Research Agenda. Tour- tion to these categories, tourism supply is also
ism Management 30:345-358. composed of services and facilities. As essential
910 Supply
needs for people away from home, it includes the public utilities, undoubtedly leads to problems of
core sectors such as accommodation, airline, res- coordination. The existence of a multitude of
taurant, as well as a whole range of different activities carried out by agents is often comple-
goods and services such as banks, hospitals, mentary and therefore requires coordination by its
local infrastructure, and much more. As indicated main player, the market. Candela and Figini
by Vanhove (2011), however, infrastructure adds (2012) describe this complexity by suggesting
frequently to public expenditure, but this gener- that a tourist in a destination is given a “permit
ally fails to provide revenue and must be mea- to stay,” issued by various financial agents with
sured in terms of benefits reaped from tourism their respective property rights over each element.
development. This discussion encompasses notions such as anti-
The tourism supply literature has paid particu- common goods, as opposed to common goods,
lar attention to specific sectors that form a part of that do not have property rights and are freely
the complex supply chain, yet little has been done available. Therefore, the tourist receives multiple
to synthesize such analyses. Stabler et al. (2010) outputs that must be offered in a coordinated
observed that the transport sector is an essential manner.
part of the supply not only by its nature and The question arises as to what point the market
structure but also by the efforts that have been is capable of carrying out this coordination to
made to analyze its behavior, results, and compet- offer everything demanded by the tourist. In cer-
itive and organizational strategies as well. Like- tain circumstances, the solution needs interven-
wise, although intermediaries such as tour tion from the authorities of destination planning
operators have been considered as part of the and hence the importance of intervention by
supply by the fact of producing tour packages, stakeholders, so that the plan gives the advantages
they should be more appropriately treated as of coordination to satisfy demand. Frequently, this
authentic intermediaries between supply and type of coordination has to be carried out in a
demand. destination through entities such as destination
As Candela and Figini (2012) point out, the management organizations. Nevertheless, this
different sectors that make up the tourism industry out-of-market solution is sometimes not
have a set of common characteristics. In the first necessary for certain services as coordination
place, its cost structure is composed of high fixed can be carried out by the market itself. This is
costs and, therefore, not very much depends on the case with tour operators who, as intermedi-
the number of users. Second, in general terms, it is aries, are responsible for coordinating services
notable that an important part of the sectors has a within a package deal.
market structure that moves away from perfect For future research, as tourism supply consists
competition. Third, due to the perishability of of a large number of goods and services, inte-
goods and high fixed costs, companies belonging grated studies are required on these otherwise or
to different sectors of the industry have to make seemingly fragmented sectors. While some sec-
good estimates on the number of users of their tors such as transport have been studied in depth
services in order to minimize costs. Finally, due to in terms of their characteristics and performance,
the previous characteristics, the tourism industries more knowledge is needed on other sectors in
usually fix a rate of profits using a markup once order to analyze the interdependence in their
the direct costs are added to all the indirect costs of joint supply of tourism experience. Multidis-
its activities. ciplinary analysis as such could ensure sustain-
able tourism in all its interpretations, inclusive of
the economics perspective.
Coordination
That tourism product is an amalgamation of goods See also ▶ Experience, ▶ industry, ▶ market,
and services, inclusive of infrastructures and ▶ product, ▶ service
Suriname 911
References
Candela, G., and P. Figini 2012 The Economics of Tourism

Destination. Heildelberg: Springer.
Dwyer, L., P. Forsyth, and W. Dwyer 2010 Tourism Eco-
Goeldner, C., J. Ritchie, and R. McIntosh 2005 Tourism:
Principles, Practices and Philosophies. Chichester:
Wiley.
Stabler, M., A. Papatheodorou, and M. Sinclair 2010 The
Economics of Tourism. London: Routledge.
Tribe, J. 2011 The Economics of Recreation, Leisure and
Vanhove, N. 2011 The Economics of Tourism Destina-
tions. London: Routledge.
Suriname
Suriname, Figure 1 Map of Suriname
Martine Bakker1 and Madhawi Ramdin2
1
Tisch Center for Hospitality, Tourism, and Sports
Management, New York University, New York, 50,000 to 21,000. After 1990, steady growth saw
NY, USA arrivals reach 240,041 in 2012. The Netherlands is
2
Equal Chances at Green Development, the main source market, representing 40 % of all
Paramaribo, Suriname ▶ inbound tourism, followed by neighboring
countries of ▶ Guyana, French Guiana, and
▶ Brazil. About 11 % of all arrivals are pleasure
The Republic of Suriname is the smallest inde- tourists while others are on business or visiting
pendent country in South America, with a cover- family, friends, and relatives (UCLAA 2011).
age of 163,820 km2, or 63,251mi2 (Figure 1). The There is very limited independent ▶ travel, and
population was around 540,000 in 2011 and the most of the pleasure tourists travel around the
GDP was US$4.8 billion in 2012, with mining country with organized tours. Inbound tourism
(mostly gold and bauxite) accounting for 80 % expenditures contributed $61 million to the econ-
of total exports and 15 % of the GDP. After three omy in 2011 (UNWTO 2012). The direct contri-
centuries of colonial rule, Suriname became inde- bution of tourism to GDP is estimated at 1.2 % of
pendent from the ▶ Netherlands in 1975. The total GDP in 2012, and tourism directly supported S
country has adopted a democracy regime with a 2,000 jobs and indirectly supported an additional
multiparty system since its independence. 3,000 jobs (WTTC 2013).
Suriname has a high biological diversity, with Suriname has one international and several
forests covering about 90 %. The Central Suri- smaller airports. The government is considering
name Nature Reserve is a UNESCO world heri- upgrading infrastructure to improve access to Bra-
tage site. The beaches are not suited for zil and ▶ Guyana. The industry falls under the
▶ recreation as swamps prevent access. The responsibility of the Ministry of Transportation,
main attractions are the historic inner city of Par- Communication, and Tourism. The Suriname
amaribo (also a UNESCO heritage site), former Tourism Foundation is a semigovernment organi-
plantation houses, the culture, the rivers, and the zation responsible for tourism promotion, for
rainforest. which there is a limited budget. There is currently
During 1986–1990, economic and political tur- no tourism masterplan. The national development
moil caused the number of arrivals to drop from plan of 2012–2016 includes a chapter on tourism
912 Surplus
▶ development aimed to increase its economic rate, tariff barriers, as well as multilateral, bilat-
contribution. The focus will be on developing eral, and unilateral taxes or restrictions (Çelik
special interest and nature-based tourism. The et al. 2013).
Suriname Hospitality and Tourism Training Cen- The measurement of surplus may vary by the
tre provides vocational training for ▶ tour guides, definition and measurement of the tourist trade.
bartenders, and waiters. There are several pro- Generally, tourism trade surplus is measured by
grams offering bachelor degrees in ▶ hospitality. subtracting imports (travel abroad by a country’s
Suriname is a relatively unknown ▶ destina- residents plus international airfares and/or passen-
tion with potential for ▶ special interest tourism ger water transport) from exports (nonresident
development, such as bird watching, cultural, tourism demand). If the balance is positive, sur-
nature, and ▶ community-based tourism. The lim- plus occurs. To measure import and export of
ited airlift to North America as well as the limited tourist services, the ▶ Tourism Satellite Account
marketing budget currently retards the develop- is a commonly used ▶ methodology (Kass and
ment of new markets. Future research should Okubo 2000).
focus on the role of indigenous communities in Factors such as trade and tariff regulations, as
tourism ▶ development. well as visa agreement, may cause surplus fluctu-
ations. The most common and salient factor is
See also ▶ Birdwatching tourism, ▶ nature tour- exchange rate fluctuation. If a country maintains
ism, ▶ special interest tourism. a tourism surplus, a decline may occur when the
country’s exchange rate rises. Currently, globali-
zation aggravates the effects of this change
References (Nowak et al. 2010), and thus, global players
such as airlines, hotel chains, and travel agencies
UCLAA 2011 Suriname Green: Promoting Sustainable are affected. As a result, the cost of tourists’
Economic Development with Sustainable Tourism.
▶ expenditure on tourism products rises. Due to
Los Angeles: The University of California, Anderson
School of Management. the high cost, tourists are less likely to visit the
UNWTO, 2012, Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- country. Consequently, the total tourism revenue
ism Organization. declines, so does its surplus.
Tourism surplus is also an indicator of the
Suriname. London: World Travel and Tourism Council.
industry being in an advantageous position in a
country. It reflects an active and growing market
in a given year for three reasons. First, tourism
surplus fuels economic growth and contributes to
Surplus national economy. Second, increasing tourist
arrivals stimulate domestic demand to promote
Xu Chen consumption. Three, tourism surplus stimulates
Baidu Marketing Institute, Beijing, China employment as the market demand increases.
However, if tourism surplus is too large, it may
have an adverse impact on the industry’s sustain-
Tourism surplus is a positive balance between the ability because the nation’s economy becomes
monetary value of a country’s tourism ▶ export overly dependable on outside markets. As a result,
revenue and import expenditures over a certain tourism may suffer if the economy is unstable
period. A negative balance is a ▶ deficit. The because of financial crisis, political turmoil, eco-
surplus is a major factor contributing to the cur- nomic inflations, and the like. Additionally, exces-
rency of a country’s tourism ▶ industry. The con- sive tourist arrivals may cause resource depletion,
cept is closely associated with inbound/ environmental deterioration, and culture assimila-
▶ outbound tourism and the ▶ tourist trade with tion, resulting in negative impacts on the host
influencing factors such as interest rate, exchange community.
Survey 913
Notably, surplus could be used with other for the ▶ evaluation of the socioeconomic impacts
structural indicators to evaluate tourist trade per- of tourism.
formance of a country. Future research can focus Conducting a valid survey is a complex task
on topics such as surplus measurement methodol- and can be seen as a systematic and logical
ogy and the dynamics of surplus with economy sequence of stages (Veal 2006). Conceptualiza-
growth. tion of the research problem represents the first
step of survey planning. The statistical units and
See also ▶ Balance of payment, ▶ deficit, ▶ for- the variables of interest must be identified along
eign exchange, ▶ globalization. with the temporal and territorial level of reference.
The definition of the statistical units and the deter-
mination of the target population are not as simple
References as first thought. This is due to the particular nature
of a ▶ tourist population which is, by definition,
Çelik, A., S. Özcanb, A. Topcuoğluc, and K. Yildirim 2013 on the move, and a complete list of the units
Effects of the Tourism Industry on the Balance of
(sampling frame) is not always available. In a
Payments Deficit. ANATOLIA – An International Jour-
nal of Tourism and Hospitality Research 24:86-90. second step, the data collection technique (face-
Kass, D., and S. Okubo 2000 US Travel and Tourism to-face interview, web or postal surveys, tele-
Satellite Accounts for 1996 and 1997. Survey of Cur- phone surveys, diaries) must be chosen, according
rent Business (July):8-24.
to the conditions in which the survey is made
Nowak, J., S. Petit, and M. Sahli 2010 Tourism and Glob-
alization: The International Division of Tourism Pro- (budget availability, length of the interview, type
duction. Journal of Travel Research 49:228-245. of questions).
A third step involves questionnaire design – a
delicate issue in tourism and ▶ leisure research
surveys which are often multipurposed in nature
and aim at collecting information in complex con-
Survey cepts such as satisfaction, opinions, and expendi-
tures. The questionnaire is carefully designed to
Stefano De Cantis1 and Mauro Ferrante2 avoid ambiguity. In a fourth step, the sampling
1
Department of Economics, Business and plan must be chosen. Sampling methods range
Statistics, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy from probabilistic to non-probabilistic tech-
2
Facoltà di Economia, Department of Culture and niques; although only in the first case, it is possi-
Society, University of Palermo, Palermo, Italy ble to assess the sampling error. One of the most
important aspects of the quality of a survey is the
magnitude of the total error, which can be
A survey is any organized and methodical activity decomposed into sampling and non-sampling S
that directly collects information on motivations, error. The former is due to the fact that only a
opinions, and behaviors about the characteristics sample of values is observed and not the whole
of a given population, including tourists and res- population; the latter comprises all the sources of
idents of a ▶ destination. Information can be gath- errors which do not depend on the sampling
ered from some (sample) or all units (census) of a nature of the survey (nonresponses,
population, using well-defined concepts, noncoverage).
methods, and procedures. Survey is probably the After data collection, data coding and error
single most important source of information for correction go before data analysis and report writ-
tourism analysts (Smith 1995:43). It is an ing, as a final step of the survey process. As for
extremely cost-effective way of determining char- future research directions, beyond the efforts ori-
acteristics and behavior of a large population. ented toward the harmonization of tourism ▶ sta-
Survey results are widely used to develop statis- tistics (UNWTO 2007), a number of factors are
tics for ▶ marketing and ▶ planning purposes and currently pushing researchers to explore the
914 Sustainability
potential deriving from the integration of tradi- and limitations is both for now and the ▶ future.
tional surveys with other sources, such as mobile The report notes that unequal patterns of resource
positioning data and big data in general. access and consumption contribute to poverty and
the global environment’s destruction.
See also ▶ Qualitative research, ▶ quantitative
research, ▶ satisfaction, ▶ statistics, ▶ tourist.
Challenges of tourism sustainability
References Tourism sustainability presents major challenges

to current thinking and practices for the ▶ indus-
Smith, S. 1995 Tourism Analysis: A Handbook. Harlow: try, tourists, and communities. It requires present
Longman.
and future development to focus on the long-term
UNWTO 2007 UNWTO Metadata Project: Common
Glossary. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. interdependencies between human needs and the
Veal, J. 2006 Research Methods for Leisure and Tourism: ▶ environment, and on resource and development
A Practical Guide. Harlow: Longman. limitations. It requires a comprehensive approach
that takes into account economic, sociocultural,
environmental, and governance relationships
(Weaver 2006).
Sustainability The concept has encouraged numerous grow-
ing areas of research. They include work on issues
Bill Bramwell surrounding the industry’s rising greenhouse gas
Centre for Tourism, Hospitality and Events emissions and its climate impacts (Gössling
Research, Sheffield Business School, Sheffield et al. 2009) and their links with behavioral change.
Hallam University, Sheffield, UK Current research considers the processes of gov-
ernance in sustainable tourism (Bramwell and
Lane 2011). Sustainability requires that access to
The idea of tourism sustainability as a desired resources is made more equitable, encouraging
direction for change is now quite widely advo- increasing research on tourism’s relationships
cated. It has become an explicit structuring con- with poverty and its potential use as a tool for
cept for tourism worldwide, although there are poverty reduction. There is also growing interest
diverse views on exactly what it entails and in authentic tourism experiences, and their links to
research indicates its practical application can be cultural authenticity, as well as to both natural and
limited and superficial. Sustainability is closely human heritage conservation.
tied to the concept of sustainable development, The complexities of ▶ sustainable tourism
with its concern to create lasting livelihoods include the requirement that approaches to this
while minimizing resource depletion, environ- process should be specific to particular contexts,
mental damage, cultural instability, and social such as the distinct character of each destination
disruption. and particular points in time (Hunter 1997). The
The concept of tourism sustainability was pursuit of sustainability is difficult because it is
influenced by reactions to the growth of postwar not an identifiable and achievable “end-state”.
tourism. Early thinking on this was boosted and Instead, it is an ongoing process of change or
supported by the Brundtland Commission’s land- transition that must respond to complex and
mark report, Our Common Future, published in changing relationships around present and future
1987. It describes sustainability as requiring a needs and limitations. Tourism sustainability
reorientation of development to focus on human forms a journey that changes in relation to place,
needs and the environment’s limited ability to scale, ▶ time, and numerous other factors (Miller
meet them due to the state of technology and and Twining-Ward 2005). Another challenge for
how society is organized. The focus on needs the industry is that sustainability concerns its
Sustainability 915
potential contribution to overall development, political meta-narrative. It serves as a helpful con-

rather than the sustainability of tourism itself. ceptual focus for debate and conflict among actors
With this broad conceptualization, the industry with differing interests and views about tourism’s
may not accept that sometimes it is not the best positive and negative features and also about how
development option. to improve its operations (Liburd and Edwards
2010). This shared focus can contribute to dia-
logues and negotiations required for the health of
Practical progress and conceptual value liberal democracies and for improved practical
actions. For such reasons, there are concerns
Past research has examined the industry’s adop- that, without the concept, tourism’s adverse
tion of specific sustainability practices, such as effects might be allowed to increase even more
energy conservation and ▶ recycling, and also rapidly.
the characteristics of tourists who select more
sustainable products. This research tends to con-
sist of case studies of specific businesses (such as New research directions
individual airlines), sectors (notably the hotel sec-
tor), and products (such as ski resorts) in particular The more recent research directions on sustain-
places. By contrast, there are few detailed assess- ability often reflect growing recognition of the
ments of the overall level of progress toward concept’s multiple dimensions and sometimes an
sustainable tourism in society. There are indica- increasing adoption of more critical theoretical
tions that overall progress may be at best static or perspectives in tourism studies. Some scholars
even moving backward due to tourism’s continu- suggest that sustainability can make more differ-
ing overall growth. ence if the related research examines a broader
Some commentators criticize the concept of range of issues and topics. The agenda is begin-
sustainability because of its limited practical ning to look more at moral and ethical issues,
applications. Others suggest that its multiple struggles with inequality and ▶ power, alternative
dimensions and looseness mean that it is too ways of knowing and thinking, and the emanci-
vague, ambiguous, and impractical. Its looseness pation of people from the ▶ constraints on their
means that it can be too accommodating to green- position and agency. Moreover, increasing atten-
washing, business-as-usual, or comfortable tion is being paid to the major obstacles to tourism
reformism. The latter suggests that economic sustainability and the associated big changes
growth can be reconciled with environmental required in society and its ▶ governance.
▶ conservation without fundamental changes to
vested interests and mainstream beliefs and See also ▶ Alternative tourism, ▶ environment,
values. Yet some assert that sustainability requires ▶ pro-poor tourism, ▶ responsible tourism, S
far-reaching changes to the capitalist system, ▶ sustainable tourism.
society’s consumerism, and existing policies.
Defenders of the sustainability concept dis-
agree that it is too ambiguous and impractical,
pointing out numerous new and potential tourism
▶ management tools. Further, they suggest that it References
offers the most effective approach to date to Bramwell, B., and B. Lane 2011 Critical Research on the
achieving more progressive development. They Governance of Tourism and Sustainability. Journal of
contend that the concept’s looseness is precisely Sustainable Tourism 19:411-421.
its strength. This is because it is a deliberately Gössling, S., M. Hall, and D. Weaver, eds. 2009 Sustain-
able Tourism Futures: Perspectives on Systems,
flexible concept that reflects the actual complexity
Restructuring and Innovations. London: Routledge.
of society and its relations with the environment, Hunter, C. 1997 Sustainable Tourism as an Adaptive Par-
and because its normative basis provides a useful adigm. Annals of Tourism Research 24:850-867.
916 Sustainable tourism
Liburd, J., and D. Edwards, eds. 2010 Understanding the defined or understood through the tools available
Sustainable Development of Tourism. Oxford: in any single field, including tourism.
Goodfellow.
Miller, G., and L. Twining-Ward 2005 Monitoring for a Sustainable tourism aims neither to revive
Sustainable Tourism Transition: The Challenge of disappearing ecosystems nor to save a community
Developing and Using Indicators. Wallingford: CABI. from poverty. It is a form that contributes to opti-
Weaver, D. 2006 Sustainable Tourism: Theory and Prac- mal socioeconomic transformations through
tice. Oxford: Elsevier.
preventing deterioration of social, cultural, and
ecological systems. It helps maintain a
community’s economic viability via well-
developed management communication channels
with receptive governments. Its successful imple-
Sustainable tourism mentation requires integrated policy, planning,
management, monitoring, and social learning pro-
Hwansuk Chris Choi cesses; its political viability depends on the active
School of Hospitality, Food and Tourism engagement of community residents it affects
Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, through their governments, social institutions,
ON, Canada well-managed communication among all stake-
holders, and private activities (emphasis added,
Rees 1989:3). Satisfying tourists is also a critical
Ever since the World Conservation Strategy element of sustainable tourism.
revived the concept of ▶ sustainability in 1980 Earlier debates focused heavily on conceptual
and the Brundtland Commission defined and pop- issues. Over the last decade, sustainable tourism
ularized the term “sustainable development” in has transformed a more practical consideration
Our Common Future in 1987, thousands of that has penetrated the society. Along with the
related articles, books, and materials have been ▶ trend, the core DNA of sustainable tourism
published. ▶ Sustainability has enjoyed unprece- has been reshaped from a public-driven to a pri-
dented popularity in various fields, including vate (or NGO)-driven concept and from a supply-
▶ economics, ▶ ecology, sociology, agriculture, side to a demand-side concept. This trend has
▶ management, ▶ planning, tourism, and ▶ mar- created several research issues down the road.
keting. It is becoming an essentially contested and Increasingly, companies and governments are
attractive buzz notion and is frequently regarded heavily focused on sustainability practices.
as a panacea for all management and ▶ develop- Unfortunately, large corporations utilize sustain-
ment woes. Thus, the concept has become vague ability as a ▶ strategy to build positive corporate
in its association with notions such as (corporate) brand image, to reduce operating costs, and to
social responsibility, green reporting initiative, generate additional revenues. In this sense, it is
fair trade, environmental responsibility, ▶ pro- important to ask how the public sector can
poor tourism, sustainable development, sustain- develop proper policies and indicators to assess
ability, corporate citizenship, green marketing, sustainable progress of a private sector’s efforts.
green economy, and triple bottom line (Choi and Furthermore, consumers become more ecologi-
Sirakaya 2006). cally conscious. However, little empirical evi-
Researchers have developed and applied dence has been brought to bear on the effect of
frameworks, models, and monitoring systems their perception shaping their attitude in a way
regarding sustainable tourism. However, these that leads to behavior changes. Lastly, much of
efforts have been hampered by the lack of con- sustainable tourism research is still produced in
sensus on the definitions and conceptual and prac- industrialized country settings. The “one fits all”
tical boundaries of sustainability in general approach of Western constructed sustainable tour-
(Mowforth and Mundt 1998). Due to its multifac- ism may not be suitable for less industrialized
eted nature, sustainability cannot be adequately countries. Therefore, researchers should ask,
Swaziland 917
“can the ‘one fits all’ approach be applied to 0 20 40 km 32

0 20 40 mi
destinations at different levels of their lifecycle?”
MOZMAMBIQUE
Emlembe
See also ▶ Ecology, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ environ- 26 Ko
ma
Piggs 26
ti ri vi e Peak
ment, ▶ sustainability. r
Komati
Mhlunme
SOUTH
MBABANE
AFRICA
References Lobamba Manzini

Siteki
(royal and
Us u t u legistative
capital)
Choi, H.S., and E. Sirakaya 2006 Developing Sustainable Lusutf
u
Tourism Indicators for Community Tourism Manage- Mankayane Big
Bend
ment. Tourism Management 27:1274 -1289.
Mowforth, A., and I. Mundt 1998 Tourism and Sustain- Hlatikulu
ability. London: Routledge. 27 27
Rees, W. 1989 Defining Sustainable Development. CHS Nhlangano

Research Bulletin, pp.3. Vancouver: University of Brit- SOUTH
AFRICA
ish Columbia Lavumisa
Po
n go
31 lo
Swaziland, Figure 1 Map of Swaziland
Swaziland
There are various game parks which are also
Dumsile Vilakati1 and Bongani Dlamini2 important attractions. The number of tourists to
1
University of Swaziland, Manzini, Swaziland Swaziland was 1.23 million in 2007 and reached
2
Swaziland Tourism Authority, Mbabane, 1.33 million in 2011.
Swaziland In 2011, the “East3Route,” a cross-border ini-
tiative which encourages interregional trade
among Swaziland, Mozambique, and KwaZulu-
Swaziland is a landlocked country bordered by Natal in South Africa, was launched (Euromonitor
▶ South Africa and ▶ Mozambique (Figure 1), 2013). This alliance has resulted in synergy in the
measuring 17,364 km2 or 6,704 mi2. Its four tour- experiences of tourists traveling to these destina-
ism regions are Rugged East, Regal West, Dra- tions. Marketing of Swaziland is done predomi-
matic North, and Scenic South. These make up the nantly by the Swaziland Tourism Authority,
“mosaic” country which, due to its size and natu- which was formed in 2003. It was resourced by
ral beauty, is often referred to as the “Switzerland the Commonwealth to improve tourism competi-
of Africa.” With a GDP of US$3.8 billion, the tiveness and broaden the range of global tourism S
country has a population of 1.25 million (World products.
Bank 2013). According to WTTC (2013), the Swaziland Tourism Authority has a 5-year
contribution of tourism to GDP in 2013 was strategy aimed at enhancing growth and develop-
2.2 % and contribution to employment was 1.9 %. ing tourism. The Ministry of Tourism and Envi-
Tourism is a prime source of foreign exchange ronmental Affairs has a mandate to create an
due to Swaziland’s safety, monarchy, ▶ hospital- enabling environment; support development
ity, scenery, flora/fauna, activities, history, cli- through formulation of policies, legislations, and
mate, and handicrafts. Cultural ceremonies like standards; and monitor the implementation of the
Incwala (festival of the first fruits), Umhlanga same by undertaking periodic reviews. These
(reed dance), and Umtsimba (traditional wedding) include the national strategy and policy in
are also major attractions (Kingdom of Swaziland tourism. The ministry has also set up a
2013). Another is the annual music and arts bush- framework which includes rules and regulations
fire festival which draws tourists from ▶ Europe. for ▶ accommodation outlets. A nonprofit making
918 Sweden
organization known as the Hotels and Tourism

Association was formed by members of the indus-
try to ensure customer satisfaction.
The country is exploring options to develop
new market segments that attract a wider range
of tourists. The Swaziland Tourism Authority is
encouraging sustainability by promoting ▶ eco-
tourism, community based, and ▶ cultural tour-
ism. The Faculty of Commerce at the University
of Swaziland, Limkokwing University of Creative
Technology, and Swaziland College of Technol-
ogy all offer courses in tourism and hospitality
and carry out related research. For the country to
reach its potential, future research should be cen-
tered on tourism ▶ development that generates
employment while protecting the environment.
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ cultural tourism,

▶ ecotourism, ▶ handicraft, ▶ sustainable
tourism.
References
Euromonitor 2013 Euromonitor www.eurom

onitor.com/travel-and-tourism-in-swaziland/report.asp
(18 December).
Kingdom of Swaziland 2013 Kingdom of
Swaziland www.thekingdomofswaziland.com/regions.
asp (18 December).
World Bank 2013 World Bank www.worldbank.org/coun
try/Swaziland.ash (12 December).
WTTC 2013 World Travel and Tourism Council Economic
Impact – Swaziland. London: World Travel and Tour-
ism Council.
Sweden
Sweden, Figure 1 Map of Sweden
Lars Nyberg
Department of Tourism Studies, Mid Sweden
University, Östersund, Sweden krona as national currency. With 9.5 million pop-
ulation in 2012, the country is sparsely inhabited
(21 people/km2 or 54/mi2). About 88 % live in the
The Kingdom of Sweden has an area of southern half of the country. Sweden has 95,000
450,000 km2 (174,000 mi2) and borders with lakes, many large rivers, and several archipelagos,
▶ Finland in the north and ▶ Norway along the with 50 % of landmass covered by forests.
Scandinavian mountain range (Figure 1). Sweden In 1885, the Swedish ▶ Tourist Association
joined the European Union in 1995, but keeps the was founded by university professors who
Switzerland 919
focused on exploring the mountains and develop- directed to ▶ destination ▶ development,

ing a network of trails and huts (Sehlin 1998). ▶ nature tourism, and event tourism.
Sweden was the first European country to desig-
nate national parks in 1909 and now has 29 such See also ▶ Geography, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ sec-
designations. A yearly 2-week paid ▶ holiday was ond home, ▶ visiting friend and relative.
established in 1938 and expanded to 5 weeks in
the 1970s. Charter air services started in the early
1950s (Blom and Nilsson 2005). The country has References
gone from a traditionally large ▶ deficit in tourism
balance of payments to almost no deficit in 2012 Blom,T., and M. Nilsson 2005 Turismens Historia och
Utveckling. Malmö: Liber.
(Tillv€axtverket 2013).
Lundmark, L., R. Marjavaara, and D. M€ uller 2011
Between 2000 and 2012, tourism in general Turismen I Sverige – Branscher och Aktörer. Malmö:
grew by 83 % in current prices to US$41.5 billion Liber.
(SEK275 billion) with its domestic portion up by Sehlin, H. 1998 K€ann Ditt Land. STF:s Roll i den Svenska
Turismens Historia. Svenska Turistföreningen.
54 % ($25.5 billion or SEK169 billion) and inter-
Tillv€axtverket 2013 Fakta om Svensk Turism. Turismens
national portion up by 162 % ($16 billion or Effekter på Ekonomi, Export och Syssels€attning samt
SEK106.5 billion). In 2012, the tourism value Volymer, Beteenden, Utbud och Efterfrågan. Fakta och
added was $13.8 billion or SEK91 billion Statistik 2012. Stockholm: Tillv€axtverket.
(up 75 %), the number of employees in the tour-
ism ▶ industry reached 167,900 (up 28 %), and
tourism’s share in GDP was 3 % (Tillv€axtverket
2013). Switzerland
Noncommercial ▶ accommodation such as
▶ visiting friends and relatives and staying in an Peter F. Keller
owned ▶ second home dominates ▶ domestic Faculty of Business and Economics, University of
tourism. About 46 % of the population has access Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
to a second home (Lundmark et al. 2011). Hotels
and camping sites provide the main commercial
accommodation, with hotels in the cities mainly Swiss Confederation or Switzerland is a small
used by business tourists. The main tourism sea- state in the heart of the Alps of Western ▶ Europe
son is summer, although winter tourism is grow- (Figure 1). It has a size of 41,285 km2
ing. Norway and ▶ Germany provide 50 % of (15,940 mi2) with a population of eight million
arrivals. Spain and other Nordic countries are the and is one of the most advanced and prosperous
main outbound destinations (Tillv€axtverket nations with a GDP of about US$500 billion in
2013). current terms in 2012. S
Tourism is presently a growth industry in The country was the cradle of modern ▶ moun-
the economy. The ▶ national tourism authority tain tourism, pioneering in the field of ▶ accom-
VisitSweden (www.visitsweden.com) is a pub- modation and mountain railways. Its unique peaks,
lic/private agency. Regional associations have idyllic landscapes, and the cultural diversity have
similar ownership, while tourist information been the resources for developing multi-optional
centers are mainly run by local communities. tourism ▶ supply with mountain ▶ leisure activi-
Higher education in tourism started in 1978, ties throughout the year. Due to internationalized
and there are 12 universities and colleges economy and its function as home of many inter-
offering undergraduate and postgraduate national organizations, ▶ business tourism is well
degrees in this field. The first PhD program developed in the country.
started in 2010 at Mid Sweden University. Tourism is a strategic ▶ industry for the Swiss
Considering the present state of tourism in Alpine regions and cities located around lakes. In
Sweden, research ▶ attention needs to be terms of tourism flows, summer has been stagnant
920 Switzerland
Switzerland, Figure 1 Map of Switzerland
in the past decades and changed from mass to niche high quality of its tourism-related infrastructures,
markets, whereas winter has been lucrative and its ▶ service level for tourism facilities, and for its
slightly increasing. From an economic perspective, well-managed natural resources.
Switzerland is a country with 50 % ▶ inbound Switzerland has an explicit strategic tourism
tourism and a strong domestic market stabilizing policy at federal, cantonal, and municipality
the fluctuation of the international demand. The levels, working together to promote the country.
receipts from inbound tourism amounted to $15 The governmental programs are implemented on
billion in 2014 contributing to a positive tourism the supply and demand side through efficient
balance. Tourism induced 2.9 % of the GDP and public-private partnerships under the umbrella of
4.2 % to ▶ employment in 2008 (FSO 2014; the strong Swiss branding (OECD 2012).
OECD 2012; Switzerland Tourism 2015). The country has the highest density of hotel
The country’s tourism is internationally com- and tourism schools worldwide. It is also where
petitive despite the relatively high price level and the first hotel school was founded in Lausanne in
the strong national currency. It is regularly ranked 1893. The Swiss Confederation and its states offer
among the top countries evaluated in the 2014 a permeable dual vocational system with courses
International ▶ Travel and Tourism Competitive and practices from apprenticeship to polytechnic
Reports of the World Economic Forum due to the universities. There are about 100 people active in
SWOT analysis 921
applied tourism research at academic and poly- Competitiveness results from the interplay of
technic university levels. High research priority is two variables: operational effectiveness and per-
given to destination management models, ceived differentiation in quality. Thus, achieving
tourism-related ICT developments and competitiveness requires both efficiency (things
▶ sustainability. well done with a minimum amount of inputs/
efforts) and quality (stakeholder satisfaction).
See also ▶ Alpine tourism, ▶ Europe, ▶ hospi- ▶ SWOT analysis must deal with both variables
tality, ▶ mountain tourism, ▶ policy and and also with the fact that the ▶ image perceived
policymaking. by buyers is their subjective reality. Tourism des-
tinations need both a competitive product and the
“best image.” The strategic positioning of a
▶ destination must respond to these subjective
References
realities, as market battles are often decided in the
FSO 2014 Swiss Tourism Statistics 2013. Neuchâtel: Fed- mind of customers. Positioning, communicated
eral Statistical Office. through “place branding,” is becoming ever more
OECD 2012 OECD Tourism Trends and Policies 2012. important. Destinations and their individual firms
Paris: Organisation for Economic Co-operation and
within must construct images making them “differ-
Development.
Switzerland Tourism 2015 Annual Reports www.stnet.ch/ ent” and more attractive in the minds of their tour-
de/ueber-uns/publikationen.html (16 April). ists (Peralba 2012; Trout et al. 2009, 2010).
The origin of SWOT is undecided. Some think
that in 1957 Berkeley Professor Philip Selznick
pioneered the idea of matching internal factors
with external scenarios. Others credit the concept
SWOT analysis to Stanford Professor Albert Humphrey and still
others to Igor Ansoff, who is known as the father
Raúl Peralba Fortuny1 and Eduardo Fayos-Solà2 of strategic management (Levitt 1980). Nowa-
1
Positioning Systems, Boadilla del Monte, days, with strategic positioning and ▶ competi-
Madrid, Spain tive advantage issues in mind, the four
2
UNWTO, Ulysses Foundation, Madrid, Spain cornerstones of SWOT analysis remain: strengths,
structural and dynamic elements of a destination
that confer an actual advantage in terms of
The SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, ▶ resources, influence, and ▶ tourist satisfaction;
threats) matrix is a popular tool for strategic anal- weaknesses, feebleness in structural and dynamic
ysis in the business field. Given that the usual elements vis-à-vis present scenarios; opportuni-
objective of entrepreneurs is return on ▶ invest- ties, potential dynamic advancement based on S
ment, it can assist in the preparation of a plan to tangible strategies; and threats, potential trouble
that end. In the case of destinations, SWOT is in the context of changing scenarios.
often used to help define the strategic positioning In preparing a SWOT matrix, points of interest
of the tourism cluster and its policy and ▶ gover- include common sense (adapting analysis to
nance plan (Fayos-Solà et al. 2014). The plan majority thinking and judgment), objectivity
should take advantage of an existing destination’s (reality over creativity), candor (acceptance of
“strengths” and “weaknesses” vis-à-vis its com- the who’s and how’s), competitiveness (based on
petitors. However, from a more dynamic perspec- good strategic positioning, quality, and effi-
tive, it should also consider the upcoming ciency), and simplicity (initiatives for a resulting
“threats” and “opportunities” in changing, often policy plan to become clear to everyone).
volatile, scenarios. This is to help determine the ▶ Future research on SWOT could focus on trans-
destination’s comparative and potential competi- lating hidden comparative advantages into mean-
tive advantages. ingful tourism policy and governance programs.
922 Symbolic interactionism
See also ▶ Comparative advantage, ▶ destina- symbolic interactions are thereafter combined cre-
tion branding, ▶ governance, ▶ marketing, ▶ pol- atively (and mindfully) to mobilize and direct
icy and policymaking. individual actions. Thus symbolic interactionism
acknowledges the (relational) agency of people
and things.
References Such a position encourages the researcher
to become attuned to experiences as primarily
Fayos-Solà, E., M. Alvarez, and C. Cooper 2014 Tourism social in character. In tourism, this perspective
as an Instrument for Development. Bingley: Emerald.
can be used to explore how individuals
Levitt, T. 1980 Marketing Success through
Differentiation – of Anything. Harvard Business construct and interpret destinations through
Review (January-February): 83-91. “interactions” and “encounters” with, for exam-
Peralba, R. 2012 El Principio KICS. Madrid: Editorial ple, heritage sites, themeparks, and the ▶ Other
Urano. Empresa Activa.
around them.
Trout, J., S. Rivkin, and R. Peralba 2009 Diferenciarse o
Morir 2. Madrid: Editorial Pirámide. Grupo Anaya. Meaning is also found in understanding that
Trout, J., S. Rivkin, and R. Peralba 2010 Reposicio- (touristic) performances and roles are negotiated.
namiento. Madrid: Editorial Pirámide. For instance, from a symbolic interactionist per-
spective, identity occurs from interactions with
Others (and with social objects). Researchers can
explore tourist typologies, backpackers and use of
Symbolic interactionism symbols (backpacks, flags), and interactions
between hosts and guests (Othering, photogra-
David Scott1 and Tara Duncan2 phy). They can also challenge dominant thinking
1
School of Business and Tourism, Southern Cross regarding concepts such as mobility and the
University, East Lismore, Australia requirement for physical travel in order to perform
2
Otago Business School, University of Otago, the role of tourist (for instance the armchair tour-
Dunedin, New Zealand ist). Thinking in this way can (re)sensitize
researchers to issues such as ▶ power and gender
within these interactions and encounters.
Symbolic interactionism has its foundations Symbolic interaction as a methodology was an
within a pragmatic philosophical tradition. Fun- early contributor to tourism research.
damentally, its meaning is found in and through MacCannell’s (1976) analysis of the performance
social interactions and encounters. Its particular of tourism and tourists is a focus of interactionist
strength is the empirical approach it encourages work of the 1970s. One of his most notable con-
during meaning making. Empirically, it has, as its tributions was the adaptation of Goffman’s (1973)
focus, the observation, recording, and analysis of dramaturgical front-stage and backstage in order
social acts. Symbolic interactionism can thus be to theorize (in)authentic tourist encounters.
considered a useful way of thinking about ▶ tour- Symbolic interactionism provides a useful way
ist place(s) and space(s), identity performances, of thinking for contemporary and future studies of
and lived experiences (Charon 2007). the tourist (and tourist places). Critiques of the
Symbolic interactionism has proved beneficial domination of representation (and the discursive
in developing an understanding of the role nego- construction of knowledge) have led to a
tiation between social actors (and social objects). burgeoning interest in how researchers might
Individuals do not re-act to the external world; engage symbolic interactionism to “know” tour-
instead, they engage in meaningful (social) acts ism and the tourist through, for example, affect
which in turn transform Others, and “stuff,” into and the body (Vannini 2009). Therefore, symbolic
social objects. The interactions and encounters are interactionism offers a valuable opportunity to
thus negotiations based on the meaning these expand methodological approaches within
things (and people) convey. The subsequent tourism.
Symbolic value 923
See also ▶ Anthropology, ▶ ethnography, when symbols change in meaning due to histori-
▶ qualitative research, ▶ sightseeing, ▶ sociology. cal events and cultural shifts.
Although these changing meanings are com-
mon issues within a tourism context, studies of
References symbolic value or significatory practices in tour-
ism have remained rare. Researchers and manage-
Charon, J. 2007 Symbolic iInteractionism: An Introduc- ment practitioners have paid little attention to the
tion, an Interpretation, an Integration. Upper Saddle
▶ power and reach of the symbolic discourse and
River: Pearson.
Goffman, E. 1973 The Presentation of Self in Everyday praxis of symbolic meaning/significatory actions
Life. Woodstock: Overlook Press. between and among the host community, tourists,
Maccannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the and the industry.
Leisure Class. London: Macmillan.
Yet symbolism is a fundamental and histori-
Vannini, P. 2009 Nonrepresentational Theory and Sym-
bolic Interactionism: Shared Perspectives and Missed cally embedded modus operandi to understanding
Articulations. Symbolic Interaction 32:282. the structural origins, meaning, and production of
cultural and historical persons, places, or things
in/through tourism (Walsh 2010). In particular,
Hollinshead (2003) has stressed the importance
of the role and function of tourism in the devel-
Symbolic value opment of symbolic understandings by drawing a
number of cardinal insights from the 2002 bomb-
Inge Hermann ing of the island of Bali, ▶ Indonesia. Further-
Hospitality Business School, Saxion University more, Hopkins (1998), among others, has
of Applied Sciences, Deventer, The Netherlands presented a comprehensive study of place market-
ing strategies, which have constructed and
represented post-rural meanings of a symbolic
The word “symbol” originates from the Greek countryside. From a ▶ tourist’s perspective,
verb symballein, meaning “to throw or piece Littrell (1990), among others, has looked in
together, to (re)join.” From an essentialist per- depth at the strong symbolic values and signifi-
spective, the verb is also understood as the cogni- cance of souvenirs and textile crafts related to
tive understanding of what it means to value people’s pleasurable experiences, gained while
something that has meaning and value beyond traveling and recaptured once at home. It is critical
what is physical and tangible. Translated into for tourism scholars to openly and vigorously
signs and symbolic actions (rituals), symbols are engage with symbolism in an attempt to move
intimately linked with an object, person, event, or beyond the dichotomy of signification and repre-
thing they represent and allow humans to connect sentation and to grasp an understanding of the S
with times and places which cannot be physically world making projective power of tourism.
experienced. Additionally, they evoke (or are
symbolic of) significant intangible values by See also ▶ Culture, ▶ myth, ▶ imaginary,
representing ideas and reinforcing ideologies and ▶ sign, ▶ symbolic interactionism.
beliefs.
Symbols are multilayered and
multidimensional and have a variety of meanings References
between and among different cultural, geograph-
ical, and religious groups and individuals. Diffi- Hollinshead, K. 2003 Symbolism in Tourism: Lessons
culties may arise when symbols, represented and from Bali 2002 - Lessons from Australia's Dead
Heart. Tourism Analysis 8(2-4):267-295.
expressed through signs and rituals, are Hopkins, J. 1998 Signs of the Post-rural: Marketing Myths
overlooked, incorrectly interpreted, or neglected. of a Symbolic Countryside. Geografiska Annaler
Additionally, complicated situations may develop 80(2):65-81.
924 Symbolism
Littrell, M. 1990 Symbolic Significance of Textile Crafts sight is). MacCannell maintains that “a specific
for Tourists. Annals of Tourism Research 17:228-245. sight is hardly worth seeing but the information
Walsh, N. 2010 Symbolic Value. In Encyclopedia of Case
Study Research, A. Mills, G. Durepos and E. Wiebe, associated with it [the marker] makes a visit
eds., pp.913-917. Thousand Oaks: Sage. worthwhile anyway” (1999:114). MacCannell’s
position has been generalized by scholars such
as Urry who claims that the “tourist gaze” is
“constructed through signs, and tourism involves
the collection of signs” (2002:146).
Symbolism Lau (2011) finds MacCannell’s argument inter-
esting but partly mistaken. Lau notes that while an
Raymond W. K. Lau attraction corresponds to the designatum, it does
School of Arts and Social Sciences, The Open not correspond to the signified and that a marker
University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China corresponds neither to the representamen nor to
the signifier. In Saussurean terminology, an attrac-
tion constitutes the signifier, and the signified is
A symbol is a thing representing something else. constituted by what is associated with the attrac-
For instance, consumption can symbolize status tion (the historical event of the Bonnie and Clyde
and taste (Bourdieu 1984). By the same token, shootout). Therefore, it is not the attraction (the
tourism can connote prestige and status. But signifier) itself that attracts tourists, but what it
Bourdieu has not provided an analysis of symbols signifies (the signified). Lau further stipulates
as such. Ferdinand de Saussure and Charles Peirce two general caveats for applying semiotics to
called their studies semiology and semiotics, tourism: Not all attractions constitute semiotic
respectively. Today, semiotics refers to the study signs; and whereas the use of semiotic theory is
of signs in general. Saussure’s and Peirce’s theo- usually taken as having anti-objectivist implica-
ries are quite different. Saussure abstracts from the tions, to speak of an attraction constituting a sign
“referent” (such as a cat) and focuses on the “sig- does not have such implications (the Bonnie and
nifier” (the cat sound) and the “signified” (the idea Clyde site must objectively be the authentic loca-
of the cat). He emphasizes that the relationship tion where the shootout occurred). Finally, while
between signifier and signified is purely conven- pilgrimage sites readily constitute signs, whether
tional/arbitrary. In contrast, Peirce speaks of or not non-pilgrimage attractions can do the same
representamen (the sign), designatum (the real is worth future explorations.
object), and interpretant (the mental image cre-
ated by the sign on the interpreter). See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ marker, ▶ pilgrimage
Representamen and interpretant are roughly tourism, ▶ semiotics, ▶ sign.
equivalent to Saussure’s signifier and signified.
MacCannell observes that some tourism attrac-
tions are anything but attractive. For example, References
why would tourists visit the Bonnie and Clyde
Bourdieu, P. 1984 Distinction: A Social Critique of the
shootout site, which “amounts to no more than a Judgment of Taste. Cambridge: Harvard University
patch of wild grass?” (1999:113). To solve this Press.
puzzle, he suggests that such attractions are signs, Lau, R. 2011 Tourist Sights as Semiotic Signs: A Critical
and equates them to the signified, and what he Commentary. Annals of Tourism Research 38:711-714.
calls a “marker” (any information about a sight) to Leisure Class. Berkeley: University of California Press.
the signifier. The signifier (marker) signifies Urry, J. 2002 The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in
(explains the meaning of) the signified (what the Contemporary Societies. London: Sage.
Syria 925
available; English and French are widely spoken

Syria especially among tourism ▶ service providers.
Despite having a well-established higher educa-
Galal M. H. Afifi tion system, tourism programs are offered by only
College of Arts and Social Sciences, Sultan two public universities and less than ten private
Qaboos University, Al-Khoudh, Muscat, Oman institutions.
The continuous political disputes, including
regional and civil wars, domestic uprisings, and
Syrian Arab Republic is a West Asia country, with political instability over the last 50 years, have had
a population of 21.4 million, bordering ▶ Leba- significant negative impacts on the tourism
non and the Mediterranean Sea to the west, ▶ Tur- ▶ industry of Syria. Before the Civil War, tourism
key to the north, ▶ Iraq to the east, and ▶ Jordan was growing rapidly; the country received 8.5
and ▶ Israel to the south (Figure 1). In 2010, the million tourists in 2010 compared to 6 million in
economy depended mostly on oil (23 % of the 2009, one of the highest growth rates in the
Syrian GDP), agriculture (17.6 %), and tourism ▶ Middle East at the time. Jordan, ▶ Lebanon,
(14 %, or US$8.4 billion). Since the beginning of ▶ Saudi Arabia, Turkey, and ▶ France represent
the Civil War in 2011, the economy has shrunk by the major inbound markets mostly interested in
35 %, and the Syrian pound has fallen to one-sixth visiting friends and relatives, especially among
of its prewar value (IMF 2012). the Jordanian and Lebanese. Most arrivals are
The combination of its climate, long Mediter- either by cars or buses. The country has two
ranean coastline, cultural diversity, long history, international airports, in Damascus and Aleppo,
oriental cuisine, and its central ▶ location in rela- as well as several major Mediterranean ports
tion to Asia, ▶ Europe, and ▶ Africa makes Syria (UNWTO 2013). In 2013, it was estimated that
a promising ▶ destination. The country has a ▶ travel and tourism directly supported 190,500
number of UNESCO world heritage sites, includ- jobs (3.0 % of total employment) (WTTC 2014).
ing the ancient cities of Damascus, Bosra, Aleppo, In 2010, Syria with over 6.2 million outbound
and Palmyra, as well as Crac des Chevaliers and trips was the fourth largest generating market in
Qal’at Salah El-Din. Some sites were recently the Middle East, after Saudi Arabia, the ▶ United
endangered due to a range of damages caused Arab Emirates, and ▶ Egypt (SME 2011). The
when used for military purposes (UNESCO majority of these were same-day visits to Lebanon
2014). Infrastructure and services are widely and Jordan. Due to long historical connections,
Jordan, Lebanon, Turkey, ▶ Armenia, and
▶ Romania are typically the most visited destina-
tions by the citizens (UNWTO 2013).
S
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ Middle East,
▶ visiting friend and relative, ▶ world heritage.
References
IMF 2012 World Economic Outlook Database. Interna-

tional Monetary Fund www.imf.org/ (4 July 2014).
SME 2011 Expatriates Annual Report, Syrian Ministry of
Syria, Figure 1 Map of Syria Expatriates www.moex.gov.sy/ (4 July 2014).
926 System
UNESCO 2014 World Heritage List http://whc.unesco. (1979) uses general systems theory to develop a
org/en/list/ (4 July). holistic framework for understanding and managing
UNWTO, 2013, Compendium of Tourism Statistics, Data
2007–2011. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. tourism. He proposes that this system comprises
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impacts: geographic and social elements. The former consists
Syria. London: World Travel and Tourism Council. of the tourist-generating places, the transit route,
and the destination, while the latter includes the
tourists themselves, the tour operators, and the ser-
vice providers at the destination.
System A destination can be defined as a territorial
entity, containing a critical mass of natural and
Francisco Serra man-made resources such as accessibility, trans-
School of Management, Hospitality and Tourism, portation, attractions, services, promotion, and
University of Algarve, Faro, Portugal information, with the potential to satisfy tourists’
objectives. These supply-side components have
been referred to as the destination functioning
Ludwig von Bertalanffy, the recognized founder system, meaning that a change in one component
of the general systems theory, defined an open will condition the behavior of the others by means
system as “a complex of elements standing in of feedback cycles and delays, resulting in
interaction” (1960: 199), adding that there are nonlinear outcomes. For instance, a change in air
general principles holding for systems, transport access to a destination will impact on
irrespective of the nature of their components demand for tourism services and attractions, as
and of the relations or forces among them. The well as the need for promotion and information.
principles of general systems theory can be This view as a functioning system has major
applied to almost all scientific disciplines. implications for planners and destination man-
A considerable amount of literature already exists agers in the public and private sectors.
on the theory and practice of systems methodol- There have been a number of studies to exam-
ogy, applied to the management sciences. ine the relationships among tourism, the economy,
Based on this definition, tourism can be under- the environment, and development, using a sys-
stood as an open system, comprising human and tems approach. For example, van den Bergh
environmental subsystems in interaction and (1996) analyzes the direct impacts of tourism on
evolving toward an increasing state of complexity, the environment over time; Georgantzas (2001)
while being able to keep and reinforce its differen- explores the dynamics of tourism in Cyprus in
tiation, relative to other systems of a higher order. relation to the environment, profitability, and sus-
The consolidation of tourism as a distinct body of tainability; and Serra (2009) develops a systems
knowledge has led to the conceptualization of a dynamics model to allow for strategic manage-
number of development models, most of which ment of destinations.
focus on destinations. These models have shown
that economic benefits are often affected by nega-
tive social and environmental impacts on the host Systems thinking
communities, suggesting the need for further study
of the complexity and the dynamics of tourism, Systems thinking recognizes the interdependence
from a systems perspective (Pearce 1989). and interrelatedness of all elements within a sys-
tem and has been adapted to the social sciences as
a method for understanding real-world phenom-
The systems approach ena. For the purpose of tourism management, a
functionalist approach may be suitable in an oper-
Systems theory has been applied to tourism by a few ational sense, but many aspects of the tourism
researchers since the beginning of the 1980s. Leiper experience are also determined by perceptions of
System 927
quality. Therefore, it may be more appropriate to perceived reality where managers and other people
use the soft systems approach to further this can learn about the system’s behavior. Through
understanding. these simulations, it is possible to learn about the
Systems thinkers are committed to a holistic system and improve assumptions about the short-
understanding of a phenomenon, in contrast to a and long-term effects of different decisions.
reductionist approach that has prevailed in the There are many positive and negative feedback
thinking of many social science fields (including loops, as well as delays, which have yet to be
tourism), whereby breaking down the problem identified and calculated for appropriate calibra-
into its component parts has been a common prac- tion of certain policy measures regarding the inter-
tice. The systems approach involves cognitive action between populations, the environment, and
research methodology and has potential for the tourism, illustrating the need for a systems
eventual establishment of an integrated and auton- approach to the management of economic, cul-
omous body of knowledge. It offers researchers, tural, and environmental resources in pursuing
planners, and destination managers a tool for development options. This provides a useful
understanding these factors more closely. This is framework for future research.
particularly relevant for small regions, where the
system as a whole can be modeled within more See also ▶ Biological diversity, ▶ decision sup-
controlled limits, and the relationships among the port system, ▶ destination lifecycle.
modes within the model can be more clearly
defined. The consideration of feedback in the sys-
tem, where change in one module affects change
in another which, in turn, influences the first, is References
one of the main benefits of the systems approach.
Bertalanffy, L. 1960 Problems of Life. New York: Harper.
Georgantzas, N. 2001 Cyprus' Tourism: Environment,
Profitability and Sustainability Dynamics. Conference
Systems modeling and future directions of the International Systems Dynamics Society,
Atlanta: ISDS.
Through the process of developing a system’s Leiper, N. 1979 A Framework of Tourism. Annals of
model, a modeler creates a map of the system’s Pearce, D. 1989 Tourism Development (2nd ed.). London:
variables and interrelationships with the aim of Longman.
providing a better understanding of the system Serra, F. 2009 Modelización del Sector Turístico y
behavior over time, given different policy goals. Simulación de Estrategias Mediante Dinámica de
Sistemas: Aplicación al Algarve Portugués. Huelva:
Furthermore, a system’s simulator can provide UHU.
more than simple conclusions based on linear van den Bergh, J. 1996 Ecological Economics and Sustain-
cause and effect observations, since it can be used able Development: Theory, Methods and Applications. S
to replicate the structure and behavior of a certain Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.
T
Tajikistan tourists from all over the Soviet Union and other
Eastern bloc countries. Only for the last 15 years,
Lochin Faizulloev1, Sebastian Falck2 and tourists have started to return. The main source
Qobiljon Shokirov3 markets are neighboring countries, as well as
1
Committee of Youth Affairs, Sports and ▶ Iran, ▶ Germany, the ▶ United States, the
Tourism, Government of Tajikistan, Dushanbe, ▶ United Kingdom, and ▶ France, with an arrival
Tajikistan count of 207,000 tourists in 2013 (State Commit-
2
Tajik Association of Tourism Organisations, tee on Investment and State Property Manage-
Dushanbe, Tajikistan ment 2013).
3
University of Central Asia, Khorog, Tajikistan Over the last several years, the Tajik Govern-
ment has increasingly emphasized tourism
▶ development through the National Develop-
Situated in Central Asia, the Republic of Tajiki- ment Strategy (2015) and Concept for Tourism
stan borders Kyrgyzstan to the north, Uzbekistan Development (2009–2019). Such concepts aim
to the north and west, Afghanistan to the south, to provide enabling conditions for tourism devel-
and China to the east (Figure 1). It covers opment as well as promoting ▶ community-based
143,100 km2 (55,251 mi2) and has a population tourism in and around Tajikistan National Park
of 8.1 million (by 2013 census). In 2012, the (Government of Tajikistan 2009), which recently
nominal GDP equaled US$7.6 billion has been designated Tajikistan’s first Natural
(or TJS36.2 billion). ▶ World Heritage Site (UNESCO 2013). Tourism
During Soviet times, the economy was has been identified as a potential economic driver,
centrally planned, as was tourism. In 1989, about which would also assist in boosting the interna-
500,000 tourists visited Tajikistan, mainly taking tional image of Tajikistan. Its location in the heart
advantage of the well-developed infrastructure of of Central Asia, its rich natural and cultural heri-
sanatoriums, hotels, and mountaineering camps tage, historical attractions, and connection to the
all around the country (Asimov 1988). After the old and new Silk Road will play a vital role in the
turmoil following the collapse of the Soviet Union development of a sustainable and competitive
and the country’s independence in 1991, Tajiki- destination. The government’s commitment, as
stan almost completely disappeared from the shown in its open door policy, and its continued
▶ international tourism map. Before the decline improvement in increasing access will foster an
in the 1990s, the Pamir and the Fann Mountains attractive climate of business and ▶ investment in
were popular destinations for mountaineers and tourism and ▶ other industries.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
930 Tanzania
ey
all
KAZAKHSTAN naV
rga
Fe Isfara Valley
Khujand
UZBEKISTAN KYRGYZSTAN
.
Panjakent Mts
y
Ala
Garm
DUSHANBE
CHINA
Murghob
Kûlob
TURKM.
Qûrghonteppa m i r s
Khorugh P a
0 40 80 km
0 40 80 ml AFGHANISTAN
PAKISTAN
Tajikistan, Figure 1 Map of Tajikistan
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ cultural tour- in East Africa. It is bordered by ▶ Kenya and
ism, ▶ image, ▶ mountain tourism. ▶ Uganda to the north; ▶ Rwanda, ▶ Burundi,
and the Democratic Republic of Congo to the
west; ▶ Zambia, ▶ Malawi, and ▶ Mozambique
References to the south; and the Indian Ocean to the east
(Figure 1). The country is divided into 30 admin-
Asimov, M. 1988 Tajik Soviet Encyclopedia (Volumes istrative regions: 5 on the islands of the Zanzibar
1-8). Dushanbe: Irfon.
Archipelago and 25 on the mainland. The capital
Government of Tajikistan 2009 Tourism Development
Concept Note of Republic of Tajikistan for 2009 - city is Dodoma, while the principal commercial
2019. Dushanbe: Government of Tajikistan. and the largest city is Dar es Salaam.
State Committee on Investment and State Property Man- In 2012, Tanzania’s population was 44.9 mil-
agement 2013 Model of Tourism Development in
lion (National Bureau of Statistics 2013) of which
Tajikistan: Analysis and Recommendations. Dushanbe:
Government of Tajikistan. more than 80 % is rural, consisting of more than
UNESCO 2013 Tajik National Park (Mountains of the 120 ethnic groups with diverse local languages
Pamirs). Paris: United Nations Educational, Scientific and cultures. Swahili and English are the two
and Cultural Organization.
official languages. The economy depends heavily
on agriculture, which accounts for more than 25 %
of the GDP, providing 85 % of exports and
Tanzania employing 80 % of the workforce (National
Bureau of Statistics 2011).
Agnes Sirima1 and John T. Mgonja2 Tanzania is known for its wildlife parks,
1
Sokoine University of Agriculture, Morogoro, reserves, and long coastline. More than 30 % of
Tanzania the land is in protected areas. There are 16 national
2
Clemson University, Clemson, USA parks, 34 game reserves, 38 game controlled
areas, and 9 marine parks. In 2013, Tanzania
received about 1,095,884 tourists. Its well-
The United Republic of Tanzania, with an area of known attractions include Mt. Kilimanjaro
947,300 km2 (365,800 mi2), is the largest country (Africa’s highest mountain), Serengeti National
Tanzania 931
Tanzania, Figure 1 Map

of Tanzania
Park (known for its spectacular seasonal wildebeest tourism product development, infrastructure
migrations), Lake Manyara National Park (famous development, security, ▶ marketing, ▶ conserva-
for tree-climbing lions), and the Ngorongoro crater tion, and livelihood.
which is an extinct volcanic caldera with an out- Tanzania has begun to diversify its tourism
standing game viewing from the crater rim offers through ▶ cultural tourism under the super- T
(Boniface and Cooper 2001). The country is also vision of Tanzania Tourist Board, aiming to pro-
remarkable for its cultural heritage (Bagamoyo, mote rural livelihoods. Product development and
Kilwa, Kondoa, and Zanzibar) and archeological service delivery are central to successful tourism
sites such as Olduvai Gorge, one of the important ▶ development. Due to this, the ▶ national tour-
paleoanthropological sites in the world. ism policy attaches importance to human resource
Tourism ▶ industry supports approximately development. Many universities are now offering
200,000 jobs (direct and indirect), generates tourism-related degree programs to meet the ever
25 % of Tanzania’s ▶ foreign exchange earnings, increasing demand for professionals in this field.
and contributes about 17 % of the national GDP In 2012, the government implemented a project to
(MNRT 2012). The prospects for future research establish a new campus for the National College
on tourism include human resource development, of Tourism.
932 Tax
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ cultural tourism, ▶ moun- In practice, taxes can rarely be levied on
tain tourism, ▶ park tourism, ▶ wildlife tourism. ▶ inbound tourism without the same also being
paid by domestic tourists or by local residents.
This means appropriate “tax handles” (Bird
References 1992) are very difficult to establish, limiting the
extent to which most countries can take advantage
Boniface, B., and C. Cooper 2001 Worldwide Destina- of taxing inbound tourism.
tions: The Geography of Travel and Tourism. London:
For large high-income countries, the impor-
National Bureau of Statistics 2011 Tanzania in Figures. Dar tance of domestic and ▶ outbound tourism
es Salaam: Ministry of Finance, United Republic of means that tourism taxes are less efficient means
Tanzania. of raising revenue than ▶ other sources of tax
National Bureau of Statistics 2013 Population Distribution
income. This has led the European Union to
by Administrative Units. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of
Finance, United Republic of Tanzania. allow member states to apply lower rates of
MNRT 2012 The International Visitors’ Exit Survey value-added tax on tourism products than on
Report. Dar es Salaam: Ministry of Natural Resources other goods and services (Copenhagen Econom-
and Tourism, United Republic of Tanzania.
ics 2007). Most member states have reduced rates
applying to tourism, either on accommodation,
restaurants, or ▶ visitor attractions.
The appropriate level of tourism taxes there-
Tax fore depends on how unique a destination’s attrac-
tions are, the relative sizes of inbound, outbound
Adam Blake and domestic markets, and the ability to find
Faculty of Management, Bournemouth appropriate tax handles. ▶ Future research is
University, Poole, UK likely to increase the number of destinations and
types of tax that are analyzed and further define
the conditions under which tourism taxation can
Taxes are levied on tourism as a means to raise be beneficial, with different economic conditions
revenue for public ▶ expenditure, to correct mar- such as market structure or labor market flexibility
ket prices, to take account of environmental exter- being important. The way in which different
nalities, or to impose charges for otherwise free stakeholders gain or lose from taxes is another
environmental goods (Piga 2003). Such taxes can possible area of research as little is known about
be levied on individual industries such as how different tourism taxes affect income distri-
▶ accommodation, transport, restaurants, ▶ car bution or poor groups.
rental, attractions, and casinos or on particular
activities such as departure charges or fees for See also ▶ Competitive advantage, ▶ domestic
using particular natural resources. The appropriate tourism, ▶ economics, ▶ inbound tourism.
levels of such taxes depend on a destination’s mix
of inbound and ▶ domestic tourism as well as the
price elasticity of demand (Gooroochurn and References
Sinclair 2005). Taxes paid by foreign tourists
can be beneficial to a ▶ destination, particularly Bird, R. 1992 Taxing Tourism in Developing Countries.
World Development 20:1145-1158.
where there are unique attractions, because of the Copenhagen Economics 2007 Study on Reduced VAT
revenue that they bring. While destinations Applied to Goods and Services in the Member States
may have the incentive to levy such taxes, the of the European Union: Final Report. Copenhagen:
world as a whole is made worse by them, as Report to the European Commission, Directorate Gen-
eral Taxation and Customs Union.
consumers pay more through higher prices than Forsyth, P., and L. Dwyer 2002 Market Power and the
destinations gain through tax revenues (Forsyth Taxation of Domestic and International Tourism. Tour-
and Dwyer 2002). ism Economics 8:377-399.
Technology 933
Gooroochurn, N., and M. Sinclair 2005 Economics of platforms. It will be of great technological
Tourism Taxation: Evidence from Mauritius. Annals importance to ensure that passengers can fly,
Piga, C. 2003 Pigovian Taxation in Tourism. Environmen- catch the metro or other types of urban public
tal and Resource Economics 26:343-359. transport, and then ▶ travel by interurban
transport to their destinations with a single ticket
and payment. While technology is there, the chal-
lenge pertains to the political will that allows
people to create the levels of parameterization
Technology that enable different technological systems to be
integrated. Moreover, as far as restaurants are
Antonio Guevara concerned, technologies are central to food pro-
Dpto. Lenguajes y Ciencias de la Computación, duction, conservation and packaging, logistics,
University of Malaga, Málaga, Spain distribution, and analysis and control and are
exerting a special impact on food and beverage
businesses, ▶ culinary tourism, and food supply
The various changes that have taken place in the chain.
tourism ▶ industry in recent years are closely Cantoni and Xiang (2013) identified commit-
related to advances in technology in general and ment to ▶ training and integration as the challenge
in information and communication technologies facing tourism companies and organizations when
more specifically. As a multifaceted ▶ phenome- adapting to the rapid evolution of technologies
non, tourism encompasses a great variety of seg- and searching for a ▶ competitive advantage.
ments made up of different types of companies to Notably, all new technologies need to be analyzed
which technological advances have made a spe- prior to implementation so as to provide optimum
cial contribution (UNWTO 2011). While ▶ tech- performance and to assess the resulting advan-
nology is a cross-disciplinary instrument, tages by studying the best way to integrate tech-
numerous studies have focused on its ▶ impact nologies in the industry. Tourism can thus be
on tourism (Egger and Buhalis 2008). Tourism assured of improving its productivity and effi-
companies and institutions have been the stimulus ciency. However, this goal can only be achieved
that drives the changes to the processes. In terms if the workforce’s technological know-how is kept
of impacts on the industry, the most significant up to date, while the industry continues to be
one has been the advances in information and innovative and to seek and utilize cutting-edge
communication technologies, which have been technologies.
receiving special attention due to their current
and future importance.
▶ Other forms of technologies have also posi- See also ▶ Geographical information system,
tively affected tourism. For example, energy and ▶ information technology, ▶ innovation, ▶ inter-
environmental technology ranges from the stor- net, ▶ social media. T
age, transport, transmission, and conversion of
energy, as well as energy-saving measures, to the
prevention and treatment of air pollution and mat- References
ters relating to waste recycling, management and
Cantoni, L., and Z. Xiang (ed.) 2013 Information and
recovery, and sustainability. In this regard, the Communication Technologies in Tourism. Innsbruck,
greatest impact has been noted of the ▶ air trans- Austria: Proceedings of the International ENTER
port and the hotel sectors, among others, resulting –IFITT Conference.
in changes to energy-saving mechanisms, effi- Egger, R., and D. Buhalis 2008 eTourism Case Studies:
Management and Marketing Issues in eTourism. Lon-
ciency, and sustainability. don: Elsevier.
Tourism is still affected by a lack of technolog- UNWTO 2011 AM Reports Vol. 1. Technology in Tour-
ical interoperability among the various transport ism. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
934 Terrorism
Thus, a large number of acts have occurred in

Terrorism various modes of transportation (such as airports,
airplanes, and cruiseships) while tourists travel to
Yoel Mansfeld or from their destinations. Aircraft hijackings
Geography and Environmental Studies, Center for have been a common act of terrorists, mainly
Tourism Research, University of Haifa, Haifa, because of their high communication potential
Israel and devastating impact on a global industry
heavily reliant on transportation. The use of air-
craft as a target coincided with the worldwide
Terrorism is a contested concept and hence a expansion of airborne tourism since the
complex challenges for those trying to define mid-1960s.
it. However, as Wight (2009) claimed, the mini-
mal elements required for a definition should
include that this is a form of violent political Dealing with terrorism
communication. It is always regarded as an ille-
gitimate act of violence; it involves the deliberate Similar attacks that followed paved the way for
targeting of non-state actors and institutions; and the most notorious terrorist activity of the modern
the victims are not the intended recipients of the era against tourism and tourists by Al-Qaeda ter-
transmitted political message. Tourism as a local, rorists: 11 September 2001 in the ▶ United States.
regional, national, and global economic activity This event marked a threshold by transforming
and tourists as its customers have occasionally tourism from a local target sought by local terror-
been the objects of terrorist activities, mainly ist groups to a global industry challenged by ter-
since the early 1960s. These activities have left rorists seeking tourism targets worldwide.
their adverse imprint on the economy and the Another “soft” type of targets for terrorist activi-
“safe” image of many destinations. Acts of terror- ties is destinations and ▶ tourist facilities such as
ism against tourism and tourists always leave a the Twin Towers in New York in 2001; the Luxor
high level of uncertainty and instability in their Massacre which killed 62 persons, mostly tour-
wake and may affect the willingness to travel and ists, in Deir el-Bahri, an archaeological site facing
visit affected destinations. If it happens on an the Nile in ▶ Egypt in 1997; the series of bomb
ongoing basis, such as occurrences in the ▶ Mid- attacks by the Kurdish Workers’ Party on tourism
dle East, terrorism may cause prolonged tourism targets in Antalya, ▶ Turkey in 1993; the Mom-
crises, often with devastating economic and social basa attack on the Paradise Hotel in ▶ Kenya in
ramifications. Such terrorist activities often influ- 2002; and the attack on Mumbai Taj and Oberoi-
ence both tourism and other economic sectors Trident Hotels in ▶ India in 2011. These attacks
directly or indirectly related to the former. In are instances of how terrorists act against the host
fighting terrorism and its negative effects, coun- areas of this industry and the tourists visiting
tries often invest in costly security measures. them. Tarlow (2006) dealt with this question
These may reduce or eliminate the exposure of while researching terrorism and tourism from a
destinations to terrorist threats. But, at the same social perspective. He argued that terrorism aims
time, this creates a negative ambience that occa- to inflict economic and human damage which can
sionally transforms the image of a destination into be achieved relatively easily when attacking tour-
one of a security zone. In pursuit of their political ists in a given destination. Consequently, media
and occasionally social goals, terrorists target coverage is assumed to be much more “effective”
tourism, this “soft belly” industry, in its various assuring the widest possible attention. Further-
consumption stages (Ranga and Pradhan 2014). more, terrorists know that tourism needs peace
The decision on the place and the timing is almost and stability in order to function properly; they
entirely made by terrorists on the basis of are also aware of the difficulties involved in
maximizing the impact on communications. installing effective security measures without
Thailand 935
jeopardizing the desirable image of a tourist terrorism on tourists’ perception of risk and on
space. Implementing such security measures is negative destination images.
expensive and may influence the cost of the tour-
ism product and hence its ability to compete in the See also ▶ Crisis management, ▶ image, ▶ risk,
global market. ▶ safety and security.
Reaction to increasing terrorist attacks

References
Tourists and the industry alike have learned to
take security issues, including terrorism, into Mansfeld, Y. 2006 The Role of Security Information in
Tourism Crisis Management: the Missing Link. In
account. The awareness of the need to combat Tourism, Security and Safety – From Theory to Prac-
terrorism through tourism was redefined as a tice, Y. Mansfeld and A. Pizam, eds., pp.1-27. Oxford:
global interest following the events of 11 Septem- Elsevier.
ber 2001 (Pizam and Mansfeld 2006). Thus, air- Pizam, A., and Y. Mansfeld 2006 Toward a Theory of
Tourism Security. In Tourism, Security and
ports, more than ever before, have now become Safety – From Theory to Practice, Y. Mansfeld and
highly secured installations. Passenger aircrafts A. Pizam, eds., pp.1-27. Oxford: Elsevier.
are often manned by security personnel, hotels Ranga, M., and P. Pradhan 2014 Terrorism Terrorizes
have intensified their security measures, and Tourism: Indian Tourism Effacing Myths? Interna-
tional Journal of Safety and Security in Tourism
resorts have often been transformed into gated 5(1):26-39.
communities of “temporary residents” on vaca- Tarlow, P. 2006 Social Theory of Terrorism and Tourism.
tions. The tourism industry has invested huge In Tourism, Security and Safety – From Theory to
sums in installing technological solutions to Practice, Y. Mansfeld and A. Pizam, eds., pp.33-48.
Oxford: Elsevier.
detect and monitor possible terrorist intentions Wight, C. 2009 Theorizing Terrorism: The State, Structure
and to eliminate them. To accompany this security and History. International Relations 23(1): 99-106.
reaction, many tourism markets have initiated
proactive measures in the form of travel advisories
accessible through the internet. These sources of
security information evaluate the risks involved in
traveling to affected destinations and to those Thailand
known to be hosting dormant and active cells of
terrorist organizations. Travel advisories and Kom Campiranon1 and Pradech Phayakvichien2
1
warnings not only inform tourists of possible DPU International College, Dhurakij Pundit
terrorist-induced risks but also educate potential University, Bangkok, Thailand
2
tourists on how to take the necessary precautions Tourism Authority of Thailand, Bangkok,
to avoid exposure to terrorist activities while on Thailand
vacation (Mansfeld 2006). After decades of expo- T
sure to terrorism, security agencies, the tourism
industry, and tourists have learned to deal with The Kingdom of Thailand is located 15 north of
and recover from such devastating acts. However, the equator in South East Asia and has a geo-
as long as it remains a viable tool for pursuing graphical area of 514,000 km2 (198,455 mi2),
political and social interests, and as long as it roughly equivalent in size to ▶ France
remains operating both on global and local levels, (Figure 1). With a tropical climate, the country’s
the industry will have to be continuously innova- seasons are divided into a hot, a cool, and a rainy
tive while searching for workable solutions. As season, although it is relatively hot most of the
terrorism against tourism will prevail, future year. In 2013, the population was roughly 65 mil-
research efforts should focus on innovative and lion, with 7 million living in Bangkok, its capital.
creative ways to mitigate the negative impacts of Thai people are mostly Buddhists (95 %), while
936 Thailand
Thailand, Figure 1 Map

of Thailand
Islam, Hinduism, Confucianism, Taoism, and and Tourism Council 2014). Hence, the tourism
Christianity are also practiced. The official lan- ▶ industry is an important component of the Thai
guage is Thai, but English is spoken throughout economy. It features natural and cultural heritage
much of the country (Tourism Authority of Thai- attractions, beaches, tropical forests, religious
land 2013a). sites, and historical sites. More recently, niche
markets such as golf, medical, weddings, and
honeymooners, and ▶ ecotourism have been
Tourism economy targeted. ▶ Mass tourism began in the early
1980s. Bangkok became a strategic ▶ aviation
Tourism contributes to 7 % of Thailand’s GDP, hub because it was the farthest point from
yields a revenue of nearly US$ 16 billion, and ▶ Europe in Southeast Asia reachable nonstop
generates nearly 5.4 million jobs (World Travel by wide-body DC-10 flights. Growth was fueled
Thailand 937
by the strong Tourism Authority of Thailand pro- stimulate intra-regional tourism among member
motional campaigns, starting with the “Visit Thai- countries and require the industry to be prepared
land Year” in 1987, leading up to the “Amazing in terms of communication, languages and cul-
Thailand” campaigns of recent years ture, food, services, and facilities.
(Phayakvichien 2006).
Recently, the industry has been affected by a
number of crises. These include the SARS epidemic Research, education and training
in 2003, tsunami in 2004, global recession starting
in 2008, political disturbances in 2009 and 2010, There are a number of academic studies about Thai
and the floods in 2011. Furthermore, there were tourism. A widely cited example is a research
political protests in Bangkok from 2012 to 2013. conducted by Cohen (1982) who examined the
While these crises did not have significant impacts nature, penetration, and ▶ impact of ▶ youth tourism
on ▶ inbound tourism, some sites near the protests on two islands in southern Thailand. Another influ-
were affected (Ministry of Tourism and Sports ential study examined Thailand’s image as an inter-
2013). In spite of these atrocities, the number of national ▶ destination and the effects of its image on
international arrivals grew substantially between the likelihood of tourists’ intentions to revisit the
2010 and 2012, reaching 22.3 million in 2012. country (Rittichainuwat et al. 2001). Further research
Thailand features a variety of shopping cen- is needed in the field of ▶ sustainable tourism, niche
ters, zoos, and golf courses located in leading tourism, tourism competitiveness (particularly
destinations such as Bangkok, Phuket, and among the ASEAN countries), and the effects of
Chiang Mai. Tourism transport ▶ infrastructure crises on Thailand’s image as a destination.
includes seven international airports and a limited A number of public and private universities
train network. Most ▶ domestic tourism takes provide tourism ▶ education with degree pro-
place via roads, many of which are in need of grams offered at undergraduate and postgraduate
modernization. Indeed, tourism infrastructure in levels, both in Thai and in English. Leading tour-
a number of regions needs major improvements in ism companies, particularly hotels, have also set
order to accommodate ▶ international tourism. up corporate university programs in order to focus
The two major government tourism organiza- on practical training. The latter includes the Man-
tions are the Ministry of Tourism and Sports and darin Oriental Hotel Bangkok’s School of the
the Tourism Authority of Thailand. The latter was Oriental Hotel Apprenticeship Program and the
established in 1960 as the organization responsi- Dusit Thani Hotel’s Dusit Thani College.
ble for the promotion of tourism. In 2002, the Tourism at present plays a significant role in
ministry was established to promote, support, Thailand’s economy. Although there have been a
and develop both tourism and sports, and the number of unwanted developments, tourism has
tourism authority was transferred under its admin- seen continuous growth in the number of interna-
istration. The ministry has established policies to tional arrivals. By focusing on niche and ASEAN
improve the quality of ▶ accommodation supply, markets, and improving the infrastructure, Thai- T
human resources, and safety and security issues. land has untapped potential to remain as one of the
The authority has target-driven marketing policies top destinations in the world.
with specific arrival goals (Phayakvichien 2006).
The proposed Association of Southeast Asian See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ aviation, ▶ crisis man-
Nations (ASEAN) Economic Community pro- agement, ▶ hospitality, ▶ inbound tourism.
vides opportunities and challenges for Thailand’s
tourism industry. A single regional common mar-
References
ket across the ASEAN countries to be created by
2015 will mean a free flow of goods, services, Cohen, E. 1982 Marginal Paradises: Bungalow Tourism on
investment capital, and skilled labor (Tourism the Islands of Southern Thailand. Annals of Tourism
Authority of Thailand 2013b). This should also Research 9:189-228.
938 The Netherlands
Ministry of Tourism and Sports 2013 Tourist Arrivals in

Thailand www.tourism.go.th/tourism/th/home/tour
ism.php?id=11 (15 July).
Phayakvichien, P. 2006 Tourism Industry in Thailand and
its Current Situation: Views from the Top. Bangkok:
Tourism Authority of Thailand.
Rittichainuwat, B., H. Qu, and T. Brown 2001 Thailand’s
International Travel Image: Mostly Favorable. Cornell
Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly 42:82-95.
Tourism Authority of Thailand 2013a About Thailand
http://tourismthailand.org/Thailand/fast-facts (15 July).
Tourism Authority of Thailand 2013b Asia Opportunities:
ASEAN Economic Community in 2015 http://en.
aectourismthai.com/content1/983 (21 June).
World Travel and Tourism Council 2014 Travel and Tourism
Total Contribution to Employment http://knoema.com/
atlas/Thailand/topics/Tourism/Travel-and-Tourism-Total-
Contribution-to-Employment/Total-Contribution-to-
Employment-thousands (26 August).
The Netherlands, Figure 1 Map of the Netherlands
The Netherlands
Johan van Rekom nineteenth century and caters to mostly German

RSM Erasmus University, Rotterdam, public. Around 1880, the countryside was cele-
The Netherlands brated by Impressionist painters. An entrepreneur
at Volendam took advantage of this trend by
attracting painters and intensively promoting his
The Kingdom of the Netherlands is a small coun- hotel overseas, turning Volendam, north of
try with a land area of 33,719 km2 (13,019 mi2) on Amsterdam, into one of the main excursion desti-
the northwestern edge of the European continent, nations. His activities played a key role in
neighboring ▶ Germany and ▶ Belgium establishing the image of Dutch traditional cos-
(Figure 1). It has a population of 16.9 million. tumes and wooden shoes (Van Rekom and Go
As of 2012, its annual GDP was US$777 billion 2006).
or €607 billion (CBS 2012a). Tourism ▶ education at the higher professional
Tourism plays a modest role in its economy. In level is well-developed, with the NHTV in Breda
2011, the outbound ▶ tourist number reached as the leading school. The Dutch tourism board
18.4 million. In total, 11.3 million inbound tour- promotes the ▶ image of the Netherlands as a
ists spent one or more nights in accommodations ▶ destination abroad. The domestic/local promo-
(CBS 2012b). They spent US$13,283 million tion varies by municipality. The infrastructure of
(€10,377 million) or 1.7 % of the GNP. The num- the country is distinctive in two ways. Firstly,
ber of tourists is relatively stable. The tourism water transportation is relatively dominant in the
▶ industry generates 400,000 jobs, which corre- delta of the Rhine River – facilitating a fast growth
spond to 250,000 full-time equivalents. of the river cruise sector (Baran 2013). Secondly,
The international tourist attractions in the the country has 34,600 km of bicycle paths
Netherlands are concentrated in the west: the (Fietsersbond 2012), offering ample opportunities
city of Amsterdam, the coast, and the countryside, for ▶ low-carbon tourism. Notably, the trends
including the polders land areas reclaimed from toward low-carbon tourism and the surge in river
the sea and from lakes, which are partially below cruises allow for interesting research on how the
sea level. ▶ Coastal tourism started in the early alternative ways of traveling – by boat and by
Themepark 939
bicycle – ▶ impact tourists’ experience of the They can be divided into four types: ▶ destina-
Netherlands as a destination. tion, regional, urban, and niche (Clavé 2007).
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ information cen-

ter, tourist, ▶ low-carbon tourism, ▶ museum, Development
▶ sustainable tourism.
The concept of themeparks originates from
amusement parks, which can be traced back to
References the medieval European fairs. Amusement parks
reached their greatest splendor in the first decade
Baran, M. 2013 Traffic Control: As the European River of the twentieth century in the United States.
Cruise Market Enjoys Double-digit Growth, the Chal-
Those found on Coney Island exemplify this
lenge is Where to Dock All the Ships and How to Avoid
Congestion along Waterways. Travel Weekly 72, No 8. development. After World War II, amusement
CBS 2012a Bruto Nationaal Inkomen 607 Miljard parks began to deteriorate as a result of poor
Euro in 2012 www.cbs.nl/nl-NL/menu/themas/macro- maintenance and ▶ management, unable to meet
economie/publicaties/dne/sectoren/archief/2013/2013-
tourism demand, and failing to cater to lifestyle
29-03-03-ne-s.htm (3 October 2013).
CBS 2012b Toerisme en Recreatie in Cijfers 2012. changes.
Voorburg: Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek. The themepark sector is considered to have
Fietsersbond 2012 Bijna 35.000 km Fietspad in Nederland taken off when Walt Disney’s Disneyland, pro-
[Nearly 35.000 km of Bicycle Path in the Netherlands]
moted as “the happiest place on Earth,” opened in
www.fietsersbond.nl/nieuws/bijna-35000-km-fietspad-
nederland (31 July 2014). California in 1955. This showcased the structure,
Van Rekom, J., and F. Go 2006 Being Discovered: organization, and operational system of a modern
A Blessing to Local Identities? Annals of Tourism themepark. Compared with amusement parks,
themeparks are considered safer and cleaner and
provide imaginative and fantasy-laden experi-
ences. They create the means of transforming the
cinema into a fair and satisfy the need to escape
Themepark and to seek fun, entertainment, and thrill-seeking
sensations with the family in the postindustrial
Jigang Bao society.
Center for Tourism Planning and Research, Sun Following Disneyland, Six Flags Over Texas
Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China and Georgia were opened in 1961 and 1967,
respectively, with intense exciting rides as the
main attraction. The Six Flags parks broadened
The term “themepark” is a widely used concept, and improved upon the original concept of
but scholars and practitioners define or view it “themepark” (Clavé 2007). SeaWorld, opened in
differently. In general, themeparks are built spaces 1964, is a themepark based on animal shows, T
which organize their rides, buildings, ▶ land- connecting customers to nature. Universal Studios
scape, entertainment, performances, fairs, foods, Hollywood had been a film studio since 1915
souvenirs, and even hotels around one or more before its reconstruction into a themepark with
themes (Bao 1997). The theme may relate to a staged events, stunt demonstrations, and high-
story, movie, cartoon, argument, or dream, which tech rides, inspired by the themepark idea of
provides identity and gives cohesion to the mar- Disneyland.
keting strategy, space organization, and operation. During the 1980s, themeparks became
Furthermore, themeparks are generally capital internationalized and started to operate in Asia
intensive, organized in closed spaces, feature one and Western Europe where there was an urban
or more entertainment themes, and have a single population with high levels of disposable income.
admission price for the use of most or all services. In ▶ Europe, prior to the opening of Disneyland
940 Themepark
Paris in 1992, themepark development experi- this field remains small, and most of them have
enced a few generations of change. Medium- limited experience in themepark development and
and small-sized themeparks dominated during management. Two, data and information about the
the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s, such as Europa- themepark sector and companies are hard to
Park in 1975. Since the opening of Tokyo access. Three, themepark management tends to
Disneyland in the 1980s, Asia has become the be interested in income, qualified markets, market
fastest growing and largest market. Among the penetration rates, and revisit rates, but these issues
top ten themepark groups worldwide, three are have not been sufficiently addressed in academic
from ▶ China: Overseas Chinese Town Parks studies. Four, there is scant theory to be applied to
China, Fantawild Group, and Haichang Group practice; and hence, five, there is a lack of suitable
(TEA/AECOM 2014). methodology for studies of an applied nature, with
In 2013, the top ten themeparks around the limited contribution to theoretical development.
world received 377.1 million tourists, To address this imbalance, Pearce and Moscardo
representing a 5.4 % growth (TEA/AECOM (1985) suggested the application of attribution
2014). North America, Europe, and the Asia- theory, person-situation analysis, and multivariate
Pacific region are the three major markets. The statistical procedures in themepark research.
five largest park groups in North America include However, little progress has been made because
Walt Disney Attractions, Universal Studios Rec- of the reasons mentioned above in regard to
reation Group, Six Flags Inc., Cedar Fair Enter- researchers.
tainment Company, and SeaWorld Parks & In recent years, new themeparks are develop-
Entertainment. The European market is led by ing very fast, especially in Asian countries, and
big enterprises, such as Merlin Entertainments facing issues, including low profit, competition
Group (UK), Parques Reunidos (▶ Spain), and between themeparks, cultural adaptation, the
Compagnie Des Alpes (▶ France). Overseas Chi- impacts of social space, as well as ▶ tourist
nese Town Parks in China, as the largest behavior. These issues need further research and
themepark company in the ▶ region, ranks fourth effective solutions to support the ▶ industry.
in the world, with 26.3 million tourists in 2013. Themepark research goes beyond the discipline
Themeparks in other parts of the world are smaller of tourism or leisure and requires the participation
in number and scale, with limited growth. of other disciplines such as ▶ economics, sociol-
ogy, and psychology.
Research See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ experience, ▶ park

tourism, ▶ recreation, ▶ urban tourism.
Themepark research is a relatively new field.
Scholars come from a wide variety of disciplines
and with a diversity of focus in response to recent
developments. Research has been conducted in References
fields such as tourism and ▶ leisure, psychology,
sociology, cultural studies, geography, anthropol- Bao, J. 1997 A Systematic Analysis of the Influential
ogy, and ▶ architecture. Arising from the need for Factors to Theme Park Development (In Chinese).
themepark development, operation, and manage- Acta Geographica Sinica 52:47-55.
Clavé, S. 2007 The Global Theme Park Industry. London:
ment, tourism and leisure researchers have ana- CABI.
lyzed behavior patterns of tourists (Moutinho Milman, A. 1988 Market Identification of a New Theme
1988), ▶ marketing (Milman 1988), ▶ planning Park: An Example from Central Florida. Journal of
and ▶ development (Bao 1997), and social and Travel Research 26:7-11.
Milman, A. 2009 Evaluating the Guest Experience at
economic impacts (Milman 2009). Theme Parks: An Empirical Investigation of Key Attri-
However, there are still research gaps for sev- butes. International Journal of Tourism Research
eral reasons: One, the number of researchers in 11:373-387.
Theory 941
Moutinho, L. 1988 Amusement Park Visitor Behavior: tourism monograph by Josef Stradner in 1905
Scottish Attitudes. Tourism Management 9:291-300. underlined the “luxury” character of travel and
Pearce, P., and G. Moscardo 1985 Tourist Theme Parks:
Research Practices and Possibilities. Australian Psy- tourists as consumers, spending money
chologist 20:303-312. earned elsewhere. In 1930, Leopold von Wiese
TEA/AECOM 2014 The Global Attractions Attendance discussed Fremdenverkehr (tourism) as an “inter-
Report for 2013 www.aecom.com/deployedfiles/Inter personal relation,” distinguishing among three
net/Capabilities/Economics/_documents/ThemeMuseu
mIndex_2013.pdf (19 August). types of Fremde: the ▶ stranger as an agent of
▶ power (conqueror), the stranger by chance
(not interested in relations with locals), and
the stranger as a “guest,” including the tradesman,
the “traveler for pleasure,” or the ▶ tourist
Theory (Spode 2009).
In 1943, Walter Hunziker presented his
Jaap Lengkeek1 and Jens Kr. Steen Jacobsen2 “system of scientific tourism research,” defining
1
Recreation and Tourism, Wageningen tourism as a cultural ▶ phenomenon. To this point
University, Wageningen, The Netherlands of view, Walter Christaller in 1955 added that
2
Norwegian School of Hotel Management, tourism could be regarded as a move from the
University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway “center” to the “periphery”; accordingly, he devel-
oped a ▶ model for an evolutionary lifecycle of
resorts. Over a decade later, Hans Meinke spoke
Theory is regarded as representation, explaining of tourism as “escape” from an “industrial envi-
how and why phenomena operate. It is based on ronment,” based on high income (Spode 2009). In
epistemological premises, offering logical rela- 1958, Hans Magnus Enzensberger contributed the
tionships between or among empirically justifi- first sophisticated attempt to explain tourist
able assumptions and providing a basis for motives by laying out the paradoxes of tourism
predictions, which is instrumental for understand- and of ▶ modernity in general. Drawing on the
ing and allowing retrospective proof. Tourism concept of “alienation,” he saw tourism as “escape
theories follow three developmental stages, each from the self-made reality” of bourgeois-capitalist
conveying a greater level of sophistication. society. Enzensberger held that this escape
attempt would be in vain, since the tourist world
would become as constrained and organized as the
Tourism as elite practice ordinary world. He further claimed that tourists
destroyed their goals the moment they attained
▶ Travel in different cultures was for a long time them (Spode 2009).
the privilege of worldly elites and part of religious
practices and trade. Theories of tourism devel-
oped marginally, related to status, income, free Emerging industrialized large-scale T
time, and orientation beyond a personal tourism
in-group. In the book The Theory of the Leisure
Class published in 1898, Thorstein Veblen argued From the 1960s, tourism began to boom, due to
that ▶ leisure offered the socially mobile classes increased income, more free time, speedier and
an opportunity to enhance their status through cheaper transport, and an expanding infrastruc-
▶ conspicuous consumption. Nevertheless, ture, first within the Western world but gradually
theorizing tourism mainly originated in the spreading globally. Four main areas of research
German-speaking parts of ▶ Europe, and its and theoretical thinking developed, consisting of
development is traced by Spode (2009). In 1902, interconnected approaches to such widely defined
Adolf Brougier in a pioneering lecture defined problem areas as ▶ management and the political
tourism as leisure travel. The first academic economy, experience and behavior, ▶ impact
942 Theory
analysis and ▶ sustainability, and tourism and time and creation of zones of personal time, with
modernization. few links to external orders. Having fun was
As far as management and the political econ- regarded as a vital part of collective
omy were concerned, early tourism providers holidaymaking, and some types of leisure travel
needed useful models for organization and man- were analyzed as ▶ play. Parts of tourism were
agement (including corporate strategy, destination regarded as liminality, a time-out or bracketing in
management, ▶ marketing, and ▶ hospitality), all relation to everyday life. It was assumed that
commonly derived from business studies. Trends many tourists were stripped of status and authority
and forecasts were methods based on extrapola- as they were removed from the social structure of
tion, ▶ simulation, alternative scenarios, and sta- everyday life. Spontaneous communitas, interrup-
tistical modeling. These were not specific to tion of normal social distinctions, was seen as the
tourism but reflected general academic insights opposite pole to social structure (Lengkeek 1996).
and, in some respect, approaches from theoretical Destinations were viewed as emotional spaces
physics, representing and showing interdepen- where domestic routines, norms, and habits
dencies and mutual influences between elements. could be stretched or transgressed. However,
Inspired by Walther Christaller, Butler (1980) breaking away might become routine again, as
presented the sequences of tourism development was the case in many tourist practices.
as a “product lifecycle.” As tourism systems do With regard to impact analysis and sustainabil-
not exist in isolation but derive from tourists’ ity, in settings with numerous tourists, crowds of
provenance to destinations, involving numerous people might destroy what they were looking for.
intermediary actors and ▶ infrastructure, this led Therefore industrialized tourism motivated many
to international policymaking and a chain or people to escape from the crowds and what they
▶ network approach. Here “actor-network the- imagined as the common tourist role (Jacobsen
ory” (Duim 2005) attempted to unite people and 2000). The tourism ▶ industry tended to represent
things with a quality of agency in tourismscapes. or translate attractive sites or sights instead of
Turning to experience and behavior, under- leaving these to people’s direct experiences.
standing tourists as consumers required insights Early large-volume tourism ▶ development was
into reasons for spending time outside people’s partly perceived as a kind of neocolonialism.
daily environment and how travelers perceived Fully industrialized tourism with Fordist type of
the experience afterwards. Several early contribu- transport and ▶ accommodation made control and
tions compared tourism with pilgrimage, resem- management easier than when only individual
bling Christaller’s center-periphery model. tourists appeared. But also “mass production” in
Research related to psychology later destinations with large numbers of tourists could
encompassed motivational understanding and be varied and include numerous businesses. The
explanation, decisionmaking, satisfaction, and challenge of impact management and sustainabil-
environmental awareness. ity implied taking care of conditions for the pro-
Early attempts to study tourism were partly longation of tourism values, equity in access to
contextualized within leisure. ▶ Vacation as phys- ▶ resources, equity in distribution of costs and
ical and mental ▶ recreation was regarded as a benefits, not degrading the ▶ environment,
functional explanation of leisure mobility. Tour- and not prohibiting development/▶ wellbeing
ism was seen as an imaginative freedom that was and intra-/intergenerational maintenance. This
rarely available in other domains of modern social included balancing the interests of tourists and
life, except in brief moments. Relaxing vacations ▶ service providers and the natural/cultural con-
were analyzed as relative freedom from synchro- ditions of destinations.
nized clock time, the passage of ▶ time in stan- “Limits of acceptable change” constituted a
dard intervals, although the micro-rhythm of framework for the identification of measurements
hotels and other institutions might be imposed in order to sustain environmental values using
on tourists. Self-actualization implied control of participatory ▶ planning, human interpretations,
Theory 943
and negotiations as a basis for defining values and cultures all over the world. Therefore, tourism is
acceptable measures. Gradually the ▶ attention seen as both an instrument in and an outcome of
shifted from tourism and sustainability as such, international modernization processes. Studying
to development in line with the principle of sus- it within the limits of the nation-state is increas-
tainability in the wider context, as values and ingly problematic. Tourism as a force for social
sustainable development were social and cultural change has been regarded as ▶ imperialism,
attributes. Hunter (1997) discerned four condi- creating dependency and assumingly destroying
tions for ▶ sustainable tourism: neotenous tour- territorial and local identities.
ism in the context of pristine nature and
▶ landscape protection, environment-led tourism
contributing to valuable/vulnerable resources Globalized tourism systems
development, product-led tourism in situations
of economic dependency and the need for contin- Most theories have been practice oriented, using
uation, and tourism imperative, where tourism the so-called post-positivist methods for empirical
was the best option for ending economic stagna- support or more conceptual approaches with lim-
tion and for landscape regeneration. ited empirical substantiation. Most practice-
Finally, there is the category of tourism and oriented approaches in tourism form part of
modernization. Here the all pervading character “Mode 2” knowledge production (Gibbons
of tourism and experiential ▶ quest for what was et al. 1994). Conceptual approaches to tourism
outside the routines of daily life gave justification belong to interpretive traditions and in the main
to wonder what this practice entailed within the do not fulfill the conditions of “Mode 1” ▶ knowl-
context of modernization. This led to an emanci- edge, based on criteria of the natural sciences.
pation of tourism theory on the higher level Mode 2 tourism models and theories derive their
beyond the more down-to-earth or uneasy percep- core questions predominantly from control and
tion of tourism as a vulgar or trivial by-product of management issues, drawing on different disci-
unleashed ▶ consumerism. plinary perspectives and concepts.
Until the 1970s, cultural critics dominated The field has become increasingly cross
Anglophone tourism literature. MacCannell’s cultural. Tourism is now a new cultural routine
(1976) insights claimed that the tourist, as a sight- that is globally interwoven with everyday life. Dis-
seer, was one of the best models available for tinctions between tourism-oriented and resident-
modern-man-in-general. Reality and ▶ authentic- oriented services have become blurred. Even
ity were thought to be elsewhere: in other histor- ▶ migration cannot be clearly distinguished from
ical periods and other cultures, in purer, simpler tourism. More and more, processes of cultural and
lifestyles. This “authenticity paradigm” was com- economic ▶ globalization are becoming focal
monly related to an idea of “one tourism” even points of research. Tourism theory itself is now an
though the authenticity issue had been dealt with object for intensifying exchanges between interna-
in plural contexts. tional scholars and research groups, from various T
Tourist behavior and tourism marketing are disciplinary backgrounds and cultural traditions.
connected to ▶ image production (Selwyn This leads to a multidisciplinary, transdisci-
1996). Sites or “markers” enable tourists to read plinary, and to some extent postdisciplinary aca-
their meanings, images, and narratives. Tourism demic situation, a knowledge landscape with a
consumption involves imaginative ▶ anticipation wealth of flowering ideas, case studies, and
and reflection, not just using tangible products small-scale theories, derived from positivist,
(Urry 1990). It is thought that the imagination post-positivist, interpretive, critical, and other par-
produces either a sense of reality or a disillusion adigms. Several tourism academics’ networks
pressing for more, ▶ Other, and new experiences. provide platforms for theoretical discussions and
▶ Mobility and generalized images exert a innovations, such as the Research Committee on
global power in the representation of places and International Tourism of the International
944 Time
Sociological Association and the Association for have contributed to understanding the nature of
Tourism and Leisure Education. Annals of Tour- time. In defining tourism, in addition to traveling
ism Research, Tourism Management, and Tourist to and staying in places away from one’s usual
Studies are examples of academic journals includ- environment for any purpose other than the pur-
ing vanguard publications. Most journals empha- suit of remuneration, time duration or length of
size more applied theoretical innovations, such as stay in a ▶ destination is one of the most impor-
Journal of Sustainable Tourism. tant criteria in understanding tourism activities
(UNWTO 1995). While concepts such as usual
See also ▶ Actor-network theory, ▶ authenticity, home environment, purpose, and ▶ travel dis-
▶ center-periphery, ▶ conspicuous consumption, tance are frequently discussed, it is often time
▶ sociology. that differentiates tourism from other similar
pursuits.
Along the duration spectrum, there are differ-
References
ent types of travel, such as permanent migration,
Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourism Area Cycle of short-term stay, seasonal employment, and day
Evolution: Implications for the Management of excursions (Hall 2005). Although most
Resources. Canadian Geographer 24:5-12. researchers state that tourism activities should be
Duim, R. van der 2005 Tourismscapes: An Actor-network between one day and one year, recent studies have
Perspective on Sustainable Tourism Development.
Wageningen: Wageningen University. pointed out that maximum limits of duration
Gibbons, M., C. Limoges, H. Nowotny, S. Schwartzmann, should not be set when other criteria are taken
P. Scott, and M. Trow 1994 The New Production of into consideration and when society becomes
Knowledge. London: Sage. more mobile. Second-home owners, lifestyle
Hunter, C. 1997 Sustainable Tourism as an Adaptive
Paradigm. Annals of Tourism Research 24:850-867. migrants, retired migrants, and those who study
Jacobsen, J. 2000 Anti-tourist Attitudes. Annals of Tour- abroad for one year often behave like tourists.
ism Research 27:284-300. Time is also an important factor influencing
Lengkeek, J. 1996 On the Multiple Realities of Leisure: what tourists can experience and how they
A Phenomenological Approach to the Otherness
of Leisure. Loisir et Société/Society and Leisure behave. Studies find that perceptions of tourism
19:23-40. products, services, and images determine travel
MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the decisions. These perceptions all imply a period
Leisure Class. New York: Schocken. of time. They are normally not the instant reports
Selwyn, T., ed. 1996 The Tourist Image: Myths and Myth
Making in Tourism. Chichester: Wiley. of their feelings, but are the result of an overall
Spode, H. 2009 Tourism Research and Theory in German- residual feeling after time. For instance, percep-
Speaking Countries. In The Sociology of Tourism: tions of ▶ service quality are essential to the deci-
European Origins and Developments, G. Dann and sion-making process of an intention to revisit.
G. Parrinello, eds., pp.65-93. Bingley: Emerald.
Urry, J. 1990 The Tourist Gaze: Leisure and Travel in However, the memory of a bad experience is
Contemporary Societies. London: Sage. likely to be stronger and longer than a good expe-
rience and vice versa. The strength of the residual
perceptions will determine the decision to revisit
or recommend a destination to others.
Time Tourism impacts on the local economic, social,
and environmental domains also involve time.
Honggang Xu The cumulative impacts of tourism on local com-
School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen munities can bring about dramatic change. But-
University, Guangzhou, China ler’s (1980) life cycle theory of destination
development describes the nonlinear dynamic
changes of a place. In the ideal model, the flow
Time is a complicated concept for human beings of tourists and the induced tourism ▶ infrastruc-
to fathom. Researchers from different disciplines ture create a self-reinforcing mechanism in the
Timeshare 945
initial stage of a ▶ destination and thus tourism interval, usually 1 week or in terms of points that
expands at an increasing rate. However, with the add to flexibility. According to the American
growth in tourism ▶ development, negative con- Resort Development Association, the time-share
sequences accumulate and potentially lead to takes the hassle out of second home ownership
environmental degradation and the collapse of and it sometimes includes deeded interest in real
the place as an otherwise attractive destination. estate (ARDA 2013). According to the UNWTO,
Further, time impacts on the type of travel. time-share is a holiday concept whereby the pur-
▶ Tourist experiences and family life cycle are chaser acquires the right to use a holiday accom-
important factors in prescribing the travel patterns modation in future years for a specified period and
of tourists. Nonetheless, the ▶ roles of the time time per year for the repayment of a capital sum
factor in determining perceptions and behavior and with the obligation to pay for ongoing main-
and decisions and impacts have remained to be tenance and management (UNWTO 2005).
more fully understood through ▶ future tourism Time-share product mainly suits the tourist
studies. who wishes to guarantee an affordable luxury
future vacation option. The product is sold in
See also ▶ Destination lifecycle, ▶ leisure, two basic forms – fixed week and floating – in
▶ mobility, ▶ motivation, ▶ tourism. which the product price differs according to cer-
tain conditions known as “exchange trading
power” such as season, location, country, and
References more. Exchange is regarded as the “lifeblood” of
time-share. There are two main leading exchange
Butler, R. 1980 The Concept of a Tourist Area Cycle of companies worldwide: Resort Condominiums
International (www.rci.com) and Interval World
Canadian Geographer 31:1-8.
Hall, C. 2005 Tourism: Rethinking the Social Science of International (www.intervalworld.com). How-
Mobility. Harlow: Prentice-Hall. ever, the time-share is supported by international
UNWTO 1995 Concepts, Definitions, and Classifications bodies such as the American Resort Development
for Tourism Statistics. Technical Manual No.1. Madrid:
Association and the Australian Timeshare and
Holiday Ownership Council (Sparks and Smith
2010) as well as the Resort Development
Organization.
Key players for time-share business and oper-
Timeshare ations include exchange companies, developers,
marketing and resale companies, management
Wesal Abou-Alam companies, owners committees and associations,
Hotel Management, Helwan University, Cairo and trustees (UNWTO 2005). Almost all parties in
Governorate, Egypt the time-share sector abide by law and code of
ethics; this adds credibility to the product. The T
first law applied was in the United States and the
Time-share has become one of the most popular other was in the United Kingdom in the early
ways to spend a ▶ vacation in leisure tourism. It 1990s. Many other regulations are established in
started in ▶ Europe in the 1960s, in a ski resort of time-share destinations.
the French Alps “Hapimag” (RDO 2013). It then Time-share is expected to offer more innova-
boomed at the early 1970s in the ▶ United States tion and personalization to capitalize on mobile
and flourished again in Europe in the following and information technology such as social media
decade. and blogs in almost every aspect of the time-share
The time-share concept emphasizes on owning product. This led us to ask what other services and
a flexible future vacation. It allows owners to flexibility will be offered to satisfy the incoming
make a one-time purchase of a furnished resort time-share purchasers.
946 Timor-Leste
See also ▶ Accommodation, ▶ holiday, ▶ pack- 124 126

age tourism, ▶ second home, ▶ vacation.
Banda Sea
8 INDONESIA 8
References Pulau Atauro
DÍLI Baucau
Liquica
Manatuto
Resort Development Organization 2013 Timeshare www. Savu Sea Pulau
Ermera Viqueque Jaco
rdo.org (Retrieved: 22 June) Pante Foho
Sparks, B., and J. Smith 2010 The Development of the Makasar Tatamailau
Timeshare Industry. In Giants of Tourism, R. Butler and Suai

R Russell, eds., pp.60-75. Oxfordshire: CABI.
The American Resort Development Association 2013 INDONESIA
Understanding Vacation Ownership www.arda.org/ 10 10
uploadedFiles/ARDA/News_and_Information/Industry
_Information/VacatonOwnership[1].pdf (Retrieved: Timor Sea
2 July)
UNWTO, 2005, Tourism Statistics and Measurement of
Timeshare Comments on World Tourism Organization. 0 50 100 km
Discussion Paper (20-24 June). Madrid: World Tourism 124

0 50 100 mi
Organization.
Timor-Leste, Figure 1 Map of East Timor
Timor-Leste achieve the goals set out in the 2011–2030 strate-

gic development plan, including capacity build-
Denis Tolkach1 and Manuel Vong2 ing, infrastructure, marketing and promotion, and
1
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, financial support for rural business development
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, (República Democrática de Timor Leste 2011).
Hong Kong, China Tourism ▶ development in the then Portuguese
2
Tourism and Hospitality, Dili Institute of Timor started in 1968–1975, attracting 5,000 tour-
Technology, Dili, Timor-Leste ists annually. Since Indonesia’s occupation in
1975, there were no tourism developments until
restoration of independence in 1999. Subse-
The Democratic Republic of Timor-Leste quently, a number of hotels and restaurants have
emerged as Asia’s newest country in 2002. It is opened to accommodate United Nations peace-
located 600 km northwest of ▶ Australia and keeping staff and foreign aid workers. Current
occupies eastern half of Timor Island, with the tourism development focuses on the natural and
western part belonging to ▶ Indonesia cultural assets and emphasizes ▶ community-
(Figure 1). It has a total area of 15,000 km2 based tourism and ▶ ecotourism. Snorkeling and
(5,792 mi2) and a population of about 1.1 million. diving are popular activities. The mountainous
The country has experienced rapid economic interior has potential for hiking, trekking, and
growth, with a GDP growth of 8.5 % in 2013. mountain biking (Cabasset-Semedo 2009).
The 2011 GDP per capita was US$5,176; but the Timor-Leste holds international sporting
poverty rate was 41 %. Most residents are either events such as Tour de Timor. The country has a
employed in agriculture and subsistence farming. long cultural and historical heritage related to the
Oil is an important source of the country’s eco- traditional cultures, Portuguese colonization, and
nomic wealth. the resistance against Indonesian occupation.
Limited Timor-Leste tourism ▶ statistics are However, limited infrastructure and human
available. In 2012, some 55,000 international resources are major impediments for tourism
tourists visited Timor-Leste, spending $21 million development (Tolkach and King 2013). There
(UNWTO 2014). The Ministry of Tourism aims to are several institutions delivering ▶ hospitality
Tipping 947
and tourism ▶ education without field experience. Azar (2004) reviews the history of tipping and
At present, Timor-Leste remains a largely offers several possible origins and interpretations
unknown ▶ destination. To capitalize on its tour- of the word. The most popular belief is that it is the
ism potential, the country must change its image acronym of “to insure promptitude,” inscribed on
as an unsafe post-conflict destination. Besides brass urns of the sixteenth-century coffee houses,
destination image, other areas of research may in which customers placed money in recognition
include community-based tourism and ▶ sustain- of the quality of service received. Despite the
able tourism development. longevity of this practice, today tipping is widely
ranging from customary to appreciated though not
expected, to being insulting and refused, to
See also ▶ Asia and the Pacific, ▶ community-
expected or even requested. Therefore, the cus-
based tourism, ▶ ecotourism.
tomers of services are usually confused; more so
are tourists who face the situation away from
home. One rule of thumb is that they become
References
familiar with the etiquette and customs of their
Cabasset-Semedo, C. 2009 Thinking about Tourism in destinations.
Timor-Leste in the Era of Sustainable Development. When tipping is a reward for exceptional ser-
A Tourism Policy Emerging from Grassroots Levels. vice, it functions as an incentive for high
In East Timor: How to Build a New Nation in Southeast
employee performance. Nevertheless, Lynn and
Asia in the 21st Century, C. Cabasset-Semedo and
F. Dumand, eds., pp.213-232. Bangkok: IRASEC. McCall (2000) recommend caution in using tip
República Democrática de Timor Leste 2011 Timor-Leste averages as a management tool for measuring
Strategic Development Plan 2011-2030. Dili: employee performance. While tipping may be a
Ministerio das Finanças da República Democrática de
matter of custom and social norms, tippers feel
Timor-Leste.
Tolkach, D., and B. King 2013 Establishing a Community- obliged to give some extra money or are moti-
based Tourism Network in Timor-Leste: Opportunities vated by the desire to compensate underpaid work
and Prospects. Paper Presented at the 2013 CAUTHE or even tip in expectation of quality service in the
Conference, 11-14 February. Christchurch: Lincoln
future. Tipping is also a ▶ power and status sym-
University.
UNWTO, 2014, Tourism Highlights (2014 Edition). bol or means of impressing others. Azar’s (2004)
Madrid: World Tourism Organization. study suggests various reasons for tipping, noting
that tippers themselves derive positive feelings
from the deed.
In general, in many countries, tipping is
expected in the ▶ hospitality and tourism busi-
Tipping nesses. In the ▶ United States, where formal
wages for service work are low, employers antic-
Marija Rok ipate that servers will receive tips to increase their
Faculty of Tourism Studies – Turistica, University compensation. Moreover, workers are expected to T
of Primorska, Portoroz, Slovenia pay income tax on tips. When a service charge is
added to bills, tips are not expected, unless the
service is outstanding.
A tip is a small amount of money given for a Where tipping is a norm, it may be collected
performed (or anticipated) service. By definition, individually by servers or pooled together and
tipping or gratuity (from the Latin word gratuitus) redistributed among staff (using a point system).
is voluntary, but its practices and cultural attitudes Tippers in the United States often leave a standard
toward it are globally varied. Lynn et al. (1993) 15 %, but several factors influence the amount,
consider 33 tipped service professions. Tipping is including bill size, server friendliness and attrac-
studied in relation to consumer behavior, sociol- tiveness, service quality, gender of the customer,
ogy, psychology, and economics. dining-party size, payment method, and the like
948 Togo
(Lynn et al 1993). Research into tipping is far less (UNDP/UNWTO 2013). Lomé, the capital city,
prevalent outside the United States; hence, the is a tourism hub with star hotels and restaurants
macro level aspects of tipping customs and and a central market dominated by Nana Benz,
norms merit more research attention. women selling textiles. Other attractions include
the historic cathedral of Lomé, the national
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ management, ▶ perfor- museum, and the former and historical capital
mance, ▶ service quality, ▶ service. Aného, together with cultural festivals, houses of
traditional fetish priests, slave houses, waterfalls
and natural forests, the northern chain of moun-
References tains, and the UNESCO world heritage site of
Koutammakou (Togo 2012).
Azar, O. 2004 The History of Tipping: From Sixteenth With the support of the United Nations, the
Century England to United States in the 1910. Journal country is aiming at increasing the contribution
of Socio-Economics 33:745-764.
Lynn, M., and M. McCall 2000 Gratitude and Gratuity: of tourism to its national economy from 2 % to
A Meta-Analysis of Research on the Service-Tipping 7 % by 2020 (UNDP/UNWTO 2013). The gov-
Relationship. Journal of Socio-Economics 29:203-214. ernment recently formulated a masterplan to pro-
Lynn, M., G. Zinkhan, and J. Harris 1993 Consumer Tip- vide a coherent framework for tourism
ping: A Cross-Country Study. Journal of Consumer
Research 20:478-488. ▶ development with midterm goals and activities
to improve employment opportunities (UNDP/
UNWTO 2013). The budget for this 15-year
development project is $450,000, with $319,000
Togo to be contributed by UNDP and the rest by the
Togolese government (UNDP/UNWTO 2013).
Tometi Koku Gbedema The official administrative structure of the
Geography Graduate Group, University of tourism ▶ industry is made up of repeated orders
California, Davis, USA by the government for National Tourism Admin-
istration Office creation and collection of texts full
of decrees regulating activities of tourism and
Togo Republic is a West African country boarded hotel businesses (La Politique Nationale du Tour-
by ▶ Ghana, ▶ Burkina Faso, and ▶ Benin ism 2008: 6). Togo’s tourism market is unknown
(Figure 1). With a total area of 56,785 km2 internationally. Since its independence, the coun-
(21,925 mi2), it was originally a German protec- try has engaged in developing its tourism industry
torate named “Togoland” (Crabtree 1915). After by establishing ▶ national tourism offices and
World War II, the country was administered by professional organizations to oversee and control
▶ France under a League of Nations’ mandate. activities within the industry (La Politique
The climate is tropical: hot, humid in the south, Nationale du Tourisme 2008: 7). Yet, continuous
and semiarid in the north. The population is about political instabilities within the nation have
7.2 million, with 51 % practicing indigenous reli- slowed down development and ▶ tourist arrivals.
gion, 29 % Christianity, and 20 % Muslim (CIA Currently, only a few private institutions provide
2014). The official language is French, but local tourism higher education and ▶ training to stu-
languages, such as Ewe and Mina, Kotokoli, dents. Nevertheless, in order to develop Togo’s
Kabye, and Dagomba, are spoken. rich biodiversity, and diverse sociocultural, histor-
Tourism in Togo has high potential for growth. ical, and environmental assets for tourism devel-
In 2011, it received about 326,000 tourists and opment and promotion, the government must see
generated an income of nearly US$40 million tourism as a priority, be engaged in research and
Togo 949
Togo, Figure 1 Map

of Togo
education, and work collaboratively with local Crabtree, W. 1915 Togoland. Journal of the Royal African
and international professionals and organizations. Society 14(54):168–184. T
La Politique Nationale du Tourisme 2008 le Ministère
Togolais du Tourisme (27-29 June). Kpalimé, Togo:
See also ▶ Africa, ▶ attraction, ▶ colonialism, La Politique Nationale du Tourisme.
▶ development, ▶ sustainable tourism. Togo 2012 Togo, le Sourire de l’Afrique www.togo-
tourisme.com/ (4 March 2014).
UNDP/UNWTO 2013 Supporting Tourism in Togo as a
References Tool for Development. UNDP News Centre www.undp.
org/content/undp/en/home/presscenter/articles/2013/
CIA 2014 The World Factbook – Togo. www.cia.gov/ 04/29/supporting-tourism-in-togo-as-a-tool-for-deve
library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/to.html lopment/ (29 April).
(8 August).
950 Tonga
103,000 residents blend traditional lifestyles and

Tonga subsistence economy with contemporary technol-
ogies (Small and Dixon 2004). After remittances,
Jenny Cave tourism provides the second largest income,
Department of Tourism Management, University followed by foreign aid and state employment
of Waikato, Hamilton, New Zealand (Tonga Visitors Bureau 2013). International tour-
ists are mainly from Australasia and the ▶ United
States. While the arrival number fluctuates with
The Tongan archipelago of 172 islands local conditions and global trends, the proportion
(36 inhabited) is located northwest of ▶ New of visits from the 50,000 strong overseas diaspora
Zealand in the South Pacific Ocean (Figure 1). remains significant (Statistics Department Tonga
Tonga was settled over 3,000 years ago and called 2012).
the “Friendly Islands” by Captain Cook in 1771, Tonga is one of the least developed Pacific
but its many forts and oral tradition attest to a tourism destinations with an average per capita
turbulent history. The Kingdom of Tonga tourism ▶ expenditure of US$132 and 0.9 rooms
(unified in 1845) is a constitutional monarchy. per km2 (McElroy and Hamma 2010). The Tonga
Tonga positions itself among other tourism Tourism Authority manages tourism ▶ marketing,
destinations as the “True South Pacific,” since its quality, ▶ investment, and ▶ development.
Tonga, Figure 1 Map of

Tonga (Drawn by Max
Oulton, cartographer,
University of Waikato)
Tour 951
Vocational training is offered by private and gov- Small, C., and D. Dixon 2004 Tonga: Migration and the
ernment tertiary providers, but accredited by over- Homeland. Migration Information Source, 1 February
www.migrationpolicy.org/article/tonga-migration-and-
seas bodies. homeland (2 November 2014).
Tourism ▶ supply concentrates on the largest, Statistics Department Tonga 2012 Migration Time-
most populous island, Tongatapu, whose interna- series 11/2012 www.spc.int/prism/tonga (12 February
tional airport and harbor provide gateways to 2014).
Tonga Visitors Bureau 2013 Kingdom of Tonga: The
other island groups and support for the fledging True South Pacific www.thekingdomoftonga.com
cruise business. Each island group is distinctive. (12 February 2014).
For example, Tongatapu is a raised coral lime-
stone island with spectacular blowholes and cliffs,
heritage buildings, and ancient monumental heri-
tage sites. Eua Island is seismically elevated, with
tourism based on eco-adventure, caving, treks, Tour
and rainforest viewing platforms. Tourism in the
low-lying Ha’apai Group is undeveloped but Vida Bajc
offers long beaches, reefs, two active volcanos, Department of Sociology, Methodist University,
kayaking, diving, and pigeon-snaring mounds. Fayetteville, NC, USA
The popular Vava’u Group has many sheltered
anchorages, used by over 1,000 yachts annually,
and its whale watching operations generated $5 A tour is a form of mobilities which comes to exist
million in 2009 (Orams 2013). Meanwhile the for the specific purpose of a trip by an individual
remote volcanic Niuas Islands receive few tourists or a group, is dissolved after its completion, and is
(Tonga Visitors Bureau 2013). unlikely to reassemble in the same configuration
Future challenges for Tonga’s tourism include (Bajc 2007). It is also a transitory form of social
competition with other Pacific destinations, reten- organization which allows multiple people,
tion of international direct flights from industrial- who may not necessarily know each other, to
ized countries, community engagement with the ▶ travel as a group to one or more destinations,
industry, and increased business investment. to move from site to site, and to return to the
Environmental challenges include rising sea point of origin after the trip (Bajc 2006). At the
levels, storm disruptions, and fresh water contam- heart of a tour is purposeful movement in space
ination by urbanization and agriculture. Social through ▶ time which has a potential to generate
challenges include high youth unemployment, meaningful experiences. Tours vary widely in
land ownership, scarcity of arable land, and terms of their composition, purpose, duration,
democratization (Small and Dixon 2004). cultural specificities, and modes of ▶ mobility
(Adler 1989).
As a collective movement, a tour has a number
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ Asia and the of interesting characteristics. Participants tend to T
Pacific, ▶ diaspora, ▶ ecotourism, ▶ yachting develop a sense of a group. Without such internal
tourism. cohesion, tensions can arise, potentially leading to
dissolution or dispersion before the tour is com-
pleted. Groups tend to assume some kind of a
References leadership initiative. The ▶ leadership can emerge
spontaneously during the trip, be agreed upon
McElroy, J., and P. Hamma 2010 SITEs Revisited: Socio- prior to the journey, or be predetermined through
economic and Demographic Contours of Small Island an officially designated ▶ tour guide. The group
Tourist Economies. Asia Pacific Viewpoint 51:36-46.
moves in and through social spaces of the
Orams, M. 2013 Economic Activity Derived from Whale-
Based Tourism in Vava'u, Tonga. Coastal Management ▶ Other. This is contingent upon the ability to
41:481-500. maintain some level of spatial, social, or symbolic
952 Tour guide
separation from the routines of the daily life

surrounding the group. The structure of its move- Tour guide
ment tends to be formulated by an itinerary. This
is a compilation of specific sites based on narra- Songshan (Sam) Huang
tives associated with them. Itineraries may be School of Management, University of South
negotiated throughout the journey, informally Australia, Adelaide, Australia
decided prior to the trip, or officially
preformulated by a service provider. Such struc-
turing has a potential to optimize experiences in A tour guide is a frontline employee who plays an
the allocated time. Without such organization, a important role in shaping tourists’ experience at
tour could turn into a disorienting, stressful, and the ▶ destination. In package tours, for example,
confusing accumulation of experiences in dispa- the guide is the major service provider and direct
rate places. contact personnel to tourists. In different coun-
The outcome of a tour is a compilation of tries, alternative nomenclatures are used for this
experiences, embodied through performative position, including ▶ tourist guide, ▶ tour leader,
practices shaped by group dynamics as well as tour coordinator, and tour escort. The literature
its ▶ environment. How interrelations among does not suggest a common definition.
these dynamics can shape tour configurations The World Federation of Tourist Guide Asso-
and ▶ tourist experiences remains largely ciations offers this definition: a person who guides
unexplored. As more ▶ attention is being paid to tourists in the language of their choice and inter-
various forms of tourism mobilities (Hannam prets the cultural and natural heritage of an area
et al. 2014) and ways in which these are config- and who normally possesses an area-specific qual-
ured and experienced in relation to security and ification issued and/or recognized by an appropri-
surveillance (Bajc 2013), the tour offers itself as a ate authority (WFTGA 2003). Tour guides are
useful research problem through which such found to play distinct roles in different historical
dynamics could be given theoretical insight and eras. Cohen (1985) identifies pathfinder and men-
empirical depth. tor as two roles of modern guides. As pathfinders,
they are important in human history for tourists to
explore the unknown and mostly treacherous
See also ▶ Experience, ▶ guided tour, ▶ pack- lands when local geographical information is
age tourism, ▶ performance, ▶ security meta- unavailable.
framing. During the Grand Tour era, the mentor’s role
was played out by private tutors for their “pupils.”
Modern guides play a variety of roles compared to
References their antecedents. Depending on the context, a
guide may play roles such as leader, educator,
Adler, J. 1989 Travel as Performed Art. American Journal instructor, interpreter, cultural broker, entertainer,
of Sociology 94:1366-1391.
Bajc, V. 2006 Christian Pilgrimage Groups in Jerusalem:
political endorser, and environmental advocate.
Framing the Experience through Linear Meta-narrative. His relationships with tourists are institutionalized
Journeys: The International Journal of Travel and and commercialized. Interpretation is a major
Travel Writing 7(2):101-128. service that tour guides provide to their clients.
Bajc, V. 2007 Creating Ritual through Narrative, Place, and
Performance in Evangelical Protestant Pilgrimage in
A growing body of knowledge has been
the Holy Land. Mobilities 2:395-412. developed around interpretations (Weiler and
Bajc, V. 2013 Sociological Reflections on Ham 2001). With an increasing awareness of
Security through Surveillance. Sociological Forum climate change and its ▶ impact on tourism,
28:615-623.
Hannam, K., G. Butler, and C. Paris 2014 Developments
there is a growing interest in the roles of tour
and Key Issues in Tourism Mobilities. Annals of Tour- guides and interpretation in environmental
ism Research 44:171-185. conservation.
Tourism 953
Earlier research has been around topics like the environment for not more than one consecutive
roles of guide, the importance of tour guiding in year for leisure, business and other purposes not
tourism, and the performance of guides (Cohen related to the exercise of an activity remunerated
1985; Huang 2010; Mossberg 1995). There are from within the place visited” (Vanhove 2011: 4).
other important issues for future research. On one The persons in the definition are usually
hand, as unethical or unprofessional practices termed “visitors.” A ▶ visitor is defined as any
(such as forcing tourists to shop) have been person traveling to a place other than that of
prevailing in the industry, especially in the Asia his/her usual environment for less than 12 months
Pacific region, it is important to address such and whose main purpose of trip is other than the
practical concerns. On the other hand, there is a exercise of an activity remunerated from within
need for in-depth studies of the relationship the place visited. This differs in two respects from
between tour guiding and tourists’ psycho- the former UN description: the maximum dura-
behavioral states such as satisfaction, attitudes, tion of stay (one consecutive year) outside the
and learning while on the tour.. usual place of residence is determined; and
“usual place of residence” is replaced by the
term “usual environment.” The literature makes
See also ▶ Charter tourism, ▶ culture broker, a distinction between conceptual and statistical
▶ experience, ▶ guided tour, ▶ interpretation. (technical or operational) definitions of tourism.
References Conceptual definitions

Cohen, E. 1985 The Tourist Guide: The Origins, Structure
One of the oldest conceptual definitions of tour-
and Dynamics of a Role. Annals of Tourism Research
12:5-29. ism was given by Hunziker and Krapf. Tourism is
Huang, S. 2010 A Revised Importance-Performance Anal- “a sum of relations and phenomena resulting from
ysis of Tour Guide Performance in China. Tourism ▶ travel and stay of non-residents, in so far a stay
Analysis 15:227-241.
does not lead to permanent residence and is not
Mossberg, L. 1995 Tour Leaders and Their Importance in
Charter Tours. Tourism Management 16:437-445. connected with any permanent or temporary earn-
Weiler, B., and S. Ham 2001 Tour Guides and Interpreta- ing activity” (Hunziker and Krapf 1942, cited
tion. In The Encyclopaedia of Ecotourism, from Vanhove 2011: 1).
D. Weaver, ed., pp.549–63. Wallingford: CABI.
Despite its shortcomings, this definition was
World Federation of Tourist Guide Associations 2003
What is a Tourist Guide? <www.wftga.org/page.asp? also accepted by the Association Internationale
id=15> (16 June 2005). d’Experts Scientifiques du Tourisme. For exam-
ple, a stay in a hospital could be considered as
tourism, and business trips and ▶ domestic tour-
ism were totally excluded. In 1981, the associa-
Tourism tion again discussed the definition at its annual T
congress in Cardiff and accepted the following:
Norbert Vanhove “The entirety of interrelations and phenomena
Brugge, Belgium which result from people travelling to and stop-
ping at places which are neither their main con-
tinuous domiciles nor place of work either for
There is no consensus on what constitutes tour- ▶ leisure or in the context of business activities
ism. A definition accepted by a number of orga- or study” (Vanhove 2011: 2).
nizations (Eurostat, OECD, WTO, and UN The British Tourism Society also discussed
Statistics Division 2001) suggests that “tourism and adopted a definition based upon the work by
comprises the activities of persons travelling to Burkart and Medlik: “Tourism is deemed to
and staying in places outside their usual include any activity concerned with the temporary
954 Tourism
short-term movement of people to destinations phrase “24 h” became a point of discussion and
outside the places where they normally live and was replaced by “overnight” at the United Nations
▶ work, and their activities during the stay at Statistical Commission 1967 and the IUOTO
these destinations” (Burkart and Medlik 1974: 1968 meetings.
39–40). The UN definition refers to ▶ international
Conceptually, tourism has five characteristics. tourism (visiting a country other than the one in
It is an amalgam of phenomena and relationships which a traveler usually resides), but there is no
rather than a single one; these phenomena and reason to neglect domestic tourism. The 1980
relationships arise from movements of people to, Manila Declaration of the World Tourism Organi-
and stays in, various destinations; the journey and zation extends the definition implicitly to both
stay are to and in destinations outside the normal domestic and international tourism. Excluded
place of residence and work; the movement to the from the definition are returning residents, immi-
destinations is of a short-term character; and des- grants, migrants (temporary workers staying less
tinations are visited for purposes not connected to than 1 year), commuters, soldiers, diplomats, and
paid work. transit passengers. This definition has been in
place for years, but not all countries apply it. The
introduction of ▶ Tourism Satellite Account
Operational or technical definitions makes it necessary to work with a definition
accepted worldwide. In 2000, Eurostat, OECD,
The main practical need for exact definitions of WTO, and UN Statistic Division accepted the
tourism and the ▶ tourist has arisen from the aforementioned technical definition.
necessity to establish adequate statistical stan- Since the last century, the concept and practice
dards (Mieczkowski 1990). Many experts have of tourism have continuously been refined. Still
difficulty in considering business trips and voca- other definitional issues and research questions
tional travel as tourism activities. However, they remain. As a ▶ phenomenon, it should be further
are often included in tourism because they asked what precisely tourism is or what consti-
respond to the characteristics described above tutes tourism, how it can be distinguished from
and because their economic significance is the other leisure or professional practices, and
same (Burkart and Medlik 1974). A technical def- whether it is now institutionalized worldwide.
inition needs to identify the categories of travel On the operational side, the debates on whether
and visits and define the time element in terms of tourism is a sector, trade, or ▶ industry, how it can
length of stay away from home. be better integrated in the host destination, and
A well-known technical definition is the one how its growth can best be interfaced with ongo-
recommended on the occasion of the United ing issues or concerns such as ▶ sustainability and
Nations Conference on Travel and Tourism held ▶ climate change are to be further clarified.
in Rome in 1963. “For statistical purposes, the
term ‘visitor’ describes any person visiting a
country other than that in which he has usual See also ▶ Hospitality, ▶ leisure, ▶ recreation,
place of residence, for any reason other than fol- ▶ travel, ▶ Tourism Satellite Account.
lowing an occupation remunerated from within
the country visited” (Vanhove 2011: 3). This def-
inition covers tourists – temporary visitors staying
at least 24 h in the destination whose journey can References
be classified as leisure (▶ recreation, ▶ holiday,
health, study, ▶ religion, and sport) or business, Burkart, A., and S. Medlik 1974 Tourism: Past, Present and
Future. London: Heinemann.
family, mission, meeting, and excursionists, Eurostat, OECD, WTO, and UN Statistics Division 2001
cruise passengers, or temporary visitors staying Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodo-
less than 24 h in the country visited. Later, the logical Framework. Luxembourg: UN.
Tourism Satellite Account 955
Hunziker, W., and K. Krapf 1942 Allgemeine Fremdenver- History

kehrslehre. Zurich: Polyg Verlag.
Mieczkowski, Z. 1990 World Trends in Tourism and Rec-
reation. New York: Peter Lang. Interest in developing standards for measuring the
Vanhove, N. 2011 The Economics of Tourism Destina- economic effects of tourism demand on nations
tions. London: Routledge. consistent with their national accounts dates back
to studies by ▶ France in the 1970s and the World
Tourism Organization in the early 1980s (TSA:
RMF 2008: iv). Growing interest in this new tool
led to Statistics Canada’s 1991 recommendations
Tourism Satellite Account to the World Tourism Organization for a ▶ meth-
odology to apply the principles of satellite
Douglas C. Frechtling accounting to tourism. In 1993, the United
International Institute of Tourism Studies, Nations Statistical Commission and other multi-
The George Washington University, lateral organizations concerned with specifying
Washington DC, USA the structure of national macroeconomic accounts
sanctioned for the first time “satellite accounts” to
permit a “focus on a certain field or aspect of
The Tourism Satellite Account (TSA) is a distinc- economic and social life in the context of national
tive method of measuring the direct economic accounts” such as tourism (SNA 1993: 65).
contributions of tourism demand to a national In 1999, the World Tourism Organization
economy. Its unique approach derives from joined with the Organisation for Economic
employing the principles and structure of the Co-operation and Development and Eurostat to
internationally recognized System of National propose a “recommended methodological frame-
Accounts (SNA) to measuring the direct eco- work” for the TSA to the United Nations, and this
nomic ▶ impact of tourism. The SNA is the stan- framework was adopted in 2000 (TSA:RMF
dard set of recommendations on how to compile 2008:v). Coincident with the release of a revised
measures of economic activity, such as Gross System of National Accounts in 2008, these orga-
Domestic Product (GDP), in accordance with nizations secured approval of IRTS 2008 and
strict accounting conventions based on economic TSA: RMF 2008 from the United Nations, and
principles (SNA 2008: 1). these documents have since served as the stan-
The TSA comprises a set of interrelated tables dards for elaborating the TSA.
that show the size and distribution of the different
forms of tourism ▶ expenditure and its augmented
cousin Tourism Consumption, in a country, and Applications to tourism
the direct contributions to GDP, ▶ employment,
and ▶ other macroeconomic measures of a In contrast to the tourism ▶ model that is based on
national economy that result (TSA:RMF 2008: assumptions about how tourism demand affects T
13). It is based on the ▶ system of tourism ▶ sta- an economy and tourism surveys, which rely on
tistics following standard concepts, definitions, samples of ▶ visitor populations to project vol-
classifications, aggregates, and relationships spec- umes of various visitor activities, the TSA is an
ified by the United Nations in its International “account,” that is, a table or set of tables, “which
Recommendations for Tourism Statistics (IRTS records, for a given aspect of economic life, the
2008) and corresponds to the framework uses and resources or the changes in assets and
presented by the United Nations in Tourism Sat- the changes in liabilities and/or stock of assets
ellite Account: Recommended Methodological and liabilities existing at a certain time” (SNA
Framework 2008 (TSA:RMF 2008). Together, 1993:26).
these 2 documents comprise the United Nations The TSA framework explicated by the United
standards for TSAs. Nations consists of ten interrelated tables. Figure 1
956 Tourism Satellite Account
Country of Reference
Tourism Supply
Tourism Demand
Table 1. Inbound
tourism expenditure
by products and
classes of visitors
Table 6. Total Table 5. Production

Table 4. Internal
domestic supply accounts of tourism
tourism consumption
and internal industries and other
by products
consumption industries
Table 2. Domestic
tourism expenditure
by products, classes of
visitors and types of
trips
Other components of
tourism consumption:
(a) Services of vacation
accommodation on own Table 7.
account; (b) Tourism Employment in
social transfers in kind; the tourism
(c) Other imputed industries
consumption
Tourism Direct
Macro- Gross Value Gross Value
Internal Tourism Added; Tourism
economic Added of the Tourism
Expenditure; Internal Direct Gross
Aggregates Tourism employment
Tourism Consumption Domestic
Produced Industries
Product
Rest of the World

Table 3. Outbound
tourism expenditure
by products and classes
of visitors
Tourism Satellite Account, Figure 1 Tables and Macroeconomic Aggregates of the Tourism Satellite Account
displays the first seven of these tables, their rela- Such consumption expenditures are limited to
tionships, and the macroeconomic aggregates visitors purchasing directly from establishments
resulting from each. Table 8 Tourism Gross before or during their trips. Their impact is limited
Fixed Capital Formation and Table 9 Tourism to the value added, GDP, and tourism employment
Collective Consumption by Product and Level of directly related to these expenditures. Conse-
Government are not currently recommended for quently, a TSA does not provide estimates of
compilation because they “require not only the indirect or induced impacts of such spending
gathering of data from types of sources that usu- (TSA:RMF 2008: 3), nor is the TSA currently
ally are not part of countries’ systems of tourism sanctioned for subnational regions such as prov-
statistics, but also the overcoming of some spe- inces, states, and metropolitan areas.
cific conceptual challenges” (TSA:RMF A 2010 global assessment found that 60 coun-
2008:31). Table 10 Non-monetary Indicators is tries were in various stages of compiling and
not directly connected to the other tables in the publishing TSAs (World Tourism Organization
TSA but provides background data on visitors and 2010). However, it is not currently known how
“other descriptive characteristics of tourism many countries annually compile TSAs and how
▶ supply and demand” (TSA:RMF 2008:31). closely these conform to United Nations stan-
dards. A study of the conformance of the US
Limitations and Future Research Travel and Tourism Satellite Account to these
The TSA is designed to show the direct impact of standards found considerable deviations in con-
Tourism Consumption on a national economy. cepts, definitions, tables, and macroeconomic
Tourist 957
aggregates presented from the United Nations community. However, this movement is where
standards (Frent and Frechtling 2013). This sug- agreement tends to end. Discussions continue
gests the World Tourism Organization and other about how far the individual has to ▶ travel in
statistical agencies need to work more closely order to be considered a tourist. Distances from
with countries to assure TSA exercises do, indeed, 50 to 100 miles one way are commonly used to
conform to United Nations standards. Future designate a tourist, although in some renowned
research should focus on determining how much destinations, such as the state of Florida in the
individual deviations bias TSA results. ▶ United States, traveling across a county line
either for business or pleasure or staying in rented
See also ▶ Employment, ▶ expenditure, accommodations for less than six months desig-
▶ model, ▶ survey, ▶ visitor. nates a tourist.
References
Early definitions
Commission of the European Communities, International
Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic
The Florida designation raises two other conten-
Co-operation and Development, United Nations and
World Bank 1993 System of National Accounts 1993. tious issues related to the tourist definition debate,
New York: United Nations(herein referred to as “SNA one is length of stay and the other is purpose of the
1993”). trip. An overnight stay or 24 h away from home
Commission of the European Communities, International
has been commonly used to distinguish a tourist
Monetary Fund, Organisation for Economic
Co-operation and Development, United Nations and from a day tripper or excursionist. Indeed, one of
World Bank 2008 System of National Accounts 2008. the first definitions of an international tourist used
New York: United Nations (herein referred to as “SNA a 24 h stay in another country as one of the main
2008”)
classification criteria, along with purpose of the
Frent, C., and Frechtling, D. 2013Evaluating Compliance
with United Nations Standards for Tourism Satellite trip which was listed under two main headings:
Accounts. The case of the U.S. Travel and Tourism “▶ Leisure (▶ recreation, ▶ holiday, health,
Satellite Account. Washington, DC: International Insti- study, religion, sport) [and] Business, family mis-
tute of Tourism Studies
sion, meeting” (IUOTO 1963).
United Nations 2010 International Recommendations for
Tourism Statistics 2008. New York: United Nations As the academic study of tourism began to gain
United Nations, Commission of the European Communitie- momentum in the 1970s, Cohen (1974) in his
s–Eurostat, World Tourism Organization, and Organisa- seminal treatise on “what is a tourist?” critiqued
tion for Economic Co-operation and Development 2010
this definition as being too broad to be of value to
Tourism Satellite Account: Recommended Methodolog-
ical Framework 2008. New York: United Nations scholars. Despite Cohen’s critique, the use of
(herein referred to as “TSA:RMF 2008”). mileage designations or classifying all types of
World Tourism Organization 2010 TSA Data Around the ▶ travel as tourism did not disappear; instead,
World. Madrid:World Tourism Organization
they marked a divergence in the study of tourism
into a business/▶ industry orientation versus a T
social science focus. Scholars and practitioners
Tourist who adopted an industry focus tend to use the
broader mileage/time delineations to define a tour-
Heather J. Gibson ist, whereas those who view tourism as a socio-
Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport cultural ▶ phenomenon and have largely used
Management, University of Florida, Gainesville, anthropology, geography, sociology, and social
USA psychology as their foundations have tended to
focus on the tourist as a pleasure traveler. In line
with this view, Cohen (1974) asserted that tourism
There is general consensus that a tourist refers to a is a special form of leisure, and as such, tourists
person who travels outside of their home can be classified according to six criteria: their
958 Tourist
trips are temporary, are taken voluntarily, involve types. Australians were surveyed about their per-
a return, are relatively long, are nonrecurrent ceptions as to what types of behavior were asso-
(do not happen regularly), and are ciated with different tourists. He distinguished
noninstrumental (are for pleasure, not for work). 15 types, including pleasure, educational, and
service-related travel. Yiannakis and Gibson
(1992) refined Pearce’s work and, following
Different types of tourist Cohen (1972, 1974), delimited their definition to
leisure travel and identified 13 roles that could be
As scholars raised concerns about the negative distinguished on three preference dimensions:
impacts of tourism and questions were raised familiarity versus strangeness, structure versus
about the (in)authenticity of tourist experiences, independence, and stimulation versus tranquility.
Cohen (1972) suggested that it was a mistake to Since the early days, these typologies have been
think of tourists as homogenous. Rather, there are applied to different contexts, including ▶ ecotour-
different types of tourists. Drawing upon a socio- ism, sport tourism, and perceived risk. They have
logical “role theory” perspective, he distinguished also been used to investigate age and gender dif-
four types of international tourists based on their ferences among tourists.
preference for novelty or familiarity. Cohen To move forward, the underlying personality
suggested that organized mass tourists and the dimensions implied by both Cohen’s (1972) and
independent mass tourists are those who seek the Plog’s (1974) typologies warrant further explora-
highest levels of familiarity when they travel and, tion to not only understand choice but also the
because of this, may cause the most change in host contemporary focus on tourist experience. For
communities. In contrast, the explorers and the example, it would be interesting to once again
drifters seek higher levels of novelty or strange- apply the concept of tourist roles to understand
ness in their travels and tend to accept the style of authenticity, particularly as more use is made of
accommodations and food found in a host com- augmenting tourist experiences with various dig-
munity. Thus, they invoke less change and are ital modalities. So, which type of tourist would be
likely to experience higher levels of authenticity. the most receptive to digitally augmenting their
Cohen’s (1972) role typology was followed by tourist experience and which would reject such an
several different classifications. Plog (1974) intrusion? Another use of tourist roles and person-
working from a social psychological foundation ality would be to investigate in more depth which
proposed other types of tourist could be identified type of tourist is least or more likely to travel to
at different stages of ▶ destination development, destinations affected by natural or anthropocentric
starting with what he called the allocentrics (most events and which are suffering from a disruption
adventurous, similar to the drifter) who visit a in their tourist flows.
destination during the early stages of its develop-
ment, the mid-centrics (similar to the independent
mass tourist) who visit during a destination’s See also ▶ Drifter, ▶ mass tourism, ▶ motiva-
“heyday,” and the psychocentrics (least adventur- tion, ▶ role, ▶ sociology.
ous similar to the organized mass tourist) who
visit when it is past its popularity peak. Working
from an anthropological perspective, Smith
(1977) identified seven different types based References
upon their number in a destination and their
Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour-
▶ adaptation to the host community norms. ism. Social Research 39:164-182.
Pearce (1985), a social psychologist, was the Cohen, E. 1974 Who is a Tourist? A Conceptual Clarifica-
first to empirically verify the existence of different tion. Sociological Review 22:527-553.
Tourist space 959
IUOTO 1963 The United Nations’ Conference on Interna- space. Performing includes clothing choices
tional Travel and Tourism. Geneva: International (as opposed to work-a-day clothing), the ways
Union of Official Travel Organizations.
Pearce, P. 1985 A Systematic Comparison of Travel- tourists move through space (wandering and gaz-
related Roles. Human Relations 38:1001-1011. ing as opposed to more purposeful directed move-
Plog, S. 1974 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in ment), and the activities that are undertaken, such
Popularity. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Admin- as photographing or engaging with marked sites
istration Quarterly 14:55-58.
Smith, V. 1977 Hosts and Guests: The Anthropology of and attractions (Edensor 2001).
Tourism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press. Tourist space may function as a bubble within
Yiannakis, A., and H. Gibson 1992 Roles Tourists Play. which the main sites are located and the services
Annals of Tourism Research 19:287-303. which are directed mainly at tourists are found,
including hotels, ▶ souvenir stands, ▶ guided
tour operations, and catering. These bubbles are
found in enclave sites such as resorts as well as in
Tourist space urban areas (Judd 1999). Tourist space has been
seen as being manufactured or “inauthentic.”
Michelle Metro-Roland According to theorists such as MacCannell
Department of Geography, Western Michigan (1976), tourists seek to go beyond the “front
University, Kalamazoo, USA stage” to discover more “authentic” experiences
of places. Many guidebooks appeal to this desire,
offering to move tourists beyond the bubble. The
Tourist space, in its most basic form, is the area in success of this is that these local spaces are even-
which tourism is undertaken. These may be areas tually overrun by tourists. Many spaces are located
specifically designed, marketed, and directed at in “touristed landscapes” which are places receiv-
tourists or areas that draw tourists and become ing large numbers of tourists but which are in the
spaces given over to tourism. Tourist space is end lived spaces carrying on other functions, tour-
closely related to the concept of ▶ destination, ism being only one (Cartier and Lew 2005).
which is defined as “a physical space in which a
▶ tourist spends at least one overnight. It includes
tourism products such as support services and See also ▶ Destination, ▶ landmark, ▶ land-
attractions, and tourism resources within one scape, ▶ package tourism, ▶ urban tourism.
day’s return ▶ travel time. It has physical and
administrative boundaries defining its manage-
ment, images, and perceptions defining its market References
competitiveness. Local tourism destinations
incorporate various stakeholders often including Cartier, C., and A. Lew, eds. 2005 Seductions of Place:
Geographical Perspectives on Globalization and Tour-
a host community, and can nest and network to isted Landscapes. London: Routledge.
form larger destinations” (UNWTO nd). Edensor, T. 2001 Performing Tourism, Staging Tourism: T
Cultural studies and landscape studies (Re)producing Tourist Space and Practice. Tourist
approach tourist space by highlighting the ways Studies 1:59-81.
Judd, D. 1999 Constructing the Tourist Bubble. In The
in which space is differentiated. Tourist spaces
Tourist City, D. Judd, and S. Fainstein, eds., pp. 35-53.
have both material and symbolic aspects that New Haven: Yale University Press.
give them shape. Guidebooks, ▶ tour guides, MacCannell, D. 1976 The Tourist: A New Theory of the
and physical markers play an important role in Leisure Class. New York: Schocken Books.
UNWTO, nd, Destination Management Conceptual
delineating tourist spaces, and the presence of Framework. Madrid: World Tourism Organization.
others “performing” as tourists also reinforces http://destination.unwto.org/content/conceptual-fram
the interpretation of what constitutes tourist ework-0 (2 January 2014).
960 Trade liberalization
tourism-related activities. As a cross-tabulation

Trade liberalization with the three levels governing liberalization, the
table identifies what constitute the most important
Camilla Jensen1 and Jie Zhang2 events in the relatively brief history of the tourism
1
Institut for Marketing and Management, industry.
University of Southern Denmark, Odense M,
Denmark
2
Centre for Regional and Tourism Research, Free movement of tourists
Nexø, Denmark
The most decisive piece of legislation in this area is
the one that pertains to international passports. In
▶ International tourism has become one of the 1980, the UN agency – International Civil Aviation
most significant global trade flows. Trade Organization – launched a global initiative that
accounts for around 25 % of the total international standardized passports. According to Hjalager
trade in services. International efforts for trade (2013), this was a facilitator and not an impediment
liberalization in tourism under the framework of to the advancement of tourism. The standardized
the World Trade Organization or bilateral agree- passport is regarded as one of the major innovations
ments play a decisive role for its development. having transformed the industry. Now individual
Unlike other services, tourism is not a specific countries can more easily implement bilateral visa
type of activity, but an assortment of goods and regulations, which have paved the way for tourism
services consumed by travelers. The most com- to be developed in its present form as an organized,
mon goods and services covered by this industry transparent, legally recognized (e.g., from insur-
are lodging, food and beverages, ▶ transportation, ance perspective), and safe activity.
gifts and souvenirs, cultural services, and sporting Visa regulations establish rules on the basis of
and other recreational services (Zhang and Jensen which regional free movement of people can be
2007). made possible. The most developed regional trade
Tourism being a complex phenomenon agreement that has paved the way for an absolute
involves the following main categories of ▶ travel barrier free movement of tourists is known as the
purposes: business, ▶ leisure, ▶ education, and Schengen Agreement. Most European Union
health. Indirect liberalization impacts (e.g., member countries are part of this agreement. It
through freer trade in goods), liberalization of helps, among others, to facilitate an easy and free
foreign investment (inducing more business flow of tourists among the member states. No
travel), or specific incentives to increase interna- other regional trading arrangement currently con-
tional exchange in education are also relevant to stitutes a passport union. However, the Associa-
the industry but are beyond the scope of this brief tion of Southeast Asian Nations and Mercosur
entry. have taken steps in such a direction, especially to
In Table 1, ▶ trade liberalization is narrowed facilitate easier access for tourists from third coun-
down to any legislation with a direct ▶ impact on tries (Wong et al. 2011).
Trade liberalization, Table 1 Institutions and organizations leading to freer trade in tourism services
Levels by tourism-
related activities Bilateral Regional Global
Free movement of Visa regulations Schengen (European Union) Standardization of passport
tourists (International Civil Aviation
Organization, United Nations)
Free movement of Association of Southeast Asian General Agreement on Trade in
service providers Nations, European Union, Mercosur, Services
North America Free Trade Agreement
Tradition 961
Free movement of service providers academic literature on trade liberalization in tour-

ism is very much in its infancy. Jensen and Zhang
Viewed globally and from the perspectives of (2013) provide for one of the first systematic
service providers to the industry, tourism is regu- attempts at evaluating the role of trade liberaliza-
lated foremost by the General Agreement on tion for tourism. Future research on this topic
Trade in Services under the World Trade Organi- could look at the impact that regional integration
zation, which seeks with its new services database agreements have on the industry or how the real
to collect all liberalization efforts pertaining to this estate market affects the internationalization of the
industry at the global, regional, or bilateral levels. industry.
Notably, in tourism, the General Agreement on
Trade in Services consists of four pillars of liber- See also ▶ Comparative advantage, ▶ economic
alization efforts for service providers: Hotels and development, ▶ international tourism, ▶ rule and
restaurants, travel agencies and ▶ tour operator regulation, ▶ visa.
services, ▶ tourist guide services, and others. In
addition, countries may also make horizontal
commitments in areas that affect market access
for local and international service providers. One References
example could be liberalization of real estate as in
the question of whether foreign operators are Hjalager, A. 2013 100 Innovations That Transformed Tour-
ism. Journal of Travel Research doi:0047287513516390.
allowed to acquire real estate on equal terms Jensen, C., and J. Zhang 2013 Trade in Tourism Services:
with local operators. This system is based on Explaining Tourism Trade and the Impact of the
volition, which means that member countries can General Agreement on Trade in Services on the Gains
choose themselves whether or not to make a com- from Trade. The Journal of International Trade and
Economic Development 22:398-429.
mitment under each pillar. More than 139 member Kox, H., A. Lejour, and R. Montizaan 2004 The Free
countries have made commitments under at least Movement of Services within the EU (No. 69). Den
one of these pillars. Hotels and restaurants are Haag: CPB Netherlands Bureau for Economic Policy
almost completely liberalized today. In contrast, Analysis.
Wong, E., N. Mistilis, and L. Dwyer 2011 A Model of
there are fewer horizontal commitments, implying ASEAN Collaboration in Tourism. Annals of Tourism
that the underlying market access conditions may Research 38:882-899.
still be different. Zhang, J., and C. Jensen 2007 Comparative Advantage:
Jensen and Zhang (2013) find that the most Explaining Tourism Flows. Annals of Tourism
hesitant liberalizers today under the General
Agreement system are the small island economies
that can be very dependent on tourism for their
local economic development. They are thus more
likely to adopt special legislation that protects Tradition
their indigenous populations, tourism businesses, T
and ecological systems. Regional agreements also Hongliang Yan and Razaq Raj
have an impact on service provisions. The most Carnegie Faculty, School of Events, Tourism
important one is the European Union service and Hospitality, Leeds Beckett University,
directive (Kox et al. 2004) or the Association of Leeds, UK
Southeast Asian Nation’s service protocol (Wong
et al. 2011). Both have similar aims to harmonize
the economic conditions among local and interna- Tradition can be defined as customs, beliefs, or
tional providers of services in the tourism ideas transmitted or handed down from one gen-
industry. eration to the next. It is often considered as a
Like research on the impact of the legislative or social construct which is used as a form of
policy changes affecting the area of tourism, rationality to justify a course of action. In
962 Training
contemporary society, tradition plays a vital part unique aspects of cultural identity and lifestyle
in association with tourism. There is an under- through tourism while respectfully preserving
standing that tourism is the contemporary them for the benefits of both indigenous commu-
embodiment of the exiled modernist’s search for nities and tourists. Therefore, it is critical for
the authentic past. Tradition, culture, and heritage- future research to explore and examine the oppor-
based tourism have been popular for decades. tunities in mobilizing tradition for development
Tourists experience tradition in a wide range of purposes in the wider social sphere. It is also
settings and activities, including performing arts, crucial to understand the politics in identifying
festivals, visits to historic sites and monuments, how identities and differences are pursued
educational tours, museums, natural heritage through tourism and the role of tourism in helping
sites, and religious events. Tourists take part in to preserve and promote tradition for future
these activities in order to understand the lifestyle generations.
of ▶ destination communities.
The practice of cultural and heritage tourism in See also ▶ Attraction, ▶ culture, ▶ heritage,
contemporary society demonstrates that tourists ▶ history, ▶ identity.
are, to varying degrees, seeking enjoyment, cul-
turally motivated, wishing to gather new informa-
tion and experiences of the past, wanting to satisfy
References
their needs for diversity, and seeking to raise their
cultural level and satisfy their cultural needs. As Hobsbawm, E., and T. Ranger 1983 The Invention of
tradition provides a link between the present and Tradition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
the past, it is an important aspect of contemporary Samuel, R. 1994 Theatres of Memory. London: Verso.
Yeoman, R., M. Robertson, J. Ali-Knight, S. Drummond
social and cultural organizations. Reproduced in
and U. McMahon-Beattie 2004 Festival and Events
the interest of a dominant class, it is considered to Management: An International Arts and Culture Per-
be important in the formation of identity. As spective. London: Elsevier.
Hobsbawm and Ranger (1983) indicate, origins
or traditions are themselves invented and
constructed according to the need of the present.
Many resource-based cultural and heritage attrac- Training
tions, such as the Stonehenge in the ▶ United
Kingdom or Pyramids in ▶ Egypt, were not orig- David Airey and John Tribe
inally sited as major attractions. Increasingly, cul- School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
tural and heritage resources are used by tourism to University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
stimulate economic development and to enrich the
sociocultural environment.
More importantly, when exploring the com- The common dictionary definition of training
plex nature underlying the notion of cultural tra- makes reference to developing proficiency in
dition, consideration must be given to both its some activities, skills, or behavior and within
material and immaterial elements. Cultural prod- these to reaching some desired level of achieve-
ucts provide representations of the past and are ment. Training typically includes the develop-
engaged in collectively remembering the past ment of knowledge, skills, and competencies
through promoting their specific theater of related to some particular task relevant to a par-
memory (Samuel 1994). Cultural identity is ticular craft, profession, or occupation. In this
manifested in the importance that modern individ- sense, much of training is vocational, frequently
uals place on socially oriented local and national with specific aims such as improving capability,
organizations such as governments, education productivity, and performance either in prepara-
institutions, and religious communities (Yeoman tion for or during employment. Training can range
et al. 2004). People must be careful to present from initial development of a particular skill to
Training 963
higher-level executive programs. Harrison refers and quality assurance bodies; and government
to training as helping “an individual acquire com- agencies. In relation to government, for example,
petence in a specific task, process or role” (2002: in the ▶ United Kingdom, “People 1st” is one of
5). In the context of tourism, Burkart and Medlik 24 such government-recognized bodies,
refer to such training as being “conducted specif- established to support the development of skills
ically in the context of the hotel industry, the and training, in this case for ▶ hospitality, passen-
▶ airline industry and the ▶ travel agency indus- ger transport, travel, and tourism. Clearly the
try” (1972:303). rationale here relates to the contribution of a
trained workforce to national competitive advan-
tage. Similarly, professional bodies and trade
Development of training associations provide or recognize training courses
to ensure that their members are operating at a
Although tourism training has a long pedigree, required standard. The work of the International
emerging as the industry grew (Cooper Air Transport Association in accrediting
et al. 2005), in comparison with tourism travel agents, for example, sets the framework
education, its development is little documented. for airline ticketing training. As for employers,
Where it is discussed, this is often in the context they encourage training for their employees and
of the development of tourism education where a often provide such programs themselves. More
distinction is drawn between education on the generally, training needs analysis often forms an
one hand and training for the component parts important part of company and project develop-
of tourism “such as food production and ment plans. Many country or regional master
service or airline ticketing” (Airey 2006:15) on plans for tourism include the identification of
the other. training needs, in terms of quantity, nature, and
Airey (2006) argues that tourism as a field of level, and may specify the type of organization to
study in part has its origins in vocational training, meet such needs.
tracing a route from training for the hotel and An important divide in training is between that
food sector, to the development of education and which takes place on-the-job and that which takes
eventually degrees in hotel management, to place off-the-job, in the employer’s premises or
degrees in tourism. Indeed many educational pro- elsewhere. The former typically involves a mentor
grams in tourism contain elements of job-specific who will work with the trainee following a set
training, for example, in airline ticketing and program or simply informally providing guidance
indeed in periods of professional training or as needed. The latter takes the employee away
internships in tourism organizations. Tribe from the work situation to internally provided
(2002) draws attention to this in his work on the training or to external training by the company
philosophic practitioner where he identifies one of or by outside providers. The training itself can be
the quadrants of his theoretical curriculum space for brief periods, such as for statutorily required
for tourism as being related to what he calls “voca- training on health and safety or professional T
tional action.” development, or for extended periods. Included
in the latter are formal apprenticeships
typically combining on- and off-the-job training
The nature of training and education. Here the overlap with the
education programs provided by technical col-
The provision, encouragement, and control of leges is apparent. Some employers have set up
training has come as much from outside as from their own training institutions including
inside the formal education system. Apart from Disney and McDonalds with their internal corpo-
colleges and universities, others playing a role in rate universities and some, such as KFC, have
training include employers; professional bodies, launched their own degree programs with
trade associations, and trade unions; examination universities.
964 Transactional analysis
Training versus education

Transactional analysis
As already noted, there is clearly an overlap
between education and training. Elements of Peter U. C. Dieke
training are present in many education programs, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, Nigeria
and employers are involved in encouraging their
staff to develop their skills through training and
education. Notwithstanding this closeness, Transactional analysis refers to the methods used to
there is tension between education and training. analyze the disparate tourism products, services,
Tribe’s (2000) work draws attention to this in and markets. A transaction is the basic unit of
relation to the competing claims on the curriculum economic analysis. Since tourism is essentially an
space, with industry interests seeking to further economic ▶ activity, the complex set of factors
the vocational, if not the direct training elements, which underpin it can be understood in terms of
of the curriculum and with the academic economic transaction analysis (Buckley 1987).
interests taking a suspicious view of training or The product comprises the goods and services
vocational content as weakening the academic purchased by tourists. It consists of a wide array of
credentials of their programs. At the other core services (hotels, restaurants, and air carriers),
extreme, there are employers who are equally complementary ones (taxis and ▶ souvenir
skeptical of the value of education as distinct shops), and public facilitations (exchange controls
from on- or off-the-job training. These tensions and customs checks). Additional components
are an important pressure for those designing and include beach, culture, landscape, climate, attrac-
operating tourism programs. After a number of tion, and other public resources. Since these trans-
studies of education for tourism, there is clearly actions involve direct spending on these goods
a need for further work on the nature, role, and and services, this requires contacts between
position of training. buyers and sellers coming together to fix prices
themselves or on their behalf by outside agencies.
In this process, the ownership of the object of the
transactions changes hands. Typically, the main
See also ▶ Career, ▶ education, ▶ employment,
actors of the study are tourists in relation to the
▶ human resource management, ▶ university.
primary suppliers, classified on the basis of their
spatial ▶ location (the potential market), transit
and transport, and the ▶ destination.
It is given that transactions are a complex pro-
References
cess involving a multiplicity of services, necessi-
Airey, D. 2006 Growth and Development. In An Interna- tating the use of intermediaries (Pearce 2008;
tional Handbook of Tourism Education, D. Airey and Pearce and Schott 2005). By being in direct con-
J. Tribe, eds., pp.13-24. Oxford: Elsevier. tact with the public, these intermediates (▶ travel
Burkart, A., and S. Medlik 1972 Tourism, Past Present and
agents or retailers) bring tourists and suppliers
Future. London: Heinemann.
Cooper, C., J. Fletcher, A. Fyall, D. Gilbert, and S. Wanhill together by advising them on prices, terms, and
2005 Tourism Principles and Practice (3rd edition). conditions of services and also facilitating pur-
Harlow: Pearson. chase. On the other hand, ▶ tour operators bring
Harrison, R. 2002 Learning and Development.
producers and travel agents together. They buy
London: Chartered Institute of Personnel and
Development. large quantities of products (hotel rooms, ▶ air-
Tribe, J. 2000 Balancing the Vocational: The Theory and line tickets) at low prices, thereby enhancing
Practice of Liberal Education in Tourism. Tourism and economies of scale and lowering the operation
Hospitality Research 2:9-25.
cost. As surrogate tourists, they decide which
Tribe, J. 2002 The Philosophic Practitioner: A Curriculum
for Tourism Stewardship. Annals of Tourism Research countries, regions, and holiday types should be
29:338-357. offered or packaged. By maintaining extensive
Transportation 965
market connections, they build a reputation based destinations (or among destinations) and within
on their expertise to generate and package desti- a ▶ destination itself (Duval 2007). ▶ Tourist
nation demand. behavior (demand) and transport modes and infra-
Transactional analysis has three main tourism structure (supply) vary consistently depending on
▶ marketing and organization implications. First, whether the transportation is intended for inter-
there is the need for final service providers to destination or intra-destination movement pat-
penetrate different markets. Second, since services terns. An additional key element is the function-
by hotels, air carriers, and tour operators are com- ality of the transport either as a mere means to
plementary, using marketing at an isolated stage is accessing a destination or as an attraction per se.
ineffective, so the “synergetic effect” (Ansoff
1957) or marketing within the general framework
will be of decisive importance. Third, tourism is Transport demand
characterized by opposing demand and ▶ supply
features. For instance, the former is price and Transport demand is modeled by applying discrete
income elastic; consequentially heavy investments choice or regression models, depending on the
in equipment are only seasonally consumed. Thus, discrete or continuous nature of the variable under
the wide range of participating partners (hotels, investigation (Hensher and Brewer 2001). In this
travel agents, and airlines) further increases this context, discrete choice models are particularly
inelasticity. Another cost implication relates to useful for investigating transport choice when tour-
cost-efficient utilization of transport. ists are assumed to evaluate a mutually exclusive
set of transport alternatives and select the option
See also ▶ Distribution channel, ▶ economics, that maximizes their utility. The preference of tour-
▶ global distribution system, ▶ travel agency ists can be observed either in the real world
and tour operation. (revealed preferences) or in a hypothetical scenario
(stated preferences) whenever the research objec-
tive involves the investigation of the demand for
References transport alternatives not yet available (such as the
demand for a new metro line or for space travel).
Ansoff, I. 1957 Strategies for Diversification. Harvard
Business Review (September-October):113-124.
Tourists that use transport solely as a form of
Buckley, P. 1987 Tourism: An Economic Transactions accessibility tend to evaluate different transporta-
Analysis. Tourism Management 8:190-194. tion options in terms of two key attributes: trans-
Pearce, D. 2008 A Needs-Function Model of Tourism port cost and ▶ travel time. Other relevant
Distribution. Annals of Tourism Research 35: 148-168.
Pearce, D., and C. Schott 2005 Tourism Distribution Chan-
attributes often considered by tourists when
nels: The Visitors’ Perspective. Journal of Travel choosing a transport mode include level of safety,
Research 44:50-63. punctuality, and comfort. However, the preference
structure of tourists and their evaluation of rele-
vant attributes can differ significantly if the trans- T
portation is further perceived as an attraction. In
Transportation this context, specific attributes can have a crucial
function in the final decision and service selection
Lorenzo Masiero of the tourists (such as the selection of a cruise
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, based on the brand or on the range of services
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, offered onboard).
Hong Kong, China Transport demand models allow two important
indicators associated with the preference structure
of the tourists to be derived: elasticity of demand
Transportation is essential for tourism because it and willingness to pay. The former provides the
allows tourists to move between origins and change in the quantity of transport demanded
966 Transportation
given a change in the attribute under investiga- importantly, created new markets for the destina-
tion, whereas the latter provides the monetary tions involved.
measure of un-monetized attributes (such as the
value of travel time saving or the willingness to
pay for extra comfort). The sum of the travel cost Transport regulation
and all the monetary measures associated with
relevant attributes are defined as the generalized All existing means and modes are affected by the
cost of transport. role of the government, which sets economic (and
noneconomic) regulations to control transport
operations. Although noneconomic aspects, such
Transport supply as safety or environmental issues, are highly reg-
ulated, an increasing number of countries are
The availability of transport infrastructures and opening the market by relaxing control on both
their level of connectivity and usage have a great price and market access thereby favoring eco-
influence on the accessibility of a destination and nomic deregulation.
its development (Prideaux 2000). Each means of The most regulated environment is air trans-
transport within one of the three modes (ground, port, in which the government manages airspace
water, and air) requires dedicated infrastructures and is also responsible for the bilateral
and serves specific purposes and markets. (or multilateral) negotiation of air service agree-
Ground transports, including road and ▶ rail, ments. Degrees of freedom can be negotiated
dominate ▶ leisure and non-leisure travels in most between countries, from the most restricted right
developed countries (Page 2005) and are exten- to fly across the territory of the granting state to
sively used to access destinations and/or move the most flexible right to transport passengers
within them. The progressive introduction of between two points in the territory of the granting
high-speed rail networks has opened new oppor- state (pure cabotage). International standards and
tunities to short- and medium-haul tourists, recommended practices are further developed by
whereas the progressive construction of bike trails the International Civil Aviation Organization, a
has boosted interest in rural and ▶ slow tourism. specialized agency of the United Nations, while
Water transport is typically associated with the global trade association, International Air
▶ cruise tourism (leisure travel) or ferry service Transport Association, addresses industry policy
(functional travel). The former has experienced a on relevant aviation aspects. Future research
stable and remarkable worldwide growth in the should look at global trends and/or movements
last three decades (CLIA 2012). Cruise tourism is toward the economic deregulation of air services
expected to reach 25 million cruise passengers and its impacts on tourism as confirmed by the
worldwide by 2015 (UNWTO 2013), maintaining successful negotiation between the ▶ United
the leading and popular ▶ Caribbean, ▶ Mediter- States and ▶ Europe, which has led to the Open
ranean, and Northern European destinations while Skies Agreement, in effect since 2008.
developing Asia-Pacific ones.
▶ Air transport accounts for slightly over half See also ▶ Air transport, ▶ airline, ▶ aviation,
of all international ▶ tourist arrivals generated in ▶ cruise tourism, ▶ demand modeling.
2012 (UNWTO 2012), which confirms its domi-
nance in the ▶ international tourism industry.
Scheduled air services are classified either as References
full-service airlines or low-cost carriers (also
known as budget airlines). In particular, low-cost CLIA 2012 The Overview: 2010 CLIA Cruise Market
Overview. <http://cruising.org/regulatory/clia-statistical-
carriers, which were introduced in the early
reports> (9 December 2013).
2000s, represent a major innovation that has rev- Duval, D. 2007 Tourism and Transport: Modes, Network
olutionized the concept of air transport and, more and Flows. Clevedon: Channel View.
Travel agency and tour operation 967
Hensher, D., and A. Brewer 2001 Transport – An Econom- essential element in the education of nobility as they
ics and Management Perspective. New York: Oxford traveled to the origins of Western culture. The first
University Press.
Page, S. 2005 Transport and Tourism: Global Perspectives. journey of a group of people with common motives
Harlow: Pearson. to be considered a guided tour of modern times,
Prideaux, B. 2000 The Role of the Transport System in Des- organised by Thomas Cook in 1841, traveled from
tination Development. Tourism Management 21:53-63. Leicester to Loughborough by train (Medlik 2003).
UNWTO, 2012, Asia/Pacific Newsletter Issue 25. <http://
asiapacific.unwto.org/en/newsletter/2012-04-10/unwto- The improvement in the ease of travel has impacted
asiapacific-newsletter-issue-25> (9 December 2013). tourism to a large extent and has influenced the
UNWTO, 2013 Tourism Highlights. <http://mkt.unwto. forms it takes. In fact, many early forms of travel,
org/en/publication/unwto-tourism-highlights-2013- such as walking, canoeing, horse riding, and skiing,
edition> (9 December).
have become tourism activities in their own right.
In modern times, certain types of traveling can
completely fulfill the tourist’s motivation. Tourism
Travel motives are not always fulfilled at the destination,
especially when the environment of the transporta-
Anton Gosar tion vehicle (vessels, trains, spacecrafts) functions
University of Primorska, Koper - Capodistria, as such. The mode of cruising, where passengers
Slovenia/European Union disregard ports of call and enjoy only the onboard
amenities until disembarkation, is a case of this
type of travel (and tourism). Space travel will
Travel involves the mobility of people from one extend this to outer frontiers. Sustainable travel
place to another. Yet the term has a broader mean- modes are to be reinstituted, developed, promoted,
ing than merely moving between/among rela- made popular, and studied. Travel and tourism in
tively distant places. It entails the spatial several world languages are not directly related.
movement from place A to B and denotes the
migration of species in general. See also ▶ Cruise tourism, ▶ mobility, ▶ recrea-
Travel is often used synonymously with tourism. tion, ▶ transportation, ▶ tourism.
Both concepts involve participants’ mobility, while
the latter is linked to the motive of pleasure, recre-
ation, health, knowledge gaining, socializing, and References
hedonism, among others (Wall 2000). However,
depending upon the distance traveled, whether Lansing, J., and E. Lilienstein 1957 The Travel Market 1955:
The Report to the Travel Research Association. Ann Arbor:
international borders are crossed, the length of stay
University of Michigan Institute for Social Research.
at a ▶ destination, and motivations, travelers may or Medlik, S. 2003 Preface. In Dictionary of Travel, Tourism
may not definitionally be considered as tourists. and Hospitality. Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.
There may also be temporal and qualitative differ- Wall, G. 2000 Travel. In Encyclopedia of Tourism,
ences in the meanings ascribed to travel and tour- J. Jafari, ed., pp.600-601. London: Routledge. T
ism. Thus, during periods prior to ▶ mass tourism,
there was a tendency for some to refer to people
moving individually and in small groups as travelers Travel agency and tour operation
(Lansing and Lilienstein 1957). At the extreme,
tourism is used as a disparaging term ascribed to Zongqing Zhou
others by those who claim superior motives and College of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
tastes and who regard themselves as travelers. Niagara University, NY, USA
Travel was and still is a basic component of
tourism since its early beginnings. To go on a trip
or journey involves a motive. The preindustrial Travel agencies and tour operators are two related
▶ Grand Tour took off on horsebacks and was an but can be independent business models that
968 Travel agency and tour operation
operate as intermediaries between suppliers and Development

tourists. In many cases, travel agencies are also
tour operators and vice versa, particularly in coun- Travel agencies experienced great expansion and
tries other than the ▶ United States. This is under- economic gain when the number of air passengers
standable considering the history of their soared after the deregulation in 1978 (Meyer and
evolution in different countries. Oster 1987). This could be attributed to the
commission-based business model of the travel
agencies, operating on the basis of a special
arrangement and relationship with various air-
Structure and history lines. The resulting commissions accounted for
approximately two thirds to 90 % of an agency’s
Travel agencies can be defined as a sector that income. To flip the coin, the airlines saw this as a
books, sells, and arranges ▶ travel, ▶ tour, and major cost of marketing and information distribu-
accommodation services provided by suppliers tion. This commission structure also sowed the
of the industry (Bhatia 2013). Some are primarily seeds for the breaking-up of the two parties with
engaged in making travel arrangements and res- the advent of the internet and the web (Zhou
ervation services. These agencies include online- 2004).
only booking systems such as Expedia.com. With the web, airlines saw the opportunity to
Others offer their own packages and thus act as sell directly to the consumers and to cut their cost
tour operators. of marketing and ticketing. They started by
Tour operators are businesses that plan, pack- reducing commissions, capping them, and finally
age, market, and sell multiple ▶ vacation ele- stopping commission payments. Travel agencies
ments, including air or surface ▶ transportation were caught unprepared by the sudden
and accommodations (USTOA 2014). Package changes and many of them closed their doors.
tours are generally sold through travel agencies, The situation was made worse by the newly
but some of them are also sold directly to the emerged online travel agencies. Travel agencies
public. Therefore, they can be further classified experienced the biggest shakeup, witnessing
into retail and wholesale operators, although some mergers and close-ups across the industry. After
do both. the shakeup, the business is now stabilized but
As to the history, it is generally accepted that still operating in a fierce competitive
the first operation was set up by Thomas Cook in environment.
Great Britain in the second half of the nineteenth In general, tour operators were less affected by
century (Stevens 1990). In the United States, airline commissions but more by the internet.
travel agencies had a very humble beginning and With online information readily available,
were not regulated until 1945 when the Air Traffic tourists are now having more choices and options
Conference was established by the airline (Zhou and Lin 2000). Pricing has become
industry. Under this program, only agencies more transparent and group bargaining power of
appointed by this body were authorized to sell the public increases, thus cutting into the tour
tickets for member airlines. Its accreditation was operators’ profit margin and the bottom
based on several standards, including business line. With online travel agencies starting to
practices, financial requirements, personnel train- sell and operate tour packages, the pressure is
ing, and agency location. As a result, travel agents shifting.
were professionals trusted and depended on by
travelers. They were the gatekeepers and “bro-
kers” or intermediaries between travel suppliers Future outlooks and research
and the public. Before the internet, it was unthink-
able for the tourism industry to be without travel Since the airlines have stopped paying commis-
agents. sions, travel agencies are forced to develop new
Travel literature 969
strategies. In the United States, they are now See also ▶ Airline, ▶ distribution channel,
charging service fees, loosening reliance on air- ▶ information technology, ▶ internet, ▶ rail
lines, and depending more and more on tourism.
cruise lines, which are still paying decent com-
missions. They also start to develop their own
niches, including ▶ ecotourism and other special
markets. Further, they realize that their customers References
will no longer come to them for simple travel
needs but will instead be interested in more com- Bhatia, A. 2013 The Business of Travel Agency and Tour
Operations Management. New Delhi: Sterling
plex products that online travel agencies cannot Publishers.
provide. Meyer, J., and C. Oster 1987 Deregulation and the Future
Despite the early prediction that travel agen- of Intercity Passenger Travel. Boston: MIT Press.
cies would be replaced by the online travel infor- Stevens, L. 1990 Guide to Starting and Operating a Suc-
cessful Travel Agency. Clifton Park: Cengage
mation systems, many are still doing well by Learning.
applying new business models and strategies. USTOA 2014 United States Tour Operators Association
Admittedly, the power of the internet is still www.ustoa.com (20 April).
being understood and its potential revealed. It is Zhou, Z. 2004 E-commerce and Information Technology
in Hospitality and Tourism. New York: Delmar.
hard to predict the future, but if history provides Zhou, Z., and L. Lin 2000 The Impact of the Internet on the
hints, some observations are in order. First, tech- Use of the Print Brochure. Proceedings of the CHRIE’s
nology will not totally replace human service, but Annual Conference, 19-22 July, New Orleans,
dependency on the latter will be reduced. Travel Louisiana.
agencies and tour operators will still have their
role(s) to play in providing special services that
technology alone cannot provide. Second, the
travel information distribution system will Travel literature
undergo continuous changes. Restructuring and
re-intermediation are inevitable. Travel agencies Maximiliano E. Korstanje
as a historical terminology might remain Department of Economics, University of Palermo,
unchanged, but their future roles can be different Buenos Aires, Argentina
from today. Only the fittest will survive. Third,
travel agencies must find their niches in customer
service – areas where human service is superior to Travel literature surfaced between the eighteenth
technology. and nineteenth centuries, with the intent of
Future research should focus on four areas: documenting the hopes, experiences, and feeling
one, the value of information provided by these of travelers while away from home. Today it
intermediaries since it is the most critical element ranges from guidebooks encouraging readers to
in attracting consumers to their services in the visit ▶ tourist places, to bestseller novels. Mary T
age of the internet; two, the value of human ser- Louis Pratt contends that ▶ travel writing resulted
vices provided by these intermediaries as it from the first studies of Carl Linneo to classify all
determines consumers’ willingness to pay for herbaceous species of the world in an encyclope-
such services; three, strategies and business dia. The needs of classifying imposed by the
models for maximizing such values; and four, European science wake up the desire to enlarge
how travel agencies and tour operators can the geographies in other continents. Travel litera-
use new information technology to enhance ture accompanied the presence of colonial powers
their services and create new customer service portraying the others and recreating imagined
models to appeal to the newer generations who landscapes (Pratt 2007). Originally employed by
will depend more and more on portable smart colonial governors to understand the customs,
devices. expectances, and tactics of resistance to expand
970 Trend
their control on aboriginal tribes, travel literature References

recovered the importance to “being there” to per-
form fieldworks of social scientists (Korstanje Gerlomini, N. 2004 “Introducción: Roma hasta la época de
César”. In Comentarios sobre la guerra en las Galias,
2012). Travels generate cross-cultural encounters,
Caesar, Julio Cayo [The Gallic Wars by Julius Caesar].
which determined the interests for others. The key Buenos Aires: Editorial Losada.
factor for triggering this genre was the curiosity Korstanje, M. 2012 Reconsidering Cultural Tourism: An
for other lands, brought by Enlightenment and Anthropologist’s Perspective. Journal of Heritage
Tourism 7(2):179-184.
Romanticism. Anthropologically speaking,
Mansfield, C. 2008 Traversing Paris. Saarbrucken: VDM
“travel writing” refers to an ongoing discovery Verlag.
of what is hidden (Mansfield 2008). Pratt, M. 2007 Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transcul-
In perspective, Voigt (2009) reconsiders the turation. New York: Routledge.
Voigt, L. 2009 Writing Captivity in the Early Modern
fact that these customs stemmed from an older
Atlantic: Circulations of Knowledge and Authority in
literature genre known as “captivity-writings” the Iberian and English Imperial Worlds. Durham: Uni-
more than four centuries before the conquest of versity of North Carolina Press.
America. To be exact, these narratives flourished
in the war against Muslims in ▶ Spain through
12th ADs. As a mediator between two contrasting
cultures, captives recorded their memories to
describe the aboriginal societies. Trend
The Latinist, Nicolas Gerlomini argues that
one of the oldest testimonies of travel literature Douglas C. Frechtling
was the “Gallic Wars,” authored by Caius Julius International Institute of Tourism Studies,
Caesar. Roman generals were accustomed to writ- The George Washington University,
ing down all their experiences, problems, and Washington DC, USA
obstacles during the battlefields in the form of
compiled text, testimonii. These chronicles were
served by other generals to trace a map of unciv- A trend is “a direction or sequence of events with
ilized lands (Gerlomini 2004). momentum and durability . . . trends reveal the
As noted, travel writing has been expanding shape of the future and can provide strategic direc-
worldwide in recent years, configuring a new tion” (Kotler and Keller 2012:74). It is distinct
genre not only in literature and science but also from a fad (“unpredictable, short-lived and
in tourism. The cultural industries in modern soci- without social, economic and political signifi-
eties are based on the chronicles of journeys. It is a cance” [Ibid.]), an event (e.g., the September
common belief that “travel literature” sets the 11 terrorist attacks in the ▶ United States in
pace to “travelogue,” resulting from the digital 2001), or an issue (a topic of discussion often
revolution. Because it provides a much deeper requiring a solution).
qualitative view to expand the understanding of A tourism trend is one that characterizes some
how landscapes are constructed in the mind, travel aspect of tourism ▶ activity, such as demand vol-
literature poses a fertile ground for ▶ future ume, visitor behavior, trip characteristics, or
tourism-related research. For example, organic supply attributes. It is assumed to represent con-
▶ destination images could be fruitfully studied ditions in the present extended to the future.
by using existent methodologies in combination Some forecasters suggest a quantitative concept
with travel writing. of trend for tourism variables, such as defined
by at least two periods of change in the same
See Also ▶ Aboriginal tourism, ▶ adventure direction, with turning points identifying when
tourism, ▶ colonialism, ▶ culture shock, such a trend changes direction (Witt and Witt
▶ history. 1995).
TRINET: Tourism research information network 971
Alternatively, forecasting models of visitor

behavior or impact may employ linear time TRINET: Tourism research
trend regression as a statistical technique to pre- information network
dict the size of such variables in the future. Here,
the forecast variable is only a function of the Pauline J. Sheldon
month or year in the future. Trends are quite School of Travel Industry Management,
important in tourism ▶ marketing, where they University of Hawai’i at Manoa, Honolulu, USA
are considered an instrumental component of the
macro-environment, the collection of factors
affecting success over which the marketer has Tourism research information network (TRINET)
negligible control. is an electronic bulletin board which connects the
To assist in analyzing the potential impact of a international tourism research and education com-
tourism trend on a marketing campaign, it is munity. Its purpose is to promote the exchange of
useful to describe a trend by its durability (how information and dialog relevant to tourism
long it is expected to last), significance (how research and to create a meeting ground for open
influential it is on marketing success), velocity debate on issues related to tourism research and
(its rate of change), and valence (whether its education. TRINET was founded in 1988 by Pau-
effects on marketing efforts are positive or nega- line Sheldon, University of Hawaii, and Jafar
tive). Some examples of tourism trends recently Jafari, University of Wisconsin-Stout, and is
identified include growth in overnight stays well established as the main tourism research
remains slower than arrivals in ▶ Europe and education information network (Sigala and
(Tourism Economics 2013: 4), rapid growth in Christou 2003; Williams et al. 1996).
Chinese ▶ outbound tourism (Ali et al. 2013: 1), ▶ TRINET runs on the Listserv platform and is
and increasing demand for authentic holiday des- a closed bulletin board. Those interested in
tinations and experiences (IPK International becoming TRINET members apply to the list
2012: 19). manager (trinet-l-request@lists.hawaii.edu).
Potential subscribers send their short
bio-sketches, including their key research and
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ forecasting, ▶ lifestyle, educational accomplishments and their areas of
▶ marketing, ▶ outbound tourism. interest, to the network administrator. TRINET
accepts applications from all tourism researchers
and educators; however, in the case of students,
only PhD students may apply. Once subscribed to
References this Listserv, all members can post messages to the
board on relevant topics, and other subscribers’
Ali, R., D. Schal, and S. Shankman 2013 13 Trends that postings will drop into each subscriber’s e-mail
Will Define Travel in 2013 http://skift.com/2013/01/
03/skift-report-13-global-trends-that-will-define-travel- box. Many find that the main benefit from T
in-2013/ (2 September). TRINET comes after a request has been posted,
IPK International 2012 ITB World Travel Trends Report. which often results in several responses.
Berlin: Messe Berlin Gmbh. Subscribers post announcements and topics for
Kotler, P., and K. Keller 2012 Marketing
Management (14th edition). Upper Saddle River: debate which promote communication in
Prentice-Hall. research, education, and scholarship. Valid mes-
Tourism Economics 2013 European Tourism in 2013: sages are those that fit the mission of TRINET and
Trends and Prospects (Q1/2013). Brussels: European those that would be of interest to general mem-
Travel Commission.
Witt, S., and C. Witt 1995 Forecasting Tourism Demand: bership. These include, but are not limited to,
A Review of Empirical Research. International Journal commentary and discussion on issues and topics
of Forecasting 11:447-475. in research and education; requests for
972 Trinidad and Tobago
information on research topics; announcements of 0 10 20 km 61°00' 60°30'

conferences and events; news about new books, 0 10 20 mi
Tobago
journal publications, and media; tables of contents
Scarborough
of journals; and announcements of new jobs and
Caribbean
positions in the field. Commercial messages are Sea
11°00' 11°00'
not permitted. There is no charge to join TRINET
as the School of Travel Industry Management,
University of Hawaii, and other donors have pro- PORT OF
uth s
VEN. El Cerro
Mo gon
s
del Aripo
SPAIN
a
Dr
vided the necessary resources. Arima
In 2013, there were approximately 2,500 sub- Chaguanas Sangre

10°30' Grande NORTH 10°30'
scribers spanning 60 countries. Though the major- Gulf of Paria Point Lisas
ATLANTIC
ity of subscribers are in academia, active Pointe-à-Pierre Trinidad
researchers in the government and private sectors Point
OCEAN
San Fernando
Fortin
are also represented. Most subscribers are in Pitch
Siparia
Lake
English-speaking countries. Se
rp 10°00'
Mo ent
In 2008, it was suggested that TRINET move uth s Columbus Channel
61°30' 61°00' 60°30'
to a social media platform. TRINET on Facebook VEN.
was started by Dimitrios Buhalis, but this format

Trinidad and Tobago, Figure 1 Map of Trinidad and
has not been very active. The classic TRINET is Tobago
still where the debates and information exchanges
occur to enrich the tourism research and education
dialog around the world. covering an area of 5,128 km2 (1,980 mi2). With a
population of 1.3 million, and an estimated GDP
See also ▶ Education, ▶ information technol- per capita of US$20,400 in 2012, it is one of the
ogy, ▶ network, ▶ scholarship, ▶ university. Caribbean’s most economically developed coun-
tries (Figure 1).
After economic decline in the 1980s, tourism
References was identified as a national growth industry. Inclu-
sive of the traditional sun, sea, and sand, Trinidad
Sigala, M., and E. Christou 2003 Enhancing and and Tobago is home to a multiethnic culture. This
Complementing the Instruction of Tourism and Hospitality
fusion is displayed in the food, language, heritage
Courses Through the Use of On-line Educational Tools.
Journal of Hospitality & Tourism Education 15: 6-15. sites, and festivals and is the foundation of many
Williams, P., P. Bascombe, N. Brenner, and D. Green 1996 attractions. These ethnic variations have contrib-
Using the Internet for Tourism Research: "Information uted to an array of festivals that have expanded
Highway" or "Dirt Road"? Journal of Travel Research
from festivals for specific religious/cultural groups
34:63-70.
to nationwide events. Trinidad’s core attractions
include cuisine, vibrant nightlife, and a rich biodi-
versity, supported by a mix of ▶ accommodation.
Trinidad and Tobago The islands are serviced by major airlines linking
the ▶ destination to the main source markets of
Acolla Cameron and Christa Laing North America and ▶ Europe. The ▶ United States
Department of Management Studies, University is the largest market, comprising 47 % of arrivals in
of the West Indies, St Augustine, Trinidad and 2009 (MOT 2010).
Tobago While the economy is dominated by petroleum
which contributed 40.2 % to GDP in 2012 (GoRTT
2013), tourism is important for its role in income
The Republic of Trinidad and Tobago is a twin- and employment generation. In 2012, tourism
island state located in the southern ▶ Caribbean, directly contributed 4.4 % to GDP and generated
Tunisia 973
38,000 jobs, 6.2 % of total employment (WTTC

2013). Steady growth in international arrivals was Tunisia
recorded from 2002 to 2005 contrasting with
steady decline from 2006 to 2009. An increase of Sue Bleasdale
3.4 % was observed in 2010. ▶ Domestic tourism Department of Marketing, Branding and Tourism,
has thrived with an annual average growth rate of Middlesex University, London, UK
15 % recorded from 2001 to 2008 via sea, com-
pared to 7 % by air (MOT 2010).
The Ministry of Tourism is responsible for Tunisian Republic is a small country
national policy formation, while the Tobago (163,610 km2) with a population of 10.8 million
House of Assembly, Division of Tourism and and a GDP of US$104 billion. Located in North
Transportation, oversees the affairs of tourism in Africa (Figure 1), it has a Mediterranean
Tobago. The Tourism Development Company coastline and a well-established sun and sand
Limited was established as the implementing tourism ▶ industry currently affected by the
arm for the ministry. Human resource develop- aftermath of the Arab Spring (Jasmine revolution)
ment for the industry is facilitated through associ- of 2011. A variety of tourism opportunities are
ate degrees at two community colleges and provided by its beaches, desert scenery,
undergraduate and postgraduate degrees at the Roman and Arabic heritage, and a climate suited
University of the West Indies. to year-round tourism. The country also has a
The government proposes Port-of-Spain as the well-educated population and good road
future ▶ business tourism capital of the Caribbean. infrastructure.
This waterfront development in Trinidad offers casi- While manufacturing dominates the economy
nos, hotels, and nightclubs, while Tobago is expected (18.9 % of GDP), tourism is important for
to take on an ▶ ecotourism trajectory. Greater employment and foreign exchange earnings con-
research is needed to maximize the benefits that can tributing 7.3 % to the GDP and providing 473,000
be derived from a flourishing tourism ▶ industry. jobs (WTTC 2014). Tourism began in the 1920s
Policymakers and practitioners alike must understand during the French colonial period, largely focused
the importance of information-driven product devel- on Hammamet and Sidi Bou Said as destinations
opment when exploring the viability of different for artists, intellectuals, and writers. In the 1960s,
niche markets. Research into competitiveness, prof- the country began to develop its ▶ mass tourism
itability, and sustainability will shape the ▶ future of market which remains the dominant element of
tourism in Trinidad and Tobago. the industry. Arrivals grew from 53,000 in 1962 to
6.9 million in 2009 and then fell to 4.6 million in
2011 following the Jasmine revolution. Arrivals
See also ▶ Business tourism, ▶ Caribbean, recovered significantly in 2013, recording 7.2
▶ ecotourism, ▶ ethnic tourism, ▶ festival and million. The country ranks 23rd out of 139 coun-
event. tries for tourism ▶ education and ▶ training T
(Blanke and Chiesa 2011). Tourism education is
provided by the state (▶ tour guides) and privately
References (Ecole hoteliere).
Tunisia is well placed for access to a range of
GoRTT 2013 Sustaining Growth, Securing Prosperity
Review of the Economy 2013. Port of Spain: Govern- markets: Western, Northern, and Eastern Europe,
ment of the Republic of Trinidad and Tobago. as well as the ▶ Middle East. Land borders have
MOT 2010 National Tourism Policy of Trinidad and enabled tourists from ▶ Algeria and ▶ Libya to
Tobago: October 2010. Port of Spain: Ministry of Tour- offset the effects of both external shocks (such as
ism Trinidad and Tobago.
WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact 2013: September 11) and internal events. Since 2011,
Trinidad and Tobago. London: World Travel and Tour- Tunisia has also benefitted from political instabil-
ism Council. ity in ▶ Egypt. Emerging markets in Eastern
974 Turkey
8 10 tourism remains stubbornly reliant on coasts as

Mediterranean Sea illustrated by large-scale developments at
La Galite
Bizerte Yasmine Hammamet (Hazbun 2008). The growth
Gulf of- Cap Bon of all-inclusive resorts also reinforces dependence
Tunis
Ariana La Goulette on ▶ package tourism.
Beja
TUNIS Competition from countries, such as ▶ Turkey
Nabeul and ▶ Croatia, has impacted on Tunisia. Since
El Kef
Golfe de 2001, this has exerted pressure on prices which,
36 Hammamet 36
together with political events, has created a weak
Sousse investment climate in the country. The recovery of
Mahdia
Jebel ech Tunisian tourism must address dated ▶ accommo-
Chambi
dation and poor service quality and identify new
Kasserine
products and markets. In addition, there is a need
Sfax to explore issues of gender and cultural integrity
Gafsa ÎLES DES
KERKENNAH
in tourism.
Skhira
Shatt al
Gharsah Gulf of
34 Tozeur Gabes Île de 34
Gabès Jerba
See also ▶ Desert tourism, ▶ mass tourism,
Zarzis ▶ package tourism, ▶ policy and policymaking,
Medenine ▶ resort development.
Tataouine
References
Blanke, J., and T. Chiesa (eds.) 2011 The Travel and

32 32 Tourism Competitiveness Report. Geneva: World Eco-
nomic Forum.
ALGERIA Hazbun, W. 2008 Beaches, Ruins and Resorts: The Politics
of Tourism in the Arab World. Minneapolis: University
of Minnesota Press.
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic
LIBYA Impact – Tunisia. London: World Travel and Tourism
Council.
0 40 80 km
30 8 0 40 80 mi
Turkey
Tunisia, Figure 1 Map of Tunisia
Gurhan Aktas
Europe, ▶ Russia, and the domestic market have Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey
also grown.
Tourism ▶ development has been directed by
strategic government policy. By the mid-1970s, Turkey, located at the crossroads of Europe and
the country was well established as a package Asia, covers an area of 785,347 km2 (303,224
▶ destination for tourists from West and North mi2) and has a GDP of US$786,293 billion and a
Europe. New infrastructure and accommodations population of 75.6 million (as of 2012 census).
enabled tourism to spread from Hammamet to the The official language is Turkish. It is composed of
Island of Djerba. Since the 1970s, Tunisia has Thrace in Europe and Anatolia in Asia and bor-
sought external finance to build tourism ▶ infra- ders the Black Sea in the north, the Aegean Sea in
structure (the new airport at Enfidha). However, the west, and the Mediterranean Sea in the south
Turkey 975
BULGARIA 30 36 0 50 100 150 km 42

42
Black Sea 0 50 100 150 mi
GEORGIA 42
AZER
THRACE Bosporus
GR. Eregli
Istanbul
Sea of Kocaeli Samsun
Marmara Sakarya Trabzon
ARMENIA
Dardanelles Bursa Mount
ANKARA Erzurum
Balikesir Eskisehir Sivas tes Ararat
hra
Eup
Lake AZER.
Aliaga A N ATO L I A Van
Manisa IRAN
Kayseri Elazig Van
Aegean Izmir
Malatya
Sea
Denizli Konya Batman
Kahramanmaras Diyarbakir Tigris
G R
Sanliurfa
Antalya Adana Ceyhan Gaziantep
E E
Mersin
C
36 Iskenderun 36
E
Eup
hrat I R AQ
es
Mediterranean Sea SYRIA
Ti
gr
30 42
is
CYP.
Turkey, Figure 1 Map of Turkey
(Figure 1). The country is a member of NATO, The country’s comparative economic and
OECD, and G20 (TUIK 2013a). In 2012, Turkey political stability during this decade, in contrast
attracted 35.7 million arrivals (the 6th most visited to the 1970s, helped to cement its position among
country), earning $25.6 million (the 12th highest the ▶ Mediterranean destinations (Goymen
tourism income earner) (UNWTO 2013). Out- 2000). Although the growth of tourism was
bound tourists totaled 5.1 million in 2012, an interrupted on a few occasions during the 1990s
increase of 13 % over 2010. Average ▶ expendi- and 2000s as a result of global and regional crises,
ture by outbound tourists was $1,240 per person including the Gulf War, the Izmit Earthquake, and
in 2012 (TUIK 2013b). the 9/11 attacks, the Turkish tourism ▶ industry
has continued to grow. It has attracted new mar-
kets, such as Eastern Europe, the Far East, and the
Development and organizational ▶ Middle East, in addition to its traditional Euro-
structure pean markets. Recently, the government has
emphasized the country’s rich cultural, heritage,
International ▶ tourist numbers have grown from and natural resources by hosting various interna-
590,800 in 1970 to over 35 million in 2012. In the tional events in several cities, including the Sum- T
1980s, the country entered an era of political, mer Universiade 2005 in Izmir, the Black Sea
social, and economic liberalization and encour- Games 2007 in Trabzon, the Winter Universiade
aged tourism ▶ investment with government sub- 2011 in Erzurum, and the Mediterranean Games
sidies in order to increase accommodation supply, 2013 in Mersin.
especially along its southern and western coast- The Ministry of Tourism was established in
lines. This resulted in many seaside towns 1963 to stimulate this industry and its contribution
(Bodrum, Marmaris, and Fethiye) emerging as to the gross national product and to create new job
holiday resorts, attracting ▶ mass tourism mainly opportunities (Goymen 2000). The Ministry has
from Western Europe. International arrivals been restructured by consecutive governments
increased by 93 % to 2.5 million between 1983 and was brought together with the Ministry of
and 1988. Culture to form the Ministry of Culture and
976 Turkey
Tourism in 2003. The Ministry’s long-term devel- Union of Professional Tourist Guides run short-
opment plan, extending from 2004 to 2023, term vocational programs.
expands its objectives to include ▶ development, Despite the fact that the well-developed coastal
improvement, and safeguarding of cultural resorts along the Mediterranean and Aegean Seas
and ▶ heritage tourism products, identification still account for the largest proportion of interna-
and development of new potential products, tional arrivals and tourism income, the rising her-
and promoting Turkey as a destination (MCT itage and cultural destinations, such as Istanbul
2004). and Cappadocia, are promising to enrich product
Nationwide sector associations with regional diversity and to ensure seasonal and regional
offices include the Association of Turkish Travel spread of tourism flows in the country. The fact
Agents established in 1972, the Turkish Hotel that most of the 11 world heritage sites and ten
Association established in 1995, the Turkish world intangible cultural heritage elements
Tourism Investors Association established in approved by the UNESCO are yet to be fully
1988, and the Tourism Development and Educa- developed, managed, and promoted as destina-
tion Foundation established in 1985. Regional tions or products further strengthens the argument
development agencies were established in 2006 that the country may benefit from a variety of
in 26 different regions and cities. Stakeholders in potential tourism offers attracting alternative mar-
Istanbul, Antalya, and Izmir have established kets in the future. While the country has improved
Convention and Visitor Bureaus to promote its competitiveness ranking in the fields of air
▶ MICE tourism. transportation and tourism ▶ infrastructure, the
areas where it lags behind its counterparts may
include ▶ safety and security, ground transporta-
Education, opportunities, challenges tion, sustainable use of environmental resources,
and information and communication technology
Intensive vocational programs began as early as infrastructure (Schwab 2013).
the 1950s. Today, a large number of public and
private universities offer undergraduate and grad- See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ cultural tourism,
uate programs in tourism. Two- and four-year- ▶ destination competitiveness, ▶ festival and
related higher education programs include gas- event, ▶ heritage.
tronomy and culinary arts, tourism and hotel man-
agement, professional guiding services in
tourism, tourism and transportation services,
▶ aviation and ground service management, References
▶ marine tourism, food and beverage manage-
ment, hospitality management, recreation man- Goymen, K. 2000 Tourism and Governance in Turkey.
agement, and civil aviation and cabin services Annals of Tourism Research 27:1025-1048.
(OSYM 2014). Several tourism and hospitality MCT 2004 Tourism Strategy of Turkey 2023. Ankara:
Ministry of Culture and Tourism.
management postgraduate programs are offered OSYM 2014 Yuksekogratim Programları ve Kontenjanlari
by ▶ universities. Kilavuzu (Manual of Higher Education Programs and
Recently, a number of specialized postgraduate Quotas). Ankara: Centre of University Entrance Eval-
programs in the fields of ▶ sustainable tourism uation, Selection and Placement.
Schwab, K. 2013 The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness
development, ▶ cultural tourism, and marine Report 2013: Reducing Barriers to Economic Growth
tourism have also emerged. In addition to such and Job Creation. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
programs, the Ministry of Education operates TUIK 2013a Turkey’s Statistical Yearbook 2012. Ankara:
tourism high schools, and various organizations Turkish Statistical Institute.
TUIK 2013b Tourism Statistics 2012. Ankara: Turkish
such as the Ministry of Culture and Tourism, the Statistical Institute.
Tourism Development and Education Foundation, UNWTO 2013 Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour-
the Association of Turkish Travel Agents, and the ism Organization.
Turkmenistan 977
Turkmenistan’s long and troubled history

Turkmenistan results from the numerous waves of invaders,
including Arabs who introduced Islam in the
Jonathan Edwards eighth century. Following the destruction brought
International Centre for Tourism and Hospitality about by Genghis Khan and Tamerlane in the
Research, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK thirteenth century, Turkmen society reverted to
one of tribal, horse-based pastoralist until its
incorporation into Tsarist Russia. The resulting
Turkmenistan emerged as an independent country cultural legacy has been recognized in ▶ world
in the late twentieth century. Located in Central heritage designation of Kunya Urgench, Merv,
Asia and bordered by the Caspian Sea, Kazakh- and Nissa (Kantarci 2007).
stan, Uzbekistan, Afghanistan, and Iran In the Soviet period, the type of tourism that
(Figure 1), it has a population of 5.5 million and occurred was intra-Soviet that sought to celebrate
an area of 469,930 km2 (181,441 mi2), with much the achievements of Soviet society, although
of its land comprising the Karakoram Desert. alongside this Turkmen sought to engage in
Turkmenistan, Figure 1 Map of Turkmenistan

978 Tuvalu
pilgrimage to sacred Islamic sites. Tourism after References

independence continues to be determined by the
prevailing politics of a regime propped up by the Edwards, J. 2010 Tourism in Turkmenistan. In Tourism
in the Muslim World, N. Scott and J. Jafari, eds.,
revenue from the country’s reserves of oil and
pp.121-137. Bingley: Emerald.
natural gas, which seeks to control many aspects Kantarci, K. 2007 The Image of Central Asian Countries:
of society and commerce including domestic and Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Uzebekistan and Turkmeni-
▶ international tourism. With limited rail net- stan. Tourism Analysis 12:307-318.
UNWTO 2013 Silk Road Programme http://silkroad.
work, few internal flights, and poor roads, move-
unwto.org/ (2 July).
ment within the country, both around and across
the Karakoram Desert, is challenging.
Government-owned and government-managed
hotels are largely concentrated in the capital
Tuvalu
(Ashgabat), where the majority of tourists stay.
A recent initiative is the opening of a Sofitel in
Bruce Richard Prideaux1 and Karen McNamara2
Ashgabat, the first international hotel chain for 1
School of Business and Law, Central Queensland
more than a decade. At the whim of the former
University, Cairns, QA, Australia
and current Presidents, millions of dollars have 2
School of Geography, Planning and
been invested in the Awaza touristic ▶ develop-
Environmental Management, University of
ment, on the northern shore of the Caspian Sea,
Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
which few Turkmen can afford to visit. Despite
this major ▶ investment, the contribution of tour-
ism to GDP is low.
Located in the South Pacific Ocean, Tuvalu has a
The limited inbound statistics relating to
landmass of 26 km2 (10 mi2) comprising five coral
2007–2014 indicate 8,000–10,000 annual
atolls with a maximum elevation of 5 m
arrivals, many of whom are business tourists
(Figure 1). The country is exposed to climate
related to the oil, gas, and textile industries.
change (Patel 2006) and storm surges associated
A few international leisure tourists are drawn to
visit cultural sites, particularly those along the
legendary Silk Road such as Merv (UNWTO Nanumea
178 180
2013). ▶ Domestic tourism focuses on visiting 6
Lolua
Kulia 6
Niutao
Islamic sites and seeking escape from high sum- Tonga
Nanumanga
mer temperatures in the foothills of the bordering
mountains and on the shores of the Caspian Sea.
Limited tourism ▶ education and ▶ training is Tanrake
Nui
Asau
provided by government agencies with some Vaitupu
input from aid agencies. It principally takes 8 Nukufetau 8
Savave
place in the capital and in one or two regional
centers (Edwards 2010). There is considerable FUNAFUTI
SOUTH
scope for ▶ future tourism research relating to PA C I F I C
Funafuti
the country’s rich cultural resources, its far less OCEAN

Fangaua
well-known natural resources (Kantarci 2007), Nukulaelae
and the vulnerability of development due to polit-
10 10
ical events.
0 50 100 km
Niulakita
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ development, 0 176 50 100 mi 178 180
▶ ideology, ▶ Middle East, ▶ pilgrimage

tourism. Tuvalu, Figure 1 Map of Tuvalu
Typology, tourist 979
with tropical cyclones. In 2013, Tuvalu had a See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ developing country,
population of almost 10,000 persons and a GDP ▶ ecotourism, ▶ island tourism, ▶ marine tourism.
of US$38.13 million (World Bank 2013). The
export of goods and services accounted for only References
12 % of GDP in 2011. The country’s main sources
of income include remittances from Tuvaluans Farbotko, C. 2010 The Global Warming Clock is Ticking
So See These Places While You Can: Voyeuristic Tour-
working offshore (principally as seafarers); aid;
ism and Model Environmental Citizens on Tuvalu’s
income from a trust established by the ▶ United Disappearing Islands. Singapore Journal of Tropical
Kingdom, ▶ New Zealand, and ▶ Australia in Geography 31:224-238.
1987; license fees for fishing; and the sale of Patel, S. 2006 Climate Science: A Sinking Feeling. Nature
440:734-736.
stamps. Tuvalu has adopted the Australian dollar
Prideaux, B., and K. McNamara 2013 Turning a Global
as its official currency. Crisis into a Tourism Opportunity: The Perspective
Access to the country is by air on twice weekly from Tuvalu. International Journal of Tourism
flights from ▶ Fiji using a 30-seat turboprop air- Research 15:583-594.
World Bank 2013 Tuvalu http://data.worldbank.org/coun
craft. The country’s airport is unsuitable for large
try/tuvalu (14 August 2014).
jet aircrafts, and internal ▶ travel among the
islands is limited to boat. Classified as a Small
Island Developing State, Tuvalu’s remoteness
and lack of ▶ investment in tourism-related Typology, tourist
▶ infrastructure led to it being described as a
“non-tourism destination” (Prideaux and McNa- Ganghua Chen
mara 2013). School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen
As is the case with other tropical islands, University, Guangzhou, China
Tuvalu has some potential to be developed as a
▶ destination. This is based on its tropical island
setting, palm-fringed beaches, an “off the beaten In general, typology is the study of types; it has been
track” ▶ location, unique island culture, and “last applied to studies in many fields. For example, a
chance tourism” due to climate change concerns typology in anthropology may refer to the division
(Farbotko 2010), plus the potential for high- of culture by races, and in archaeology a typology
quality water-based activities. Potential for can be a classification of artifacts according to their
water-based experiences include snorkelling, fish- characteristics. The grouping of individuals has a
ing, diving, swimming, and sailing. Infrastructure very long history and dates back to Hippocrates’
to support tourism is limited to a total bed capacity typology of people based on physical attributes in
of 75 and a few restaurants and snack bars. Of the the fifth century BC. The development of tourist
1,200 arrivals recorded in 2011, only 200 were typology has benefited from the increasing attention
estimated to be ▶ leisure tourists, the remainder paid to the categorization of consumers (market
being those visiting friends and relatives, business segmentation) within business contexts and, since T
people, and officials from aid organizations. the middle of the twentieth century, the growing
Tuvalu has limited funding for advertising; in concerns with the economic, environmental, and
2011, its tourism office had a budget of $650. sociocultural impacts of the rapid development of
While potentially able to offer the same type of ▶ mass tourism on host communities.
tropical marine experiences as other remote
islands such as the ▶ Maldives, there has been
almost no serious effort to develop a tourism Development
▶ industry in Tuvalu. This is largely a function
of the country’s remoteness, limited infrastruc- Erik Cohen (1972) is considered as the first tour-
ture, high internal costs, and skill shortages. ism scholar to have developed a ▶ tourist
980 Typology, tourist
typology from a sociological and conceptual per- park, wine, dance/event, casino/gambling, fish-
spective. He conceptualized a typology of inter- ing, backpacking, golf, and medical tourists.
national tourists based on their experiences, These different types have been successively
including the organized mass tourist, the individ- examined, generating a wide range of tourist
ual mass tourist, the explorer, and the drifter. typologies. For instance, the extant literature sug-
Plog’s (1974) typology was based on differences gests at least four motivation-based typologies for
in tourist personality traits (psychocentrics, near- the pleasure travel market: anomie and
psychocentrics, mid-centrics, near-allocentrics, ego-enhancement tourists; fuzzy tourists, recrea-
and allocentrics) and took a psychological and tion seekers, active tourists, escape seekers, and
market segmentation perspective. relax seekers; safety/comfort seekers, culture/his-
Since these milestone works of the 1970s, tory seekers, novelty/adventure seekers, and lux-
tourist typology has been remarkably developed. ury seekers; and sport seekers, novelty seekers,
First, in terms of criteria used in formulating and family/relaxation seekers (Kim and Ritchie
typologies, Decrop and Snelders (2005) identified 2012).
three aspects from the majority of tourist typology The reasons behind such an expansion in the
studies. The first aspect of criteria is what they call tourist typology literature are straightforward
segmentation criteria, including age, distance and obvious. With increasing market
traveled, family life cycle, travel benefits and competition, destinations would build upon their
activities, ▶ expenditure, and frequency of travel. ▶ competitive advantage by targeting some type
These were mostly employed in studies published (s) of tourists characterized by consumption
in the 1980s and 1990s. The second aspect is expectations and/or preferences in line with
sociopsychological variables, such as motiva- the destination’s strengths. In addition, under-
tions, ▶ roles, level of risk aversion, interests standing the specific behaviors of a certain
and opinions, expectations, sought experiences, type (or group) of tourists and their economic,
values, personality traits, lifestyles, and ▶ atti- environmental, and sociocultural impacts on the
tudes. There have always been tourist typologies local community will improve destination
developed on the basis of these variables since governance.
their introduction in the 1970s. In this regard, Third, in terms of ▶ methodology, recent stud-
motivation-based typology studies have grown ies of tourist typology have been dominated by the
in number (Chen and Xiao 2013; Kim and Ritchie quantitative approach, while early studies were
2012) since motivation is an important determi- mostly conceptual (Cohen 1972, 1979). Among
nant of travel and a critical driving force behind the quantitative investigations, the majority
behaviors. For example, Kim and Ritchie (2012) adopted questionnaire-based survey to collect
developed a motivation-based typology of golf data and most of them employed exploratory
tourists: golf-intensive golfers, multi-motivated ▶ factor analysis and/or ▶ cluster analysis includ-
golfers, and companion golfers. The third aspect ing hierarchical and partitioning approaches as
is decision-making variables, such as sequence of statistical analysis tools (Dolnicar 2002; Kim
decisions, decision styles, travel philosophies, and Ritchie 2012). Nevertheless, qualitative
information search strategies, and level of inquiries that use interviews and ▶ content
involvement. For instance, Decrop and Snelders analysis have been increasingly published
(2005) developed a typology of vacationers based recently (Decrop and Snelders 2005). Many
on decisionmaking variables (such as planning recent typology studies apply mixed methodology
and vacation timing, information search, stability (both qualitative and quantitative), through
of decisions, choice modes, and decision strate- which a small-scale ▶ qualitative research
gies/rules): habitual, rational, hedonic, opportu- (▶ content analysis and interviews) is performed
nistic, constrained, and adaptable vacationers. before conducting a large-scale questionnaire
Second, in terms of product types, tourists have survey (Chen and Xiao 2013; Kim and
been classified into such markets as pleasure, Ritchie 2012).
Typology, tourist 981
Future directions References
The following future directions on tourist typol- Chen, G., and H. Xiao 2013 Motivations of Repeat Visits:
A Longitudinal Study in Xiamen, China. Journal of
ogy studies are worth mentioning. First, most of
Travel and Tourism Marketing 30:350-364.
the existing typologies are market segmentation Cohen, E. 1972 Toward a Sociology of International Tour-
and business oriented. Tourist typologies based on ism. Social Research 39: 164-89.
nonutilitarian variables, such as personal growth Cohen, E. 1979 A Phenomenology of Tourist Experiences.
Sociology 13(2):179-201.
and memorable experience, should be further
Decrop, A., and D. Snelders 2005 A Grounded Typology
developed. of Vacation Decision-making. Tourism Management
Second, there have been limited method inno- 26:121-132.
vations in tourist typology studies. Some recent Dolnicar, S. 2002 A Review of Data-driven Market Seg-
mentation in Tourism. Journal of Travel and Tourism
studies proved that bagged clustering is a more
Marketing 12:1-22.
robust statistical tool that overcomes weaknesses Kim, J., and B. Ritchie 2012 Motivation-based Typology:
of traditional cluster analysis. This method could An Empirical Study of Golf Tourists. Journal of Hos-
be further utilized and developed. Finally, the pitality and Tourism Research 36:251-280.
Plog, S. 1974 Why Destination Areas Rise and Fall in
generalizability of existing tourist typologies
Popularity. Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administra-
should be evaluated cross-culturally, especially tion Quarterly14:55-58.
with those typologies that have been developed
in one single cultural context.
See also ▶ Behavior, ▶ experience, ▶ motiva-

tion, ▶ planning, ▶ segmentation.
T
U
Uganda punctuated with scenery and unique physical fea-

tures (Camerapix 1998).
Eddy K. Tukamushaba and Dan Musinguzi The significance of tourism to Uganda’s econ-
Stenden University Qatar, Doha, Qatar omy cannot be underestimated. In 2011, ▶ travel
and tourism contributed US$1,734 million to
GDP, making it the second largest industry after
The Republic of Uganda occupies 241,038 km2, agriculture. In 2012, the total ▶ tourist arrivals
of which 81.8 % is covered by land and 18.2 % by were 1,197,000 compared to 1,151,000 in 2011.
water. It has an estimated population of 36 million As a result, the tourism ▶ industry alone provided
with annual growth rate of 3.24 % (CIA 2014). direct and indirect employment to about 210,000
Uganda is bordered by the Republic of South and 240,000 people.
Sudan to the north, ▶ Kenya to the east, the Dem- Despite a small country by area, Uganda has
ocratic Republic of the Congo to the west, and the largest concentration of primate species in the
▶ Tanzania and ▶ Rwanda to the South. Today, world and possesses climatic conditions which
the country is a major African ▶ destination that allow the survival of biodiversity (Camerapix
has developed since the 1950s. It is divided into 1998). The growth of the industry has led to
four main administrative regions (central, west- increased tourism ▶ education and ▶ training.
ern, eastern, and northern) with the Western For example, different institutions such as
region having most of the attractions (Figure 1). Makerere University, Crested Crane Hotel and
The country’s “seven wonders” (key attrac- Tourism Training Institute, and Uganda Wildlife
tions) are Gorilla Gorilla beringei (the star attrac- Education Center and Training Institute offer dif-
tion), Kazinga Channel in Queen Elizabeth ferent programs to support skills development
National Park, Murchison Falls National Park, (Tukamushaba and Xiao 2012). Furthermore, the
the snow-capped peaks of the Rwenzori Moun- increase in tourism education has created oppor-
tains, Kibale Forest National Park, and Lake tunities for research based on public-private part-
Victoria – the source of the river Nile (Baluku nership arrangements.
2012). Mount Elgon is the last of the seven with Despite the lack of sustainable marketing, the
a caldera believed to be one of the world’s largest need for infrastructure development and brand
and still undisturbed by human activities. The identification, the government continues to invest
country is also known for an equatorial landscape considerable resources in developing tourism

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
984 Ukraine
Uganda, Figure 1 Map of Uganda
facilities to ensure accessibility (Kamuntu and Kamuntu, E., and A. Ndiaye 2012 Uganda Tourism Sector
Ndiaye 2012). Uganda has been recognized as a Situation Assessment Report. Kampala: Technical
Document of the World Bank.
promising destination by international organiza- Tukamushaba, E., and H. Xiao 2012 Hospitality and Tour-
tions for its unique tourism features. ism Education in Uganda: An Integrative Analysis of
Students’ Motivations and Industry Perceptions. Jour-
nal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism 12:332-357.
See also ▶ Education, ▶ mountain tourism,

▶ park tourism, ▶ sightseeing, ▶ wildlife
Ukraine
tourism.
Svitlana Iarmolenko1 and Oksana Tokarchuk2
1
Georgia Southern University, Statesboro, USA
2
School of Economics and Management, Free
References
University of Bolzano-Bozen, Bolzano, Italy
Baluku, G. 2012 Seven Wonders of Uganda www.bal
ukusguide.com/places/wonders-of-uganda/7-wonders-
of-uganda.html (29 December 2013). Ukraine, located in Eastern Europe at the cross-
Camerapix 1998 A Spectrum Guide to Uganda. New York: roads between ▶ Europe and Asia, borders
Interlink.
CIA 2014 The World Factbook. Central Intelligence ▶ Russia to the east; ▶ Belarus to the northwest;
Agency www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world- ▶ Poland, ▶ Slovakia, and ▶ Hungary to the
factbook/geos/ug.html (17 August). west; ▶ Romania and ▶ Moldova to the
Ukraine 985
20 BELARUS 30 40
Prypyats*
Chernihiv
POLAND Chornobyl’
Luts’k Sumy
50 C KYIV 50
A Zhytomyr
R
P L’viv Kharkiv
A
T
H
IA Poltava
SLOVAKIA N Cherkasy RUSSIA
Uzhhorod Dn Dn Luhans’k
Hora ies Kirovohrad iep Dnipropetrovs’k
Hoverta M Chernivtsi ter er Donets’k
Kryvyy Rih
O
HUNGARY Zaporizhzhya
U
N
MOL. Mariupol’
T
Mykolayiv
AI
Berdyans’k
NS
Odesa Kherson
Sea of
ROMANIA Azov
20
45 Izmayil Crimean Kerch 45
Reni Peninsula
SERBIA 0 100 200 km Simferopol’ Feodosiya
Black Sea Sevastopol’
0 100 200 mi 30 40
Yalta
Ukraine, Figure 1 Map of Ukraine
southwest; and Black and Azov Seas to the south domestic flows as locals often rent from private
(Figure 1). With a population of about 45.6 mil- owners not reported in national statistics. In 2012,
lion and a GDP of US$176.3 billion in 2012, the industry contributed $6 million (2 %) to
Ukraine spans 603,628 km2 (233,062 mi2). Ukraine’s GDP and employed about 595,600 indi-
Ukraine’s prominent tourism regions include viduals (2.9 % of the total workforce).
the Carpathian Mountains (mineral water and The tourism ▶ governance structure was
health, winter sports, heritage) and the south of completely reorganized in 2007–2011 in prepara-
the Crimean Peninsula (▶ beach tourism). Cities tion for the Euro-2012 championship. The former
such as Kyiv, Lviv, Sevastopol, Odessa, and Uzh- Ministry of Culture and Tourism approved the
gorod are its main heritage attractions. The Cher- reconstruction of four new soccer stadiums, four
nobyl nuclear reactor site is a popular ▶ dark host city airports, expansion of highways between
tourism ▶ destination. Poland and Ukraine, and over 50 new hotels.
During the Soviet times, tourism to non-Union of Interest in tourism ▶ education is unprece-
Soviet Socialist Republics nations was discouraged, dented. Over 100 universities offer Baccalaureate
and Ukraine was a popular destination for Soviet and Master degrees in tourism studies. Internation-
residents. The number of international arrivals ally recognized programs are located at Shev-
increased postindependence in 1990 (Maliugina chenko University of Kyiv and Tourism Institute
2006). When visa requirements were abolished in of Subcarpathian University. The Kharkiv National
2005 for the EU countries, the ▶ United States, University is developing a shared Master program
▶ Japan, and others, a 250 % increase in the number in tourism with the University of Lyon, ▶ France. U
of international ▶ tourist arrivals occurred. Events ▶ Future efforts of the State Tourism Adminis-
such as Eurovision Song Contest in 2005 and Euro- tration are focused on development and price regu-
2012 (cohosted with Poland) firmly established lation of infrastructure and the ▶ travel agent
Ukraine on the European tourism map. network, improved service quality for winter sports
The number of arrivals grew from 6.4 in 2000 (with a Carpathian region-wide Winter Olympics
to 24.6 million in 2012 (UNWTO 2012): Russia bid possible), cross-border tourism cooperation pro-
41 %, Moldova 22 %, and Belarus 14 %. Official grams such as the one with Romania (Sturza 2006),
statistics report 6.3 million domestic tourists; and promotion of the newly developed ▶ national
however, this number may underestimate tourism brand “Ukraine: It’s all about U.”
986 United Arab Emirates
See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ dark tourism, al-Khaimah, and Fujairah. The federation was
▶ Europe, ▶ heritage. established in 1971 with the Emirate of Ras
al-Khaimah joining in 1972. Located in the ▶ Middle
East, the country borders the Gulf of Oman and the
References Persian Gulf between ▶ Oman and ▶ Saudi Arabia
(Figure 1) and has a total area of 83,600 km2 (32,278
Maliugina, K. 2006 Inbound Tourism in Ukraine. Kyiv: mi2). The population in 2012 was about 9.2 million,
Kyiv Mohyla Academy Publishing.
with immigrants comprising more than 80 % of the
Sturza, A. 2006 Cross-border Cooperation and Neighbor-
hood Programs between Romania and Ukraine. population (World Bank 2013).
Eurolimes 2(93):1016-1317. The economy has traditionally been dependent
UNWTO, 2012, Tourism Highlights. Madrid: World Tour- on oil and natural gas but has more recently diver-
ism Organization.
sified into trade and tourism. In 2013, the country’s
GDP was US$382.7 billion (AED1,404.7 billion),
with the contribution of tourism marked at $32
United Arab Emirates billion (AED117.4 billion), which is 8.4 % of the
GDP (WTTC 2013). Strategically located between
Amitabh Upadhya1 and Mohammad Youssef2 the Far East and the West, the country is witnessing
1
Skyline University College, University City of growing ▶ aviation passenger traffic. In 2013, the
Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates Dubai International Airport recorded 66.4 million
2
Expert Tourism Affairs, National Council of passengers. Its two other international airports in
Tourism and Antiquities, Dubai, United Arab Abu Dhabi and Sharjah also serve major airlines.
Emirates Each Emirate maintains its own ▶ destination
marketing organization. Among them the major
players are Abu Dhabi Tourism and Culture
United Arab Emirates is a constitutional federation of Authority, Dubai Tourism and Commerce Mar-
seven Emirates (states): Abu Dhabi (capital city), keting, and Sharjah Commerce and Tourism
Dubai, Sharjah, Ajman, Umm al-Quwain, Ras Development Authority. The National Council
United Arab Emirates, Figure 1 Map of United Arab Emirates

United Kingdom 987
of Tourism and Antiquities was established at the

federal level in 2009 to represent and promote the United Kingdom
country at global events and ensure uniformity
and successful implementation of a cohesive John Fletcher1 and Yeganeh Morakabati2
▶ strategy to boost tourism. The federal United 1
Office of the Vice Chancellor, Bournemouth
Arab Emirates University, Zayed University, Uni- University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
2
versity of Sharjah, and Skyline University College Faculty of Management, Bournemouth
are accredited institutions offering tourism pro- University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK
grams. Academics from these ▶ universities are
actively engaged in tourism research without
much ▶ industry support, though there is a large The United Kingdom of Great Britain and North-
scope for commissioned research in areas of des- ern Ireland comprises England, Scotland, Wales,
tination management, products and services, and and Northern Island (Figure 1). It has a population
▶ tourist experiences. of 64 million and is the world’s sixth largest
Dubai has a number of iconic attractions and economy, with a GDP of US$2.6 trillion in
modern ▶ infrastructure, including Hotel Burj Al 2013. Great Britain (England, most of Scotland,
Arab and the world’s tallest building, Burj Khalifa. and Wales) is the largest island in ▶ Europe and
Dubai tourism vision envisages doubling arrivals to with a population of more than 61 million; it is the
20 million by 2020. ▶ Development of the industry world’s third most populated island. It presents a
is driven by a strong government in possession of varied package to a wide range of international
economic and political power pursuing a strategy of tourists based on its cosmopolitan cities (such as
intervention and ▶ expenditure aligned to the vision London and Edinburgh), its rich culture and her-
of future (Henderson 2006). Abu Dhabi, on the other itage (home of Shakespeare), and an attractive
hand, offers a metropolitan experience with clean countryside, together with a myriad of activities,
beaches and green attractions. Formula One Grand including shopping, surfing, and festivals (music
Prix at Yas Marina Circuit and the Guggenheim and and fashion). The British Museum has been the
Louvre museums (under construction) are recent most visited UK attraction since 2007 (BBC
projects. Sharjah takes pride in promoting cultural 2013).
and ▶ heritage tourism. The Sharjah Museums The country is considered the birthplace of
Department (2011) manages 16 museums within commercial ▶ travel agency and ▶ tour opera-
the city. These museums preserve a variety of rich tions, starting with Thomas Cook’s 12-mile
Arabic heritage that would otherwise be lost. ▶ rail ▶ excursion in 1841 and Thomas Bennett
(1814–1898) competing to be recognized as the
originators of the first formal tourism packages.
See also ▶ Destination marketing organization, Thomas Cook organized its first packaged ▶ hol-
▶ education, ▶ heritage, ▶ Middle East, iday to Palestine and ▶ Egypt in 1869. The Asso-
▶ museum. ciation of British Travel Agents and the
Association of Independent Tour Operators
References remain the main tour operator associations. U
Henderson, J. 2006 Tourism in Dubai: Overcoming Bar-

riers to Destination Development. International Journal
of Tourism Research 8:87-99. Significance of tourism
Sharjah Museums Department 2011 www.
sharjahmuseums.ae/Inner-Pages/Our-Museums.aspx Tourism ▶ statistics are derived from the Interna-
(31 December 2014). tional Passenger Survey, United Kingdom Tour-
World Bank 2013 http://databank.worldbank.org/data/
views/reports/metadataview.aspx (30 December 2014). ism Survey, Great Britain Day Visitor Survey, and
WTTC 2013 http://wttc-infographic.org/united-arab- the Northern Ireland Tourism Survey. The country
emirates (30 December 2014). is ranked eighth globally for arrivals and spending
988 United Kingdom
total employment). The country is placed 3rd out

of the top “nation brands” behind the ▶ United
States and ▶ Germany (Anholt Nation Brand
Index 2013). In 2012, 84 % of arrivals were by
air, with 60 % taking place between April and
September. Business tourists account for 24 % of
total visits and expenditure in 2012.
Tourism is the country’s fifth largest ▶ indus-
try, receiving $45 billion of international receipts,
and is forecasted to grow at 3.8 % per annum
(2014–2025), to increase to $428 billion. Most
international tourists originate from Europe (nine
of the top ten countries), with ▶ France and Ger-
many accounting for 22 % of all arrivals. The only
non-European country in the top 10 is the United
States (ranked third) with 2.8 million arrivals, or
9 % of the total. The United States ranks first in the
top 10 spending countries with a total expenditure
of $4.1 billion in 2012.
▶ Domestic tourism is greater than ▶ interna-
tional tourism by a ratio of almost 5 to 1. It
accounted for almost 80 % of total (domestic
plus international) ▶ tourist ▶ expenditure in
2012. The total bed capacity is 3.3 million people
and in 2012 the country recorded an average
occupancy rate of 66 % (Visit Britain 2014a).
Domestic and ▶ outbound tourism are influenced
by weather conditions. Adverse weather increases
outbound and reduces domestic tourism levels
(Falk 2014). Those going overseas are among
the top spenders in the world ($53 billion in
2012), driven by a strong currency, and the nation
is ranked fourth in the world’s top spending coun-
tries. Over 72 million passengers came through
Heathrow Airport in 2013, making it the busiest
United Kingdom, Figure 1 Map of the United Kingdom airport in Europe and third busiest globally.
(Source: http://mapsengland.blogspot.co.uk/) Heathrow handled 205 million inward and out-
ward passengers in 2013.
of international tourists (UNWTO 2014). The

tourism economy was directly and indirectly esti- Structure of tourism and opportunities
mated to be worth $211.4 billion (international
and domestic combined) in 2013 (Visit Britain The United Kingdom’s tourism is overseen by the
2014a) and responsible for 9 % of the GDP. Some Department of Culture, Media and Sport. Visit
40 % of total ▶ tourist spending takes place in Britain, the national tourism organization, is
London and the South East. Tourism has been the supported by Visit England, Visit Scotland, Visit
fastest growing industry for employment since Wales, and the Northern Island Tourist Board,
2010, supporting over 3.6 million jobs (9.6 % of together with organizations for London, the Isle
United States 989
of Man, Jersey, and Guernsey (Visit Britain Visit Britain 2012 Tourism Economics: International
2014b). These organizations are largely responsi- Demand for British Tourism: Alternative Outlooks
www.visitbritain.org/Images/VisitBritain%20TE%
ble for marketing and market intelligence. There is 20Scenarios%20v2_tcm29-35120.pdf (26 March
a range of other bodies, alliances, and ▶ destina- 2014).
tion organizations that are regional and/or local in Visit Britain 2014a Visitor Economy Facts – Updated
focus. To supply skilled and well-informed May 2014 www.visitbritain.org/insightsandstatistics/
visitoreconomyfacts/index.aspx (24 August).
employees to this industry, there are 122 higher Visit Britain 2014b Who does What in British Tourism?
education institutions offering tourism degrees www.visitbritain.org/britaintourismindustry/introbrita
attracting over 16,000 applications annually. instourism/mapoftourismorganisation/ (24 February).
Major opportunities for tourism are found in the
characteristics of the destination itself. The 2012
London Olympics provided a global showcase,
drawing the world’s attention to the heritage and United States
culture that is on offer. Of particular importance is
the growth of emerging markets such as ▶ China Ron Erdmann
where culture and heritage are attractions. This is Office of Travel and Tourism Industries, US
reinforced by such tourists having higher spending Department of Commerce, Washington DC, USA
levels than those from other countries. There is a
tension between tourists from non-European coun-
tries and the ease of access to the United Kingdom. The United States of America is the world’s fourth
The country has been reluctant to become part of largest country with an area of 3.79 million mi2
the Schengen Area Agreement. Therefore, tourists (8.8 million km2) consisting of 50 states, the Dis-
coming to Europe must obtain a separate visa to trict of Columbia, and five territories (Figure 1). It
enter this country. The imposition of the 1994 has a population of 319 million and the world’s
Air Passenger Duty has dampened demand from largest economy. Tourists are attracted by its geo-
▶ leisure tourists. The removal of this tax graphic grandeur, climate, cultural diversity, and
would reduce prices by 7.7 % and consequently well-developed infrastructure. The country is a
lead to a long-run increase in demand of 4.7 % leading international ▶ destination by tourism
(Visit Britain 2012). receipts or exports. Its proximity to ▶ Canada
and ▶ Mexico as well as its many attractions
make the United States the world’s second largest
See also ▶ Destination, ▶ cultural tourism, destination for international arrivals (UNWTO
▶ heritage, ▶ museum, ▶ destination branding. 2014).
Significance of tourism
References
The United States has a highly developed system
Anholt Nation Brand Index 2013 Latest Findings www.
of statistics, providing comprehensive national U
gfk.com/news-and-events/press-room/press-releases/
pages/nation-brand-index-2013-latest-findings.aspx coverage of tourism flows, commodities, eco-
(20 August 2014). nomic activities, and resulting benefits. The US
BBC 2013 British Museum is the Most Visited UK Attrac-
tion Again www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-
Tourism Statistical System provides data on
21739486 (24 February 2014). demand and supply, by tracking arrivals and
Falk, M. 2014 Impact of Weather Conditions on Tourism spending. It conducts a survey of international
Demand in the Peak Summer Season over the air travelers and is a specific component of an
Last 50 Years. Tourism Management Perspectives
9:24–35.
annual survey of service industries through the
UNWTO, 2014, Facts and Figures www.unwto.org/facts/ National Travel and Tourism Office (2013a, b).
menu.html (24 August). Other components include the Travel and Tourism
990 United States
United States, Figure 1 Map of the United States
Satellite Accounts, international air traffic data, 2012. These goods and services include pleasure,
and a forecast for international travel to the United business, student, medical, and temporary
States. workers’ expenditures on food, lodging, ▶ recre-
In 2013, the United States recorded 70 million ation, gifts, entertainment, local transportation,
arrivals, a record level of three million or 5 % and other items incidental to overseas travel.
increase over the previous year. Its top inbound Fares received by US carriers (and US vessel
markets continued to be Canada and Mexico. operators) from international passengers
Nonresident visits from Canada set a record with increased more than 6 % to $41.6 billion for the
23.3 million, up 3 %. Mexico was second with year. International tourists spent a record of $78.1
13.3 million, up 1 %. The United Kingdom, billion more than US tourists spent abroad. The
▶ Japan, and ▶ Brazil rounded out the top five United States has enjoyed a ▶ travel surplus every
origin countries. In the same year, domestic and year since 1989.
▶ inbound tourism together generated US$855
billion in direct and $1.469 trillion in direct and
indirect spending. Tourism employment Structure and operation
supported 5.37 million direct and 7.6 million indi-
rect jobs (Bureau of Economic Analysis 2013). The US federal government has numerous agen-
Some 61.9 million US tourists spent $137 billion cies that impact the industry. The Department of
visiting other countries in the same year. Commerce leads the tourism effort through the
After 4 years of appreciable growth, US tour- National Travel and Tourism Office, and the Tour-
ism export reached a new height in 2013. In fact, ism Policy Council functions to enhance coordi-
international tourists spent a record-breaking nation and cooperation among the many federal
$214.8 billion experiencing the United States in agencies involved in this industry. In 2012, Pres-
2013, an increase of $14.2 billion (7 %) over the ident Obama launched the national travel and
previous year. Travel receipts – purchases of tourism strategy for expanding travel to and
travel and tourism-related goods and services by within the United States (Department of Com-
international tourists – totaled $173.1 billion for merce 2012). Unlike most countries, the govern-
the year, an increase of 7 % when compared to ment does not market internationally. Instead, the
University 991
focus is to establish policy, legislation, and conjunction with the private sector, addresses the
research frameworks and practices that affect present and emerging issues important to tourism
tourism. The national government is even less planning and development.
involved in the ▶ domestic tourism market. In
this regard, the states, territories, cities, and the See also ▶ Domestic tourism, ▶ employment,
private sector perform the task of tourism market- ▶ export, ▶ international tourism.
ing and promotion.
There are numerous hospitality and tourism
programs at the undergraduate, master, and doc-
toral levels in the United States. Indeed some of References
these institutions are among the research and edu-
cation leaders worldwide. Programs are growing, Bureau of Economic Analysis 2013 Travel and Tourism
Spending. Travel and Tourism Satellite Accounts.
but face challenges of lack of funding and Washington DC: US Department of Commerce,
resources, lack of support for postgraduate pro- Bureau of Economic Analysis.
grams, recruitment of quality students, job place- Department of Commerce 2012 National Travel and Tour-
ment, and turnover of faculty (Fretchling and ism Strategy. Washington DC: US Department of
Commerce.
Hawkins 2011). Main associations related to tour- Fretchling, D., and D. Hawkins 2011 Masters Level Tour-
ism education and research are the Travel and ism Education in the United States. Presentation to
Tourism Research Association, the Council on International Academy for the Study of Tourism Con-
Hotel, Restaurant, and Institutional Education, ference (Taipei and Chiayi, Taiwan, 5-11 June).
National Travel and Tourism Office 2013a International
and the International Society of Travel and Tour- Travel to the United States. Washington DC: US
ism Educators. Department of Commerce, National Travel and Tour-
ism Office.
National Travel and Tourism Office 2013b International
Visitor Spending in the United States. Washington DC:
Opportunities and challenges US Department of Commerce, National Travel and
Tourism Office.
The decentralized industry offers both opportuni- UNWTO 2014 World Tourism Barometer. Madrid: World
ties and challenges for the US tourism industry. Tourism Organization.
The large federal deficit and budget cuts have put
strains on the agencies that impact the industry.
Infrastructure from highways to airports, to
national parks needs to be upgraded. Facilitation University
of legitimate travel to the country also poses chal-
lenges. While the country has made great strides David Airey1 and Cathy H. C. Hsu2
1
in reducing visa wait times, continued demand School of Hospitality and Tourism Management,
from many countries continues to stretch the lim- University of Surrey, Guildford, UK
2
ited available resources. Border wait times are School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
also increasing, and staffing issues at the major The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
ports of entry have caused an increasing wait time Hong Kong, China U
for tourists entering the country. The government
has already turned to technology and partnerships
to meet these challenges. There has been a tremendous growth in tourism
In addition, a private sector organization called higher education globally in the past 40 years
Brand USA is working to develop public/private (Airey and Tribe 2005). This is a reflection of
partnerships to further promote the country to the many factors. Prominent among them is the
international tourism market. Maintaining an edu- sheer growth in tourism worldwide. At the same
cated and skilled labor force is also a crucial issue. time, influenced in part by the perceived link
The US National Travel and Tourism Strategy, in between education and national competitiveness,
992 University
higher education has been massively expanded programs in ▶ Australia today are located in uni-
and new universities have been created. This has versities formed after the 1960s, with theirs
provided fertile territory in which tourism pro- launched in various forms starting in the 1980s
grams have been established, and they have (Pearce 2005). Some of the earliest programs in
become a popular choice for students to prepare Asia were established by the Hsing Wu College,
for their future careers. As the industry matured, Taiwan, in 1965, Shanghai Institute of Tourism in
the need for professionally trained managers 1979, and the predecessor of The Hong Kong
became more pressing. The traditional apprentice- Polytechnic University in 1979.
ship and vocational programs could no longer The precise routes of development have varied
fulfill the needs of the industry, and higher educa- from country to country. But common patterns
tional institutions, in recognition of this need, among them have been a broadening of the cur-
began to offer programs with curricula based on riculum from its original vocational focus and an
social science and management principles. extension of the research base from an initial
concentration of positivist, quantitative studies
into interpretivist qualitative work.
History
The earliest programs in this field started in Challenges

▶ Europe, with Lausanne Hotel School
(1893) being the first dedicated school for hospi- Tourism higher education faced, and continues to
tality education. This was not formally a univer- face, numerous challenges, including its relatively
sity, but it set an important pattern for the late start, (mis)perceived vocational nature, and
subsequent growth of higher vocational schools multidisciplinary characteristics. It takes time for
across Europe for hotel management and latterly any new discipline to find a foothold in the halls of
for tourism, many of which, including Lausanne, academia. When the wider academic community
acquired university status toward the end of the and the public lack proper understanding of the
twentieth century. Medlik (1965) identified some intellectual merit of a new field, it is doubly jeop-
early programs at the University of Rome in 1925, ardized in the development process. Due to its
at the University of Vienna in 1936, and at the multidisciplinary nature, tourism programs are
Universities of St. Gallen and Bern in Switzerland housed in various academic units, most often
in 1941. But it was not until the early 1970s that with business and management, sometimes in a
tourism began to appear more generally in the separate tourism unit, but also with human ecol-
repertoire of higher education, mostly in institu- ogy, health and sports, ▶ political science, geog-
tions that subsequently became universities. raphy, and anthropology, to name a few. While
Higher educational institutions in the ▶ United such diversity facilitates interdisciplinary inqui-
States began to offer hospitality and tourism pro- ries, it dissipates the ▶ identity of tourism as a
grams in the early 1920s, starting with the Cornell field of study and confuses the various stake-
University in 1922 and San Francisco City Col- holders as to what tourism ▶ education really is.
lege in 1935. Foodservice, tourism, and parks and As universities pay greater attention to rankings
recreation courses also began to appear in various and are held accountable to the various funding and
land grant institutions, such as the predecessors of regulatory bodies, tourism programs, like any
Iowa State University, Penn State University, and other, need to contribute to institutional goals.
the University of Massachusetts Amherst (1920s ▶ Performance in the areas of external research
and 1930s). grants, publication in high impact academic
Other parts of the world had a relatively late journals, program reputation among peers, and
start in this regard, with many countries having the learning environment are the main foci of tour-
their first university-level programs in the late ism academics and administrators. These pressures
1960s and 1970s. For example, almost all tourism have already led to some programs being closed.
Urban tourism 993
Development Hou, H. 2011 Policies and Strategies in Internationalizing

the Hospitality Education in Taiwan. International
Journal of Education 3(2):E17.
Changes in funding arrangements, with this Medlik, S. 1965 Higher Education and Research in West-
increasingly coming from students rather than ern Europe. London: University of Surrey.
from taxpayers, the marketization and privatiza- Pearce, P. 2005 Australian Tourism Education: The Quest
tion of higher education, and the proliferation of for Status. Journal of Teaching in Travel and Tourism
5:251-267.
higher education providers are today changing the
landscape. For example, there is now intense
competition for student recruitment, nationally
and internationally, and programs in many
parts of the world are now offered in private Urban tourism
institutions outside the formal university system.
As far as developments in Asia are concerned, two Mimi Li1 and Bihu Wu2
1
examples illustrate the scale of growth. School of Hotel and Tourism Management,
Taiwan with a small population of 23 million The Hong Kong Polytechnic University,
now has over 130 departments offering hotel- Hong Kong, China
2
and tourism-related programs (Hou 2011), while College of Urban and Environmental Sciences,
in ▶ China, there are approximately 1,100 Peking University, Beijing, China
tourism programs in ▶ universities (CNTA
2013). At the same time, many Western
universities have begun to offer programs in Urban areas are distinctive and complex places
Asia using different approaches. Some offer that are commonly characterized by four main
through satellite campuses of their own; others qualities: high densities of structures, people,
work with a local partner in various forms, rang- and functions; social and cultural heterogeneity;
ing from dual or joint degrees to franchise economic multifunctionalism; and a physical cen-
agreement. trality within regional and interurban networks
After 40 or so years of development, tourism is (Pearce 2001). Urban environment and its attri-
now provided in universities across the world. At butes are recognized as a leisure product, and
some locations, it has developed a reputation that consequently, “tourism has been a primary force
places tourism in a strong position, alongside in determining contemporary urban forms, as
other traditional disciplines. However, this is not facilities for tourists have increasingly become
always the case. The key challenge now is to interwoven with other structures” (Judd and
ensure that the provision is not just widespread Fainstein 1999: 262). Nowadays, tourism
but also of high quality. occupies a substantial amount of space within
urban destinations via tourist-historic urban
cores, museums of all kinds, urban waterfronts,
See also ▶ Education, ▶ multidisciplinarity, themeparks, and specialized precincts (Edwards
▶ training. et al. 2008). Due to the complexity of urban tour-
ism, there are no widely agreed-upon definitions, U
and the term is generally referred to as tourism in
towns and cities.
References Urban tourism was not recognized as a distinct
field until World War II when tourism started to
Airey, D., and J. Tribe 2005 An International Handbook of play important roles in the revitalization of down-
Tourism Education. Oxford: Elsevier. town areas and the surrounding neighborhoods in
CNTA 2013 March 25 National Tourism Education and
Training Statistics 2012. China National Tourism the ▶ United States and many European coun-
Administration www.cnta.gov.cn/html/2013-3/2013- tries. Cities have since become popular destina-
3-25-14-14-81891.html (28 December). tions, as well as gateways, nodes, staging posts,
994 Urban tourism
and sources of tourists. This form of tourism can Toward world tourism cities
be distinguished from others by a number of fea-
tures. In the urban context, it is just one of many Ashworth sparked an upsurge of interest in urban
economic activities, and it competes with a num- tourism by stating that “. . .the failure to consider
ber of other industries for resources. The ▶ devel- tourism as a specifically urban activity imposes a
opment of tourism is restricted more by cultural serious constraint that cannot fail to impede the
heritage and residential factors than by natural development of tourism as a subject of serious
environmental factors. More importantly, local study” (1989: 33). In his pioneering work,
residents (and commuters) are also significant Ashworth (1989) outlined four approaches to ana-
users of attractions and infrastructures in an lyzing urban tourism: facility, ▶ ecology, user,
urban area. and policy. A significant amount of research has
been published since Ashworth’s groundbreaking
work examining issues such as heritage conserva-
Urban tourists tion, urban planning and governance, inner city
and waterfront regeneration, urban tourism ▶ sus-
The polycentric, multifunctional, and culturally tainability, and urban ▶ tourist behavior. With the
diversified nature of urban areas, together with growing popularity of short-haul tourism on the
their business roles, attracts significant numbers backdrop of increasing disposable income and
of tourists for varied purposes other than vacation- paid vacation, the consumption and production
ing. For example, the large urban populations of urban tourism have also been extended to the
naturally attract ▶ visiting friends and relatives; suburban area. This has led to the formation of the
the accessibility and wide availability of accom- recreational belt around the metropolis (Wu and
modation and other support facilities in cities Cai 2006).
appeal to the business and MICE markets; well- Due to the complex nature of urban tourism,
educated and senior tourists appreciate the heri- the studies in this area are often confronted by a
tage and historical sites in cities; and young peo- series of paradoxes as identified by Ashworth and
ple are attracted by the excitement of the urban Page (2011) and have been criticized for its
environment, in addition to the entertainment, overreliance on an individual discipline, such as
nightlife, and sporting event opportunities geography, and the lack of coherent analysis that
(Edwards et al. 2008). A given city may play a transcends case study descriptions (Pearce 2001).
number of different roles: gateway, source market, Therefore, it is suggested to adopt an outward-
and ▶ destination. looking approach to understanding urban tourism
Unlike other types of destinations such as in macrosocial and economic settings in a global
resorts, tourists are drawn to metropolises by the stage by broadly engaging with literatures within
iconic image of city life and of tourism (Maitland the wider sociology and urban studies domain
and Newman 2009) or the totality of the urban (Ashworth and Page 2011). In response to this,
ambience. Thus, tourists’ demands are Maitland and Newman (2009) proposed the con-
multidimensional and multipurpose. Ashworth cept of “world tourism city” which is defined as
and Page (2011) posited that tourists in metropol- multifunctional and polycentric with the capacity
itan areas utilize facilities not solely constructed to draw tourists off the beaten track. The world
for tourism and are usually economically and tourism cities are relatively rich, culturally
physically invisible. Despite the difficulties in diverse, and enjoy large flows of visitors. The
depicting a clear image of urban tourists, their tourists, together with local residents and other
conduct in such destinations is characterized users of the city, may share in the creation of
by selectivity, rapidity, infrequency, and new tourism places (Maitland and Newman
capriciousness. 2009). This notion thus “promises to add some
Uruguay 995
coherence to the problem of urban tourism 58 56 0 50 100 km

0 50 100 mi
research” (Ashworth and Page 2011: 13). 30 Ri 30
y
ua
o
Cu
ug
ar
Ur
Artigas ei
BRAZIL
See also ▶ MICE, ▶ museum, ▶ shopping tour-
m
Rivera
ism, ▶ themepark, ▶ visiting friend and relative.
Salto
Tacuarembó
ARG.
ro
32 32
eg
Embasle N
Paysandú de Rincón o Melo
Ri
del Bonete
References Embalse
de Paso de
Fray Palmar Treinta y
Bentos
Ashworth, G. 1989 Urban Tourism: An Imbalance in Tres
Durazno
Attention. Progress in Tourism, Recreation and Hospi- Mercedes Laguna
Merin
tality Management 1:33-54. San
34 Florida Cerro 34
Ashworth, G., and S. Page 2011 Urban Tourism Research: José Catedral
Minas
Recent Progress and Current Paradoxes. Tourism Man- Colonia Las
Ri Rocha
od
agement 32:1-15. el
aP
Piedras Maldonado
lata
Edwards, D., T. Griffin, and B. Hayllar 2008 Urban Tour- SOUTH
MONTEVIDEO ATLANTIC
ism Research: Developing An Agenda. Annals of Tour- 58 56 54 OCEAN
Judd, D., and S. Fainstein 1999 The Tourist City. New
Haven: Yale University Press. Uruguay, Figure 1 Map of Uruguay
Maitland, R., and P. Newman 2009 World Tourism Cities:
Developing Tourism off the Beaten Track. London: The Rio de la Plata and Atlantic Ocean coast-
Routledge. line are the main attractions. This is due to the
Pearce, D. 2001 An Integrative Framework for Urban succession of beaches stretching eastwards from
Tourism Research. Annals of Tourism Research the center of Montevideo (the capital city) to the
28:926-946.
Wu, B., and L. Cai 2006 Spatial Modeling: Suburban border with ▶ Brazil (da Cunha et al. 2012; Díaz
Leisure in Shanghai. Annals of Tourism Research Pellicer 2004). The main ▶ tourist market is
33:179-198. ▶ Argentina; lately, a growing number of tourists
come from Brazil (Campodónico and da Cunha
2009). In recent decades, new products have been
developed in order to provide a more diverse,
Uruguay year-round tourism experience (spa in the north-
east coastal region, ▶ rural tourism throughout the
Rossana Campodónico1 and Regina Schl€uter2 country, ▶ cultural tourism primarily in Montevi-
1
Área de Estudios Turísticos – FHCE, deo and Colonia del Sacramento, and cruise in
Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Montevideo and Punta del Este). The principal
Uruguay destinations are Montevideo, Punta del Este, and
2
Universidad Nacional de Quilmes Bernal, the littoral thermal region (Salto and Paysandú).
Buenos Aires, Argentina There has been a significant increase in tourist
numbers (Brida et al. 2008). Between 2000 and
2011, the volume grew from 2.3 to 3.0 million U
The Oriental Republic of Uruguay is situated in arrivals (Ministry of Tourism 2012) and reached
eastern South America (Figure 1) and has an area 3.8 million one year later. About 46 % of tourists
of 176,215 km2 (68,037 mi2). With a population enter Uruguay by road, mostly by car. Traveling
of about 3.3 million, its economy relies primarily by boat is the second most popular mode (33 %),
on agricultural exports, but the service sector con- followed by air (21.2 %). Most highways are in
tinues to grow, with tourism representing 4.7 % of good conditions, and the country has one interna-
the GDP in 2011. tional and numerous domestic airports. Together,
996 Uzbekistan
tourism represents 23.4 % of total exportation of (447,400 km2 or 172,742 mi2) in the world and
goods, with a current value of US$9.34 billion. has a population of nearly 29 million (2012). It is a
This constituted 7.5 % of the economy in 2012 dry, landlocked country with a climate classified
and provided 10.4 % of direct employment as continental with hot summers and cool winters.
(151,000 jobs) in 2011. It is among the lower income-level countries, with
Since 1997, the University of the Republic offers a GDP per capita of US$1,717 (2012). After
studies in tourism at both technical and degree receiving its independence from the former Soviet
levels. The Professional Technical Education Coun- Union in 1991, Uzbekistan reorganized the state
cil offers specialized courses at the secondary level. structure, regulations, control, and ▶ infrastruc-
Recent governments have overseen the introduction ture of its tourism ▶ industry which led to increase
of the ▶ sustainable tourism plan 2009–2020 into in arrivals. Currently, the country has three major
the ▶ national tourism policy, along with collabo- products: heritage/cultural tourism located in
rative efforts of the Ministry of Tourism and Sport, Bukhara, Shakhrisabz, Itchan Kala, and Samar-
local government, and other bodies. kand, which are on the list of the UNESCO world
There is a fertile field for research on ▶ cultural ▶ heritage sites; thematic tourism, including a
tourism, associatives, tourism ▶ history, ▶ episte- variety of adventure and sports; and pilgrim/reli-
mology, and new product development. Notwith- gious tourism including places important to Islam,
standing, more research is needed especially on Christianity, and Buddhism. The country is visited
environmental issues related to ▶ rural tourism mostly by tourists from East Asia, the Pacific
and the degree of satisfaction of international ▶ region, and ▶ Europe; most are middle-aged
tourists during the summer ▶ holiday season. or older (UN 2013; UNDP 2007).
International ▶ tourist arrivals in Uzbekistan
See also ▶ Americas, ▶ beach tourism, ▶ devel- have been slowly increasing since the last decade
opment, ▶ rural tourism, ▶ spa tourism. and it rose to 975,000 from 302,000 in a decade
from 2000 to 2010. Depending on arrivals, visitor
References export has been gradually increasing as well and
reached from 6 million dollars in 2000 to 245 mil-
Brida, J., B. Lanzilotta, and W. Risso 2008 Turismo y lion dollars in 2010 (UN 2014). While there has
Crecimiento Económico: El Caso de Uruguay PASO-
been an increase in ▶ inbound tourism, the indus-
S. Revista de Turismo y Patrimonio Cultural 9:291-159.
Campodónico, R., and N. da Cunha 2009 Turismo, try has had a limited ▶ impact on the country’s
Desarrollo y Mercosur. Palma de Mallorca: UIB. economy. Tourism contributes to 3.0 % of the total
da Cunha, N., R.Campodónico, M. Maronna, N. Duffau, GDP and directly supports 111,000 jobs (0.8 % of
and G. Buere 2012 Visite Uruguay: Del Balneario al País
total employment). Tourism investments consti-
Turístico (1930-1955). Montevideo: Banda Oriental.
Díaz Pellicer, L. 2004 El Turismo Receptivo en Uruguay. tute 2.2 % of the total in 2013 and the country is
Montevideo: Unidad Multidisciplinaria FCS. expected to attract 944,000 arrivals in 2014
Ministry of Tourism 2012 Anuarios www.mintur.gub.uy (WTTC 2014).
(4 August).
The state-run company called Uzbektourism
was established in 1992 as an authorized state
body for coordinating the ▶ development and
Uzbekistan implementation of a unified tourism policy.
Uzbekistan is ranked 64th on its regulatory frame-
Kemal Kantarci work; 98th on business environment and infra-
Department of Tourism Management, Alanya structure; 101th on human, cultural, and natural
Faculty of Business, Akdeniz University, Kestel resources; and 130th on tourism ▶ infrastructure
Campus, Alanya, Antalya, Turkey pillars out of 130 countries (WEF 2008).
Despite the efforts undertaken by the govern-
The Republic of Uzbekistan, located in Central ments, Uzbekistan suffers from lack of qualified
Asia (Figure 1), is the 56th largest country tourism employee from entry level up to senior
Uzbekistan 997
55 60 65 70 75
Aral 45
Sea Lake
Balkhash
KAZAKHSTAN
KAZAKHSTAN
Sy
r Da
Sariqamish
Nukus Adelunga
Kué
rya
Toghi
Urganch
Aydar TASHKENT
KYRGYZSTAN
Namangan
Kul
Andijon Fergana
40 Valley 40
Jizzax Farg’ona
Navoiy
Buxoro
TURKMENISTAN Samarqand CHINA

Caspian Qarshi TAJIKISTAN
Sea
Am
u
Da
r
ya
0 50 100 km Termiz
55
IRAN 60 65 70
0 50 100 mi AFGHANISTAN PAK. 75
Uzbekistan, Figure 1 Map of Uzbekistan
management. There are only few colleges prepar- References

ing support staff for tourism industry such as
clerk, receptionist, cleaners, etc., and the quality UN 2013 World Population Prospects The 2012 Revision.
of courses is poor. In order to increase customer New York: United Nations.
UN 2014 Arrivals of Non Resident Tourists/Visitors. New
satisfaction and to meet international standards, it York: United Nations Statistics Division.
is of utmost importance to reform current tourism UNDP 2007 Policy Brief 2(9). Geneva: United Nations
▶ education policy and to train staff according to Development Program.
the needs of today’s challenging world (UNDP WEF 2008 The Travel and Tourism Competitiveness
Report. Geneva: World Economic Forum.
2007). Additionally, in order to be more compet- WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic
itive and efficient in ▶ marketing Uzbekistan as Impact – Uzbekistan. London: World Travel Tourism
an international ▶ destination, state authorities Council.
should also develop a masterplan with
stakeholders.
See also ▶ Destination competitiveness,

▶ development, ▶ image.
U
V
Vacation the emphasis is placed upon the travel component

of vacation (de Bloom 2012). Vacation is now
Xinran Y. Lehto1 and Ksenia A. Kirillova2 accepted as an important quality of life indicator
1
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, as people ▶ travel for the purposes of recuperation
Purdue University, West Lafayette, USA and ▶ recreation, physical, mental, and spiritual
2
School of Hotel and Tourism Management, self-improvement.
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, In tourism research, the concept has been
Hong Kong, China examined in conjunction with short-term out-
comes such as vacation satisfaction and longer-
term or enduring effects on the wellbeing.
The word “vacation,” derived from Latin vacare, Because restoration and vacation are inherently
means “to be unoccupied or at ▶ leisure.” In its interrelated, recent research has focused on the
core, the idea of vacation or ▶ holiday is grounded restorative properties of destinations (Lehto
in the separation of work and leisure. Thus, leisure 2013). This research developed a 30-item measure
studies and industrial and organizational psychol- of ▶ destination restorativeness, a tool that is use-
ogy were among the pioneering fields to examine ful for designing and delivering optimal vacation
this subject. experiences. Other studies have documented a
Having emerged about 2,000 years ago so-called vacation effect when tourists experience
(de Bloom 2012), the concept of vacation evolved an enhancement of physical wellbeing and an
with history. The transformation from agricultural uplift in family relational resources, and a fade-
to urban-industrial society, the growth of trans- out effect when these desirable outcomes vanish
portation network, the creation of middle class, after vacationers return to their routine environ-
and the increase in prosperity and free time were ments (Chen et al. 2013).
the key contributors to its development. Vacation Advances in understanding vacation made by
has evolved from being a mark of privilege for the tourism studies have received recent attention
upper class to a working class institution (Aron from industrial and organizational psychology,
1999). psychology of quality of life, leisure, and happi-
In a broad sense, vacation can be understood as ness studies. One such expansion is by Hartig
a cession from work. In leisure studies, the con- et al. (2013) who discuss vacation as a means to
cept entails time away from work or time for collective restoration and mental health. Given
oneself; in industrial and organizational psychol- that a Western view on work and respite currently
ogy, the focal point is on prolonged respite from dominates tourism research, cross-cultural per-
work, used to rest, recreate, or travel. In tourism, spectives will advance the scope of knowledge.
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
1000 Value
Additionally, original theories are needed to better The conceptualization of value as a “give-
understand the psychological processes behind versus-get” trade-off is grounded in Zeithaml’s
the vacation effects. seminal work, containing the most universally
accepted definition: “the overall assessment of
See also ▶ Holiday, ▶ recreation, ▶ satisfaction, the utility of a product based on the perceptions
▶ wellbeing. of what is received and what is given”(1988:14).
This approach has also led to a consistent interest,
for consumer value as benefits or positive utilities
References
versus sacrifices or costs, both monetary and
Aron, C. 1999 Working at Play: A History of Vacations in nonmonetary (Petrick 2002).
the United States. New York: Oxford University Press. Knowledge on customer value has been
Chen, Y., X. Lehto, and L. Cai 2013 Vacation and Well- divided into “intervariable” and “intravariable”
being: A Study of Chinese Tourists. Annals of Tourism approaches (Gallarza and Gil 2006). The latter
de Bloom, J. 2012 How do Vacations Affect Workers' corresponds to the multidimensional measures of
Health and Wellbeing? Oisterwijk, Denmark: value for tourism services (Petrick 2002), embrac-
Uitgeverij BOXPress. ing both cognitive and affective dimensions,
Hartig, T., R. Catalano, M. Ong, and S. Syme 2013 Vaca- including social or ethical aspects. The former
tion, Collective Restoration, and Mental Health in a
Population. Society and Mental Health 3(3):221-236. pertains to relationships between value and other
Lehto, X. 2013 Assessing the Perceived Restorative Qual- constructs (such as service quality, satisfaction,
ities of Vacation Destinations. Journal of Travel loyalty, and sometimes image) often reported in
Research 52:325-339. structural relationship models (Oh 1999). In fact,
the study of value in tourism emerged in 2000,
followed in the wake of the growing interest in
Value ▶ service quality in the 1980s and satisfaction in
1990s. Some scholars claim the exact relation-
Martina G. Gallarza ships among these constructs have remained
Department of Marketing, Universitat de unclear, while others provide precise evidence
València, Valencia, Spain on the “service quality-value-satisfaction-loyalty”
chain of effects (Gallarza et al. 2012).
The concept of value has influenced various
Value is a seminal topic in marketing. In a ▶ paradigm shifts in ▶ marketing thought and
consumer-behavior approach, value (often called tourism ▶ management. These include relation-
“perceived value”) refers to the possession and ship marketing in the 1990s, where the notion
consumption of products and services. In a market- can also be applied to other stakeholders different
ing-management approach (called “customer from customers, and the service-dominant logic in
value”), it is a way of achieving brand differenti- 2000s, which postulates a process of value
ation. Both concepts are key drivers of competi- cocreation, placing value at the core of the con-
tiveness for tourism organizations. temporary approach to serving customers. As new
Value can be understood as a give-versus-get value drivers, further ▶ knowledge in tourism will
notion (first works referred to as “value for come from the search of increased active customer
money”). In a broad sense, it is described in con- participation, and consumer-to-consumer interac-
sumption as a “hedonic” and “utilitarian” experi- tions, both online and off-line.
ence. In this way, emotions in evaluative
judgments are assessed as experiences, offering a
rich view widely applied in tourism contexts See also ▶ Experience, ▶ marketing, ▶ satisfac-
(Gallarza et al. 2012). tion, ▶ service quality.
Vanuatu 1001
References 168 170 172
Gallarza, M., and I. Gil 2006 Value Dimensions, Perceived SOLOMON ISLANDS 12
12
Value, Satisfaction and Loyalty: An Investigation of
University Students’ Travel Behavior. Tourism Man-
agement 27:437-452.
Gallarza, M., I. Gil-Saura, and M. Holbrook 2012 Cus- TORRES
ISLANDS
tomer Value in Tourism Services: Meaning and Role for
a Relationship Marketing Approach. In Strategic Mar- Vanua BANKS
keting in Tourism Services, R. Tsiotsou and Lava ISLANDS
R. Goldsmith, eds., pp.147-162. Bingley: Emerald. Santa Maria
Oh, H. 1999 Service Quality, Customer Satisfaction, and Espiritu SOUTH

Customer Value: A Holistic Perspective. International Santo
Journal of Hospitality Management 18:67-82. Tabwémasana
Maéwo PACIFIC
Petrick, J. 2002 Development of a Multidimensional Scale Luganville Aoba OCEAN
Pentecost
for Measuring the Perceived Value of a Service. Journal
16 16
of Leisure Research 34:119-134. Ambrym
Zeithaml, V. 1988 Consumer Perceptions of Price, Quality,
and Value: A Means-end Model and Synthesis of Evi- Malakula
SHEPHERD
dence. Journal of Marketing 52:2-22. Épi
ISLANDS
N
Éfaté Forari
EW
PORT-VIL A
Vanuatu
Erromango
H
E
Joseph M. Cheer
B
Aniwa
R
Futuna
Faculty of Arts, Monash University, Clayton,
ID
Coral E
S Tanna
VIC, Australia 20
Sea 20
Anatom
The Republic of Vanuatu is comprised of around

80 islands of varying sizes, located around New
Caledonia
1,750 km from ▶ Australia’s east coast (FRANCE)
(Figure 1). Vanuatu became a joint condominium Matthew
of ▶ France and Britain in 1906 and gained polit- Hunter
Islands claimed by
ical independence in 1980. In 2013, its population VANUATU and FRANCE
exceeded 260,000, with GDP per capita of around 0 50 100 km

0 50 100 mi 170 172
US$3,000 and with an enduring reliance on sub-
sistence agriculture.
Vanuatu, Figure 1 Map of Vanuatu
Between 1995 and 2012, international arrivals
increased by over 300 %. Tourism expansion has
been exceptional with arrivals by air increasing by and dominate the provision of development aid,
over 100 % and day tourists (including cruise trade, and investment to Vanuatu.
passengers) by around 400 %. Biggest source Since 2005, budget ▶ airline Pacific Blue has
V
markets are Australia and ▶ New Zealand, mak- operated services to Vanuatu and has been a cata-
ing up around 75 % of arrivals (Cheer and Peel lyst for increased arrivals (Cheer 2010). The dis-
2011). The reasons for this dominance are many, tribution of tourists reveals a stark propensity for
including geography, proximity, and strong his- the majority to spend their holidays in and around
torical and sociopolitical links. These two coun- Port Vila. This is shaped by the intensification of
tries are the key metropolitan centers in the region tourism ▶ infrastructure in Port Vila with
1002 Venezuela
▶ holiday packages typically structured around

six to seven night resort stays. Venezuela
The growth in ▶ cruise tourism has been phe-
nomenal with 51,995 cruise tourists in 2003, Rafael Rodríguez Acevedo
growing to about 218,000 in 2012. Excluding Department of Technology Services, Universidad
cruise tourists, the majority visits Vanuatu for Simón Bolívar, Camurí Grande, Vargas,
holidays and ▶ leisure. While this has not Venezuela
matched the former over the last decade, growth
has been strong with almost 39,000 holiday-
makers in 2003, growing to 88,000 in 2012. Venezuela (916,445 km2, 353,841 mi2) is located
Dispersing tourists beyond Port Vila to the above the equator in the northern part of the South
outer islands is hampered by high costs of domes- American subcontinent (Figure 1). It has a tropical
tic airfares and limited services. Training for the climate with two distinct rainy and dry seasons. Its
industry is provided by the Vanuatu Institute of geographic regions are Venezuelan Andes in the
Technology and the Australian-Pacific Technical northwest, the southern Caribbean coast and island,
College. A key feature of Vanuatu’s products is its and the central plains. Lake Maracaibo in the north-
focus on ▶ cultural tourism. However, the mone- west is the largest in Latin America, while Angel
tization of culture in stanchly traditional commu- Falls located in the southeast is a UNESCO world
nities is at odds with traditionalists (Cheer natural heritage site and the world’s highest waterfall.
et al. 2013). Venezuela is an important oil-producing country.
According to WTTC (2014), the direct contri- Venezuela contains 9 % of the world’s flora and
bution of tourism to GDP in Vanuatu in 2013 is fauna species (VITALIS 2013). The national
23.3 % with a total contribution to GDP of 64.8 %. parks and protected areas represent 21.7 % of the
In the same period, tourism made a direct contri- total area of the country, with unique ecosystems
bution of 18.2 % to total ▶ employment with a total distributed in the Andes, flatlands, and Caribbean
contribution to employment of 55.4 %. Further and Amazonian savannas (INPARQUES 2013).
opportunities for tourism research in Vanuatu lie Venezuela was discovered by Christopher Colum-
in the monitoring and ▶ evaluation of tourism bus during his third voyage. The indigenous
▶ development, assessment of cultural and ▶ her-
itage landscapes, examination of the links between
tourism and development, and substantiating the
medium- and long-term impacts of tourism.
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ island tourism.
References
Cheer, J. 2010 Kicking Goals or Offside: Is Tourism Devel-

opment in the Pacific Helping Progress towards the
MDGs? Pacific Economic Bulletin 25:151-161.
Cheer, J., and V. Peel 2011 The Tourism-Foreign Aid
Nexus in Vanuatu: Future Directions. Tourism Plan-
ning and Development 8:253-264.
Cheer, J., K. Reeves, and J. Laing 2013 Tourism and
Traditional Culture: Land Diving in Vanuatu. Annals
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact - Van-
uatu 2014. London: World Travel and Tourism
Council. Venezuela, Figure 1 Map of Venezuela
Vietnam 1003
people at that time were farmers, gatherers, and

fishermen originating from Arawak, Caribe, and Vietnam
Timoto–Cuica families. During the Spanish colo-
nial period, slaves from ▶ Africa were introduced. V. Dao Truong
Today, Venezuela has a legacy of multiethnic and National Economics University, Hanoi, Vietnam
exotic folk music, dances, crafts, cuisine, and
artistic events, as well as a rich variety of civilian,
military, and religious buildings from different The Socialist Republic of Vietnam is located in
historical periods. Its major tourism products the easternmost part of Southeast Asia and covers
include natural and ▶ rural tourism, bird an area of 331,210 km2 (127,881 mi2). It is bor-
watching, scientific tours, and ▶ ecotourism. In dered with ▶ China, ▶ Laos, ▶ Cambodia,
2012, 1.08 million international arrivals were ▶ Thailand, and the South China Sea (Figure 1).
recorded, with ▶ tourist expenditure of about With a population of 90.3 million (2012), Vietnam
US$ 1.6 billion in this country (MINTUR 2013). is the world’s 13th most populous country. In
Governance of the industry is led by the Min- 2012, its GDP reached $138 billion, with a GDP
istry of Tourism, which provides coordination per capita of $1,527 (IMF 2013). Vietnam’s econ-
across municipalities, states, and regions. The omy is primarily based on agriculture, although
Ministry operates under powers provided by the substantial industrialization and modernization
tourism ▶ law and associated regulations. The have begun. Administratively, Vietnam consists
tourism plan provides guidance for the political of 58 provinces and five municipalities.
and social scope of tourism, ▶ marketing, ▶ man- The development of Vietnam’s tourism can be
agement of private companies, land use planning, divided into three periods. Before 1975, tourism
and ▶ sustainable tourism. was primarily used for political purposes.
To address current and future requirements of Between 1976 and 1990, there was increasing
the industry, 34 public and private universities recognition of its economic contribution. Since
offer ▶ education and technical training programs 1991, tourism has been considered an important
in tourism, hotel management, ▶ recreation, and economic development mechanism and a means
ecotourism. Tourism research has been under- of poverty alleviation (Truong 2013). Its tradi-
taken on various fundamental and specialized tional cultures, historical relics, scenic landscapes,
topics and is an academic requirement for univer- and political stability have contributed to
sity professors who conduct research projects Vietnam’s growing popularity as an international
with national and international funding. Findings ▶ destination. Between 2005 and 2011, foreign
of their research are published and disseminated tourists increased from 3.4 to 6 million, while
in referee and indexed scientific journals, in addi- domestic tourists grew from 16 to 30 million
tion to presentations and communications through (VNAT 2011, 2013). Total tourism receipts
conferences, forums, and technical events. increased from $828 million in 2000 to $6 billion
in 2011. In the same year, tourism contributed
See also ▶ Americas, ▶ ecology, ▶ nature tour- over 6 % to GDP and created employment for
ism, ▶ park tourism, ▶ protected area tourism. about 1.4 million people (VNAT 2011, 2013).
The government is actively involved in tour-
V
References ism, playing the roles of operators, entrepreneurs,
regulators, planners, promoters, coordinators, and
INPARQUES 2013 Inventory of Areas under Special educators (Truong 2013). Established in 1978, the
Arrangements for Venezuela. Caracas: National Park Vietnam National Administration of Tourism is
Institute. part of the Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tour-
MINTUR 2013 Tourism Statistics of Venezuela: Report
2013. Caracas: Ministry of Tourism.
ism and the primary agency responsible for state
VITALIS 2013 Report on Biodiversity in Venezuela. Cara- management. The Institute for Tourism Develop-
cas: Vitalis. ment Research was established in 1993. In 1999,
1004 Vietnam
Vietnam, Figure 1 Map of Vietnam
the tourism ordinance was issued, replaced in educational, sports, and ▶ medical tourism.
2005 by the ▶ law on tourism. Vietnam’s first Among international markets, Asian countries
masterplan for the 1995–2010 period was released are a top priority (VNAT 2013). Tourism is taught
in 1994. The masterplan and the national strategy in over 40 universities and colleges and 30 voca-
up to 2020 have a strong focus on ▶ MICE, urban, tional schools.
Village tourism 1005
Future development measures include diversi- countryside, villages regularly serve as indepen-
fying tourism products and services, facilitating dent attractions and destinations. Village tourism
easier access and movement of tourists, and ensur- provides people with the opportunity to experi-
ing skilled tourism workers. Topics of research ence another way of life and to discover some-
interests include the impacts of tourism on poor thing of the regional character of a country.
people, sustainability and productivity, as well as The village is an important social space for
the development and ▶ marketing of new tourism tourists, an interface between host and guest
products and services. populations. McCannell (1973) draws on
Goffman’s (1959) structural division of social
See also ▶ MICE, ▶ pro-poor tourism, ▶ sport establishments into front and back regions, in
tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism. tourists’ quest for authenticity and search for
spaces perceived as untouched. Allerton (2003)
utilizes tourists’ discovery of a village in the con-
References text of exploration beyond the boundaries of
developed sites, experiencing the life of the host
IMF 2013 World Economic Outlook: Vietnam. Interna- society as lived, in contrast to their life at home.
tional Monetary Fund www.imf.org (11 August).
Village tourism has an extensive history in the
Truong, V. 2013 Tourism Policy Development in Vietnam:
A Pro-poor Perspective. Journal of Policy Research in ▶ United Kingdom. Early twentieth century
Tourism, Leisure and Events 5:28-45. guidebooks, typically Muirhead’s (1939) The
VNAT 2011 Tourism Statistics. Vietnam National Admin- Blue Guide, England, describe the village as a
istration of Tourism www.vietnamtourism.gov.vn
characteristically national institution and kernel
(10 September 2012).
VNAT 2013 Master Plan for Tourism Development to of English social development. Villages in the
2020 (Vision 2030). Vietnam National Administration southwest of England, for example, in the county
of Tourism www.vietnamtourism.gov.vn (20 July). of Devon, were regularly depicted in terms of their
rustic charm, vernacular architecture, and atmo-
sphere. Many village communities gain from an
enterprising local tourism economy. Leakages are
Village tourism reduced through the provision of tourism-derived
economic activities, ▶ accommodation, ▶ hospi-
Paul Cleave tality, ▶ leisure, and retail opportunities. The leg-
Business School, University of Exeter, acy of its former industrial and social history is
Exeter, UK important in the regeneration or perpetuation of a
bygone way of village life.
The appeal of restored and specially created
A village is frequently described as a settlement themed Appalachian villages in the ▶ United
whose inhabitants are traditionally involved in States is an example of an important stage in
primary industries, such as fishing, agriculture, diversification of the tourism ▶ industry over
and mining. Over time, changes in economy and time offering tourists staged authenticity and com-
society have resulted in many village communi- mercialized culture (Wilson 1991:204–205).
ties and their residents finding a new trade: Instances of rural nostalgia and history construct
V
tourism. an idealized past and reconstruct ideas about the
Village tourism is important in terms of a coun- way things were. Future research prospects indi-
try or region’s allure, providing a contrast to city cate the potential to discover more about indige-
and larger urban developments. The appeal of the nous cultures, lifestyles, and consumer experience
village is derived from a combination of physical, from the perspective of village tourism.
historical, and nostalgic attributes and the pros-
pect of encountering a community in microcosm. See also ▶ Agritourism, ▶ authenticity,
Although often linked to rural areas and ▶ heritage, ▶ nostalgia tourism, ▶ rural tourism.
1006 Virtual reality
References experiences which shape expectations in ways to

strengthen satisfaction levels. Virtual travel agen-
Allerton, C. 2003 Authentic Housing; Authentic Culture?: cies and tour operations are linked to virtual tours
Transforming a Village into a ‘Tourist Site’ in
that provide users with the opportunity to pur-
Manggarai, Eastern Indonesia. Indonesia and the
Malay World 31:119-128. chase their services and to participate in forums
Goffman, E. 1959 The Presentation of Self in Everyday where ▶ travel experiences, tips, and ratings are
Life. Garden City: Doubleday. shared (Guttentag 2010).
McCannell, D. 1973 Staged Authenticity: Arrangements of
For people with physical or time and money
Social Space in Tourist Settings. American Journal of
Sociology 79:589-603. constraints, virtual reality provides a surrogate
Muirhead, L. 1939 The Blue Guides, England. London: travel experience. It is also used as a conservation
Ernest Benn. tool to survey and archive threatened archaeolog-
Wilson, A. 1991 The Culture of Nature. Toronto: Between
ical, cultural, historical, or natural sites and envi-
The Lines.
ronments and regulate or decrease visitation by
offering a substitute experience. During the onsite
travel experience, augmented reality provides
additional information and navigation services
Virtual reality for the ▶ tourist. Reality filtering in the form of
landscape information, multiple viewpoints of the
William Cannon Hunter environment, and image recognition platforms is
Department of Convention Management, Kyung viewed through an adaptive display and collabo-
Hee University, Seoul, South Korea rative work among multiple mobile devices. This
travel technology increasingly uses dynamic
packaging in the form of GPS navigation and
Virtual reality is a form of information technology ubiquitous onsite contextual information to sup-
which enables users to navigate in computer- plement or replace the traditional ▶ tour guide.
simulated environments. They are immersed in When destination use virtual reality to present
an interactive three-dimensional digital represen- experiences in uniform and predictable ways that
tation of places or real-world scenarios. Various work to regulate user behavior, it raises concerns
activities or tasks can be engaged in for practical, regarding the ▶ authenticity of tourists’ percep-
educational, communicative, or entertainment tions. Distanced from the expectations of respon-
purposes. In tourism, virtual reality represents sibilities of the real world, some users may find
remote online ▶ destination experiences visually this illusory and question the authenticity of the
by providing users with frontal, panoramic, and experience (Heim 1993). Ultimately, the degree to
non-ordinary views augmented with maps, sound which tourists accept virtual reality depends on
effects, narration, and/or music. Augmented real- attitudes toward simulated experiences, mobile
ity superimposes sound, video, graphics, or GPS technology, and their place in reality.
onto features of the physical environment via Future research on virtual reality will focus on
mobile devices in real time. Context-aware appli- its full integration into the tourism sector as a
cations project commercial and historical infor- planning tool, a marketing device, and an educa-
mation and touristic narratives through the view tional medium. In addition, mediated social touch
seen in users’ handheld device. Virtual and aug- experiences using haptic feedback will amplify
mented realities both require the use of a computer virtual reality communications that currently rely
device and the internet. only on vision and hearing (Haans and IJsselsteijn
The virtual ▶ tour is used in eTourism for 2006).
destination ▶ image ▶ management on websites.
Tourism ▶ resources can be showcased, devel- See also ▶ Authenticity, ▶ eTourism, ▶ infor-
oped, and promoted as special products for poten- mation technology, ▶ simulation, ▶ smart
tial tourists. It provides virtual pretravel tourism.
Visa 1007
References with the effects of visa policies on ▶ international

tourism. The literature agrees on the negative
Guttentag, D. 2010 Virtual Reality: Applications and effects of visa restrictions on ▶ destination com-
Implications for Tourism. Tourism Management
petitiveness, which tend to discourage interna-
31:637-651.
Haans, A., and W. IJsselsteijn 2006 Mediated Social tional tourists, transport companies, and tourism
Touch: A Review of Current Research and Future businesses in general (Neumayer 2010).
Directions. Virtual Reality 9:149-159. While some studies analyze the local, national,
Heim, M. 1993 The Metaphysics of Virtual Reality.
or international ▶ impact of waiving or facilitating
New York: Oxford University Press.
visa (UNWTO 2013; White 2009), the tourism
industry is now a major contributor to the global
economy. This partly explains the gradual ▶ facili-
tation and liberalization of visa entry requirements
Visa in certain countries (O’Byrne 2001) and the inter-
national agreements that endorse the free movement
Alfredo Mena-Navarro and Rafael Cortés-Macías of people. This issue has been the subject of research
Faculty of Tourism, University of Malaga, from the financial point of view, stressing its bene-
Malaga, Spain fits for the ▶ development and economic growth of
the host countries and the tourism industry itself.
A legal and political approach to this subject has
Visa is an authorization issued by a state to the holder also been adopted, emphasizing the dilemma faced
of a passport or any other valid document accepted by countries, with splits of views either into facili-
for international border crossing. Before the twenti- tating or waiving visa policies to increase economic
eth century, an extended visa policy did not exist. It growth or reinforcing visa policies to increase secu-
was not until the interwar period that most of the rity and ▶ immigration control.
states implemented serious controls on their borders Although there are studies showing how visa
and adhered to international agreements to standard- requirements (or their absence) affect tourists’
ize the issuance of ▶ travel documents. demand and decisionmaking, it is important to
Visas fulfill several purposes, the most impor- highlight that limited academic research exists.
tant of which are state security and control of ▶ Future research should examine, from a social
▶ immigration. Countries exercise their sover- perspective, the influence that visa policies have
eignty to check and restrict the entry of foreign on tourists’ behavior and travel plans.
tourists to their territories by issuing visas, which
confirm that the purpose of arrival is legitimate. See also ▶ Destination competitiveness, ▶ facil-
The idea is “controlling the entry of potential itation, ▶ international tourism, ▶ safety and
troublesome persons is easier if done security.
pre-emptively rather than post-facto” (White
2009: 302). Visa requirements differ from country References
to country, especially in terms of costs, efforts,
required documentation, duration of the stay, and Neumayer, E. 2010 Visa Restrictions and Bilateral Travel.
entry conditions. Furthermore, differences exist The Professional Geographer 62:1-11.
O’Byrne, D. 2001 On Passports and Border Controls. V
depending on an applicant’s nationality.
The second half of the twentieth century
UNWTO 2013 Visa Facilitation: Stimulating Economic
brought in a remarkable expansion of the tourism Growth and Development through Tourism <http://
▶ industry worldwide. Visa requirements became dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/docpdf/
a critical factor that has greatly influenced and to visafacilitationrevisedweb.pdf> (23 August).
White, B. 2009 Visa-Free Travel: An Indicator of Global
date continues to influence the tourism industry. Integration. In Euroasian Integration Yearbook 2009,
Despite its relevance, academic research on this Evgeny Vinokurov, ed., pp. 290-309. Almaty: Eurasian
issue is scarce. Generally, present studies deal Development Bank.
1008 Visiting friend and relative
and relatives are geographically dispersed due to

Visiting friend and relative the mobilities of modern life.
While most of the VFR literature concerns the
Natan Uriely demand factor, several studies focus on the ▶ sup-
Department of Hotel and Tourism Management, ply side of the ▶ phenomenon – hosting friends
Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Beersheba, and relatives. This highlights the instrumental
Israel value of local residents from a ▶ marketing per-
spective, mainly on the important role they ▶ play
in local tourism and the added value they provide to
The visiting friends and relatives (VFR) tourism is the VFR segment. Hardly have any of these
defined as “a form of travel that is about being supply-side studies been conducted from the per-
co-present with significant ‘faces’, being their spective of the hosts’ ▶ wellbeing and their per-
guests, receiving their hospitality and perhaps sonal or subjective experiences. A microlevel
enjoying their knowledge of local culture” analysis of such experiences might provide addi-
(Larsen et al. 2007:247). VFR tourists were tional insight into the ▶ knowledge on the ▶ qual-
largely ignored in research until the mid-1990s, ity of life of ▶ destination communities as well as
mainly due to the common perception that they to the literature on guest-host relationships.
made little contribution to the commercial tourism
and hospitality industry. Nevertheless, the eco-
nomic importance of this segment has been See also ▶ Ethnic tourism, ▶ diaspora, ▶ host
clearly demonstrated in the past two decades by and guest, ▶ immigration, ▶ network.
numerous studies that focus on consumer motiva-
tions, activities, and expenditures (Shani 2013).
These contributions suggest that VFR is a legiti- References
mate segment with significant relevance to desti-
King, B. 1994 What is Ethnic Tourism? An Australian
nations as well as to the ▶ hospitality sector. Perspective. Tourism Management 15:173-176.
The growth and proliferation of VFR tourism Larsen, J., J. Urry, and K. Axhausen 2007 Networks and
has also received the ▶ attention of geographers Tourism: Mobile Social Life. Annals of Tourism
and sociologists who are tuned to the decreasing Research 34:244-262.
Shani, A. 2013 The VFR Experience: “Home” away from
distinctiveness of contemporary tourism from Home? Current Issues in Tourism 16:1-15.
other forms of ▶ mobility and from the domain Uriely, N. 2010 “Home” and “away” in VFR Tourism.
of everyday life (Uriely 2010). Specifically, stud- Annals of Tourism Research 37:857-860.
ies within this perspective often refer to contem-
porary hybrid type of travel, such as volunteer
tourism, medical tourism, business trips, and
VFR, as illustrations of the blurring boundaries Visitor
among “touristic” pursuits and other reasons for
travel. In this context, VFR has been found to Stephen L. J. Smith
have close association with ▶ immigration pat- School of Hospitality, Food, and Tourism
terns which generate two-way movements of Management, University of Guelph, Guelph, ON,
“ethnic” tourism: emigrants who return to their Canada
homeland out of a sense of belonging and identi-
fication with its way of life (a form of ▶ diaspora
tourism) and their friends and families who travel Visitor is a core concept in tourism statistics and
to visit them in their home country (King 1994). economics, encompassing both tourists and same-
Thus, VFR travel can be seen as a means for day visitors (also called excursionists). The term
strengthening social networks and maintaining refers to a person who has temporarily left his or
“social life at a distance,” in times where friends her usual environment to spend less than a year in
Visual methodology 1009
a ▶ destination. It connotes one who spends some estimating the economic magnitude of the tourism
time in the destination rather than simply passing industry. Tourism Satellite Accounts have been
through. Thus, a person stopping for a very short developed to deal with this challenge, although
period on a ▶ tour or is in-transit at an airport this tool has substantial data requirements that
would normally not be counted as a visitor. many destinations find difficult to meet. Tourism
The potential motivations of visitors are myr- researchers continue to search for methods for
iad, including, according to the ▶ UNWTO better estimating the number and expenditures of
(2007), pleasure travel, personal business (such visitors in destination.
as visiting family or friends), religious travel, Research on visitors addresses a wide range of
educational and research visits, or attending meet- topics. One of the important themes is visitor
ings or conferences. The UNWTO’s definition management of crowded, sensitive, or endangered
explicitly excludes certain motivations such as places (Shackley 1998). How attractions can com-
commuting to work, changing residences, municate with visitors and engage them in mean-
▶ travel by diplomats, and the movement of ingful experiences is another area of enquiry
refugees. (Moscardo 1999).
The UNWTO subdivides visitors into same-
day visitors (those who stay less than 1 day) and See also ▶ Economics, ▶ inbound tourism,
tourists (those who stay at least one night in a ▶ outbound tourism, ▶ statistics, ▶ Tourism Sat-
destination). Estimating the number of visitors to ellite Account.
a destination can be a challenge. Whereas
counting the number of visitors who clear formal
border-crossing points is conceptually simple,
References
most travel does not involve such checkpoints.
For example, domestic travel typically allows no Moscardo, G. 1999 Making Visitors Mindful. Champaign:
direct monitoring of the number of visitors to a Sagamore.
destination; travel across borders where formali- Shackley, M. 1998 Visitor Management. London:
Routledge.
ties are more relaxed (such as the borders of
UNWTO 2007 International Recommendations on Tour-
European Union countries) is also difficult ism Statistics: Provisional Draft, Revision 5. Madrid:
because of the lack of entry/exit formalities. Indi- World Tourism Organization.
rect methods such as tracking credit card pur-
chases, commercial ▶ accommodation records,
and household or visitor surveys are sometimes
used to estimate the number of visitors in a desti- Visual methodology
nation, but these may require access to
confidential data. William G. Feighery
Destinations often wish to estimate the eco- The Research Methods Laboratory, Neuchatel,
nomic contributions of visitor expenditures but Switzerland
tracking these presents another challenge. Not
only are the great majority of expenditures small
amounts made with cash and thus not easily There is a long-standing and diverse tradition of
V
tracked, visitors purchase goods and services using visual methods in social research. While
which are also consumed by residents. These visual research is methodologically and theoreti-
include (but are not limited to) fuel for cars, cally diverse, there is no single common heritage,
meals from restaurants, telecommunication ser- aim, or defining system of analysis. There are a
vices, food and beverages, and clothing and toi- number of important strands of influence in the
letries from local stores. The pattern of visitors development of visual methodologies. In addition
and non-visitors purchasing many of the same to the overarching contributions of Roland
items and services is a particular challenge for Barthes, Walter Benjamin, Michel Foucault, and
1010 Volcano tourism
Jacques Lacan, the fields of art history, semiotics, References

visual anthropology, and visual sociology have
been particularly influential. A number of distinct Burns, P., C. Palmer, and J. Lester, eds. 2010 Tourism and
Visual Culture, volume 1: Theories and Concepts.
methodological approaches have emerged, each
Oxfordshire: CABI.
of which share common assumptions about the Lubbren, N., and D. Crouch 2003 Visual Culture and
visual mode of meaning construction. These Tourism. New York: Berg.
approaches have been deployed to explore visual Meyer, R., M. Höllerer, D. Jancsary, and T. van Leeuwen
2013 The Visual Dimension in Organizing, Organiza-
artifacts as socially constructed manifestations of
tion, and Organization Research: Core Ideas, Current
culture through the “cultural memory” of Developments, and Promising Avenues. The Academy
preexisting images (the archaeological approach) of Management Annals 7:489-555.
or through the performative effects of visuals in Pink, S. 2012 Advances in Visual Methodology. London:
Sage.
situ (the practice approach).
Rakic, T., and D. Chambers 2012 An Introduction to Visual
Strategic approaches have focused on the Research Methods in Tourism. London: Routledge.
▶ impact of visuals as triggers for individual cog-
nitive processes. Dialogic approaches, such as
“photo elicitation,” incorporate visual artifacts
into the research encounter in order to get closer
to the lifeworlds of informants. Photo-essays, Volcano tourism
photo and video reportage, drawing, sketches, or
illustrations are potential applications of Patricia Erfurt-Cooper
documenting approaches (Meyer et al. 2013). James Cook University, Cairns, Australia
Significant contributions have been made to
the advancement of visual methodologies in tour-
ism through volumes on visual culture and repre- Volcano tourism involves the exploration and
sentation (Burns et al. 2010; Lubbren and Crouch study of active volcanic and geothermal land-
2003), as well as a burgeoning number of papers forms. It includes visits to dormant and extinct
reporting visual research designs. Critical analysis volcanic regions where remnants of activity
of the production and distribution of images, par- attract tourists with an interest in geological heri-
ticularly as a result of technological advances, has tage (Erfurt-Cooper 2010). As a concept, it is
also contributed to this field of scholarship. recognized as nature-based tourism using sustain-
Further, of note in the evolution of visual meth- able geo-resources as attractions. Active and dor-
odologies in tourism research is recent work ana- mant volcanic regions are used worldwide as
lyzing promotional films of national tourism nature-based destinations and include protected
organizations. The first volume specifically dedi- zones designated as national parks, world heritage
cated to providing An Introduction to Visual areas, and geoparks. These geosites play a signif-
Research Methods in Tourism (Rakic and Cham- icant role in volcano tourism, offering interpreta-
bers 2012) is further evidence of the emergent tion of landforms in combination with recreational
nature of visual methodologies in tourism studies. activities as well as contributing to local
Recent moves in the social sciences and humani- economies.
ties to embrace visuals in terms of a multisensory Its history dates back to the European
approach (Pink 2012), bridging methodological “▶ Grand Tour” during the seventeenth and eigh-
traditions and embracing relationships between teenth centuries, when members of the “upper
the visual and other senses, are likely to stimulate classes” traveled to Vesuvius and Etna for their
increasing multimodality and multisensoriality in unique scenery and to broaden their education.
the field of tourism research. While it continues to attract tourists to geological
heritage, as well as to famous volcanoes like Mt St
See also ▶ Image, ▶ methodology, ▶ photogra- Helens or Mt Fuji, lesser known volcanic destina-
phy, ▶ qualitative research. tions such as Erta Ale (▶ Ethiopia), Mt
Voluntary sector 1011
Nyiragongo (DR Congo), the ▶ Comoros Islands, See also ▶ Adventure tourism, ▶ geotourism,
Reunion Island, ▶ Vanuatu, and the Kamchatka ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
Peninsula have become increasingly popular and
less difficult to access. To date, there are few
research publications on this topic, although doc- References
umentaries, movies, and novels about volcanic
disasters have contributed to a growing interest Erfurt-Cooper, P. 2010 Introduction to Volcano and Geo-
thermal Tourism. In Volcano and Geothermal Tourism:
in this form of tourism.
Sustainable Geo-resources for Leisure and Recreation.
Heightened volcanic activity encourages P. Erfurt-Cooper and M. Cooper, eds., pp.3-31.
adventurous tourists to closely explore scenic London: Earthscan.
attractions, typically featuring steam vents, Siebert, L., T. Simkin, and P. Kimberly 2011 Volcanoes of
the World (3rd Edition). Berkely, CA: Smithsonian
glowing lava flows, volcanic hot springs, or the
Institute/University of California Press.
“fireworks” of Strombolian eruptions. To access
remote volcanic locations, helicopters are fre-
quently the preferred option. In terms of activities,
tourism in volcanic environments incorporates a
number of elements from ▶ geotourism, ▶ eco- Voluntary sector
tourism, and ▶ adventure tourism. Recreational
activities commonly include hiking, trekking, Martina G. Gallarza
backpacking, climbing, or mountain biking. Department of Marketing, Universitat de
Some extreme activities such as “volcano Valéncia, Valencia, Spain
boarding” are carried out on the slopes of Cerro
Negro, ▶ Nicaragua (signs of unrest in
mid-2013). Hot air ballooning and other adven- The voluntary sector, also known as third sector in
tures involve active as well as dormant volcanic opposition to the public and private sectors, com-
regions in ▶ Turkey, ▶ France, ▶ Australia, prises all activities and services provided on the
▶ Spain, ▶ Costa Rica, and California. Interpre- basis of volunteering, which refers to unpaid work
tation of individual volcanic areas is provided by accomplished within the context of a formal struc-
information centers, volcano museums, and local ture (public, private, or nonprofit). There is a con-
tour guides. Educational signboards add to the ceptual debate on the limits and boundaries of what
learning experience in many volcanic national volunteering is and is not, alongside with cultural
parks, geoparks, and world heritage sites. differences of voluntary practices across countries
More than 1,500 active volcanoes worldwide (Gallarza et al. 2013). Consequently, although
(Siebert et al. 2011) present opportunities for there is a consensus on the significant growth of
▶ destination development in many countries, volunteering across the globe in the last decade
although volcanoes do not have to be currently (Wearing and McGehee 2013), its size in tourism
active to attract tourists. Moreover, volcano touris not known. However, a rough estimation stands
ism can be used as a low-investment, low-impact for 1.6 million worldwide participating in ▶ volun-
sector where geo-conservation can be used to teer tourism projects annually (Tourism Research
boost economic development in regions in need and Marketing 2008).
V
of revival. Volcano tourism needs to be made as Reasons for the emergence of volunteering in
safe as possible through raising sufficient aware- and beyond tourism can be related to the positive
ness about potential hazards in extreme environ- attitude that there is a higher degree of life satis-
ments prior to embarking on the adventure. Future faction to be gained in helping people or serving
research will be most valuable in the form of the society: Volunteering is a “give” and “take”
monitoring volcano tourism in as yet undeveloped experience. Voluntary sector organizations are
areas to reduce potential dangers for tourists founded mainly on the basis of private donations,
through improved standards of risk management. fund-raising activities, memberships, or grants.
1012 Volunteer tourism
These organizations exist in many areas. In fact, Holmes, K., K. Smith, L. Lockestone-Binney, and T. Baum
tourism has a long tradition of providing food and 2010 Developing the Dimensions of Tourism
Volunteering. Leisure Sciences 32:255-269.
shelter during times of crisis and, more ordinarily, Tourism Research and Marketing 2008 Volunteer Tourism.
in big cities or urban areas. More recently, the Barcelona: Association for Tourism and Leisure
voluntary sector has emerged as a key stakeholder Education.
in sustainable tourism, with organizations both in Wearing, S., and N. McGehee 2013 Volunteer Tourism.
developing and developed countries. The industry
has also been committed to educational efforts
and fund-raising, as well as to helping the poor
and the homeless. Many restaurants and hotels
regularly donate their unused food, linen, and Volunteer tourism
furniture to agencies for redistribution to people
in need. Kathleen Andereck1 and Nancy McGehee2
Tourism volunteering comprises both “guest” 1
School of Community Resources and
and “home” volunteers (Holmes et al. 2010). The Development, Arizona State University, Phoenix,
former are tourists that volunteer in local commu- AZ, USA
2
nities as part of their trip, either for ecological Hospitality and Tourism Management, Virginia
purposes, religious interests, or as part of their Polytechnic and State University, Blacksburg,
search for authenticity. The latter is offered to VA, USA
express support to the community, city, or neigh-
borhood. People tend to do voluntary tasks by
helping tourists during local celebrations, festi- Volunteer tourism, also known as “voluntourism”
vals, and events. Ecological aims are also a big within the industry, is defined in the academic
part of volunteering motivations, including the literature as activities engaged in by tourists who
conservancy of parks, gardens, and natural areas “volunteer in an organized way to undertake hol-
for ecological groups and environmental charities. idays that might involve aiding or alleviating the
Others are educational and cultural activities for material poverty of some groups in society, the
foundations, museums, schools, and research cen- restoration of certain environments, or research
ters such as local or national trusts for heritage into aspects of society or environment” (Wearing
sites. 2001:1). This practice is also defined from the
Controversies have also reached volunteer volunteer’s perspective (McGehee and Santos
tourism, as guest volunteerism has both positive 2005) in that it involves discretionary time and it
and negative impacts on host populations. Further takes place outside of the regular sphere of daily
research should discuss about “the unique poten- life for the participant.
tial of volunteer tourism to create a The conceptualization of volunteer tourism has
decommodified and genuine human experience” been further expanded in the literature to include
(Wearing and McGehee 2013:130). terms such as voluntourism or volunteering for
development, sometimes falling under the
umbrella of ▶ sustainable tourism (Wearing and
See also ▶ Festival and event, ▶ organization
McGehee 2013). This can be social, physical, or
and association, ▶ sustainable tourism, ▶ volun-
technical work that involves aiding or alleviating
teer tourism.
the impacts of poverty, the restoration of environ-
ments, or any form of research or teaching while
on ▶ holiday. Tourists tend to be from the global
References
north traveling to volunteer in communities of the
Gallarza, M., F. Arteaga, and I. Gil-Saura 2013 The Value global south; the length of volunteer stay at a
of Volunteering in Special Events. Annals of Tourism given ▶ destination can range from one day to
Research 40:105-131. two years (Wearing 2001).
Volunteer tourism 1013
Since the 1990s, volunteerism and ▶ interna- tourism experiences for everyone involved, and
tional tourism have both grown exponentially in the role of religion and spirituality in volunteer
popularity, leading to growth in ▶ volunteer tour- tourism.
ism and creating a new niche market consisting of
travelers who wish to be both volunteers and
tourists while on holiday (Callanan and Thomas See also ▶ Community-based tourism, ▶ com-
2005). Wearing and McGehee (2013) provide evi- munity development, ▶ international tourism,
dence of great expansion of the subject as a topic ▶ sustainable tourism, ▶ voluntary sector.
of academic study, but argue that volunteer tour-
ism is still a new area of research. For example,
empirical results that link volunteer tourism, com- References
munity development, and non-governmental
organizations within a larger framework of sus- Callanan, M., and S. Thomas 2005 Volunteer Tourism. In
tainable development have remained limited. Niche Tourism, M. Noveli, ed., pp.183-200. Oxford:
While there is significant literature about the Butterworth-Heinemann.
McGehee, N., and K. Andereck 2008 “Pettin” the Critters:
motives and benefits to volunteer tourists, scant Exploring the Complex Relationship between Volun-
attention has been paid to volunteer tourism’s teers and the Voluntoured in McDowell County, WV,
impacts on the community and/or USA and Tijuana, Mexico. In Journeys of Discovery in
non-governmental organizations (McGehee and Volunteer Tourism: International Case Study Perspec-
tives, S. Wearing and K. Lyons, eds., pp.12-24. Wal-
Andereck 2008; Wearing and McGehee 2013). lingford: CABI.
Future research topics that are vital for truly McGehee, N., and C. Santos 2005 Social Change, Dis-
understanding and capitalizing on volunteer tour- course, and Volunteer Tourism. Annals of Tourism
ism include the interface of technology and vol- Research 32:760-779.
Wearing, S. 2001 Volunteer Tourism: Experiences that
unteer tourism, the need for a systematic Make a Difference. Wallingford: CABI.
investigation of practical certification options in Wearing, S., and N. McGehee 2013 Volunteer Tourism:
monitoring and maintaining quality volunteer A Review. Tourism Management 38:120-130.
V
W
Warfare tourism re-enactments at Gettysburg and Hastings, visits

to sites of war atrocity such as in ▶ Rwanda and
Raynald Harvey Lemelin1 and Geoffrey R. Bird2 Nanjing in ▶ China, Pearl Harbor in the ▶ United
1
School of Outdoor Recreation, Parks and States, Flanders Field in ▶ Belgium, Gallipoli in
Tourism, Lakehead University, Thunder Bay, ▶ Turkey, the Normandy beaches in ▶ France,
Canada and the annual War and Peace Show in Kent,
2
School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, ▶ United Kingdom, attract millions of tourists
Royal Roads University, Victoria, BC, Canada around the globe (Butler and Suntikul 2013).
As research on warfare tourism evolves, so do
different perspectives regarding ▶ management
Warfare tourism incorporates battlefields, war approaches, and thematic emphasis on motiva-
museums, battleships, aerial display of vintage tions to visit specific destinations. Research
war planes, prisoner of war, internment and con- themes in this area include ▶ identity, the evolu-
centration camps, sites of atrocities, peaceparks, tion, and transformations of warscapes into
battle re-enactments, and battlefield tours. Expe- memoryscapes, peaceparks as war attractions, dis-
rientially, warfare tourism involves the ▶ symbol- sonance, commercialism, managing the aura of
ism and meaning of military hardware, and/or death (Seaton 2009), and interpreting contested
acting or performing using military uniforms and sites of conflict. Another area for ▶ future
materials. Ideally these experiences should pro- research is the role that tourism plays in contem-
vide opportunities for the living to learn from the porary understandings of war ▶ history and cul-
past, commemorate, mourn, and heal. Some of tural memory. Examining tourists as engaging in
these activities like visiting a war museum do acts of remembrance and the extent to which
not require an in-situ experience. tourism is an agent of remembrance are other
Although MacCannell (1976) was one of the areas of research.
first scholars to document the appeal of
war-related attractions, it is important to note
See also ▶ Cultural tourism, ▶ dark tourism,
that monuments and memorials associated with
▶ heritage, ▶ historical tourism.
wars and sites of atrocities have long dominated
landscapes and attracted people for hundreds of
years. Warfare tourism has been linked to disso-
References
nant ▶ heritage (Tunbridge and Ashworth 1996),
thanatourism (Seaton 2009) and ▶ dark tourism Butler R., and W. Suntikul 2013 Tourism and War. New
(Lennon and Foley 2000). Today, historical York: Routledge.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
1016 Waste management
Lennon, J., and M. Foley 2000 Dark Tourism. London: (decomposing organic types in an oxygen-
Continuum. deficient environment), reuse and recycling, and
Leisure Class. London: MacMillan. integrated solid waste management are some of
Seaton, A. 2009 Thanatourism and its Discontents: An the relatively recent methods. “Zero waste,” a
Appraisal of a Decade’s Work with Some Future Issues newer concept, is more comprehensive involving
and Directions. In Sage Handbook of Tourism Studies, most of the modern measures, along with gener-
T. Jamal and M. Robinson, eds., pp.521-542. London:
Sage. ating income-earning opportunities in the process
Tunbridge, J., and G. Ashworth 1996 Dissonant Heritage: (Dileep 2007).
The Management of the Past as a Resource in Conflict. Akin to other industries, tourism generates
New York: Wiley. waste in solid, liquid, and gaseous forms, largely
in destinations (Chan and Wong 2006). Solid
waste in tourism includes both biodegradables
and nonbiodegradables. Rapidly biodegradables
Waste management (vegetables, fruits) take lesser time to decay com-
pared to others like seeds and paper. The non-
M. R. Dileep biodegradables can be classified as directly
Pazhassiraja College, Calicut University, Kerala, reusables (polythene, glass), decorative reusables
India (coconut shell, crockery), reusables (plastic,
metal), and those that need safe disposal
(Kuniyal 2005). Usually, there is no separate
Waste management, in general, refers to an inte- waste management program for a destination;
grated approach to eliminating waste effectively instead, it is part of the whole mechanism of the
and efficiently, avoiding any impact on the society entire village, town, or city in which it is situated.
and the environment. It is a process which may Yet, individual efforts (like hotels setting up their
include activities like collecting, separating, own integrated waste management systems) and
processing, reducing, recycling, reusing, and resort-specific attempts can be seen in several
restoring waste. Waste is lately treated as an out- destinations.
come of inefficient use of resources and contrib- Besides the general social and environmental
utes significantly to various environmental and advantages of waste management to the wider
social impacts, such as pollution and health issues. community, a clean and litter-free ambiance will
Though there are some commendable attempts to certainly enhance the quality of the destination as
manage waste properly, many communities across well as the ▶ tourist experience. The issue of
the world are still suffering from the menace of its ineffective waste management in tourism is still
improper treatment. Industries, including tourism, an under-researched area, and hence it calls for
constitute one of the largest contributors to waste deeper investigations in identifying destination-
production. specific issues and formulating apposite strategies
There are a number of waste treatment to ameliorate them.
methods, including traditional types such as land
filling, composting, and open burning, all of See also ▶ Environment, ▶ impact, ▶ pollution,
which are incomprehensive. The growing concern ▶ sustainability, ▶ sustainable tourism.
associated with the handling of waste led the Rio
Earth Summit (1992) to urge everyone involved to
devise strategies to efficiently manage waste by References
minimizing its production, maximizing its reuse,
promoting environmentally friendly practices, Chan, W., and K. Wong 2006 Estimation of Weight of
Solid Waste: Newspapers in Hong Kong Hotels. Jour-
and extending services for its treatment (Uberoi
nal of Hospitality and Tourism Research 30:231-245.
2003). Incineration (burning solid waste in a con- Dileep, M. 2007 Tourism and Waste Management:
trolled presence of air), biomethanation A Review of Implementation of “Zero Waste” at
Water consumption 1017
Kovalam. Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research et al. 2009). Inadequate and excessive water
12:377-392. consumption by tourism can have important
Kuniyal, C. 2005 Solid Waste Management in the Himala-
yan Trails and Expedition Summits. Journal of Sustain- effects on continental and coastal water
able Tourism 13:391-410. bodies that can result in social conflicts, mainly
Rio Earth Summit. 1992 U.N. Sustainable Development: in those regions where water is scarce, as in
Agenda 21 document. Retrieved from http://sustain most coastal destinations and small islands
able_development.un.org/content/document/Agenda21.
pdf where a large volume of global tourism is
Uberoi, N. 2003 Environmental Management. New Delhi: concentrated.
Excel Books. While there is extensive literature on water
demand for other uses, much remains unknown
about water consumption in tourism or by tourists.
A few studies assess the quantity of freshwater
consumed by the tourism industry and the factors
Water consumption that influence it. Some studies quantify per capita
▶ tourist water consumption as being between
Dolores Tirado Bennasar two and three times the local demand in developed
Universitat de les Illes Balears, Palma de countries and even more in developing countries
Mallorca, Spain (Gössling et al. 2012).
The ▶ management of water resources at
coastal destinations has become a difficult but
Tourism requires water for consumptive and crucial task. New trends are favoring policies
nonconsumptive uses. The former is the that introduce measures, aimed at saving and
water from local supplies used by the tourism ▶ recycling water, improving efficiency and allo-
▶ industry, such as for swimming pools, golf cation, enhancing ▶ conservation and protection,
courses, meals, drinks, washing, and cleaning. and upgrading integrated water management sys-
The latter is not from the local ▶ network, but tems. These measures highlight the need for
constitutes an integral part of the surroundings, greater and more research ▶ attention to under-
such as what is enjoyed in wildlife, at beaches, standing the behavior of water consumption in
and in water sports like diving, yachting, and tourism and to analyzing the effects of related
fishing. In addition, tourism stimulates higher water policies.
water consumption by sectors providing interme-
diate inputs or products, for example, agriculture.
This also includes increased residential water See also ▶ Climate change, ▶ facility manage-
demand due to population ▶ migration related to ment, ▶ input-output analysis, ▶ mass tourism,
the tourism industry. All together, these make ▶ seasonality.
tourism heavily water dependent and a significant
consumer of it.
Some major environmental impacts of tourism References
are related to water ▶ resources: land subsidence
and lowering of the groundwater table; ground- Essex, S., M. Kent, and R. Newnham 2004 Tourism Devel-
water salinization; sewage pollution; water opment in Mallorca: Is Water Supply a Constraint?
Journal of Sustainable Tourism 12:4-28.
pollution by pesticides and fertilizers to maintain
Gössling, S., P. Peeters, M. Hall, J. Ceron, G. Dubois, W
golf courses, lawns, and gardens; and degradation L. Lehmann, and D. Scott 2012 Tourism and Water
of water ecosystems. Several studies indicate Use: Supply, Demand, and Security. An International
that the success, viability, and ▶ sustainability of Review. Tourism Management 33:1-15.
destinations are ultimately dependent upon an Rico-Amoros, A., J. Olcina-Cantos, and D. Sauri 2009
Tourist Land Use Patterns and Water Demand: Evi-
adequate water ▶ supply, both in quantity dence from the Western Mediterranean. Land Use Pol-
and quality (Essex et al. 2004; Rico-Amoros icy 26:493-501.
1018 Wedding tourism
the couple’s triangulation with wedding officials

Wedding tourism and the state, such as in circumstances where gay
weddings are not permitted (Johnston 2006). Fur-
Giacomo Del Chiappa ther, the distant wedding options allow spouses to
Department of Economics and Business, enjoy their experience of the destination with par-
University of Sassari and CRENoS, Sassari, Italy ticipants, thus avoiding the anxiety or detachment
they could experience when leaving on honey-
moon. Selecting a destination and the plethora of
Wedding-based tourism can be defined as service providers that are needed to package a
▶ tourist flows arising from participation in wed- destination wedding represents a high emotional
dings that are held at a different ▶ location from investment. Given the almost complete lack of
where the bride and groom, or just one of them, research on the topic, future studies that investi-
live (Daniels and Loveless 2007). Another type of gated the wedding tourism phenomenon exten-
wedding flow is when the event takes place in the sively would be useful, adopting both supply-
bride’s or groom’s home town and guests arrive side and demand-side perspectives.
from other places. The market is made up of
marriages (of the first-time, second or more), See also ▶ Anticipation, ▶ authenticity, ▶ expe-
same-sex marriages, commitment ceremonies rience, ▶ motivation.
and renewal of vows (Major and McLeay 2010).
Wedding tourism is booming and several
destinations – such as Hawaii, ▶ Caribbean, References
▶ Mexico, ▶ Thailand, ▶ Fiji, ▶ Jamaica,
▶ New Zealand, and ▶ Italy – are currently posi- Daniels, M., and C. Loveless 2007 Wedding Planning and
Management. Oxford: Elsevier.
tioning themselves for this lucrative market.
Getz, D. 2008 Event Tourism: Definition, Evolution, and
According to the International Journalism Obser- Research. Tourism Management 29:403–428.
vatory, 8 % of the 44 million tourists arrival to Johnston, L. 2006 “I do Down-Under”: Naturalizing Land-
Italy is due to wedding, honeymoon, or anniver- scapes and Love through Wedding Tourism in New
Zealand. ACME 5:191–208.
sary. The UK citizens took part in 45,000 wed- Major, B., and F. McLeay 2010 Perfect Weddings Abroad.
dings abroad in 2005, with an average per capita Journal of Vacation Marketing 16:249–262.
spending of US$12,000. There are many eco- Schumann, F., and C. Amado 2010 Japanese Overseas
nomic, social, environmental, and ▶ marketing Weddings in Guam: A Case Study of Guam’s First
Hotel Wedding Chapel. South Asian Journal of Tour-
benefits in terms of ▶ expenditure, increase in
ism and Heritage 3:173-181.
the number of arrivals, enhancement of destina-
tion brand, exploitation of ▶ authenticity, and
promotion of local food and wine (Daniels and
Loveless 2007; Getz 2008).
Several key drivers explain the market growth: Wellbeing
increasing high cost of domestic weddings,
decreased cost and improved frequency of inter- Scott McCabe
national flights, cost savings arising from the Nottingham University Business School,
smaller number of people willing to participate University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
in the ceremony, and the possibility that couples
can combine wedding with honeymoon
(Schumann and Amado 2010). ▶ Destination Wellbeing is a complex term that can relate either
weddings can be more exotic, intimate, and to physical states or to psychological states. In
unique. They enable couples to experience differ- tourism, the psychological aspects of wellbeing
ent rituals and cultures, and ▶ escape any latent are important to tourists as well as for residents
social and family obligations. They can also ease alike. Therefore, the concept consists of objective
Wilderness tourism 1019
and subjective dimensions. The former assess- affected most by tourism experiences? How is
ments relate to housing and environmental condi- wellbeing linked to one’s travel career? And
tions, education, access to welfare and public which types of experiences contribute most to
services, in addition to wealth or income. In the wellbeing?
tourism context, this has been applied to under-
stand the effects of its development on residents’ See also ▶ Experience, ▶ health tourism,
quality of life (Perdue et al. 1990). ▶ prestige, ▶ quality of life, ▶ social tourism.
Subjective wellbeing embraces a number of
different aspects or components and is less clearly
conceptualized. However, it refers to the extent to References
which a person’s life is judged to have intrinsic
meaning, sometimes referred to as “authentic liv- Dolnicar, S., V. Yanamandram, and K. Cliff 2012 The
Contribution of Vacations to Quality of Life. Annals
ing.” The term can be traced back to Aristotle and
his concept of “good life.” Wellbeing is concerned McCabe, S., and S. Johnson 2013 The Happiness Factor in
with the factors that contribute to happiness. It is Tourism: Subjective Wellbeing and Social Tourism.
widely accepted that subjective meaning consists Annals of Tourism Research 41:42-65.
Perdue, R., P. Long, and L. Allen 1990 Resident Support
of a number of aspects: the extent of satisfaction
for Tourism Development. Annals of Tourism Research
with life as a whole and the different domains 17:586-599.
which contribute to satisfaction (including objec- Ryan, R., and E. Deci 2001 On Happiness and Human Poten-
tive aspects such as work/income and housing). tials: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudemonic
Wellbeing. In Annual Review of Psychology, S. Fiske, ed.,
For example, Dolnicar et al. (2012) have explored
pp.141-166. Paolo Alto: Annual Reviews.
how vacations contribute to life satisfaction. Sub-
jective wellbeing also relates to affect balance or
the absence or presence of happiness.
Research shows how tourism can influence Wilderness tourism
affective states and contribute to short-term
changes in happiness levels. Additionally, subjec- Lesego S. Stone1 and Moren T. Stone2
1
tive wellbeing is linked to the concept of Okavango Research Institute, University of
eudemonia, which can be defined as the extent to Botswana, Maun, Botswana
2
which individuals perceive their ability for per- Department of Environmental Science,
sonal growth and longer-term psychological University of Botswana, Gaborone, Botswana
strengths. This has been conceptualized as having
the personal resources and skills to be able to
maximize an individuals’ potential (Ryan and Wilderness is defined as undeveloped land with
Deci 2001). minimal human imprints (Nash 2001). The 1964
Different people in society value different US Wilderness Act defines wilderness as places
aspects of their lives and consume experiences where one is a momentary tourist through
differently. The level of wellbeing attached to it. Originating in the ▶ United States, the concept
tourism as an important aspect of life satisfaction, has spread and gained popularity worldwide. Wil-
or as a contributor to happiness and long-term derness areas include conservation preserves,
personal growth, may be determined by access estates, national forests, and parks. These are
to the level of participation in it. McCabe and important for the survival of certain species, con- W
Johnson (2013) have argued that for disadvan- servation, and recreation. Nowadays, wildlands
taged members of a society, where access to are increasingly being promoted as products for
such experiences is not the norm, holidays can consumption, as illustrated by modern tourism
increase social, relational, and resilience/opti- practices and associated place marketing
mism aspects of wellbeing. Future research may (Saarinen 1998). The commoditization of wilder-
need to address: Which aspects of wellbeing are ness has resulted in the mushrooming of tourism
1020 Wildlife tourism
facilities, such as game farms, lodges, and hunting Wildlife Safari Tourism in Kenya. In Tourism and Post-
in wilderness areas. colonialism: Contested Discourses, Identities and Rep-
resentations, C. Hall and H. Tucker, eds., pp.140-152.
Wilderness tourism may be pursued by some London: Routledge.
due to the scarcity of the resource, to escape from Higham, J., G. Kearsley, and A. Kliskey 2001 Multiple
city life, to interact with nature, and for conserva- Wilderness Recreation Management: Sustaining Wil-
tion purposes. In most countries, it is promoted for derness Values-Maximizing Wilderness Experiences.
In The State of Wilderness in New Zealand,
economic reasons. For some, slogans emphasiz- G. Cessford, ed., pp.81-93. Wellington: Science and
ing wilderness features are often favored in mar- Research Unit.
keting campaigns. For example, ▶ Iceland is Nash, R. 2001 Wilderness and the American Mind. New
referred to as “▶ Europe’s last wilderness” Haven: Yale University Press.
Saarinen, J. 1998 Wilderness, Tourism Development and
(Sæþo’rsdo’ttir et al. 2011) and ▶ Kenya as “wil- Sustainability: Wilderness Attitudes and Place Ethics.
derness Eden” (Akama 2004). USDA Forest Service Proceedings RMRS-P-4.,
Despite its popularity, wilderness tourism has pp. 29-34.
no universally accepted definition. For some, it Sæþo´rsdo´ttir, A., C. Hall, and J. Saarinen 2011 Making
Wilderness: Tourism and the History of the Wilderness
involves visits to pristine areas (Higham Idea in Iceland. Polar Geography 34(4):249-273.
et al. 2001); while for others, it is a socially
constructed concept which varies from one person
to another, across cultures and over time. With this
viewpoint, wilderness can be related to one’s state
of mind, preferences, and social and historical Wildlife tourism
relations with the environment (Saarinen 1998);
even built attractions can be classified as wilder- James Guy Castley
ness. Wilderness tourists are usually fit and self- The Griffith School of Environment, Griffith
sufficient, enabling them to navigate harsh ter- University, Gold Coast, QLD, Australia
rains. Related terms such as nature-based, adven-
ture, backcountry recreation, and associated
activities, including nature walks, abseiling, and Wildlife tourism brings together humans and
white water rafting, are often associated with wil- wildlife through varied encounters. Early defini-
derness tourism. tions separated “consumptive” from
Literature on the subject tends to define wil- “nonconsumptive” on the basis of the human-
derness as it pertains to Westerners. As such, more wildlife interaction (Duffus and Dearden 1990).
research is needed on what wilderness is and what Consumptive wildlife tourism encapsulates
it means to people in other parts of the world, extractive recreational activities (such as hunting),
especially those who inhabit these so-called wild- while nonconsumptive wildlife tourism pertains
lands. An assessment of whether the “wildlands” to viewing and/or encountering wildlife
can maintain their status quo as wilderness (Higginbottom 2004). The key distinction is that
resources and warrant visitations indefinitely is the latter does not remove individuals from their
also needed. natural environment. Human-wildlife encounters
take place in a range of settings, along a contin-
See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ nature tourism, uum of interactions, and under a variety of oper-
▶ park tourism, ▶ protected area tourism, ▶ sus- ational models.
tainable tourism. Wildlife tourism, with its emphasis on free-
ranging wildlife (generally animals), is a subset
of ▶ nature tourism; but it is also included in
References various discussions of ▶ ecotourism and
▶ adventure tourism. Conceptually wildlife tour-
Akama, J. 2004 Neocolonialism, Dependency and Exter- ism at any destination is a function of three pri-
nal Control of Africa’s Tourism Industry: A Case of mary components: the wildlife, the ▶ tourist, and
Willingness to pay 1021
the interaction (Newsome et al. 2005). However, lessons learned from past experience to meet
political and legal structures, land use and tenure, both tourist expectations and wildlife conserva-
▶ management agencies and their effectiveness, tion requirements.
and social justice all influence this relationship.
The interplay among these three components and See also ▶ Conservation, ▶ ecotourism,
their subsidiary drivers ultimately determines ▶ impact, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ wilderness
whether wildlife tourism activities are sustainable. tourism.
The enduring human fascination with wildlife
has led to continued growth in the tourism
▶ industry. This experience is affected by numer- References
ous psychological factors that influence how
humans feel, react, connect, and behave toward Duffus, D., and P. Dearden 1990 Non-consumptive
Wildlife-oriented Recreation: A Conceptual Frame-
wildlife but also how these encounters may alter
work. Biological Conservation 53:213-231.
human awareness, ▶ attitudes, and responses to Higginbottom, K., ed. 2004 Wildlife Tourism: Impacts,
the continued preservation of wildlife. Therefore, Management and Planning. Altona: Common Ground
tourist satisfaction extends beyond meeting Publishing.
Newsome, D., R. Dowling, and S. Moore 2005 Wildlife
immediate “viewing” expectations and can pro-
Tourism. Clevedon: Channel View.
voke deeper ecocentric reactions and a sense of
wellbeing within individuals (Newsome
et al. 2005).
For wildlife populations, tourism can bring
both positive and negative effects (Higginbottom Willingness to pay
2004). Wildlife populations are frequently con-
fined to public or private protected areas and Azadeh Kazeminia
these are focal destinations for many wildlife Azad University of Najafabad, Najafabad, Iran
tourists. This trend is particularly apparent in
developing countries, as this is often where global
biodiversity hot spots are found. Wildlife tourism The Oxford Encyclopedia of Economics refers to
can generate substantial revenue and is frequently “willingness to pay” as the maximum amount that
advocated by responsible and ▶ sustainable tour- an economic agent is willing to pay to acquire a
ism proponents as a means to achieving environ- specified good or service. In its scientific form, the
mental and socioeconomic development goals. concept applies to the products that are not priced
Wildlife tourism can also lead to considerable based on the market rules. Economists admit var-
direct and indirect impacts on species, ious approaches to measuring willingness to pay,
populations, and ecosystems, particularly where in the revealed, derived, and expressed forms. The
this is uncontrolled. These impacts are not uni- revealed refers to the time and money that people
form, however, and vary depending on the sensi- actually spend in order to take advantage of a
tivity of the species, its habitat, the type of tourism public good that in one way or another is traded
(mass versus niche-based tourism), as well as the in the market (a fishing spot). Its derived form
precise nature of the human-wildlife interaction refers to the amount that people are willing to
(intensity, duration, extent, and severity). pay to avoid the unpleasant consequences of a
The sustainable future of wildlife tourism will lost public good or to create a structure that offers W
depend to a large extent on the ongoing and adap- similar benefits and services. Finally, in its
tive management of the human-wildlife interac- expressed form, it refers to the amount that people
tion. This will require communication among explicitly express for using or preserving ▶ public
tourists, tour operators, local communities, man- goods that are neither replicable nor have any
agement agencies, researchers, and policymakers relationship with tradable products (King and
to set measurable goals that are built on the Wainger 2001:121).
1022 Wine tourism
As is widely relied upon in tourism literature,

economists employ ▶ contingent valuation method Wine tourism
to measure its expressed form. The method surveys
questions to enquire about the amount that people Knut Scherhag
are intended to pay, for instance, for visiting a Worms University of Applied Sciences, Worms,
natural park (Mitchell and Carson 1989). The esti- Germany
mates derived via this method are proved to be
promising, yet they are observed to be subject to
systematic biases (Venkatachalam 2004). As an Wine tourism includes all touristic activities in the
explanation for the possible causes, psychologists wine context. It includes visitation to vineyards,
suggest that the decisions do not reflect economic wineries, and wine festivals/events as a main
preferences with respect to the benefits they draw ▶ travel reason or secondary motivation. In
from consumption or preservation of a public many cases an attribute of wine tourism is wine
good; instead, their evaluations are guided by tasting in cellars or vineyards (Hall et al. 2000).
▶ attitudes and the pleasure they expect to achieve A large number of tourists travel into wine regions
from the very act of giving; hence it might not because of the landscape and/or the agreeable
essentially follow the expected utility assumptions climate. They are not primarily interested in
(Kahneman et al. 1999). Consistent with this, tour- wine but instead in hiking, cycling, and wellness.
ism research offers considerable evidence as to the However, there is no consensus about what wine
influence of emotional satisfaction and belief- tourism is. Enotourism, oenotourisme, wine tour-
related variables for the ▶ development of attrac- ism or vinitourism refers to such activities whose
tions (Bigné and Andreu 2004). Elaboration is purpose is or includes the tasting and consump-
required with respect to applicability in the tourism tion of wine, often at or near the source.
context, given that experiential motivations are the Historically, the first wine tourists were on
leading drives of tourism consumption. business: the merchant bought wine for their cus-
tomers (Hall et al. 2000). At the beginning of the
twentieth century, private ▶ leisure tourism
See also ▶ Attitude, ▶ contingent valuation increased, with its motivation developed in many
method, ▶ experience, ▶ sustainable tourism. directions. Most of the well-known wine-growing
regions became attractive for individual travel and
package tours, and “wine” becomes part of a
References country’s tourism strategies, such as ▶ Australia
(Getz 2000). Today, a variety of wine festivals,
Bigné, J., and L. Andreu 2004 Emotions in Segmentation:
An Empirical Study. Annals of Tourism Research which were originally designed as harvest festi-
31:682-696. vals on farms, have become important ▶ tourist
Kahneman, D., I. Ritov, and D. Schkade 1999 Economic attractions.
Preferences or Attitude Expressions? An Analysis of The tourism and wine businesses work
Dollar Responses to Public Issues. Journal of Risk and
Uncertainty 19:203-235. together and design events for tourists interested
King, D., and L. Wainger 2001 Assessing the Economic in wines of the world and for the destinations
Value of Biodiversity Using Indicators of Site Condi- themselves. This interest has resulted in wine
tion and Landscape Context. In Valuation of Biodiver- and food festivals all over the world, targeting
sity Benefits: Selected Studies, OECD, ed., pp.121-
150. Paris: Organization for Economic Co-operation both domestic and international tourists. As well
and Development. tourist routes in wine-growing regions combine
Mitchell, R., and R. Carson 1989 Using Surveys to Value wineries and cultural and historic sites. One of the
Public Goods: The Contingent Valuation Method. oldest is the “German Wine Route” (Pfalz, ▶ Ger-
Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Venkatachalam, L. 2004 The Contingent Valuation many) established in 1935. Today there are many
Method: A Review. Environmental Impact Assessment wine routes, often labeled with the name of a
Review 24:89-124. grape or the region (e.g., Saar-Riesling-Street,
Work 1023
Germany; La Route du Médoc, ▶ France). studied from the perspectives of sociology, cul-
▶ Spain has established 25 wine routes as a coop- tural geography, critical consumer research, fem-
erative network to develop new tourism products inist ▶ theory, and cultural studies. Veijola’s
or to increase the value of existing products for (2009a) seminal article “Tourism as Work”
wine tourism (Moreno Melgarejo 2013). brought a new perspective of addressing tourism
Research in this field is close to nature-based from the point of view of work and workers.
tourism, regional development, ▶ destination According to Veijola, “Tourism work is perceived
management, and ▶ sustainable tourism (Carlsen as a paradigmatic sphere of the world in which
and Charters 2006). The ▶ hospitality sector and people ▶ travel – for ▶ leisure, work and
local events are important for developing wine- survival – excessively; and in which various
growing regions for tourism. Research on this forms of mobilities and immobilities structure
segment took off in the late 1980s and has pro- both working life and individual life cycles, jobs,
duced a long list of informative publications. In and careers” (2009a:83).
recent years, many conferences on wine tourism The perspective of studying tourism workers
have been organized throughout the world, such from those angles allows presenting them to the
as the annual meetings of wine tourism or wine scholarly audience as crucial agents of expertise,
marketing associations. Future research should experience, ▶ knowledge, and know-how in the
investigate ways to develop a closer cooperation ▶ industry as opposed to traditional views of
between wine industry and tourism, as well as labor and work. Such new conceptualizations are
image development of wine regions. based on the notion of “new work,” the flexible
labor market of the new economy, and it is argued
See also ▶ Destination branding, ▶ festival and that tourism occupations fit into such notions.
event, ▶ nature tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism.
Gender, ethnicity and mobility

References
The emotional and aesthetic expectations of tour-
Carlsen, J., and S. Charters (eds.) 2006 Global Wine Tour- ism and ▶ hospitality workers point to two impor-
ism. Oxon: CABI.
tant concepts in studying tourism work. Service
Getz, D. 2000 Explore Wine Tourism: Management,
Development and Destinations. New York: Cognizant. work was conceptualized as “emotional labor,”
Hall, C., L. Sharples, B. Cambourne, and N. Macionis with the body as the manifestation of feelings,
(eds.) 2000 Wine Tourism around the World. Oxford: which may or may not be acted (Hochschild
1983). Workers offer some form of “hospitality,”
Moreno Melgarejo, A. 2013 The Wine Routes of Spain. In
Weintourismus und Marketing, K. Scherhag, ed., while their welcome, attention, and emotional
pp.55-64. Lohmar/Köln: Eul. involvement (or not) are a part of being hospitable
(Duncan et al. 2013:3). Aesthetic labor, on the
other hand, is the recruitment of workers with
desired corporeal dispositions (Warhurst and
Work Nickson 2007:107). Despite physically demand-
ing jobs, tourism workers are expected to be well-
Hania Janta groomed and “stylish,” while their embodied attri-
School of Hospitality and Tourism Management, butes (hairstyle, clothes, voice, accent, appear- W
University of Surrey, Guildford, UK ance, and body proportions) are a source of
▶ competitive advantage.
Next to the embodied attributes, the interplay
In the past, work and labor were addressed in of work and ▶ gender is a significant theme in
tourism research from the side of ▶ management. studies of tourism work. The feminization of the
More recently, work and tourism have been workforce, with more immigrant women than
1024 Work
men finding jobs in developed countries, is par- unravel the nuances between ▶ mobility and
ticularly pertinent. Work and gender interplay has immobility of tourism and hospitality workers
been conceptualized as a form of the hostessing (Duncan et al. 2013). While tourism work pro-
society, in terms of the acts and performances. vides an opportunity to support broader mobile
Veijola contends that “Western world is turning lifestyle strategies, it also highlights the immobile
into a hostessing society” (2009b:115). More spe- movement and stillness of others involved in the
cifically, the world has started to host, and even to industry.
hostess, rather than the world having become
masculine. In Guerrier and Adib’s study, hotel
work has been used as the arena in which to Way forward
explore issues of harassment in relation to gender
and ethnicity. Imbalances of power in staff and Exploring tourism work from an interdisciplinary
guest relationship make hotel employees vulnera- and theory-orientated position contributes to a
ble to bullying or sexual harassment, while a more nuanced understanding of the subject and
provider of emotional labor is expected to remain to wider social science debates. Despite the emer-
calm and professional in the light of provocations gence of a number of new studies in this area that
(2000: 697). Here hotel work is shown as sexual- have evolved from the interest in gender, migra-
ized, public, and risky, where employees, mostly tion, cultural, and sociological studies, as well as
female chambermaids and receptionists, accept a globalization, there has been limited attention
degree of abuse from customers. from tourism scholars. Most research focuses on
Postindustrial tourism workers have been con- workers in Europe and Anglophone world, while
ceptualized in the contexts of living, working, and tourism workers’ experiences from non-Western
traveling, where work and ▶ leisure become cultures are hardly studied. Another deficiency
blurred. Duncan et al. contend, “For many that has yet been addressed is the context; most
young people, in various places globally, being available studies have focused on hospitality
(and being able to be) mobile and undertaking workers as opposed to workers representing
tourism and hospitality work becomes other tourism occupations. Further research
intertwined” (2013:11). ▶ Lifestyle can become could also explore the interplay of gender and
equally if not more important than ▶ career choice work focusing on male workers.
for mobile individuals involved in tourism work.
A large proportion of migrants performing tour-
ism jobs raises questions and often challenges See also ▶ Employment, ▶ labor relation, ▶ life-
issues related to ▶ identity, ▶ authenticity of style, ▶ migration, ▶ mobility.
interactive ▶ service delivery, as well as host-
guest relations (Janta et al. 2011).
The relationships among class, gender, and
▶ ethnicity are also a relevant theme in multidis- References
ciplinary research on tourism and hospitality
Duncan, T., D. Scott, and T. Baum 2013 The Mobilities of
work. There is an evidence of strong racial seg- Hospitality Work: An Exploration of Issues and
mentation in the employment market. For exam- Debates. Annals of Tourism Research 41:1-19.
ple, Albanian workers are visible in restaurants in Guerrier, Y., and A. Adib 2000 “No, We Don’t Provide
That Service”: The Harassment of Hotel Employees by
Greek islands, Polish workers serve customers in Customers. Work, Employment and Society 14:689-
the ▶ United Kingdom, while Mexican workers 705.
are found working, sometimes illegally, in restau- Hochschild, A. 1983 The Managed Heart: Commercializa-
rants in the ▶ United States. The latter example tion of Human Feeling. Berkeley: University of
California Press.
points to another level of segmentation, shaped by
Janta, H., L. Brown, P. Lugosi, and A. Ladkin 2011
the legal status of workers. Tourism work then can Migrant Relationships and Tourism Employment.
be conceptualized using a mobility framework to Annals of Tourism Research 38:1322-1343.
World heritage 1025
Warhurst, C., and D. Nickson 2007 Employee Experience arguing that its designation is not based on popu-
of Aesthetic Labour in Retail and Hospitality. Work, lar voting, but on informed research, planning,
Employment and Society 21:103-120.
Veijola, S. 2009a Introduction: Tourism as Work. Tourist and debate by national and international experts.
Studies 9:83-87. In this context, world heritage can be seen as the
Veijola, S. 2009b Gender as Work in the Tourism Industry. quintessential illustration of Smith’s concept of a
Tourist Studies 9:109-126. Western-centric, professionalized “authorized
heritage discourse” that “privileges expert values
and knowledge” over “dissonant,” popular, or
indigenous conceptions of patrimony (2006:
World heritage 4–5, 29–35).
Michael A. Di Giovine
Department of Anthropology and Sociology, West Process of inscription
Chester University of Pennsylvania,
West Chester, USA A cultural or natural property must be nominated
by the state party in whose territory it lies, only if
the country is a signatory to the 1972 Convention,
World heritage is a title affixed to an array of is in good standing, and has paid its annual dues to
monuments, sites, cultural and natural landscapes, the World Heritage Fund. Working with one or
and intangible practices and traditions by the more of UNESCO’s expert advisory bodies, the
United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cul- state party will develop a “nomination file” that
tural Organization (UNESCO). It denotes the outlines the site’s exact borders and buffer zones
“universal value” of these cultural properties that and documents the property’s authenticity, integ-
transcends any specific significances it might have rity, and qualities that render it of exceptional
at the local, regional, or national levels, rendering universal value. These qualities are based on
them “of common importance for present and 10 representative criteria outlined in the conven-
future generations of all humanity” (UNESCO tion. The file also includes a management plan
2005:12, see also Labadi 2013). that has increasingly centered on mitigating pres-
World heritage is often seen as an intrinsic sures associated with tourism. The World Heri-
quality to a site or tradition but actually is the tage Committee, a rotating group of
product of a complex political process that was representatives from the convention’s signatories,
born from the 1972 “Convention for the Protec- then votes to accept, reject, or revise the nomina-
tion of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage” tion. Accepted properties are inscribed on the
and elaborated upon through the day-to-day work World Heritage List. If the committee determines
of UNESCO’s advisory bodies, the Paris-based that there are immediate threats to the site that
World Heritage Center, and annual World Heri- could compromise its integrity or “universal
tage Committee meetings (Cameron and Rössler value,” it can also be inscribed on the List of
2013). Though the 2003 “Convention for the World Heritage in Danger. If a state party no
Safeguarding of Intangible Cultural Heritage” is longer fulfills its duty to adequately manage and
a separate convention, it builds on, and is strongly care for the site, the committee can delist it.
associated with, the 1972 Convention. World her- It is a common misperception that inscription
itage is therefore simultaneously a category of on the list monetarily benefits a country. While all W
heritage and a proprietary title (or brand) of states parties must donate annually to the Fund,
UNESCO’s most popular programs. UNESCO disbursements are small, earmarked primarily for
has vociferously protected its brand against technical assistance and awareness-raising
“copycat” programs, such as the 2007 internet endeavors. Rather, states parties nominate sites
crowdsourcing sensation, “New Seven Wonders because of the perceived prestige this designation
of the World” (www.new7wonders.com), by provides, as well as the potential for raising global
1026 World heritage
awareness of the site. This awareness can produce designation would have imposed on their tourism
economic benefits from increased tourism and activities. Tellingly, the World Tourism Organiza-
associated development projects, including dona- tion operates independently from UNESCO.
tions from non-governmental and/or preservation However, since the sustainability turn at the
organizations. beginning of the millennium, UNESCO has
repositioned itself as a proponent of sustainable
tourism development. It hosted its first workshop
World heritage goals and tourism at the Internationale Tourismus-Börse (ITB) Ber-
lin in 1999, and in 2001 the World Heritage Com-
UNESCO’s World Heritage Convention has many mittee founded what would become, a decade
ambitious goals: ensuring the protection of endan- later, the World Heritage “Sustainable Tourism
gered cultural and natural resources, enhancing Program,” which aims to engage the tourism
sustainable development primarily through heri- industry in safeguarding cultural resources. This
tage tourism, and, ultimately, fostering “peace in illustrates an articulated shift from considering
the minds of men,” as outlined in UNESCO’s tourism as a threat to embracing its potential to
1945 Constitution (Di Giovine 2009). Yet because communicate UNESCO’s interpretation of multi-
UNESCO is an intergovernmental organization cultural heritage values. While tourism research,
that derives its legitimacy from nation-states that notably in anthropology, frequently focuses on the
voluntarily adhere to its convention, UNESCO (often adverse) sociocultural impacts of World
has limited ability to effect real policy change in Heritage designations (Harrison 2013), ▶ future
these areas. Direct action is limited to creating and research should also examine avenues for more
disseminating information concerning the sites in harmonious collaboration between UNESCO and
the short term. Instead, UNESCO depends on the tourism industry.
normative and persuasive actions to contribute to
safeguarding cultural and natural resources in the
medium term. These are believed to lead to See also ▶ Archaeology, ▶ attraction, ▶ conser-
inspired action toward tourism development and, vation, ▶ heritage, ▶ sustainability.
ultimately, to peacemaking among global publics
in the long term. But since UNESCO relies on the
interpretation of its convention by individual
states parties with different needs, goals, and References
understandings of “heritage,” unintended conse-
quences often arise. Cameron, C., and M. Rössler 2013 Many Voices, One
Since preservation is central to the World Her- Vision: The Early Years of the World Heritage Conven-
tion. Farnham: Ashgate.
itage program, UNESCO has traditionally Di Giovine, M. 2009 The Heritage-scape: UNESCO,
approached tourism with ambivalence, even World Heritage, and Tourism. Lanham: Lexington.
while supporting its publicity campaigns by gov- Harrison, R. 2013 Heritage: Critical Approaches. London:
ernmental agencies. “Tourism” is not mentioned Routledge.
Labadi, S. 2013 UNESCO, Cultural Heritage, and Out-
in the 1972 Convention, and “tourist development standing Universal Value. Lanham: Altamira.
projects” appear only among a list of threats to a Smith, L. 2006 Uses of Heritage. London: Routledge.
site (see UNESCO 1972:6). Management plans UNESCO 1972 Convention Concerning the Protection of
are required to account for tourism pressures and the World Cultural and Natural Heritage. Paris: United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
impacts, and countries boasting major tourism Organization.
sites, such as Italy, were late signatories to the UNESCO 2005 World Heritage Information Kit. Paris:
convention in part because of the restrictions a World Heritage Centre.
World Tourism Organization 1027
Secretariat. The General Assembly meets every

World Tourism Organization 2 years to approve budgets and programs and to
debate on topics of vital importance to tourism.
Noel Healy1 and Sandra Carvao2 The Executive Council is its governing board,
1
Department of Geography, Salem State responsible for ensuring that this body carries
University, Salem, USA out its ▶ work and adheres to its budget. It meets
2
UNWTO, Madrid, Spain at least twice a year and is composed of members
elected by the General Assembly. It has six
Regional Commissions (▶ Africa, the
The World Tourism Organization (UNWTO) is ▶ Americas, East ▶ Asia and the Pacific,
the United Nations’ specialized agency, responsi- ▶ Europe, the ▶ Middle East, and South Asia),
ble for the promotion of sustainable, responsible, which meet at least once a year (UNWTO 2012).
and universally accessible tourism. As the leading Its Specialized Committees advise on ▶ manage-
international and the only intergovernmental ment and program content. These include the Pro-
organization in this field, UNWTO promotes tour- gram and Budget Committee, the World
ism as a driver of economic growth, inclusive Committee on Tourism Ethics, the Committee on
▶ development, and environmental Market and Competitiveness, Committee on Sta-
sustainability. It supports the advancement of tistics and Tourism Satellite Account, the Sustain-
tourism practice, policy, and ▶ knowledge world- able Development of Tourism Committee, and the
wide by generating market knowledge, promoting Committee for the Review of Applications for
competitive and ▶ sustainable tourism policies Affiliate Membership. The Secretariat is led by
and instruments, and fostering tourism ▶ educa- the Secretary-General and is responsible for
tion and ▶ training for its members. It also pro- implementing UNWTO’s program of work and
vides the world’s most comprehensive collection serving the needs of its members.
of tourism-related ▶ statistics, including the reg- UNWTO works in six main areas: Competi-
ularly issued UNWTO World Tourism Barometer, tiveness, ▶ sustainability, poverty reduction,
aimed at monitoring the short-term evolution of capacity building, partnerships, and
▶ international tourism flows (UNWTO n.d.). Its mainstreaming. The Organization aims to maxi-
membership includes 156 countries, 6 territories, mize the positive economic, social, and cultural
2 permanent observers, and over 400 affiliate effects of tourism, while minimizing its negative
members, the latter representing the private sector, impacts. It encourages the implementation of the
educational institutions, trade associations, and Global Code of Ethics for Tourism (UNWTO n.d.)
local tourism authorities. and is committed to promoting tourism as an
UNWTO originated as the International Union instrument in achieving the United Nations
of Official Travel Organizations, which was Millennium Development Goals (UNWTO 2014).
renamed the World Tourism Organization during
its first General Assembly held in Madrid in 1975. See also ▶ Organization and association, ▶ part-
In 2003 this intergovernmental organization nership, ▶ policy and policymaking, ▶ statistics,
became a specialized agency of the United ▶ sustainable tourism.
Nations; in 2005 UNWTO was officially adopted
as the organization’s abbreviation.
UNWTO comprises five major bodies, which References W
govern its financial and administrative activities:
the General Assembly, the Executive Council, the UNWTO 2014 Tourism and the Millennium Development
Goals <www.unwto.org> (3 April).
Regional Commissions, the Committees, and the
1028 Worldmaking
UNWTO 2012 Statutes of the World Tourism Organiza- worldmaking activities for decades without
tion. Madrid: World Tourism Organization. using the portmanteau Goodman/Hollinshead
UNWTO (n.d.) UNWTO World Tourism Barometer
<http://mkt.unwto.org/barometer> (3 April 2014). term. For instance, Stephen Fjellman scrutinizes
UNWTO (n.d.) Global Code of Ethics for Tourism <http:// the “imagineering” influence of international
ethics.unwto.org/en/content/global-code-ethics-tourism> techno-corporate powerhouses like Disney,
(3 April 2014). Elisabeth Buck probes the mythopolitics and
mythopoesis of Hawai’i, Barbara Kirshenblatt-
Gimblett traces the collaborative consciousnesses
through which “destinations” are heralded and
Worldmaking governed, and Henrietta Lidchi explores the colo-
nialist appropriation of ▶ Other cultures.
Keith Hollinshead The main challenge in monitoring
Department of Tourism Studies, University of worldmaking activities in tourism is for practi-
Bedfordshire, Luton, Bedfordshire, UK tioners and researchers to recognize their own
everyday role in making/demaking/remaking
places and spaces, particularly where tourism is
The literature uses “worldmaking” in myriad a loaded catalyst for contested or terrorist activi-
ways, predominantly to suggest that tourism ties. Accordingly, worldmaking constitutes a
forcefully serves to declare what a place, an highly portable conceptualization revealing
event, or an inheritance is or to proclaim which where/when/how tourism does not just mirror a
vision of ▶ culture, ▶ heritage, and nature is fixed “world” out there (be it locality/▶ region/
“right.” Ideas about worldmaking are principally nation or be it ▶ history/▶ myth/storyline) but
associated with Hollinshead (2002), who rejuve- plays an unsuspected cum under-suspected role
nated an ablated term which Goodman had used in creating or changing the ways in which things are
aesthetics to describe lifeworlds which artists and understood symbolically and materially.
musicians build around themselves as they imag- Quotidian worldmaking ▶ discourse and prac-
inatively thrive (1978:6). Hollinshead’s flexible tice not only represent peoples, places, pasts, and
reconditioning of the concept draws upon many presents but actively reconfigure them. The key is
critical inspections of “authority,” “legitimation,” for individuals or institutions to gauge how
and “privilege” such as Michel Foucault (carceral (through the petty but cumulative “talk” and
▶ power), Michel Pêcheux (identification, “deeds” engaged in) they inculcate particular
counter-identification, disidentification), and worldviews and help concretize the versioning
Homi Bhabha (enunciation), which flowered of place (Hollinshead et al. 2009:432).
after Goodman’s ▶ time. Thus, Hollinshead Worldmaking thereby constitutes pervasive
defines worldmaking as: never-neutral ▶ governance; it comprises the col-
The creative – and often “false” or “faux” imagina- laborative and prefabricated ways naturalized
tive processes and projective promotional realms of being or becoming are ordered,
activities – which management agencies and other
presented, and performed (Franklin 2009).
mediating bodies engage in to purposely
(or otherwise unconsciously) privilege particular ▶ Future analyses of this central pillar (but pro-
dominant/favoured representations of peoples/ tean) conceptuality of worldmaking will inspect
places/pasts within a given region, area, or specifically how “the real” is imagined and “the
“world”, over and above other actual or potential
▶ imaginary” is realized; they will examine how
representations of those subjects. (2009: 643)
the inherited and invented fictions of tourism
In tourism, many have commentated upon the amplify the projections of other inscriptive
normalizing or naturalizing power of industries.
Worldmaking 1029
See also ▶ Critical tourism studies, ▶ fantasy, Goodman, N. 1978 Ways of Worldmaking. Hassocks:
▶ governance, ▶ political science, ▶ soft power. Harvester.
Hollinshead, K. 2002 Tourism and the Making of the
World. Miami: Florida International University.
Hollinshead, K. 2009 Tourism and the Social Production of
References Culture and Place. Tourism Analysis 13:639-660.
Hollinshead, K., I. Ateljevic, and N. Ali 2009 Introduction.
Franklin, A. 2009 Sociology of Tourism. In Handbook of Worldmaking Agency: Worldmaking Authority. Tour-
Tourism Studies, T. Jamal and M. Robinson, eds., ism Geographies 11:427-433.
pp.65-81. Los Angeles: Sage.
W
X
Xenophobia studies. The socioeconomic theory of imperial-

ism, under the guise of neocolonialism, can be
Giuli Liebman Parrinello considered as a possible starting point. From a
Università Roma Tre, Rome, Italy sociological perspective, an appropriate approach
is that of strangerhood theory where the ▶ tourist
is an outsider, in transit, and in a foreign commu-
The etymology of the term is significant. Xeno- nity. Regarding ▶ impact, xenophobia can be
phobia (from the Greek word xenojobίa, xeno- traced back to economic, sociocultural, and envi-
phobia, a compound of xenoB, xenos, “foreign, ronmental aspects, connected with the ▶ carrying
unusual” and jóboB, phobos, “fear”) is defined in capacity of the ▶ destination, and is also closely
most dictionaries as fear or hatred of strangers/ related to the level of irritation and antagonism of
foreigners. residents (Mathieson and Wall 1982). Obviously,
The pervasive ▶ mobility characterizing the relationship between hosts and guests is poten-
▶ globalization has recently contributed to differ- tially imbued with the conceptualization of xeno-
ent articulations of xenophobia, ranging from phobia. With respect to the key issue of Western
ongoing traditional manifestations in various tourism theories, the anthropological search for
remote regions to the hatred spread in many con- difference, or the ▶ Other, can be associated
tinents (even in post-national ▶ Europe), toward with its antithesis, xenophilia.
certain groups of strangers, such as migrants, Xenophobia can be expressed in different
minorities, and expatriates (Baumgartl and Favell ways, ranging from the curses of residents to
1995). A hostile attitude to global tourism is par- graffiti telling tourists to go back home and
ticularly identified with Western civilization. assaults on individual and groups of tourists. In
Although xenophobia is closely associated many countries, such attacks are often connected
with aspects of ▶ international tourism both in to ▶ crime associated with tourism. However, it is
▶ theory and practice, there has been little inves- not surprising that the level of intolerance is evi-
tigation conducted on xenophobia and tourism, dent only to a certain degree in international tour-
except some ▶ work related to issues of ▶ terrorism, where affluent white Western foreigners are
ism and violence (Korstanje 2011; Ryan 1991). mostly welcomed as guests, provided they remain
The recent shift in focus toward the previously within certain behavioral limits. As regards the
neglected residents, with their perceptions of tour- ▶ future, and with a reduction of xenophobia,
ists and their plural, negotiated identities, repre- international tourism might become a better con-
sents a relevant conceptual support in tourism tributor to peace and mutual understanding,

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
1032 Xenophobia
provided it is coupled with an enlightened sustain- References

able policy within the framework of peaceful
international relations. The much recommended Baumgartl, B., and A. Favell, eds. 1995 New Xenophobia
in Europe. The Hague: Kluwer Law International.
involvement of local residents in tourism planning
Korstanje, M. 2011 Examining the Connection between
may be one of the potential measures, which Tourism and Terrorism: A New Academic Perspective.
encourages a friendlier attitude toward interna- Journal of Hospitality and Tourism 9:1-20.
tional tourism. Mathieson, A., and G. Wall 1982 Tourism: Economic,
Physical and Social Impacts. Harlow: Longman.
Ryan, C. 1991 Tourism, Terrorism and Violence: The Risks
See also ▶ Community development, ▶ globali- of Wider World Travel. London: Research Institute for
zation, ▶ impact, ▶ stranger. the Study of Conflict and Terrorism.
Y
Yachting tourism most important yacht competition. After World

War II, the number of moorings and marinas
Antonio Alcover Casasnovas started to increase in North America and Europe.
Departament d’Economia Aplicada, Universitat By the year 2007, there have been 20,000 marinas
de les Illes Balears, Palma de Mallorca, Islas and more than 6.5 million halls around the world
Baleares, Spain (Tourism-review.com 2013).
Main cruising regions are the Caribbean and
the Mediterranean. Both enjoy good winds, cli-
Yachting tourism refers to the use of water vessels mate conditions, and natural and cultural attrac-
or boats for leisure purposes, including cruising, tions. There is limited competition between these
fishing, racing, or the practice of other nautical two areas due to geographical distance and sea-
activities. Depending on the type of vessels, it sonality. Yachting tourism in the Mediterranean is
could be classified into sailing and boat powering very active thanks to the transparency of waters,
and, depending on the property, as chartered or climate, wind, infrastructures, and cultural and
private yachting. natural attractions. There is a mooring capacity
Private yachts could be of local or cruiser for more than 300,000 boats along its coasts. Des-
owners. Local owners moor their yachts in close tinations in Spain, France, Italy, Croatia, Greece,
marinas and use them during leisure time. and Turkey are becoming very well known by
Cruisers normally spend more time in their boats yachting practitioners.
and visit other marinas or ports. Charterers rent a However, the yachting industry is starting to
yacht or a cabin for a period of time to cruise or deal with many problems. Some of the coasts of
practice nautical activities. Spain, France, Italy, and the western Mediterra-
The word yacht comes from the Dutch word nean are starting to suffer from pollution and
Jacht meaning hunt, which was used to refer to a mooring limitations. Environmental concerns
type of very fast boats. In the nineteenth century, influence the development of new marinas, and
the English aristocracy started to use these boats limitations on access and anchorage are spreading
for sailing competitions. In 1851, the Royal Yacht in some of the most visited destinations. Yacht
Squadron challenged the Yacht America, and after management is becoming an important issue, as
the British defeat, the America’s Cup became the it is considered an interesting niche product.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
1034 Yemen
Private yachting and yacht charter are the highest Yemen’s economy is weak compared to most
expending types in some destinations (Alcover countries in the region and depends heavily on the
et al. 2011; Sariisik et al. 2011). oil. The country has three classified UNESCO
Yachting events are also becoming important in world heritage sites, with Socotra Island as a
terms of image and economic impact for some des- UNESCO natural heritage site. The Ministry of
tinations such as America’s Cup for San Francisco or Tourism was created in 2003 to ensure sustainable
Kings Cup for Mallorca of Spain. Regattas as the economic development, along with the growth of
English festival of Cowes week in Solent or the the tourism ▶ industry. The Tourism Promotion
classic regattas in Minorca and Barcelona are con- Board was established in 1999, with the main task
sidered to be very important for the image of these of marketing and promoting Yemeni tourism
destinations (San Francisco Port 2013). ▶ product abroad.
According to the Ministry of Tourism (2010)
See also ▶ Coastal tourism, ▶ festival and event, statistics, international arrival in 2010 reached
▶ sport tourism. 536,020, an increase by 24 % from 2009. In the
same year, total tourism revenues reached US$
622 million, an increase by 28 % from 2009. In
References
2012, 2.8 % of total GDP was due to tourism, with
Alcover, A., M. Alemany, M. Jacob, M. Payeras, an increase by 4.3 % in 2013. In the same year,
A. García, and L. Martínez-Ribes 2011 The Economic tourism directly supported 140,500 jobs (2.4 % of
Impact of Yacht Charter Tourism on the Balearic Econ- total employment); this rose to 5.0 % in 2013
omy. Tourism Economics 17:625-638. (WTTC 2013). In this year, the total contribution
Sariisik, M., O. Turkay, and O. Akova 2011 How to Man-
age Yacht Tourism in Turkey. Procedia Social and of tourism to ▶ employment, including jobs indi-
Behavioral Sciences 24:1014-1025. rectly supported by the industry, was 6.0 % of
Tourism-review.com 2013 World Yacht Tourism-2 www. total employment (357,500 jobs). Tourism
tourism-review.com (10 May 2015). ▶ investment in 2012 was 3.4 % of total invest-
San Francisco Port 2013 Economic Impact – The America’s
Cup: Economic Impacts of a Match on San Francisco ment (WTTC 2013).
Bay www.sfport.com/Modules/ShowDocument.aspx? The government had committed to a long-term
documentid=864 (10 May 2015). development plan for tourism prior to the crisis in
2011, but these remained unrealistic given the
recent events affecting the country. The unrest
and the ongoing security situation in Yemen
Yemen have affected the tourism industry for many
years. The 2011 crisis took a heavy toll on tour-
Khaled Alduais ism, as violence was reported in several areas
Arab Tourism Experts Association, Sana’a, causing fears among international tourists
Yemen (EI 2013).
Tourism ▶ education in Yemen is in its early
stage. The authorities have worked to strengthen
The Republic of Yemen is located in Western the skills of workers in the tourism industry. The
Asia, occupying the southwestern to southern quality and variety of tourism education were thus
end of the Arabian Peninsula (Figure 1). Yemen enhanced through initiatives targeting vocational
is one of the oldest centers of civilization in the training and academic tourism programs. Cur-
▶ Middle East, occupying 527,970 km2 rently, two public and two private universities
(203, 850 mi2) and having about 2,000 km of are providing tourism and hotel programs leading
coastline with more than 200 islands. It is bor- to bachelor degree. In addition to the Aden Hotel
dered by ▶ Saudi Arabia to the north, the Red Sea and tourism institute, the National Hotel and Tour-
to the west, the Gulf of Aden and Arabian Sea to ism Institute in Sana’a was successfully launched
the south, and ▶ Oman to the east. as a pilot model institute funded by the European
Yemen 1035
Yemen, Figure 1 Map of Yemen
Union in June 2006. The tourism industry of References

Yemen requires massive investments particularly
in infrastructure and human resources. The poten- EI 2013 Travel and Tourism in Yemen - Industry Over-
view: Country Report. London: Euromonitor
tial and possibilities in tourism will grow if the
International.
country enjoys good political stability and security. Ministry of Tourism 2010 Annual Statistics. Sana’a:
Ministry of Tourism. Y
See also ▶ Image, ▶ industry, ▶ investment, WTTC 2013 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact.
London: World Travel and Tourism Coucil.
▶ sustainable tourism.
1036 Yoga tourism
tourism posits that “. . .as the influence of the creative

Yoga tourism yoga tourist gains momentum within a community, a
critical mass of positive change on community cap-
Lauren M. Ponder1 and Patrick J. Holladay2 itals will be realized” (Ponder and Holladay
1
South Carolina National Heritage Corridor, 2013:105). This ▶ theory proposes that a positive
Spartanburg, USA flow of social change passes among actors in a com-
2
School of Hospitality, Sport and Tourism munity. This continues until a tipping point is
Management, Troy University, Brunswick, USA overwhelmed, creating a positive social regime shift.
Yoga tourism research has focused on motiva-
tion, typology, benefits, health, and wellness. The
A yoga tourist practices yoga during travel or future of research should explore variables of
travels for this purpose. The ancient Sanskrit social cohesion, group psychologies, and civic
word yoga means union, yoke, or to connect. engagement in activities such as sharing of food,
A practitioner seeks to connect with self, others, culture, and resource protection. This could
and surroundings. Yoga has roots in Indian culture explain how yoga tourism and philosophies
and has been practiced for millennia. Since the impact self and community development.
2000s yoga has grown in Western cultures
(Ali-Knight 2009) and by 2012 to 20.4 million See also ▶ India, ▶ international tourism, ▶ rec-
practitioners in the ▶ United States. A study of reation, ▶ special interest tourism, ▶ wellbeing.
yoga tourism identifies four motivations: seeking
spirituality, enhancing mental wellbeing, enhanc-
ing physical condition, and controlling negative References
emotions (Lehto et al. 2006).
Yoga tourism is a journey of self with transfor- Ali-Knight, J. 2009 Yoga tourism. In Wellness and Tour-
ism: Mind, Body, Spirit, Place, R. Bushell and
mative capacities on physical, psychological, spir- P. Sheldon, eds., pp.84-95. New York: Cognizant.
itual, and social awareness. Together they Kelly, C., and M. Smith 2009 Holistic Tourism: Integrating
integrate mind, body, and spirit (Kelly and Smith Body, Mind, Spirit. In Wellness and Tourism: Mind,
2009). This transformation is achieved through Body, Spirit, Place, R. Bushell and P. Sheldon, eds.,
pp.69-83. New York: Cognizant.
the eight limbs of yoga known as ashtanga
Lehto, X., S. Brown, Y. Chen, and A. Morrison 2006 Yoga
(eight limbs): Yamas (moral restraints), niyamas Tourism as a Niche within the Wellness Tourism
(observances), asana (postures), pratyahara Market. Tourism Recreation Research 31:25-35.
(sensory withdrawal), dharana (concentration), Ponder, L., and P. Holladay 2013 The Transformative
Power of Yoga Tourism. In Transformational
dhyana (meditation), and samadhi
Tourism: Tourist Perspectives, Y. Reisinger, ed.,
(enlightenment). The Eightfold Path is laid out pp.98-107. Wallingford: CABI.
to seek balance of strength and compassion and Smith, M., and C. Kelly 2006 Holist Tourism: Journeys of
is practiced in six forms: Raja (meditation), karma the Self? Tourism Recreation Research 31:15-24.
(service), bhakti (devotion), jnana (intellect), tan-
tra (divinity), and hatha (postures).
Yoga tourism is part of the special interest and
wellness tourism (Smith and Kelly 2006). Research Youth tourism
remains thin but has indicated yoga tourists have high
levels of education, high household incomes, and Harald Pechlaner
work in professional or technical fields (Lehto Catholic University of Eichstaett–Ingolstadt,
et al. 2006). Growing research on this market is Eichstaett, Germany
investigating the theoretical transformative properties
of yoga tourism on ▶ community development and
positive psychological, emotional, and spiritual com- Youth tourism is one of the most underestimated
munity capitals. This model of transformative yoga segments. What originally played only a niche
Youth tourism 1037
existence is becoming a driver for overall social people aged 26 and below who are sophisticated
developments. More than other forms, youth tour- and well educated. They are willing to earn the
ism stands for innovation and sustainability in this required money during their trips if necessary and
market. Its preoccupation provides a view into recognize the desire of getting to know other
future developments because young guests can cultures as a prime motive, followed by excite-
be seen as pioneers in the use of new technologies ment through social contacts. Therefore, different
and experiment with new forms of social network- people and places are the central motives of the
ing and communication (UNWTO 2011). One of journey, in which young people understand them-
its foundations was created in the “First World selves particularly as a ▶ tourist if recovery plays
Tourism Organization’s International Conference a role. Backpackers visit mostly several countries
on Youth Tourism” in 1991 as next to the call for and are interested in historic sites and monuments
uniform systems of data gathering and presenta- during their visits. They walk and trek, and under-
tion through the ▶ UNWTO; the national tourism stand travel as an enjoyment in cafes and shop-
organizations were requested to also evaluate the ping in the context of social contacts. In turn,
needs of young people and guests systematically experience-seeking motivations play an important
(Abdel-Ghaffar et al. 1992). role for backpackers (Richards and Wilson 2003).
Especially since World War II, there has been In particular, students play a specific role in vari-
an extensive examination of the phenomenon of ous forms of youth tourism. They have long been
youth and the corresponding consequences on the recognized as an attractive target group for travel-
consumer side. In the conflict between rebellion related consumption (Babin and Kim 2001).
on the one hand and specific consumer needs on
the other, youth was associated in the course of an
interpretive modernity especially with identity, The perspectives of gap year
style, and cultural innovation (Kjeldgaard and and volunteer tourism
Askegaard 2006).
This market segment has much to do with alterna-
tive forms of tourism, which allow a glance at
Young travelers and global future social- and tourism-specific developments.
developments Two recent issues can be highlighted: gap year and
▶ volunteer tourism (Lyons et al. 2012), consisting
The diversity of market- and supply-specific of two partially parallel developments of social
forms of tourism for young people complicates a expressions of young guests, who are often associ-
definition. Youth tourism is essentially under- ated with international mobility and cross-cultural
stood as the traveling of young people together understanding and are regarded as starting points
with the like-minded, whereupon communities for global citizenship. It has not been shown that
are classified as a cultural background of differen- volunteers are mainly driven by ethical motives or
tiation and individualization, in which mobility the need of helping in the context of their trips.
and flexibility withstand as core values of post- Their contribution (or desire “to contribute”) to a
modern youth culture (Kjeldgaard and Askegaard better world plays a non-negligible role, so do
2006). Young people are on the move in groups or aspects of travel serve as personal enrichment.
individually without pedagogical claims, These tourists fully recognize the negative impacts
although youth tourism has often developed of tourism due to their various travel experiences,
from youth group travel: From classes and school and try to minimize these by including aspects of
trips developed youth group trips and finally the volunteering while on the move.
individual ▶ travel of youth for different reasons. Incidentally, volunteer and gap-year tourists
Richards and Wilson (2003) describe today’s from developed countries form the major source Y
young tourists as the global nomads of tomorrow. markets of youth tourism. Even from a political
According to this source, they are mostly young side, gap-year tourism is recognized as a form of
1038 Youth tourism
cultural enrichment in a globalized world. The See also ▶ Alternative tourism, ▶ backpacker,
youth see this form of disruption of their education ▶ cross-cultural study, ▶ scholarship, ▶ volun-
not as a “career break” in the context of global teer tourism.
career requirements but as significant improvement
in their life, without disregarding the hedonistic
experience-oriented lifestyle. In this respect, vol-
unteer tourism is a fast growing segment in the References
context of gap years.
Youth tourism can be seen in various forms of Abdel-Ghaffar, A., M. Handy, J. Jafari, L. Kreul, and
F. Stivala 1992 Conference Reports: Youth Tourism.
specific applications. Language study travels pro- Annals of Tourism Research 19: 792-795.
vide in particular an important access to countries Babin, B., and K. Kim 2001 International Students' Travel
and cultures for young people. The national cul- Behavior. Journal of Travel and Tourism Marketing 10:
ture and tourism policy in many countries are of 93-106.
Kjeldgaard, D., and S. Askegaard 2006 The Glocalization
interest to this market in providing effective learn- of Youth Culture: The Global Youth Segment as Struc-
ing of the language and being attractive as a tures of Common Difference. Journal of Consumer
▶ destination. Some countries offer services to Research 33: 231-247.
backpackers who are seen not only for economic Lyons, K., J. Hanley, S. Wearing, and J. Neil 2012 Gap
Year Volunteer Tourism: Myths of Global Citizenship?
reasons as an interesting target groups but also as Annals of Tourism Research 39: 361-378.
future global nomads considering the visited Richards, G., and J. Wilson 2003 Today’s Youth Travel-
country as important reference points in their lers: Tomorrow’s Global Nomads. New Horizons in
life. Future efforts should be made to ensure that Independent Youth and Student Travel. A Report for
the International Student Travel Confederation and the
youth tourism gets a higher significance in Association of Tourism and Leisure Education.
research; after all, young people often take on Amsterdam: ISTC.
social developments beforehand as tourists. Sus- UNWTO 2011 The Power of Youth Travel. http://
tainability research can especially benefit from dtxtq4w60xqpw.cloudfront.net/sites/all/files/pdf/the_
power_of_youth_travel.pdf (14 December 2013).
this segment because the youth have their specific
image of a global world and will significantly
affect and change the travel of the future.
Z
Zambia diversification agenda with a view to reduce the

economy’s dependency on copper. This agenda
Wilson Silungwe seeks to be a catalyst of development of the
Hotel and Tourism Training Institute, Maluba, country’s rich resource base by promoting agri-
Zambia culture and tourism.
The country’s key tourism potential lies in her
abundant tourism chattels such as the national
The Republic of Zambia is the 39th largest coun- parks and game management areas with unspoiled
try in the world (after Chile), covering a land mass wilderness. The national parks are home to a great
of 752,614 km2 (290,586 mi2). Located in the variety of fauna and flora. Zambia is also endowed
southern central African region, Zambia is a land- with panoramic attractions speckled around the
locked country, with ▶ Zimbabwe, ▶ Botswana, vast landmass such as Africa’s Great Rift Valley
and ▶ Namibia as her neighbors southward, that has the Muchinga and the Zambezi escarp-
▶ Angola on the western side, the Democratic ments and scenic water bodies such as lakes and
Republic of the Congo and ▶ Tanzania on the rivers including one of the Seven Wonders of the
northern side, and ▶ Malawi and ▶ Mozambique World, the Victoria Falls, which is a world heri-
on the eastern borders (Figure 1) (Murphy and tage site (Zambia Review 2013).
Luckham 2010). The population is estimated at International arrivals increased to 422,200 in
14,309,500, the 70th most populous nation. the first half of 2012 from 400,900 in the
The prevailing climate is tropical, as the coun- corresponding period in 2011, representing a
try lies mostly between latitudes 8 and 18 S and 4.4 % increase. At the same time, bed space rose
longitudes 22 and 34 E. The ▶ landscape is pre- to 7,500 from 6,100, representing a 22.1 % rise.
dominantly high plateau, with some hills and Private investment in the industry through con-
mountains, dissected by river valleys. struction of hotels and lodges has contributed to a
The economy has relied on copper mining good performance of these indicators.
since independence (Sardanis 2003). An annual Some of the key challenges that have stalled
average of 340,000 metric tons of copper is pro- the growth of tourism have hinged on the marginal
duced every year. The government however has, investment in human skills development and a
in recent years, pursued an economic nonexistent research culture over the years.

DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-01384-8
1040 Zimbabwe
Zambia, Figure 1 Map of Zambia
However, the government has, in recent years,

upscaled support to raise the benchmark on skills Zimbabwe
and research by both sponsoring these activities
and consuming the products thereof. There has Haretsebe Manwa1 and Takaruza Munyanyiwa2
1
been a proliferation of both public and private North West University, Mahikeng, South Africa
2
tertiary institutions that have emerged to offer Pro Vice Chancellor’s Office, University of
tourism and hospitality education and related Zimbabwe, Harare, Zimbabwe
programs.
The Republic of Zimbabwe is a landlocked coun-

See also ▶ Africa, ▶ heritage, ▶ park tourism, try (391,000 km2, 105,966 mi2) in Southern
▶ wildlife tourism. Africa bordering ▶ South Africa, ▶ Botswana,
▶ Zambia, and ▶ Mozambique (Figure 1). Its
13.8 million population speaks English, Shona,
and Sindebele. The main economic activities are
References
mining, agriculture, and unregistered micro busi-
Murphy, A., and N. Luckham 2010 Zambia and ness (Jones 2010).
Malawi – Lonely Planet. London: Footscray Vic. The country was a former British colony. In
Sardanis, A. 2003 Africa: Another Side of the Coin: North- 1960, the minority white settlers unilaterally
ern Rhodesia’s Final Years and Zambia’s Nationhood.
declared independence from Britain which
London: I.B.Tauris.
Zambia Review 2013 Zambia Tourism. Lusaka: Directory resulted in the black majority waging a war of
Publishers of Zambia. liberation. After independence in 1980, there
Zimbabwe 1041
Zimbabwe, Figure 1 Map of Zimbabwe
was massive growth in tourism ▶ infrastructure. increased from 313,000 in 1982 (Zinyama 1989)
The 1990s saw the adoption of structural adjust- to two million in 1999. In this year, it was one of
ment policies which stimulated growth and gained the three highest performing countries in
confidence of investors. ▶ Tourist arrivals sub-Saharan Africa with an average growth rate
Z
1042 Zoning
of 11 % and the fifth most popular ▶ destination in See also ▶ Africa, ▶ dark tourism, ▶ sustainable
▶ Africa. Development policies for communal tourism, ▶ world heritage.
areas management programs for indigenous
resources have been replicated by the Southern
African Development Community and other References
developing economies.
Following the 2000–2008 period of macroeco- Jones, J. 2010 Nothing is Straight in Zimbabwe: The Rise
of the Kukiya-kiya Economy 2000–2008. Journal of
nomic and political instability, tourist arrivals and
Southern African Studies 36:285-299.
receipts fell by over 60 % (Manwa 2007). The Manwa, H. 2007 Is Zimbabwe Ready to Venture into the
formation of a Government of National Unity in Cultural Tourism Market? Development Southern
2009, along with the introduction of a Africa 24:465-474.
WTTC 2014 Travel and Tourism Economic Impact. Lon-
multicurrency environment, the removal of
don: World Travel and Tourism Council.
▶ travel bans, the participation in international Zinyama, L. 1989 Some Recent Trends in Tourist Arrivals
travel fairs, as well as the cohosting with ▶ Zam- in Zimbabwe. Geography 74(1):62-65.
bia of the ▶ UNWTO general assembly in 2013,
improved the image of Zimbabwe. Following
these events, inbound tourist numbers increased
to 2.5 million in 2013. The major attractions are Zoning
national parks, Victoria Falls, its five UNESCO
world heritage sites, and a warm climate. Malcolm Cooper
Tourism is recognized as one of the pillars Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies,
underpinning economic recovery. The industry Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Beppu, Oita
contributes 5.6 % of the GDP and 3.7 % of direct Prefecture, Japan
employment (WTTC 2014). Large-scale infra-
structure projects are underway, such as the
expansion of the Joshua Mgabuko Nkomo Inter- Zoning, as it is popularly conceived, is part of the
national Airport, the creation of tourism ▶ devel- toolkit of command and control planning. Regu-
opment zones and Tourism ▶ Satellite Account, latory frameworks using zoning are among the
and the development of a ▶ domestic tourism most applied methods for implementing develop-
▶ strategy. Further, the growing importance of ment policies and plans and/or for protecting the
tourism in Zimbabwe has culminated with the natural and sociocultural environments of a com-
establishment of the Ministry of Tourism and munity. In this context, zoning seeks to regulate
Hospitality Industry. land uses by separating them based on their
Most Zimbabwean ▶ universities offer tourism incompatibility, or by allowing compatible uses
and ▶ hospitality undergraduate and postgraduate to coexist together. Thus, this technique is used to
degree programs. ▶ Future tourism ▶ facilitation divide a town, city, village, or rural area into
proposals include the introduction of a uni-visa separate residential, commercial, industrial,
system for Southern African countries, the attrac- and/or multiple use subareas, with a view to pre-
tion of international airlines, and the investment in serving the desirable characteristics of each type
infrastructure along with political and economic of development and regulating its impact on the
stability. The following areas present future local environment.
research prospects: impacts of ▶ climate change Regulations generally prescribe limitations on
on tourism, ▶ sustainable tourism, impacts of development within a zone. Among other things,
▶ diaspora and ▶ domestic tourism, ▶ safety these may control building styles and layout,
and security effects on tourism, and human capital monitor the provision of service infrastructure,
development. provide for public access and parking/loading
Zoning 1043
areas, deal with visual and other amenity ques- restrictions, mandatory interpretation of sites and
tions, and regulate the use of signs. Other policies facilities, and the relocation of undesirable build-
may provide space for public facilities, such as ings and land uses to alternative areas. Such reg-
schools, parks, and environmental conservation in ulations may apply to building setbacks from a
particular zones. In addition, zoning assists plan- street and other boundaries, size and height of
ners to bring about orderly growth and change and buildings, number of rooms, and the floor space
helps assure property owners and residents that or area of buildings. They may also apply to the
the characteristics of an area will remain relatively frontage of lots, minimum lot area, off-street
consistent over time, contributing to stable land parking, and the number of buildings on a lot.
values. A zoning ordinance may also permit the construc-
tion of a building intended for nonresidential use,
such as a school, hospital, public house, or bed
Tourism zoning and breakfast accommodation, in a residential
district. Complicating the formal imposition of a
A zoning regulation (ordinance), if reasonable and zoning ordinance is when an existing use does not
not arbitrary, has legal force in most jurisdictions. conform to the requirements of the zone controls,
It is one of the mechanisms used to implement but the use existed before the adoption or amend-
policies deemed necessary for public health, ment of those controls. The use is usually given
safety, comfort, morals, as well as the general nonconforming but continued use status in this
welfare of the community, including its temporary case. A vested legal nonconforming use is a prop-
visitors (WTO 1993). The basic principles of zon- erty right that cannot be taken away without rea-
ing are to provide for appropriate tourism facility sonable compensation or the lapse of ▶ time.
and attraction development, to restrict land uses However, it may not be expanded or changed;
incompatible with tourism, to regulate the protec- and if it is a structure destroyed by fire or other
tion and/or ▶ conservation of specific local envi- cause, it may not be rebuilt.
ronmental features (wetlands, archaeological, and
historic sites, or important stands of vegetation
and unusual geological features attractive to tour- Borobudur as an example
ists), and to ensure conformity with any
masterplan for the overall development of an It is commonly accepted that zoning regulations
area (Kasterlak and Barber 2012). should promote the good of all people in a com-
Related benefits are the maintenance of visual munity, rather than further the desires of a partic-
amenity; the creation of functional groupings of ular group, and that the zoning power should not
facilities and activities for ▶ accommodation, be invoked to further private interests. This is the
commercial, and cultural purposes; and the devel- case even when tourism ▶ development is at stake
opment of recreation facilities. Due to the nature (Dredge and Jenkins 2007). An example of the use
of the tourism ▶ industry, specific controls on the of zoning in the tourism context is that in
mixture of its facilities and environmental preser- Borobudur National Archaeological Park in
vation requirements may also be designated in Java, ▶ Indonesia (Baiquni 2009).
buffer zones between higher-density land uses In the 1980s, five zones for various types and
and protected areas (Gunn and Var 2002). intensities of land use were established around
Variations can include performance measures this important ancient monument and tourism
relating to allowable land uses (design, density, ▶ attraction. Zone One protects the immediate
servicing standards) in a zone, mandatory cluster- ▶ environment of the monument with no devel-
ing of facilities/attractions, scenic road designa- opment allowed except for landscaping (200 m
tions, controlled circulation networks and access from the temple site); Zone Two includes
Z
1044 Zoning
development of facilities for ▶ tourist use, park communities, and developers is to determine
operation, and archaeological conservation activ- whether or not indicative tourism development
ities (500 m from the site); Zone Three is desig- plans are a feasible alternative to the more tradi-
nated for access road and smaller monuments, tional zoning plan incorporating tourism when
within which land uses are strictly controlled to determining the suitability of a land use proposal.
be compatible with the park (2 km from the site); Finally, does the process of formal zoning and
Zone Four maintains historical scenery (5 km review support or hinder the development of the
from the site); and Zone Five covers archaeolog- tourism industry?
ical surveys and the protection of unexcavated
archaeological sites (10 km from the site). ▶ Plan- See also ▶ Development, ▶ environment,
ning for this park also included determination of ▶ planning, ▶ protected area tourism.
maximum visitor capacity, infrastructure needs,
and environmental conservation requirements.
Also, an important part of the implementation
program was the relocation of residents away References
from the monument in order to implement the
zoning plan. Baiquni, M. 2009 Belajar dari Pasang Surut Peradaban
Borobudur dan Konsep Pengembangan Pariwisata
Borobudur. Forum Geografi 23:25-40.
Dredge, D., and J. Jenkins 2007 Tourism Planning and
Emerging research issues Policy. Sydney: Wiley.
Gunn, C., and T. Var 2002 Tourism Planning. New York:
Routledge.
In regard to the last of these outcomes in the Kasterlak, B., and B. Barber 2012 Fundamentals of Plan-
Borobudur case, and in many ▶ other tourism ning and Developing Tourism. New York: Prentice
destinations, there needs to be further research to Hall.
determine if a zoning plan favors commercial UNWTO 1993 Sustainable Tourism Development Guide
for Local Planners. Madrid: World Tourism
tourism interests over those of the host commu- Organization.
nity. Another challenge for planners,
List of Entries
A Armenia
Aboriginal tourism Art
Accessibility Asia and the Pacific
Accommodation Astrotourism
Acculturation Attention
Activity Attitude
Actor-network theory Attraction
Adaptation Australia
Adventure tourism Austria
Advertisement Authenticity
Afghanistan Autoethnography
Africa Automatic interaction detection
Agritourism Automation
Air transport Aviation
Airline Azerbaijan
Albania
Algeria B
Alienation Backpacker
Allocentric and psychocentric Bahamas
Alpine tourism Bahrain
Alternative tourism Balance of payment
Americas Bangladesh
Andorra Barbados
Angola Beach tourism
Antarctic tourism Behavior
Anthropology Belarus
Anticipation Belgium
Antigua and Barbuda Belize
Anti-tourism Benin
Archaeology Bhutan
Architecture Bicycle tourism
Arctic tourism Biological diversity
Argentina Birdwatching tourism
# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1045

DOI 10.1007/ 978-3-319-01384-8
1046 List of Entries
Bolivia Community-based tourism

Border tourism Comoros
Bosnia and Herzegovina Comparative advantage
Botswana Comparative study
Brazil Competitive advantage
Brunei Darussalam Computable general equilibrium model
Budget tourism Computer reservation system
Bulgaria Concentration ratio
Burkina Faso Congo, Democratic Republic
Burundi Congo, Republic
Business tourism Conjoint analysis
Conservation
Conspicuous consumption
C
Constraint
Cambodia
Consumerism
Cameroon
Content analysis
Camping tourism
Contingent valuation method
Canada
Continuum model
Cape Verde
Convention and visitor bureau
Car rental
Corporate social responsibility
Career
Correspondence analysis
Caribbean
Cosmopolitanism
Carrying capacity
Costa Rica
Case study
Cost-benefit analysis
Casino tourism
Côte d’ Ivoire
Causal model
Creative tourism
Center-periphery
Crime
Central African Republic
Crisis management
Centrally planned economy
Critical tourism studies
Certification
Croatia
Chad
Cross-cultural study
Change, sociocultural
Cruise tourism
Chaos theory
Cuba
Charter tourism
Culinary tourism
Chile
Cultural conflict
China
Cultural tourism
Chronotope
Culture broker
Climate change
Culture shock
Cluster analysis
Culture
Coastal tourism
Cyprus
Coffee and tea tourism
Czech Republic
Cognition
Cognitive dissonance
Co-integration D
Colombia Dark tourism
Colonialism Data envelopment analysis
Commercialization Decisionmaking
Community development Decision support system
List of Entries 1047
Decolonization Enclave tourism

Deficit Energy
Delphi technique Entrepreneurship
Demand modeling Environment
Demography Epistemology
Demonstration effect Equatorial Guinea
Denmark Equity
Dependency theory Eritrea
Desert tourism Error correction model
Destination benchmarking Escape
Destination branding Estonia
Destination competitiveness Ethics
Destination lifecycle Ethiopia
Destination marketing organization Ethnic tourism
Destination website Ethnicity
Destination Ethnocentrism
Developing country Ethnography
Development eTourism
Deviance Eurocentrism
Diaspora Europe
Disability Evaluation
Disaster Excursion
Discourse Exoticism
Discriminant analysis Expatriate
Distance decay Expenditure
Distribution channel Experience
Djibouti Experimental research
Domestic tourism Exploration
Dominica Export
Dominican Republic
Drifter
F
Facilitation
E Facility management
Ecology Factor analysis
eCommerce Family tourism
Econometrics Fantasy
Economic development Feasibility study
Economics Feminism
Ecotourism Festival and event
Ecuador Fieldwork
Education Fiji
Egypt Film
El Salvador Financial management
Elasticity, demand and supply Finland
Elite tourism Fishing tourism
Emic and etic Flora and fauna
Employment Forecasting
Foreign exchange Holiday

Forest tourism Holistic approach
France Honduras
Franchising Hospitality
Frequent flyer program Host and guest
Future Hostility
Human resource management
Humanism
G
Humor
Gabon
Hungary
Gambia
Hunting tourism
Game theory
Gaming tourism
I
Gaze
Iceland
Gender
Identity
Geographical information system
Ideology
Geography
Image
Georgia
Imaginary
Geotourism
Immigration
Germany
Impact
Ghana
Imperialism
Ghetto tourism
Import
Global distribution system
Import substitution
Globalization
Importance-performance analysis
Golf tourism
Inbound tourism
Governance
Incentive tourism
Grand Tour
India
Gravity model
Indonesia
Greece
Industrial tourism
Green tourism
Industry
Grenada
Informal economy
Grounded theory
Information center, tourist
Growth hypothesis
Information technology
Guatemala
Infrastructure
Guidebook
Innovation
Guided tour
Input-output analysis
Guinea
Insurance
Guinea-Bissau
Intellectual property
Guyana
International Academy for the Study of Tourism
International tourism
H Internet
Haiti Interpretation
Hajj Interview
Handicraft Investment
Health tourism Iran
Heritage Iraq
Historical tourism Ireland
History Irritation index
Island tourism Loyalty

Israel Luxembourg
Italy Luxury tourism
J M
Jamaica Macedonia
Japan Madagascar
Jordan Malawi
Journal, academic Malaysia
Journal, travel trade Maldives
Journalism Mali
Malta
Management
K
Map
Kazakhstan
Mapping, perceptual
Kenya
Marginality
Kiribati
Marine tourism
Knowledge
Marker
Korea, Democratic People's Republic
Market
Korea, Republic
Marketing
Kuwait
Marshall Islands
Kyrgyzstan
Mass tourism
Masterplan
L Mauritania
Labor relation Mauritius
Landmark Media
Landscape Medical tourism
Language Mediterranean
Laos Merger and acquisition
Latvia Methodology
Law Mexico
Leadership MICE
Leakage, economic Micronesia
Lebanon Middle East
Legislation Migration
Leisure Military tourism
Lesotho Mobility
Liberia Model
Libya Modernity
Liechtenstein Moldova
Lifestyle Monaco
Literary tourism Mongolia
Lithuania Montenegro
Location Morocco
Locational analysis Motivation
Longitudinal study Motor coach tourism
Low-carbon tourism Mountain tourism
Mozambique P
Multiculturalism Package tourism
Multidestination trip Pakistan
Multidimensional scaling Palau
Multidisciplinarity Panama
Multinational firm Papua New Guinea
Multiplier effect Paradigm
Museum Paradise
Museumization Paraguay
Music tourism Park tourism
Myanmar Partnership
Myth Peace
Perception, community
Performance
N Peru
Namibia Phenomenology
Narrative Phenomenon
National character Philippines
National tourism Photography
National tourism organization and administration Pilgrimage tourism
Nationalism Place attachment
Nature tourism Planning
Nauru Play
Nautical tourism Pleasure tourism
Nearest neighbor analysis Poland
Nepal Polar tourism
Network Policy and policymaking
New Zealand Political science
Nicaragua Pollution
Niger Portugal
Nigeria Postmodernism
Non-governmental organization Power
Norway Precautionary principle
Nostalgia tourism Prestige
Novelty Principal component analysis
Product
Professionalism
O
Pro-poor tourism
Olympic tourism
Protected area tourism
Oman
Psychology
Online review
Public good
Optimal arousal
Public relation
Organization and association
Organizational culture
Organizational learning Q
Orientalism Qatar
Other Q-methodology
Outbound tourism Qualitative research
Quality of life Seasonality

Quantitative research Second home
Quest Security meta-framing
Segmentation
Semiotics
R
Senegal
Race
Senior tourism
Rail tourism
Senses
Ratio analysis
Serbia
Reciprocity
Service quality
Recreation
Service
Recycling
Sex tourism
Red tourism
Seychelles
Region
Shopping tourism
Regression
Sierra Leone
Religion
Sightseeing
Repeat tourism
Sign
Representation, cultural
Simulation
Resort development
Singapore
Resource
Skiing tourism
Responsible tourism
Slovakia
Restaurant
Slovenia
Revenue management
Slow tourism
Risk
Slum tourism
Rite of passage
Smart tourism
Ritual
Smuggling
Role
Social accounting matrix
Romance tourism
Social capital
Romania
Social class
Rule and regulation
Social exchange theory
Rural tourism
Social media
Russia
Social network analysis
Rwanda
Social tourism
Sociolinguistics
S Sociology
Sacred journey Soft power
Safari Solomon Islands
Safety and security Somalia
Saint Kitts and Nevis South Africa
Saint Lucia South Sudan
Saint Vincent and the Grenadines Souvenir
Samoa Spa tourism
San Marino Space tourism
Sao Tome and Principe Spain
Satisfaction Special interest tourism
Saudi Arabia Sport tourism
Scenic drive tourism Sri Lanka
Scholarship Stakeholder
Statistics Tourist
Stereotype Tourist space
Stranger Trade liberalization
Strategy Tradition
Structural equation modeling Training
Study tour Transactional analysis
Substitution Transportation
Sudan Travel
Sun, sand, sea and sex Travel agency and tour operation
Supply chain Travel literature
Supply Trend
Suriname TRINET: Tourism research information
Surplus network
Survey Trinidad and Tobago
Sustainability Tunisia
Sustainable tourism Turkey
Swaziland Turkmenistan
Sweden Tuvalu
Switzerland Typology, tourist
SWOT analysis
Symbolic interactionism
U
Symbolic value
Uganda
Symbolism
Ukraine
Syria
United Arab Emirates
System
United Kingdom
United States
University
T
Urban tourism
Tajikistan
Uruguay
Tanzania
Uzbekistan
Tax
Technology
Terrorism V
Thailand Vacation
The Netherlands Value
Themepark Vanuatu
Theory Venezuela
Time Vietnam
Timeshare Village tourism
Timor-Leste Virtual reality
Tipping Visa
Togo Visiting friend and relative
Tonga Visitor
Tour Visual methodology
Tour guide Volcano tourism
Tourism Voluntary sector
Tourism Satellite Account Volunteer tourism
W X
Warfare tourism Xenophobia
Waste management
Water consumption
Y
Wedding tourism
Yachting tourism
Wellbeing
Yemen
Wilderness tourism
Yoga tourism
Wildlife tourism
Youth tourism
Willingness to pay
Wine tourism
Work Z
World heritage Zambia
World Tourism Organization Zimbabwe
Worldmaking Zoning

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With 211 Figures and 6 Tables

ISBN 978-3-319-01383-1 ISBN 978-3-319-01384-8 (eBook)

# Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016

Printed on acid-free paper

This Springer imprint is published by SpringerNature

While the genesis of today’s worldwide tourism is to be found in historical

As a genre that features a representative coverage of research topics or

manifestations. Two principles have guided the development of this new

Structure and Contents

research-based works or case studies which unfold hidden layers in scholarly

Weaving a Web of Tourism Knowledge

This encyclopedia is intended for use by students, instructional staff, and

Acknowledging the cumulative efforts of an army of individuals who have

Kuan-Huei Lee, Eddy Kurobuza Tukamushaba, and Xiaotao Yang for

Hamed Al-Azri Marketing Department, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat,

Norman Au School of Hotel and Tourism Management, The Hong Kong

Lisa Beesley Department of Tourism, Sport and Hotel Management, Grifﬁth

Caroline Bremner Travel and Tourism, Euromonitor International, London,

Barbara Carmichael Faculty of Arts, Department of Geography and Envi-

Ganghua Chen School of Tourism Management, Sun Yat-sen University,

Noga Collins-Kreiner Department of Geography and Environmental Stud-

Javier de León Institute of Tourism and Sustainable Economic Develop-

Amartuvshin Dorjsuren Department of Tourism, National University of

Lochin Faizulloev Committee of Youth Affairs, Sports and Tourism, Gov-

Bohumil Frantál Department of Environmental Geography, Institute of

David Green Department of Geography, King’s College London, Strand,

Don Hawkins School of Business, George Washington University, Washing-

John Hull Faculty of Adventure, Culinary Arts and Tourism, Thompson

Martin Trandberg Jensen Department of Culture and Global Studies, Aal-

Azadeh Kazeminia Azad University of Najafabad, Najafabad, Iran

John Kracht Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of

José Leiva Department of Computer Science, University of Málaga, Malaga,

Peter Lugosi Oxford School of Hospitality Management, Oxford Brookes

Cipriano Marín Instituto de Astrofísica de Canarias, StarLight Initiative,

Beata Medynska-Gulij Department of Cartography and Geomatics, Institute

Chollada Mongkhonvanit Faculty of Liberal Arts, Siam University, Phasi

Masood A. Naqvi Centre for Tourism Research and Development, Lucknow,

Gyan Nyaupane School of Community Resources and Development, Julie

Lars Nyberg Department of Tourism Studies, Mid Sweden University,

Robert M. O’Halloran College of Business, East Carolina University,

Yasuo Ohe Department of Food and Resource Economics, Chiba University,

Roselyne N. Okech Division of Social Science / Tourism Studies, Memorial

Fevzi Okumus Rosen College of Hospitality Management, University of

Joseph T. O’Leary Human Dimensions of Natural Resources, Colorado

Antonino Mario Oliveri Department of Cultures and Society, Università

Daniel H. Olsen Department of Geography, Brigham Young University,

Oghenekaro Omodior Department of Tourism, Recreation and Sport Man-

Tom G. Ondicho Institute of Anthropology, Gender and African Studies,

Chin-Ee Ong Cultural Geography Chair Group, Wageningen University,

Can-Seng Ooi Department of International Economics and Management,

Mark Orams School of Sport and Recreation, Auckland University of Tech-

Michael O’Regan Bournemouth University, Fern Barrow, Poole, UK

Nor’Ain Othman Faculty of Hotel and Tourism Management, Universiti

Anja Pabel School of Business and Law, Central Queensland University,

Nicola J. Palmer Department of Service Sector Management, Shefﬁeld

Bing Pan School of Business, College of Charleston, Charleston, USA

Andreas Papatheodorou London College of Hospitality and Tourism, Uni-

Cody Morris Paris Department of Economics and International Develop-

Hyung Yu Park Business School, Middlesex University, London, UK

Sanghee Park School of Management and Labor Relations, Rutgers, State

Giuli Liebman Parrinello Università Roma Tre, Rome, Italy

Dália Paulo Municipal Museum of Loulé, Loulé, Portugal