plugin-KHAN MUHAMMAD S 200806 PHD Thesis

SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL OF A WIND ENERGY CONVERSION AND
BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM
by
Muhammad Shahid Khan
A dissertation submitted in conformity with the requirements

for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
Graduate Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Toronto
© Copyright by Muhammad Shahid Khan, 2008

SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL OF A WIND ENERGY CONVERSION AND
BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM
Doctor of Philosophy
2008
Muhammad Shahid Khan
Graduate Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Toronto
ABSTRACT
This thesis presents a supervisory hybrid controller for the automatic operation and control of a
wind energy conversion and battery storage system. The supervisory hybrid control scheme is
based on a radically different approach of modeling and control design, proposed for the subject
wind energy conversion and battery storage system.
The wind energy conversion unit is composed of a 360kW horizontal axis wind turbine
mechanically coupled to an induction generator through a gearbox. The assembly is electrically
interfaced to the dc bus through a thyristor-controlled rectifier to enable variable speed operation
of the unit. Static capacitor banks have been used to meet reactive power requirements of the
unit. A battery storage device is connected to the dc bus through a dc-dc converter to support
operation of the wind energy conversion unit during islanded conditions. Islanding is assumed to
occur when the tiebreaker to the utility feeder is in open position. The wind energy conversion
unit and battery storage system is interfaced to the utility grid at the point of common coupling
through a 25km long, 13.8kV feeder using a voltage-sourced converter unit. A bank of static
(constant impedance) and dynamic (induction motor) loads is connected to the point of common
coupling through a step down transformer.
A finite hybrid-automata based model of the wind energy conversion and storage system has
been proposed that captures the different operating regimes of the system during grid-connected
and in islanded operating modes. The hybrid model of the subject system defines allowable
ii
operating states and predefines the transition paths between these operating states. A modular
control design approach has been adapted in which the wind energy conversion and storage
system has been partitioned along the dc bus into three independent system modules. Traditional
control schemes using linear proportional-plus-integral compensators have been used for each
system module with suitable modifications where necessary in order to achieve the required
steady state and transient performance objectives. A supervisory control layer has been used to
combine and configure control schemes of the three system modules to suite the requirements of
system operation during any one operating state depicted by the hybrid model of the system.
Transition management strategies have been devised and implemented through the supervisory
control layer to ensure smooth inter-state transitions and bumpless switching among controllers.
It has been concluded based on frequency domain linear analysis and time domain
electromagnetic transient simulations that the proposed supervisory hybrid controller is capable
of operating the wind energy conversion and storage system in both grid-connected and in
islanded modes under changing operating conditions including temporary faults on the utility
grid.
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Dedicated to my mother who passed away during the course of this work.
May Allah rest her gentle soul in eternal peace.
Aameen.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to express my gratitude to Prof. M.R. Iravani for his guidance and support in
bringing this work to completion. Thanks are also due to those friends and faculty support staff
who made my stay at the University of Toronto more comfortable and pleasant. Financial
support from Prof. M. R. Iravani and from the School of Graduate Studies in the form of research
grants, open fellowship awards and Roger fellowship awards are gratefully acknowledged.
Continuous encouragement and support from my parents and other family members has been
instrumental in completing this work.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT .................................................................................................................................................ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.......................................................................................................................... v
TABLE OF CONTENTS............................................................................................................................. vi
LIST OF TABLES....................................................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... x
NOMENCLATURE ................................................................................................................................xviii
ABBREVIATIONS ................................................................................................................................... xix
1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................. 1
1.1 BACKGROUND...................................................................................................................... 1
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT ...................................................................................................... 2
1.3 STUDY SYSTEM.................................................................................................................... 3
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES..................................................................................................... 7
1.5 LIMITATIONS ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.6 THESIS OUTLINE ................................................................................................................ 10
2. OPERATION AND CONTROL ......................................................................................................... 12
2.1 OPERATION OF THE STUDY SYSTEM ........................................................................... 12
2.1.1 Power Management ......................................................................................................... 13
2.1.1.1 Steady State Power Management ....................................................................................... 13
2.1.1.2 Transient Power Management ............................................................................................ 14
2.1.2 Load Management ........................................................................................................... 14
2.2 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM....................................................................................... 15
2.3 CONTROL DESIGN ............................................................................................................. 17
2.3.1 Modular Design Philosophy ............................................................................................ 19
2.3.2 Supervisory Control......................................................................................................... 21
2.4 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS.................................................................................. 23
2.4.1 Steady State Specifications.............................................................................................. 23
2.4.2 Transient Specifications................................................................................................... 23
2.5 METHODOLOGY................................................................................................................. 24
2.6 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... 25
3. MODELING AND CONTROL OF SYSTEM MODULES................................................................ 26
3.1 MODULE: WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT............................................................ 26
3.1.1 Modeling and Control...................................................................................................... 26
3.1.1.1 Control Structure ................................................................................................................ 27
3.1.2 Sensitivity Analysis ......................................................................................................... 29
3.1.2.1 Operating Point Sensitivity................................................................................................. 29
3.1.2.2 Parametric Sensitivity......................................................................................................... 32
3.1.3 Simulation Studies ........................................................................................................... 38
3.1.3.1 Response to Step Changes.................................................................................................. 38
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3.1.3.2 Performance under Dynamic Wind Conditions.................................................................. 41
3.2 MODULE: VSC-UTILITY GRID ......................................................................................... 43
3.2.1 Control Structure ............................................................................................................. 43
3.2.3.1 Steady State Performance................................................................................................... 55
3.2.3.2 Dynamic Performance ........................................................................................................ 55
3.3 MODULE: BATTERY STORAGE AND DC-DC CONVERTER ....................................... 59
3.3.1 Modeling and Control...................................................................................................... 59
3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS..................................................................................... 69
3.4.1 Module: Wind Energy Conversion Unit.......................................................................... 69
3.4.2 Module: VSC-Utility Grid............................................................................................... 71
3.4.3 Module: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter............................................................. 72
4. SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL .............................................................................................. 74
4.1 HYBRID CONTROL SYSTEMS.......................................................................................... 74
4.2 HYBRID MODEL OF THE STUDY SYTEM...................................................................... 75
4.2.1 Finite Hybrid Automata................................................................................................... 76
4.3 SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL OF THE STUDY SYSTEM................................... 79
4.3.1 Supervisory Control Requirements.................................................................................. 79
4.3.2 Supervisory Hybrid Control Philosophy.......................................................................... 80
4.3.3 Hybrid Control of VSC: Valve Switching Control.......................................................... 82
4.3.4 Control Transition Management...................................................................................... 87
4.3.4.1 State Initialization............................................................................................................... 88
4.3.4.2 Parameter Scheduling......................................................................................................... 90
4.3.5 Mode Transition Management......................................................................................... 90
4.3.5.1 Synchronization.................................................................................................................. 91
4.3.5.1.1 Signal Transfer .................................................................................................... 92
4.3.5.2 On-grid to Off-grid Transition............................................................................................ 92
4.4 FLOW CHART ...................................................................................................................... 93
4.5 SUMMARY ........................................................................................................................... 94
5. SYSTEM OPERATION UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS............................................................ 95
5.1 STUDY CASES ..................................................................................................................... 95
5.2 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT-UTILITY GRID ................................................... 96
5.2.1 Control Scheme ............................................................................................................... 96
5.2.2.1 Steady State Performance................................................................................................... 99
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5.2.2.2 Dynamic Performance ........................................................................................................ 99
5.3 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT-STORAGE ......................................................... 108
5.3.1 Control Scheme ............................................................................................................. 108
5.3.2 Simulation Studies ......................................................................................................... 110
5.4 STORAGE-UTILITY GRID................................................................................................ 111
5.4.1 Control Structure ........................................................................................................... 111
5.5 STORAGE-VSC-LOAD ...................................................................................................... 117
5.6 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT-STORAGE-UTILITY GRID ............................. 123
5.7 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................................................................................... 130
6. SYSTEM OPERATION INVOLVING STATE TRANSITIONS .................................................... 132
6.1 STUDY CASES ................................................................................................................... 133
6.2 SYSTEM STARTUP AND STANDBY .............................................................................. 135
6.3 STATE TRANSITIONS ...................................................................................................... 137
6.3.1 Off-Grid Mode of Operation ......................................................................................... 137
6.3.2 On-Grid Mode of Operation .......................................................................................... 141
6.3.2.1 State Transitions during Normal Operation...................................................................... 141
6.3.2.2 State Transitions during Temporary Fault Conditions ..................................................... 145
6.4 MODE TRANSITIONS ....................................................................................................... 149
6.4.1 Pre-planned Transitions ................................................................................................. 149
6.4.1.1 Synchronization................................................................................................................ 149
6.4.1.2 On-Grid to Off-Grid Transitions ...................................................................................... 153
6.5 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS................................................................................... 159
7. CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................................ 161
7.1 OVERVIEW......................................................................................................................... 161
7.2 CONCLUSIONS .................................................................................................................. 163
7.3 CONTRIBUTIONS.............................................................................................................. 164
7.4 FUTURE WORK ................................................................................................................. 165
APPENDIX A........................................................................................................................................... 166
APPENDIX B........................................................................................................................................... 170
APPENDIX C........................................................................................................................................... 175
APPENDIX D........................................................................................................................................... 189
APPENDIX E ........................................................................................................................................... 206
REFERENCES ......................................................................................................................................... 223
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LIST OF TABLES
TABLE Page
Table 3.1-1: WECU; Steady state operating points .................................................................... 29

Table 3.1-2: WECU; Eigenvalues corresponding to the steady state operating conditions in
Table 3.1-1. .......................................................................................................... 30
Table 3.1-3: WECU; Mode association of state variables and participation factors for ‘case 2’32
Table 3.2-1: VSC-Utility Grid; Steady state operating points.................................................... 46
Table 3.2-2: VSC-Utility Grid; Eigenvalues corresponding to the steady state operating points
identified in Table 3.2-1....................................................................................... 47
Table 3.2-3: VSC-Utility Grid; Eigenvalues and mode association for ‘case 2’........................ 49
Table 3.2-4: VSC-Utility Grid; Dominant modes, mode association of state variables and
participation factors for ‘case 2’ .......................................................................... 49
Table 3.3-1: Battery Storage and dc-dc converter (Boost mode of operation); Poles and RHP
zeros at different steady state operating points .................................................... 61
Table 3.3-2: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck mode of operation); Eigenvalues at
different steady state operating points ................................................................. 62
Table 5.1-1: Study Cases and Objectives of the Performance Investigation; System Operation
Under Normal Conditions.................................................................................... 95
Table 6.1-1: Study Cases; System Operation Involving State Transitions............................... 133
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LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE Page
Figure 1.3-1: Wind energy conversion and battery storage system.............................................. 6

Figure 2.2-1: State Transition Diagram (STD) of the wind energy conversion and storage
system .................................................................................................................. 17
Figure 2.3-1: Supervisory hybrid control structure..................................................................... 18
Figure 2.3-2: Schematic diagram of system module ‘Wind Energy Conversion Unit’.............. 21
Figure 2.3-3: Schematic diagram of system module ‘VSC-Utility Grid’................................... 21
Figure 2.3-4: Schematic diagram of system module ‘Storage and dc-dc converter’.................. 21
Figure 3.1-1: WECU; Proposed current-controlled speed regulation scheme............................ 28
Figure 3.1-2: WECU; Root loci corresponding to different steady state operating points......... 31
Figure 3.1-3: WECU; Close-up of the root loci near to the origin; sensitivity with respect to the
steady state operating point.................................................................................. 31
Figure 3.1-4: WECU; Root locus of mode 1 for variations in the values of the control
parameters between 0 and 2 per unit in steps of 0.1 per unit [0: .1: 2] ................ 33
Figure 3.1-5: WECU; Root locus for mode 2 for variations in the values of the control
Figure 3.1-6: WECU; Root locus for mode 3 for variations in the values of the control
Figure 3.1-7: WECU; Root locus of mode 4 for variations in the values of the control
Figure 3.1-8: WECU; Sensitivity of mode 1 and 4 with respect to the LPF time constant τ iw
(from 3.0ms to 75.0ms in steps of 3.0ms)............................................................ 37
Figure 3.1-9: WECU; Response to step changes in wind speed, 1) wind speed 2) dc output
current and rectifier current limitation 3) optimum, reference and actual speed of
the generator......................................................................................................... 39
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Figure 3.1-10: WECU; Response to step changes in wind speed, 1) generator reactive power
consumption and excitation capacitor bank switching event 2) generator output
power 3) angular displacement between the generator and the turbine rotors.... 39
Figure 3.1-11: WECU; Response to step changes in the dc bus voltage, 1) dc bus voltage 2)
rectifier output current 3) angular displacement of the generator with respect to
the wind turbine ................................................................................................... 40
Figure 3.1-12: WECU; Operation during dynamic wind speed conditions, 1) wind speed 2)
optimum, reference and actual speed of the generator and capacitor bank
switching events 3) Reference and actual output dc current............................... 42
Figure 3.2-1: VSC-Utility Grid; Single line schematic and control structure ............................ 45
Figure 3.2-2: VSC-Utility Grid; Plot of the eigenvalues (32, 33) corresponding to operating
conditions from full load in rectifier mode ( I d = -1.0 p.u.) to full load in inverter
mode ( I d = 1.0 p.u.) ............................................................................................ 48

Figure 3.2-3: VSC-Utility Grid; Loci of the eigenvalues corresponding to mode 1 for variations
in K pd and K id of the outer dc regulator ............................................................ 50
Figure 3.2-4: VSC-Utility Grid; Loci of mode 1 for variations in K pi and K ii of the inner
current regulators ................................................................................................. 51

Figure 3.2-5: VSC-Utility Grid; Plot of the positive eigenvalues corresponding to Mode 2 for
variations in the parameters of the current and dc voltage regulators ................. 52
Figure 3.2-6: VSC-Utility Grid; Plot of the eigenvalue of mode 2 for variations in the
parameters τ vfb and K iv ....................................................................................... 53
Figure 3.2-7: VSC-Utility Grid; Traces of the eigenvalue of mode 2 for variations in K pi and
K ii of the inner current regulators ....................................................................... 53

Figure 3.2-8: VSC-Utility Grid; Trace of the eigenvalue associated with mode 3..................... 54
Figure 3.2-9: VSC-Utility Grid; Response to load switchings and step changes in reference
voltages of the dc bus and the load bus, 1) dc current (disturbance) 2) & 3)
‘active’ and ‘reactive’ terminal currents of the VSC ........................................... 57
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Figure 3.2-10: VSC-Utility Grid; Response to load switchings and step changes in reference
voltages of the dc bus and the load bus, 1) reference and actual three phase rms
voltage at the load bus 2) reference and actual dc bus voltage ........................... 58
Figure 3.3-1: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter; Control structure and schematic diagram
.............................................................................................................................. 60
Figure 3.3-2: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter; Loci of the eigenvalues λ2 and λ3,4
corresponding to the steady state operating points given in Table 3.3-2............. 62
Figure 3.3-3: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Boost Mode); Eigenvalue trace with
respect to the proportional gain K pdc .................................................................. 63
Figure 3.3-4: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Boost Mode); Eigenvalue trace with
respect to the integral gain K idc .......................................................................... 64
Figure 3.3-5: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck Mode); Root loci with respect to the
proportional constant K pdc ................................................................................. 65
Figure 3.3-6: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck Mode); Root locus with respect to
the integral constant K idc .................................................................................... 66
Figure 3.3-7: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Boost Mode), 1) dc output and inductor
current 2) dc bus voltage..................................................................................... 67
Figure 3.3-8: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck Mode), 1) injected at the dc bus
and inductor current 2) dc bus voltage................................................................ 68
Figure 3.3-9: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage in
boost mode 2) reference and actual dc bus voltage in buck mode...................... 69
Figure 4.2-1: Finite Hybrid Automata (FHA) of the wind energy conversion and storage system
.............................................................................................................................. 78
Figure 4.3-1: Hybrid switching control of the VSC ................................................................... 84
Figure 4.3-2: Operation of the VSC with only SPWM and with hybrid valve switching control,
1) a phase voltage at the PCC, instantaneous value and amplitude 2) fault current
3) reference and actual phase ‘a’ converter current ............................................. 86
Figure 4.3-3: Operation of the VSC under hybrid valve switching control, 1) cycle-to-cycle
based instantaneous duty ratio and the average duty ratio over a power cycle 2)
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instantaneous switching frequency and the average frequency over a power cycle
.............................................................................................................................. 87
Figure 4.3-4: Re-initialization of inner current regulators for smooth transition from HSVM to
SPWM based valve-switching control................................................................. 89
Figure 4.3-5: Re-initialization of inner current regulators, 1) duration of the OCC operation and
orthogonal components of the converter terminal voltage for resetting of inner
current regulators 2) duration of the OCC operation and the orthogonal
components of the terminal current of the converter ........................................... 90
Figure 4.3-6: Frequency control during synchronization ........................................................... 91
Figure 4.4-1: Simplified flow chart for software implementation of the supervisory hybrid
control scheme ..................................................................................................... 93
Figure 5.2-1: Single line schematic and control structure of the study system in the operating
state #7 consisting of the two system modules i) WECU and ii) VSC – Utility
Grid ...................................................................................................................... 97
Figure 5.2-2: Operating State # 7; System Dynamic Performance for Step Changes in Wind
Speed, 1) wind speed 2) rotor optimal, reference and actual speed................. 101
Figure 5.2-3: Operating State # 7; System response to step changes in wind speed, 1) rectifier
output current and active current output of the VSC 2) VSC reactive current
output 3) VSC total current output and HSVM on duration ............................. 101
Figure 5.2-4: Operating State # 7; System response to step changes in wind speed, 1) dc bus
voltage 2) load bus rms voltage ........................................................................ 102
Figure 5.2-5: Operating State # 7; System Operation under Load Transients, 1) load bus rms
voltage 2) dc bus voltage load 3) rectifier output current ................................ 103
Figure 5.2-6: Operating State # 7; Control performance under load transients, 1) VSC ‘active’
current 2) VSC ‘reactive’ current 3) VSC total current and HSVM on duration
............................................................................................................................ 104
Figure 5.2-7: Operating State # 7; System response during dynamic wind speed and load
transients, 1) wind speed 2) generator optimum, reference and actual speed.. 106
Figure 5.2-8: Operating State # 7; System Control during dynamic input wind speed and load
transients, 1) load bus rms voltage 2) dc bus voltage ...................................... 107
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Figure 5.2-9: Operating State # 7; System response to dynamic wind conditions and load
transients, 1) & 2) VSC ‘active’ and ‘reactive’ current components 2) space
vector magnitude of the VSC current ................................................................ 107
Figure 5.3-1: Single line diagram and control schematic of the study system in the operating
state #4 consisting of the two system modules of (a) wind energy conversion unit
(b) battery storage and dc-dc converter.............................................................. 109
Figure 5.3-2: Operating State # 4; System response to changes in wind speed, 1) dc bus voltage
2) generator L-L terminal voltage and capacitor switching events 3) wind speed
............................................................................................................................ 111
Figure 5.4-1: Single line diagram and control schematic of the study system in operating state
number #9 consisting of the two system modules of (a) battery storage and dc-dc
converter (b) VSC-Utility Grid ......................................................................... 112
Figure 5.4-2: Operating State # 9; Response to load switching events, 1) dc bus voltage 2) 3
phase rms voltage at the load bus....................................................................... 114
Figure 5.4-3: Operating State # 9; Response to load switching events, VSC terminal currents,
1) ‘active’ current component 2) ‘reactive’ current component 3) maximum
current limit and actual output current of the VSC and OCC duration.............. 114
Figure 5.4-4: Operating State # 9; Response to step changes in the dc current, 1) dc current 2)
dc bus reference and actual voltage 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the
load bus .............................................................................................................. 116
Figure 5.4-5: Operating State # 9; Response to step changes in reference voltage signals, 1)
reference and actual dc bus voltages 2) reference and acutal rms voltages of the
load bus .............................................................................................................. 117
Figure 5.5-1: Single line diagram and control schematic of the study system in the operating
state number #3 consisting of the battery storage and dc-dc converter module
interfaced to the load through the VSC.............................................................. 119
Figure 5.5-2: Operating State # 3; Response to load switching and step changes in external dc
current , 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage 2) reference and actual rms
voltage at the PCC 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the load bus .......... 120
xiv
Figure 5.5-3: Operating State # 3; Response to load switching and step changes in the external
dc current, 1) external dc source current 2) active current component of the VSC
3) reactive current component of the VSC 4) total output current of the VSC. 121
Figure 5.5-4: Operating State # 3; Response to step changes in reference signals, 1) reference
and actual voltages of the dc bus 2) reference and actual rms voltages at the PCC
3) reference and actual rms voltages at the load bus ......................................... 122
Figure 5.6-1: Single line schematic and control structure of the study system in the operating
state #6 (WECU + Storage + Utility) where all the three system modules are in
service ................................................................................................................ 125
Figure 5.6-2: Operating State # 6; Response to variations in wind speed, 1) wind speed 2)
optimum, reference and actual speed of the generator 3) output current of the
thyristor-controlled rectifier............................................................................... 128
Figure 5.6-3: Operating State # 6; Response during load switching, wind speed changes and
step changes in the reference voltage signals, 1) dc bus voltage 2) rms voltage at
the load bus ........................................................................................................ 128
Figure 5.6-4: Operating State # 6; Response to load switching and step changes in reference
signals, 1) active current components 2) reactive current components 3)
converter limit, total output current and HSVM on duration............................. 129
Figure 5.6-5: Operating State # 6; Response of the storage element to load switching and
reference step changes, 1) battery terminal voltage 2) battery terminal current
............................................................................................................................ 129
Figure 6.2-1: Startup and Standby Operation, 1) dc bus voltage 2) reference and actual rms
voltage at the PCC 3) phase voltages at the PCC ............................................. 136
Figure 6.2-2: Startup and Standby Operation, 1) orthogonal current components of the VSC 2)
battery terminal voltage 3) reference and inductor current............................... 137
Figure 6.3-1: Off-grid operation; Inter-state transitions among state #2 (Standby), state #3
(Storage + VSC) and state #4 (WECU + Storage), 1) dc bus reference and actual
voltage 2) reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC and ITI performance
limits 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the load bus and ITI performance
limits 4) Operating state of the system.............................................................. 139
xv
(Storage + VSC) and state #4 (WECU + Storage), 1) orthogonal current
components of the VSC 2) orthogonal current components of the load bus 3)
rectifier output current, total instantaneous current of the load branch and the
output current of the VSC .................................................................................. 140
(Storage + VSC) and state #4 (WECU + Storage), 1) battery terminal voltage 2)
reference and actual battery terminal currents ................................................... 140
Figure 6.3-4: State transitions during on-grid mode of operation, 1) reference and actual dc bus
voltage 2) reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and rms
voltage at the load bus 4) system operating state and OCC operation intervals142
Figure 6.3-5: On-grid mode of operation; transitions during normal operation, 1) reference and
actual active current component of the converter 2) reference and actual reactive
current component of the converter 3) rectifier output current and total current of
the load branch and the VSC ............................................................................. 144
Figure 6.3-6: On-grid mode of operation; transitions during normal operation, 1) battery
terminal voltage 2) reference and actual battery current................................... 144
Figure 6.3-7: On-grid operating mode; state transitions caused by single line to ground fault, 1)
dc bus and thyristor-controlled rectifier output voltage 2) three phase rms
voltage at the PCC and the upper and lower limits defined by the ITI curve 3)
single phase rms voltage at the PCC and the ITI curve 4) control signals used for
state transition management............................................................................... 147
Figure 6.3-8: On-grid operating mode; State transitions caused by single line to ground faults,
1) VSC ‘active’ current output 2) VSC ‘reactive’ current output 3) rectifier
output current, total current of the load branch and output current of the VSC 148
Figure 6.3-9: On-grid operating mode; State transitions caused by single line to ground faults,
1) battery terminal voltage 2) reference and inductor current ......................... 149
Figure 6.4-1: Mode transitions; synchronization, 1) ‘a’ phase voltage waveforms at the two
sides of the TCB and the synchronization interval 2) reference frequency and
xvi
PLL outputs for the two sides of the TCB 3) reference and actual rms voltages
on the utility side of the TCB, at the PCC and at the load bus .......................... 151
Figure 6.4-2: Mode transitions; synchronization, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage 2)
reference and actual rectifier current, reference and actual ‘active’ current
component of the converter 3) reference and actual ‘reactive’ current of the
converter 4) system operating state and duration of the OCC operation .......... 152
Figure 6.4-3: Mode transitions; no load synchronization, 1) control signals 2) wind energy
conversion and storage system operating states................................................. 152
Figure 6.4-4: Pre-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) reference and actual dc bus
voltage 2) reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and actual
rms voltage at the load bus 4) operating state................................................... 153
Figure 6.4-5: Pre-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) active current component of
the VSC 2) reactive current component of the VSC 3) space vector magnitude
of the load branch and the VSC output current.................................................. 154
Figure 6.4-6: Pre-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) battery terminal voltage 2)
battery terminal current...................................................................................... 154
Figure 6.4-7: Un-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) reference and actual dc bus
voltage 2) reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and actual
rms voltage at the load bus 4) operating state and OCC operation duration .... 156
Figure 6.4-8: Un-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) active current component of
the VSC 2) reactive current component of the VSC 3) space vector magnitude
of the load branch and the VSC output current.................................................. 157
Figure 6.4-9: Un-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) battery terminal voltage 2)
battery terminal current...................................................................................... 157
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NOMENCLATURE
• Instantaneous quantities are represented by lower case letters e.g., x
• Space vector quantities are represented with an underscore e.g., v t
• Average and DC quantities are represented by upper case letters e.g., Vdc
• Small perturbations in a signal are represented by a tilde over the instantaneous symbol
for the signal e.g., v~
dc
xviii
ABBREVIATIONS
WECU: Wind Energy Conversion Unit
VSC: Voltage-Sourced Converter
IGBT: Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor
BES: Battery Energy Storage
SPWM: Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation
HSVM: Hysteresis Space Vector Modulation
CPM: Current Programmed Mode
RHP: Right Hand Plane
LHS: Left Hand Side
RHS: Right Hand Side
OLD: Operating Logic Diagram
STD: State Transition Diagram
FHA: Finite Hybrid Automata
FOS: Fault Operating State
SOS: Synchronization Operating State
OCC: Over Current Control
xix
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
T his chapter introduces the research work reported in this thesis. General background of
the subject has been presented first which is followed by the problem statement. A
description of the study system used in the research reported in this thesis has been presented and
research objectives are outlined. Limitations of the reported work have been pointed out
followed by an outline of the thesis given at the end of the chapter
1.1 BACKGROUND
The depletion of conventional energy sources e.g. oil and gas and the desire to limit their use
due to environmental concerns has led to the search for increased utilization of renewable energy
sources to meet the ever-growing demand of electrical power [1], [2]. Wind is one of the most
promising among the different types of available renewable energy sources [1]-[3]. During the
past decade considerable research has been carried out to improve wind turbine design and
control for increased power conversion efficiency and availability. Recently, the deregulated
electricity market has also opened the doors for customers owned distributed generation due to
perceived economic and technical benefits [4], [5]. Distributed generators are commonly
connected to the system at distribution voltage levels [6]-[8]. To date, distributed generators are
not operated in islanded conditions due to safety concerns of both personnel and equipment, and
are required to disconnect and shutdown in response to disturbances on the utility grid [9]. The
diversified and distributed nature of the supply system, due to increased penetration of
distributed generators and distributed storage devices, has the potential to increase overall
security and reliability of power supply [10]-[11]. Customized power quality and reliability
levels can be achieved according to the individual needs of the customers by using power
electronic based power processing units [12]-[13]. The diversified nature of the power system
together with the use of power electronics based power processing units can result in a power
system capable of providing the desired level of service under a variety of operating conditions.
Using conventional control methods commonly used in power systems, the control of a
system with limited energy capabilities in the off-grid operating mode is a difficult task [14]. The
1
2
situation becomes even more complex if the system contains a renewable energy source such as
wind energy power conversion unit(s), since this type of primary energy source is often
intermittent in availability. It becomes necessary to include a dispatchable energy source, such as
a storage device, in the scheme [15]. The control design of such a system also requires a
radically different approach when operation of these systems is required to weather changes in
operating conditions over a wide range. The operating conditions may include on-grid and off-
grid mode of operation and changes in the combination of the internal energy sources supplying
the load during the two operating modes [16].
In this research work the automatic control and management problem of a wind energy
conversion and battery storage system has been tackled from a supervisory hybrid control point
of view. Hybrid control systems are composed of both discrete and continuous state variables
[17], provide superior performance as compared to conventional control schemes [18]-[20] and
allow the pursuit of multiple control objectives [21]. Hybrid control has found widespread
applications from automotive, manufacturing and process industries to aerospace industry [22]-
[25]. Hybrid control has also found limited application in drives control and power systems [26],
[27].
The supervisory hybrid control scheme presented in this thesis for the wind energy
conversion and battery storage system provides automatic control of the system in islanded and
in grid-connected modes of operation under steady state as well as during transient operating
conditions including accidental state transitions caused by faults in the external supply system.
1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT
Connection of the wind energy conversion units to the utility system through power electronic
converters has the advantage that the units can be operated at variable speeds to maximize
energy capture from the prevailing wind conditions and to alleviate stresses in the drive train
[28]. The converter interface to the utility also shields these units from normal disturbances on
the utility side and provides the ability to transfer the wind-generated power to the utility side
with improved power quality [29]. However, conventional control schemes employed for the
interfacing power electronic converters do not provide satisfactory operation during temporary
faults on the utility systems and these may also be taken out of service due to the operation of the
switch overload protection during such faults. The majority of faults on the utility system are
3
temporary single line to ground faults [30] and these can contribute considerably to the
downtime of these wind conversion systems.
As wind is stochastic in nature therefore permanent faults on the system also cause
shutdown of the wind conversion units even if sufficient wind power is available to serve local
loads. It is therefore desirable that the wind conversion system is capable of operation during
islanded conditions. This can be a particularly useful feature in case of rural communities or far-
flung areas with abundant wind energy potential and which are supplied through long radial
feeders. A low cost system in terms of initial investment and environmental impacts besides low
maintenance and operational requirements would be the desirables of a distributed energy system
in such communities.
The following are the desirable characteristics of operation of the subject wind energy
conversion and battery storage system to provide economical, reliable and acceptable quality
electrical power:
1. Automatic system operation
2. Fault ride through capability for temporary faults on the utility feeder
3. Protection and control integration for the power converters
4. Ability to operate in on-grid and off-grid modes
5. A control scheme based on available local system information
6. Control performance that conforms to specifications provided in section 2.4.
There is no available literature on wind energy conversion systems that addresses all the above
desirable control and operational requirements. The research presented in this thesis is focused
on the design of a control scheme for a wind energy conversion and battery storage system that
incorporates the above-mentioned desirable economic, control and operating features.
1.3 STUDY SYSTEM
Figure 1.3-1 shows the wind energy conversion and battery storage system used for the research
reported in this thesis. The study system is composed of a Wind Energy Conversion Unit
(WECU) and a battery storage element connected to a common dc bus. The system is interfaced
to the load and the utility grid at the Point of Common Coupling (PCC) through a Voltage-
Sourced Converter (VSC) unit. The complete system parameters are given in appendix A.
The WECU itself consists of a horizontal axis, three-blade wind turbine mechanically
coupled through a gearbox to an induction generator with a squirrel cage rotor construction. The
4
wind turbine has a maximum output capability of 360kW (1.2 per unit based on 300kVA base).
The generator has a matching maximum rating of 1.2 per unit and a rated voltage of 690V. The
generator unit is connected to the dc bus through a six-pulse thyristor-controlled rectifier and
delivers wind generated power at 1000 volts on the dc side. Static capacitor banks connected at
the generator terminals meet the reactive power demand of the generator and the thyristor
rectifier. The thyristor based rectifier interface gives the wind energy conversion unit the
capability of variable speed operation for maximum energy capture from the prevailing wind
conditions [31], [32].
The storage element is composed of series and parallel combination of battery banks, which
are connected to the dc bus through a dc-dc converter. The wind energy conversion and battery
storage system is connected to the utility grid and to the load at the PCC through the VSC
interface. The VSC is assumed to be composed of three legs, each containing a pair of Insulated-
Gate Bipolar Transistors (IGBTs). The utility grid has been represented by its Thevenin
equivalent at 132kV level and a long (25km) radial feeder at 13.8kV has been assumed for
connection to the wind energy conversion and battery storage system. The local load is served at
480 volts and is connected to the PCC through a step-up transformer. The load consists of both
constant impedance static and dynamic induction motor loads.
The storage device shown in Figure 1.3-1 can be used for transient power support of the
wind energy conversion unit during islanded operation. The storage can be used in combination
with the wind energy conversion unit or on its own to cater to the local load demand in the
absence of the utility supply. The presence of the storage device gives the system the desirable
characteristic of dispatchability. The use of a squirrel cage induction machine reduces system
initial cost and subsequent operational and maintenance requirements [33]. The use of a battery
storage device is environmentally benign and apart from some initial investment has no
significant operational and maintenance costs. The study system therefore provides a very
attractive solution to the power quality and reliability problems of isolated rural communities.
The following are the main features of the proposed system configuration:
1. Use has been made of an induction generator with squirrel cage construction. The output of
the generator is regulated through a thyristor-controlled rectifier. This means less initial
investment and low operation and maintenance costs of the wind energy conversion unit
making it economically more attractive.
5
2. The inclusion of a storage element on the dc bus side has a number of advantages than if it
is connected to the system at some other location:
a. The same power electronic interface to the utility grid is utilized for the wind energy
conversion unit and the battery storage element thus reducing the overall cost of the
system.
b. Simple system control: Active and reactive power sharing control has been avoided
which would have been required if the storage were connected at some other point to
the system. This would have been necessary in order to control system frequency and
to regulate node voltages in the system, respectively [33].
6
Figure 1.3-1: Wind energy conversion and battery storage system

7
1.4 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES
As described in chapter 2, section 2.1, the wind energy conversion and battery storage system
has two operating modes i) on-grid and ii) off-grid. Within these two basic operating modes a
number of ‘operating states’ could be identified in which the system has different state space
compositions based on the traditional definition of a state space involving state variables of the
system.
The primary objective of this thesis is to present a simplified approach based on hybrid
control theory to tackle the control design and analysis problem of the study system. Based on
the proposed approach a supervisory hybrid control scheme for the wind energy conversion and
battery storage system shown in Figure 1.3-1 has been presented. The supervisory hybrid
controller will operate the wind energy conversion and storage system in both on-grid and in off-
grid mode of operations, in steady state and during transient system operating conditions as
described in section 2.3.2. The supervisory controller for the study system will use local
information to steer its operation along pre-specified transition routes in response to different
system events. The transition routes are given by the hybrid automata shown in Figure 4.2-1.
The following tasks have been identified to achieve the above stated objective:
1. To develop a systematic approach towards the hybrid automata based hybrid modeling and
control of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system.
The hybrid automata of a system describes the allowable operating states of the system and
transition paths between these operating states that the system will follow in response to some
discrete events. An ‘operating state’ of the system will be based on the possible combinations of
the energy sources in the system (and not based on its state space composition). This point is
further elaborated in Appendix B in which a ‘State Transition Diagram’ (STD) has been
developed from the ‘Operating Logic Diagram’ (OLD) of the study system. The STD depicts
only those operating states in which the system is capable of steady state operation. The STD
will be complemented with ‘transient states’ as described in CHAPTER 4, to develop the final
‘Finite Hybrid Automata’ (FHA) for the wind energy conversion and battery storage system. The
‘transient states’ are the temporary operating states of the system during its transition from one
stable operating state in the on-grid operating mode to another in the off-grid mode of operation
and vice versa.
8
2. To devise control schemes based on the traditional control techniques using Proportional-
plus-Integral (PI) compensators for the three system modules i.e. the wind energy
conversion unit, the battery storage and dc-dc converter and the VSC-utility grid
independent of each other as described in section 2.3. The operation of the three system
modules under the proposed control schemes will be investigated separately for stability
and performance evaluation. Operational stability and selection of proper control
parameters for the three system modules will be based on eigenvalue sensitivity analysis
with respect to operating point and with respect to control parameters, respectively [35]-
[43].
3. To combine and configure the control schemes developed for the three system modules of
WECU, the battery storage and dc-dc converter and the VSC-utility grid respectively, to
control operation of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system during the
permissible operating states as depicted by the state transition diagram developed in
Appendix B.
4. To devise control schemes for operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system
during the ‘transient operating states’ depicted in the hybrid automata of the system which
is shown in Figure 4.2-1.
5. To develop suitable transition management strategies to minimize system transients caused
by state transitions and switching of the associated control schemes.
6. To develop supervisory control scheme for the wind energy conversion and storage system
to perform the following actions:
a. Oversee control transfer between different candidate controllers and control
schemes in response to changing operating states.
b. Manage transitions between different operating states. In other words to
reconfigure the wind energy conversion and storage system according to the
system events.
c. Provide suitable reference and feedback signals to the active controllers.
d. Provide control reset and initialization signals to the candidate controllers.
e. Perform power and load management in the wind energy conversion and storage
system.
f. Implement state and control transition management strategies.
9
The supervisory controller will infer the changing operating states of the system based on
information from selected indicators. Referring to Figure 1.3-1, the open or closed state of the
TCB (tiebreaker) will indicate the operating mode of the wind energy conversion and storage
system (i.e., on-grid or off-grid mode). The availability of the utility grid will be decided based
on the single phase rms voltages on the utility side of the TCB when these are within the normal
operating range specified by ANSI C84.1- 1995 [44]. Islanding detection algorithms have not
been implemented and islanding has been assumed as a known event. Availability of the battery
storage is assumed to be known a priori (this information could come from an energy
management system for the battery storage). Availability of the wind energy conversion unit will
be inferred from the dc output current of the thyristor-controlled rectifier. Fault on the utility side
will be determined from the peak value of the phase voltages on the utility side of the TCB. For
this purpose the algorithm described in reference [45] will be implemented. Status of the load
(connected or disconnected) will be inferred from the load breaker (LCB) shown in Figure 1.3-1.
In the absence of any theoretical guarantees for the control stability of the wind energy
conversion and storage system, digital time domain simulations of the nonlinear system will be
performed using PSCAD/EMTDC to investigate system operation under the proposed
supervisory hybrid control scheme both for stability and for performance evaluation [46]. This
will also require that suitable performance criteria be specified for the performance assessment
of the study system. Performance specifications have been described in section 2.4.
1.5 LIMITATIONS
The following are the main limitations of this thesis:
1. Linear integral and proportional-plus integral compensators have been used.

2. Parametric sensitivity analysis has been performed with respect to a single control variable
at a time; no inter-parametric sensitivity analysis has been attempted.
3. Aspects concerning economics of the system management have not been treated in this
research.
4. System protection issues are not of primary concern.
5. Neither system nor control parameters have been optimized.
10
1.6 THESIS OUTLINE
Chapter 2 gives details of operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system and
describes management of the system from a hybrid control point of view. Different possible
operating states are enumerated. Load and power management strategies are described and
performance criteria are presented. The chapter also gives a methodology for the control design
of the wind energy conversion and storage system and provides a strategy for evaluating stability
and performance of the system in its different operating states.
Chapters 3 provides control schematics and results of the linear and nonlinear analysis of the
three system modules of the study system i) the wind energy conversion unit consisting of the
wind turbine, the induction generator, static capacitor banks and the thyristor-controlled rectifier
ii) the storage element consisting of the battery storage and the dc-dc converter and iii) the VSC-
utility grid system module, respectively. Each system module contains one energy source and is
treated in the following order:
1. Module: Wind Energy Conversion Unit
2. Module: VSC-Utility Grid
3. Module: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter
In this chapter associated control schemes for the three system modules have been elaborated
whereas mathematical models have been presented in the appendices.
Chapter 4 deals with the subject of the hybrid supervisory control of the wind energy
conversion and battery storage system. It provides background information into the hybrid
control systems. In this chapter a finite hybrid automata of the wind energy conversion and
storage system has been presented which depicts system operating states and the uni- and bi-
directional links between these states which the system is required to follow while moving from
one state to another. The chapter introduces the concept of ‘transition management’ used for the
supervisory hybrid control of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system.
Chapter 5 provides stability and performance evaluation of the operation of the study system
during all the operating states under ‘normal operating conditions’ as depicted by the hybrid
automata of the system shown in Figure 4.2-1. In all these operating states two or more of the
system modules are interacting with each other under normal load switching conditions. Control
schemes have been developed for the operation of the wind energy conversion and battery
storage system in each of the ‘normal operating state’. These control schemes have been derived
11
from the control schemes proposed for the three system modules of the study system and also
incorporate elements of transition management strategies described in chapter 4. Results of the
stability and performance evaluation of the study system using digital time domain simulations
of the nonlinear system in PSCAD/EMTDC have been presented in this chapter. The following
‘normal operating states’ have been considered:
1. Operating State: Wind Energy Conversion Unit-Utility Grid
2. Operating State: Storage-Utility Grid
3. Operating State: Storage-VSC-Load
4. Operating State: Wind Energy Conversion Unit -Storage
5. Operating State: Wind Energy Conversion Unit -Storage-Utility Grid
Chapter 6 provides simulation results for the operation of the wind energy conversion and
storage system during state transitions under the proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme.
The operation of the study system has been investigated for stability and performance, during
state transitions, through time domain simulations in PSCAD/EMTDC environment. Worst case
scenarios for transitions between the permissible operating states of the study system given by
the proposed hybrid automata have been considered.
Chapter 7 concludes the research reported in this thesis. It provides conclusions based on the
reported work and lists thesis contributions. Future research opportunities have been identified at
the end of the chapter.
Appendices are given at the end of the thesis:
1. System parameters are given in appendix A.
2. Appendix B provides a method to determine ‘operating states’ of the system using simple
Boolean logic to arrive at a State Transition Diagram (STD) for the study system.
3. Appendix C gives modeling details of the wind energy conversion unit.
4. Appendix D provides modeling details of the VSC-Utility grid system.
5. Appendix E details modeling of the battery storage and dc-dc converter.
References are provided at the end of the thesis.

CHAPTER 2
OPERATION AND CONTROL
I n this chapter issues concerning the operation and hybrid control of the wind energy
conversion and storage system have been treated. Methodology for the control design,
selection of control parameters, criterion for performance evaluation and a methodology for
performance verification have been the main subjects of this chapter.
2.1 OPERATION OF THE STUDY SYSTEM
Referring to Figure 1.3-1, the wind turbine driven by the lifting force of the wind blowing across
the blades drives the mechanically coupled induction generator thereby converting the kinetic
energy of the wind into electrical energy. The electrical output power of the generator is
controlled and delivered at the dc bus through the thyristor rectifier. The generated power could
be delivered to the grid, used for battery charging, or else it could be partly delivered to the grid
and partly stored in the battery storage device for later use.
In the grid-connected mode, the load in the wind energy conversion and storage system can
be served by the energy sources internal to the system as well as by the external utility supply.
The load can be supplied with power from the utility feeder with or without any contribution
from the local energy sources and proper system operation can be ensured during both steady
state and dynamic operating conditions. In the isolated mode of operation, the VSC alone
transfers the available power from the wind energy conversion unit and the battery storage at the
desired voltage level and frequency. Power management is required in both grid connected and
during islanded operation in order to control power contribution from the energy sources in the
wind energy conversion and storage system and to direct it to proper sinks.
The two energy sources in the wind energy conversion and battery storage system are
limited in capacity and also a maximum capacity of 1.3 per unit has been assumed for the VSC,
therefore during islanded operation quality power can be assured only with a limited amount of
dynamic motor load connected at the load bus. Some load management is therefore required for
proper off-grid operation regardless of the level of availability of the energy sources in the wind
energy conversion and battery storage system.
12
13
The objective of the load management and the power management strategies is to achieve power
balance between the energy sources and the loads at any given time. However power
management is also concerned with the load sharing among the active energy sources in the
system and achieves the objective by continuously controlling power contributions from the
different energy sources in the system. Load management on the other hand, is provided to assist
in power management by ensuring that only that much power is demanded that can be supplied
by the available energy sources within the power quality constraints. Load management is a
discrete phenomenon while power management may involve discrete actions in that one or the
other energy source in the system may be taken in or out of service.
2.1.1 POWER MANAGEMENT
The power management strategy is based on the assumption that the storage will be used as a
backup supply and to provide steady state and transient power support during islanded mode of
operation. Provisions will be made to use the battery storage while the system is operating on-
grid for maintaining the dc bus voltage during severe disturbances including faults on the utility
feeder. Also the wind energy conversion unit will be operated to follow the maxim output curve
of the turbine for maximum power extraction from the prevailing wind.
2.1.1.1 Steady State Power Management
The steady state power management is concerned with power delivery from the energy sources
in the wind energy conversion and battery storage system over longer periods of time usually
called energy management, in both grid connected and in isolated mode of operation.
The following strategy will be used during the grid-connected mode of operation:
1. The WECU will be operated to extract maximum power from the prevailing wind
conditions at all times.
2. All the wind-generated power will be transferred directly to the utility side when the storage
element is fully charged.
3. All or part of the wind-generated power will be used for charging the battery storage when
required.
4. In the absence of wind-generated power, utility supply will be used for charging the storage
element if necessary.
The following strategy will be used in the islanded mode of operation:

14
1. Battery storage will be used to cater to the load demand together with WECU when the
power output of the latter is not enough to meet the load demand.
2. When the power output of the WECU exceeds the load demand then the excess power will
be used for charging the batteries.
3. In the absence of wind power generation, storage alone will meet the load power demand.
The case where the batteries are fully charged and the power output of the wind energy
conversion unit exceeds load demand has not been treated in this thesis. One solution in such a
scenario would be to operate the wind energy conversion unit at sub optimal level to match its
output to that of the load demand. Another strategy however is to use some dummy load (for
example some heating load) preferably connected to the dc bus to be able to extract maximum
power from the wind at all times.
2.1.1.2 Transient Power Management
Transient power management is concerned with the momentary power imbalance in the system
during the course of its operation.
During grid-connected mode of operation, variations in power from the wind energy
conversion unit caused by variations in wind speed as well as variations in load power demand
will be reflected in the amount of power delivered by the utility feeder. In other words, utility
supply will be relied upon for transient power support during grid-connected operation of the
wind energy conversion and storage system. Battery storage support during grid-connected
operation will only be used when dc bus voltage variations exceed certain limits in order to
ensure control stability of the system. This point is further explained in section 4.3.2.
In the isolated mode of operation, power transients from WECU and load power variations
will be absorbed by the storage element. In the absence of wind power generation, storage alone
will provide the required transient power support besides meeting steady state power demand.
2.1.2 LOAD MANAGEMENT
The amount of dynamic load that the wind energy conversion and storage system is able to
supply, in the islanded mode of operation without compromising power quality depends on the
capacity of the energy sources internal to the system. Also the VSC, which will transfer the
available energy from the internal sources to the load side, has a limited capacity (1.3 per unit).
Therefore a limited amount of load could be supplied during islanded operation of the system.
15
The inrush current at startup of a motor load (predominantly induction motors) which contains a
large reactive component causes voltage dips which in turn causes these loads to lose rotational
speed and in turn demand increased reactive current. This situation slows down the system
voltage recovery and may exceed converter rating and the available power capability of the
energy sources in the wind energy conversion and storage system. A similar situation exists
when motor load is subjected to transient voltage disturbances.
In this thesis a simple load management strategy has been adapted in which the higher rated
motor load ML2 (Figure 1.3-1) will be disconnected following system transition from grid-
connected to islanded mode of operation. The transients caused by the rest of the load are within
the handling capability of the VSC and the energy sources in the system.
2.2 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM
Referring to Figure 1.3-1, the wind energy conversion and storage system has two basic
operating modes:
1. Grid Connected Mode

2. Islanding Mode
The system has the following two possible operating conditions in each mode of operation:
1. Steady State
2. Transient
In steady state conditions, load and generation are in perfect balance. Under transient conditions
however, there exists a transitory imbalance between the load and generation and the system
settles down to a new equilibrium condition if it remains stable. System transients can be broadly
classified as:
1. Pre-planned Transients
2. Accidental Transients
Pre-planned transients are those resulting from intentional switching e.g. shutting down of the
utility feeder for maintenance work. Accidental transients on the other hand are random in nature
and are caused by system faults and switching in or out of the load as well as the power factor
correction capacitors, among others.
16
Both pre-planned and accidental transients can cause the combination of active energy sources in
the system to change leading to a change of the system ‘operating state’. Transient system
conditions accompanied by a change in the system operating state will be called a ‘transition’
while the dynamic conditions where the operating state of the system remains unchanged will
simply be called ‘transients’. A transition may be a result of a permanent system fault e.g. on the
utility feeder, followed by a disconnection from the utility (accidental transition) in which case
the system will switch from the grid connected mode to the isolated mode of operation. The
transition from one mode to the other may also be a pre-planned event e.g. due to maintenance
work on the feeder.
The wind energy conversion and storage system can have finitely many operating states and
in the absence of any analytical tool, in the context of hybrid control systems, the hybrid control
design for the wind energy conversion and storage system and its evaluation for stability and
performance is a very difficult task. It is therefore necessary to curtail the number of states that
the supervisory hybrid control scheme has to manage. Figure 2.2-1 gives the State Transition
Diagram (STD) of the study system with a limited set of operating states for which a supervisory
hybrid control scheme will be devised. Appendix B gives a systematic procedure for determining
the possible operating states of a system with multiple energy sources.
Referring to the STD in Figure 2.2-1, during grid connected mode when storage needs to be
built up, the system enters into the state ‘WECU + Storage + Utility’ and falls back to the state
‘WECU + Utility’ when the storage element is toped up to a pre-specified level. In the ‘VSC +
Utility’ operating state where only utility is supplying the load; the VSC will be used only for
voltage support at the PCC. Full converter capacity could be utilized for reactive power support
during this mode of operation. During islanding operation, there are three steady state operating
conditions namely:
1. The ‘standby’ state in which the dc bus is energized using the battery storage but the load
bus is kept disconnected.
2. The ‘storage’ operating state where the battery storage alone is supplying the load.
3. The ‘WECU + Storage’ operating state where the output from the wind energy conversion
unit and the storage are used together to meet the load demand.
During the latter two operating states load may or may not be present. The operating state in the
off-grid mode where only wind energy conversion unit is active is not sustainable due to the
17
absence of external transient power support and is therefore not represented. In the ‘start up’
operating state, the dc bus voltage will be energized in a controlled manner using the battery
storage and its voltage will be stabilized at the nominal value of 1.0 per unit (1000V).
Figure 2.2-1: State Transition Diagram (STD) of the wind energy conversion and storage system
2.3 CONTROL DESIGN
Control of the wind energy conversion and storage system using linear compensators and
Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) based switching of the VSC necessarily cannot
provide for adequate control during accidental state transitions caused by faults on the utility
feeder and may not ensure performance requirements during transient operating conditions (e.g.
motor load switching) within each operating state. Considering that a reasonable limit has been
imposed on the output current of the VSC (1.3 p.u. = 1.2 p.u from WTU + 0.1 p.u. margin for
transient conditions as also for reactive power support; combined load is rated at 1.0 p.u.), it will
not be possible to contain its output current below the limit (1.3 p.u.) during a fault (particularly
a close up fault) on the utility feeder (also possibly during motor load switching) and the over
current protection of the VSC associated with its switching elements will take the unit out
causing interruption in service. It is therefore necessary to handle the management of the wind
energy conversion and storage system from a hybrid control perspective [19], [47] and [48].
The hybrid control problem is usually concerned either with switching between a number of
18
controllers for a single plant for optimum operation under changing operating conditions or
control of a plant whose state space composition is subject to change due to some discrete time
events or both. In a hybrid control structure the supervisory controller is at the top level of the
hierarchy and interacts both with the unit level regulators as well as the regulated plant(s). Figure
2.3-1 adapted from [49], illustrates the supervisory control structure. The thick solid lines
represent all the external inputs to the plant and all the outputs of the plant while thin solid lines
represent a subset of the plant outputs and the set of (control signal) inputs from the primary
regulators. The dotted lines represent information flow (monitoring and control signals) to and
from the supervisory control layer.
Figure 2.3-1: Supervisory hybrid control structure
The control action by the supervisory layer on the primary regulator may involve switching
between different controllers or updating control parameters for a single regulator or may
involve a combination of the two. Control action on the plant itself may include taking in or out a
subsystem (module) of the plant.
The control of the wind energy conversion and storage system will involve all the above-
mentioned aspects of a supervisory hybrid control scheme. Control action on the plant will
involve taking in or out one or more of the energy sources in the wind energy conversion and
battery storage system including the utility supply. The different operating states given by the
19
STD of the wind energy conversion and storage system (the plant) correspond to different state
space compositions as a result of the supervisory control actions on the system. This is further
explained in the subsequent sections and in CHAPTER 4 in the context of supervisory hybrid
control of the study system.
2.3.1 MODULAR DESIGN PHILOSOPHY
The wind energy conversion and storage system is a Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output (MIMO)

system and the control design could be tackled as such. As explained in section 2.2, the wind
energy conversion and battery storage system has two possible operating modes (on-grid and off-
grid). There are a number of possible operating states within the two basic modes of operation of
the system. Control design for each operating state using MIMO control approach represents a
considerably difficult design task. As pointed out in the previous section, control and mode
transitions will still have to be considered under a supervisory control layer (section 2.3.2).
The complexity associated with the control design of the study system using MIMO control
philosophy can be avoided by following the approach proposed in [50]. According to the
proposed approach the problem of modeling and control design for a complex system can be
simplified if the system could be partitioned along a suitable axis. The STD of Figure 2.2-1
points to such a partitioning axis i.e., the dc bus. It can be seen from Figure 2.2-1 that both the
battery storage supplying local load in islanded operation through the dc-dc converter interface,
and the utility interactive VSC unit are also two of the desirable operating states of the system
for wihc control schemes have to be designed. Any control scheme of the system in these two
operating states will have a dc voltage regulation loop as an integral component of the scheme. It
is also evident that the wind energy conversion unit will be operating only in combination with
either the storage element connected to the dc bus through the dc-dc rectifier unit (WECU +
Storage) or in the grid-connected mode through the VSC interface (WECU + Utility) or together
with both units (WECU + Storage + Utility). Based on these considerations and the assumption
that the dc bus voltage is tightly regulated, the wind energy conversion and battery storage
system can be partitioned into three modules as shown in Figure 2.3-2 through Figure 2.3-4, each
containing one energy source.
The dc capacitor is the common element to all the system modules shown in Figure 2.3-2
through Figure 2.3-4. For the system module consisting of the wind energy conversion unit, the
20
dc capacitor has been replaced with a constant voltage source. This is because the unit as such
cannot operate without an external support. Control design for each module will be carried out
independently of the other two system modules which will be represented as known disturbance
and hence will be taken care off in the control scheme of each module. Coupling between the
three modules will be minimized by tightly regulating the dc bus voltage. For this purpose dc
regulation loops will be designed for the two modules shown in Figure 2.3-3 and Figure 2.3-4 in
which the external dc current source represents the rest of the system as a known disturbance.
Only one of the two dc voltage regulators will be active during any one operating state of the
wind energy conversion and battery storage system in a mutually exclusive fashion. Control
schemes for the study system in each of the operating states given by the STD of Figure 2.2-1,
will be devised by combining and configuring the control schemes of the three system modules
to achieve control objectives of the system during that particular operating state. The supervisory
controller will select the proper regulator depending on the current operating state and the
implemented power management strategy.
The VSC will be operated as a current-regulated voltage source during grid-connected

operation of the system to achieve fast transient response [51]. In the grid-connected mode the
utility grid dictates the operating frequency of the system. In the isolated mode of operation the
load is served by the energy sources in the system through the VSC interface alone. The VSC
therefore cannot be operated as a current regulated voltage source since the objective is to supply
the load while maintaining the rms voltage at the PCC or at the load bus. The two objectives of
limiting the current output of the converter and at the same time to maintain the system rms
voltages using converter control alone are not possible without additional measures. In the
isolated operating mode, the converter therefore will be operated as a fixed frequency, directly-
controlled voltage source. The VSC control design, during grid-connected operation, will be
based on the decoupling of the qd current components through cross feedback of the controlled
variables as proposed in [52]. The VSC will be controlled using Proportional-plus-Integral (PI)
compensators during both grid-connected and in islanded modes of operation. The various
control schemes for the wind energy conversion and battery storage system during islanded and
in grid-connected mode are explained in CHAPTER 5.
21
Figure 2.3-2: Schematic diagram of system module ‘Wind Energy Conversion Unit’
Figure 2.3-3: Schematic diagram of system module ‘VSC-Utility Grid’
Figure 2.3-4: Schematic diagram of system module ‘Storage and dc-dc converter’
2.3.2 SUPERVISORY CONTROL
The supervisory controller will be managing the interaction of the controllers designed for the
three system modules shown in Figure 2.3-2 through Figure 2.3-4 when these modules are
combined to represent any one operating state given by the STD of the wind energy conversion
and battery storage system. The supervisory control layer will be required to manage the
following operating states during ‘normal operating conditions’:
22
1. Grid-connected Mode
a. Wind energy conversion unit –Utility grid
b. Wind energy conversion unit–Storage–Utility grid
c. Storage–Utility grid
d. VSC–Utility grid
2. Islanding Mode
a. Wind energy conversion unit–Storage
b. Storage
The ‘normal operating conditions’ include steady state operation as also the transient conditions
caused by load and capacitor switching. Switching between the above two modes i.e. grid-
connected and islanding operations and between any two operating states as depicted by the STD
in Figure 2.2-1 are the mode and state transitions respectively that will also be managed by the
supervisory controller. A mode transition will always involve a state transition however the wind
energy conversion and battery storage system can also transition between two different operating
states while in the same operating mode.
During each operating state the wind energy conversion and storage system will be managed
through a different control scheme. Each control scheme will combine the unit level controllers
designed for the three modules (Figure 2.3-2 through Figure 2.3-4) in the wind energy
conversion and storage system in a suitable fashion to achieve the objectives formulated for that
particular operating state. Furthermore, each control scheme will be designed to meet the
performance specifications outlined in the following sections. Each operating-state transition
therefore will be accompanied by a transition between the corresponding control schemes. The
STD will be expanded to include transitory operating states. This is necessary from the point of
view of system stability and quality of power supply and/or continuity of supply during faults in
the utility supply system as well as when the system undergoes transitions between the two
operating modes as explained in CHAPTER 4.
23
2.4 PERFORMANCE SPECIFICATIONS
Operating specifications will be required for the performance evaluation of the supervisory
hybrid controller during steady state and transient system operating conditions as also during
state transitions specified by the STD shown in Figure 2.2-1. For this purpose power quality at
the PCC and the load bus will be used as a means for performance evaluation of the wind energy
conversion and battery storage system under the proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme.
2.4.1 STEADY STATE SPECIFICATIONS
Reference [53] defines ‘power quality’ as ‘the concept of powering and grounding sensitive
equipment in a manner that is suitable to the operation of that equipment’. In the industry there is
however no broader consensus on the definition of power quality [54]. Harmonic current
distortion is one measure of the power quality and may also cause voltage waveform distortion.
Steady state performance of the wind energy conversion and storage system will be evaluated
based on the harmonic limits specified by reference [55], which covers the permissible harmonic
distortions of voltage and currents on the utility feeders as well as load contributed current
harmonics. The steady state harmonic limits will influence the choice of suitable duty-cycle
modulation scheme for the VSC during normal operation of the system.
2.4.2 TRANSIENT SPECIFICATIONS
Most of the power quality related issues are associated with momentary voltage disturbances.
While there is a general agreement on the steady state operating voltage ranges both at service
and utilization voltage levels specified by [44], there is no general agreement for the duration and
magnitude of the momentary voltage disturbances defined by [56], of various electrical
equipments for ride through capabilities. However electronic equipments are by far the most
sensitive load components. ITI (Information Technology Industry council formerly known as
Computer and Business Equipment Manufacturers Association ‘CBEMA’) curve describes the
ride through capabilities of electronic equipment based on a composite of the depth and duration
of the voltage disturbances. There are three fundamental regions identified in the ITI curve:
1. No Interruption in Function Region

2. No Damage Region
3. Prohibited Region.
These regions encompass various line-to-neutral voltage disturbances.

24
The limits specified by the ITI curve will be used as a basis for performance evaluation of the
system during dynamic operating conditions. The control objective will be to drive the wind
energy conversion and storage system to operate within the ‘no interruption in function’ region
without violating the maximum current output limit [1.3 p.u.] imposed on the VSC. For this
purpose the three phase rms and single phase instantaneous voltages at the PCC will be
monitored together with the instantaneous output current of the converter in each phase.
2.5 METHODOLOGY
The systematic development of analytical small-signal model and formal linear analysis of the
wind energy conversion and battery storage system is not the intention of this thesis. For this
purpose useful information could be found in [57], [58].
In this thesis nonlinear fundamental frequency model of each system module shown in
Figure 2.3-2 through Figure 2.3-4, complemented with the associated control scheme, will be
developed. These nonlinear models will be solved using the MATLAB/SIMULINK software to
obtain steady state operating points for the three system modules, for stability investigations and
for eigenvalue sensitivity analysis. Using linear analysis tools also available in the
MATLAB/SIMULINK software, eigenvalue analysis for linearized model of each system
module will be carried out. The sensitivity analyses are with respect to the operating points and
control parameters [35]-[39]. Performance of the three system modules, with the selected control
parameters based on eigenvalue sensitivity analysis, will be verified through simulations of the
detailed nonlinear models of the three system modules in PSCAD/EMTDC environment. These
tasks have been covered in CHAPTER 3.
Supervisory hybrid control of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system will be
investigated for transient performance and stability using time domain digital simulations of the
nonlinear model(s) in PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software. For this purpose system operation
will be considered under ‘normal conditions’ including steady state operation and for conditions
involving state transitions. Operation of the system under ‘normal conditions’ will involve
interaction of the control schemes developed for the three system modules as also supervisory
control actions described in CHAPTER 4. State transitions will also involve switching of control
schemes and both pre-planned and accidental transitions caused by faults on the utility side (as
explained in CHAPTER 4) will be considered. System operation under ‘normal conditions’ has
25
been covered in CHAPTER 5 while operation involving state transitions is the subject of
CHAPTER 6.
2.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter the following main aspects of the hybrid control of the wind energy conversion
and battery storage system have been covered:
1. Power and load management strategies have been presented for the grid-connected and
autonomous operation of the study system.
2. A State Transition Diagram (STD) for the study system with a limited set of permissible
operating states has been presented.
3. The need for a hybrid control approach for the study system has been established.
4. A modular control design philosophy for the study system has been given.
5. The principal requirements of the supervisory hybrid control scheme for the study system
have been described.
6. Steady state and transient specifications for the performance evaluation of the hybrid
control of the study system have been presented.
7. A methodology has been proposed for the hybrid control design and performance
verification of the wind energy conversion and storage system during steady state and
dynamic operating conditions including state transitions. According to this methodology
MATLAB/SIMULINK software will be used for linear (eigenvalue) analysis for stability
with respect to operating point and for selection of control parameters whereas the
PSCAD/EMTDC software will be used for verification of performance compliance during
large system transients.
CHAPTER 3
MODELING AND CONTROL OF SYSTEM MODULES
T his chapter presents control schemes of the three system modules i.e. the wind energy
conversion unit, the battery storage and dc-dc converter and the VSC-Utility grid.
The control schemes utilize linear PI compensators. Fundamental frequency nonlinear models of
the three system modules are given in Appendix C, D and E respectively. In this chapter results
of the linear analysis of the modules with the associated control schemes are provided. For the
linear analysis MATLAB/SIMULINK software has been used. The linear analysis has been
substantiated by results from simulation studies of the detailed nonlinear model in
PSCAD/EMTDC software environment.
3.1 MODULE: WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT
In this section control objectives have been given for the operation of the wind energy
conversion unit shown in Figure 2.3-2. A current-controlled speed regulation of the unit has been
proposed. Results of the eigenvalue sensitivity analysis with respect to control parameters and
operating points have been presented together with simulation results of the detailed nonlinear
model of the module using electromagnetic transients simulation software PSCAD/EMTDC.
3.1.1 MODELING AND CONTROL
The first step in the control design problem is to determine the functions required of the
controller(s) and the performance specifications [59]. The second step is control synthesis i.e. to
select suitable control laws that can achieve the required performance specifications. The
objectives established for the control of the wind energy conversion unit are the following:
1. Drive the unit to track performance curve of the turbine for maximum power generation
from the prevailing wind conditions with minimum overshoot and oscillations.
2. Obtain smooth output power.
3. Ensure that component power ratings are respected by limiting the amount of output power
to the generator rating, during both steady state and transient system operating conditions.
26
27
3.1.1.1 Control Structure
Figure 3.1-1 shows the proposed control scheme for the wind energy conversion unit that can be
used to achieve the objectives listed above. Conventional speed regulation of the unit based on
linear compensator and using only rotor speed as feedback does not provide the ability to contain
the amount of power from the unit during transient operation because of the generator terminal
voltage variations with speed. The conventional speed regulation loop has been augmented with
an inner current control loop to enable transient output power control of the wind energy
conversion unit. A constant voltage source represents the dc bus since it has been assumed that
the dc bus voltage is held relatively constant due to the dc voltage regulation loops associated
with the control schemes of the VSC (Figure 3.2-1) and the dc-dc converter (Figure 3.3-1). In
these control schemes the WECU is represented as a known disturbance.
Referring to Figure 3.1-1, the optimal turbine rotational speed corresponding to the input
wind speed is calculated using the performance curve of the turbine given in section C.1 in
Appendix C. A first order low pass filter has been used to filter out the high frequency
components of the reference optimal speed. The filtering of the reference optimal speed helps to
reduce the control activity and therefore unwanted torsional mechanical stresses in the system.
The outer speed regulation loop provides reference current signal to the inner current regulator,
the output of which gives the firing angle of the thyristor rectifier. By placing limits on the
current regulator the output power of the generator can be limited during both steady state and
transient operations. The transient conditions may be caused by variations in wind speed or it
may be a result of the switching of the excitation capacitors.
Mathematical modeling of the wind energy conversion unit and associated control scheme
shown in Figure 3.1-1 has been described in details in appendix C. The unit has 14 state
variables out of which 4 describe the electrical dynamics of the induction generator, 4 state
variables are associated with the mechanical system, 1 state variable describes the dynamics of
the generator terminal node, 1 state variable is associated with the dc link and 4 state variables
describe the dynamics of the control scheme. The dc bus voltage variations have been neglected
in the small signal model as it has been assumed tightly regulated. Another reason for neglecting
variations in the dc bus voltage is the fact that the inner current control loop (Figure 3.1-1) in the
speed regulation of the wind turbine unit provides adequately fast control of the output dc current
28
Figure 3.1-1: WECU; Proposed current-controlled speed regulation scheme

29
of the thyristor rectifier unit thereby isolating the generator side of the rectifier from variations in
the dc bus voltage. This has been verified through time domain simulations of the detailed
nonlinear model of the WECU module in PSCAD/EMTDC (section 3.1.3). The effects of the
variations in the dc bus voltage, however, can be included in the analysis of the system by
considering the small signal model with an additional input signal representing small
perturbations in the dc bus voltage.
3.1.2 SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS
In the following sections results of the eigenvalue sensitivity analysis of the wind energy
conversion unit are presented. Sensitivity analysis has been performed with respect to control
parameters and with respect to operating point of the unit. A linear model of the wind energy
conversion unit is developed and analyzed in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. The steady
state operating points listed in Table 3.1-1 have been obtained using equation solving features of
MATLAB/SIMULINK and have been considered for the sensitivity analysis of the operation of
the unit. These operating points represent the entire speed range of the wind energy conversion
unit for a constant excitation capacitance of 750µF (delta connection). Table 3.1-1 also identifies
three steady state cases i.e. case 1, case 2 and case 3, used in the subsequent sections for
sensitivity analysis with respect to control parameters.
Table 3.1-1: WECU; Steady state operating points

Wind Speed ωoptimal Turbine Output Generator Terminal DC Current Firing Angle
Vw (m/s) (p.u.) Torque (p.u.) Voltage ‘Vqg’ (p.u.) Id (p.u.) α (deg)
5.2 (Case 1) 0.85 -0.65025 1.0992 0.50669 11.175
6.0 0.91667 -0.75625 1.1895 0.66041 24.784
6.5 0.95833 -0.82656 1.2521 0.7504 30.316
7.0 (Case 2) 1.0 -0.9 1.314 0.8623 34.571
7.5 1.0417 -0.97656 1.3749 0.9906 38.012
8.0 (Case 3) 1.0833 -1.0562 1.4321 1.1428 40.751
3.1.2.1 Operating Point Sensitivity
Table 3.1-2 gives the eigenvalues λ’s of the wind energy conversion unit corresponding to the
steady state operating conditions listed in Table 3.1-1. The steady state operating points have
30
been marked 1 to 6 in Table 3.1-2. Examination of this table shows that all the eigenvalues
pertaining to each steady state operating point are in the left half of the complex plane with one
eigenvalue for each operating point located at the origin (referred to as mode 0 in Table 3.1-2).
Figure 3.1-2 gives the root loci of all the eigenvalues while Figure 3.1-3 gives loci of the
dominant eigenvalues of the unit corresponding to the steady state operating points 1 to 6 (Table
3.1-1). The numerals 1 to 6 in these figures associate system poles with the corresponding steady
state operating points. For steady state point 1, the induction generator is operating near to the
knee point on the magnetization curve and one of the eigenvalue pair (referred to as mode 1 for
‘case 2’ in Table 3.1-2) corresponding to that steady state operating point moves close to the
right half plane. This mode is associated with the mechanical system (Table 3.1-3) and is also
influenced by the state variable of the dc side (in other words by the power level delivered at the
dc bus). It is concluded that with the selected control parameters and given sufficient excitation
capacitance such that the machine operates along the saturated portion of its magnetic
characteristics, the operation of the unit remains stable for the entire speed range corresponding
to that excitation level.
Table 3.1-2: WECU; Eigenvalues corresponding to the steady state operating conditions in Table 3.1-1.
STEADY STATE OPERATING POINT
1 2 3 4 5 6
Vw=5.2 m/s Vw=6.0 m/s Vw=6.5 m/s Vw=7.0 m/s Vw=7.5 m/s Vw=8.0 m/s
(Case 1) (Case 2) (Case 3)
0.0
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
(mode 0)
-0.36288 -0.3659 -0.36792 -0.37026 -0.37281 -0.37564
-3.2551 -3.002 -3.0119 -3.0247 -3.0275 -2.9894
-4.8828 -4.6078 -4.3583 -4.1064 -3.8601 -3.6263
-5.0 -5.0 -5.0 -5.0 -5.0 -5.0
-17.709 ± 108.01i
-6.5368 ± 123.68i -16.654 ± 119.86i -18.864 ± 113.64i -15.533 ± 104.22i -13.475 ± 101.42i
(mode 1)
λ
-295.83 -216.72 -30.698 -28.144 -26.826 -26.01
-31.146 ± 401.85i
-38.737± 426.84i -36.065 ± 416.15i -33.512 ± 408.6i -28.684± 395.94i -26.443 ± 391.32i
(mode 2)
-46.204 ± 983.2i
-44.284 ± 958.87i -46.324 ± 967.6i -46.076 ± 975.59i -46.372± 990.39i -46.864 ± 996.38i
(mode 3)
-159.03 ± 117.74i
-18.566 ± 25.051i -71.136 -151.2 ± 69.662i -167.87 ± 147.78i -177.03 ± 169.66i
(mode 4)
-40.236
31
Figure 3.1-2: WECU; Root loci corresponding to different steady state operating points
Figure 3.1-3: WECU; Close-up of the root loci near to the origin; sensitivity with respect to the steady
state operating point
32
3.1.2.2 Parametric Sensitivity
The control parameters considered for the sensitivity analysis are K piw , K iiw of the inner current
regulator and K pw , K iw of the outer speed regulator as shown in Figure 3.1-1. In all figures
from Figure 3.1-4 to Figure 3.1-8, the numerals accompanying any pole location also indicate the
value of the parameter in per unit. The variations in all the control parameters are from 0 per unit
to 2 per unit in steps of 0.1 per unit (shown in the figures as [0: .1: 2]) of their initial values. The
steps have been consecutively numbered from 1 to 21 and marked in the following figures. In
addition to the control parameters of the compensator, the effect of time constant τ iw of the first
order LPF in the feedback loop of the inner current regulator has also been investigated. Unless
otherwise stated, the eigenvalue sensitivity analysis has been performed at the steady state
operating conditions referred to as ‘Case 2’ in Table 3.1-1 and in Table 3.1-2 (rated power
output).
Table 3.1-3 identifies system components whose state variables have a dominant influence
on each (pair of) eigenvalue(s) and gives normalized participation factor of each dominant state
variable. Participation factors for each eigenvalue have been normalized based on the magnitude
of the participation factor of the most dominant state variable. Only state variables with a
participation factor greater than 0.05 per unit have been included. The symbols (q,d) represent
the orthogonal variables associated with the component and the symbols (ω,θ) indicate the
variables associated with the speed and position respectively, of the generator and turbine rotors.
Table 3.1-3: WECU; Mode association of state variables and participation factors for ‘case 2’
Mode Number and Participation Factors

Component/State Variable
0 1 2 3 4
Inner Regulator - 0.08 - - 0.14
Controller Inner LPF - 0.14 - - 1.0
Outer Regulator - - - - -
DC Link - 0.20 - - 0.99
Stator (q,d) - - 0.41 , 0.17 1.0 , 0.36 - , 0.15
Generator
Rotor (q,d) - 0.07 , 0.05 1.0 , 0.13 0.394 , 0.06 - , 0.09
Excitation Branch - - 0.262 0.32 0.054
Mechanical Generator (ω,θ) - 0.633 , 1.0 0.096, - - 0.08 , -

System Trubine (ω,θ) - , 1.0 0.2 , - - - -
33
Mode 0 is associated with the state variable representing the angular position of the turbine rotor.
This mode responds only to the unidirectional accelerating (decelerating) torque on the turbine
(and not to any oscillating torque). In this mode the turbine and the generator rotors move in
synchronism [60].
Mode 1 is associated with the mechanical system of the wind energy conversion unit and is
affected by the amount of the active power delivered to the dc side. It is influenced to a lesser
degree by the inner regulator. Figure 3.1-4 gives the loci of the eigenvalue for this mode. There
are three traces of the same eigenvalue corresponding to variations in the control parameters
K piw , K iiw of the inner current regulator and K pw of the outer speed regulator. The mode
frequency and damping are both affected by the variations in the proportional constants K piw and
K pw of the inner and outer compensators respectively. Integral constant K iw of the outer
compensator has a negligible influence on this mode and has therefore been omitted from the
plot in Figure 3.1-4.
Figure 3.1-4: WECU; Root locus of mode 1 for variations in the values of the control parameters
between 0 and 2 per unit in steps of 0.1 per unit [0: .1: 2]
34
From the eigenvalue traces in Figure 3.1-4, it is concluded that for a given loading condition, this
mode will cause instability when only integral control is exercised in the inner current
compensator. With only integral action in the outer compensator ( K pw = 0) the mode exhibits
extremely low damping, which increases (together with reduced frequency of the mode) with
increasing values of the proportional constant. The integral constant K iw in the outer loop does
not influence this mode as predicted by state association of the mode given in Table 3.1-3.
Figure 3.1-5 gives the eigenvalue loci for Mode 2. This mode is predominantly associated
with the electrical dynamics of the machine and the excitation branch. Integral constants of the
compensators in both the outer and inner control loops do not affect this mode as is evident from
state association of this mode (Table 3.1-3). This mode is affected by the proportional constants
K pw and K piw of the outer and the inner regulators respectively. Increasing values of the
proportional constants K pw and K piw tend to increase the frequency and reduce the damping of
the mode.
Figure 3.1-5: WECU; Root locus for mode 2 for variations in the values of the control parameters
35
Mode 3 is the highest frequency mode of the system. It is associated with the electrical dynamics
of the generator and the excitation branch. The sensitivity of the mode to variations in control
parameters K pw and K piw is shown in Figure 3.1-6 through the trace of the eigenvalue associated
with this mode. Influence of the state variables associated with the controllers (and hence of the
integral constants K iw , K iiw of the outer and inner regulators respectively) on this mode is not
significant since these variables do not have any appreciable participation in the make up of this
mode. The proportional constants K pw and K piw influence this mode in a similar way however
the effect is insignificant. Both frequency and damping are reduced with reducing values of these
constants.
Figure 3.1-6: WECU; Root locus for mode 3 for variations in the values of the control parameters
Mode 4 is associated with the dynamics of the inner control loop and is influenced by the
state variable associated with the dc side. It is a highly damped mode. Sensitivity of this mode to
variations in the control parameters K piw , K iiw of the inner regulator and to K pw of the outer
36
regulator is shown in Figure 3.1-7. Integral constant K iw of the outer regulator (Figure 3.1-1)
does not exercise any influence on this mode as predicted by the state association of the mode
given in Table 3.1-3. Figure 3.1-7 reveals that mode 4 is affected mostly by the proportional
constant K piw of the inner compensator. It degenerates into two real poles at lower values of the
constant K piw . Increasing values of K iiw (integral constant of the inner compensator) causes both
the frequency and the damping to decrease as shown in Figure 3.1-7. The proportional constant
K pw of the outer compensator also affects the frequency and the mode damping, both of which
increase with increasing values of the constant.
Figure 3.1-7: WECU; Root locus of mode 4 for variations in the values of the control parameters
Figure 3.1-8 shows the effect of changes in the time constant τ iw of the LPF in the inner
feedback loop on mode 1 and 4, for all the three steady state cases i.e., Case1, Case2 and Case3
identified in Table 3.1-1 and in Table 3.1-2. The time constant is varied from 1 per unit (3ms) to
37
25 per unit (75ms) in steps of 1 per unit. Higher values of the time constant lead to instability of
the unit through mode 1.
Figure 3.1-8: WECU; Sensitivity of mode 1 and 4 with respect to the LPF time constant τ iw (from
3.0ms to 75.0ms in steps of 3.0ms)
The foregoing sensitivity analysis reveals that parameters of the inner control loop affect the
stability of the system. Only integral action in the inner compensator is not able to provide stable
operation of the wind energy conversion unit as mode 1 moves to the positive half of the
complex plane. Also a slower inner control loop due to lower cut-off frequency of the inner LPF
will cause instability due to mode 4 movement into the positive half plane. It is concluded that
relatively higher values (7.85 for inner loop in kA) should be used for the variable K piw and
lower values (3.0ms) for the time constant τ iw . Fine tuning of the control parameters needs to
take into account factors such as transient variations in angular displacement between the
generator and turbine rotors (torsional stresses) besides overshoot and response time for step
changes in the reference speed.
38
3.1.3 SIMULATION STUDIES
Analysis results given in the preceding sections have been verified (not reported) through
simulations of the detailed nonlinear model of the unit in PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software.
The operating point of the induction generator along the saturation curve affects the eigenvalues
of the system which in turn is dependent on the excitation level of the machine. The excitation
level has also a bearing on the power factor of the machine. In the following sections simulation
results (from PSCAD/EMTDC) of the wind energy conversion unit with the proposed speed
regulation scheme are presented with different levels of excitations.
3.1.3.1 Response to Step Changes
1. Step Changes in Wind Speed
Figure 3.1-9 and Figure 3.1-10 show response of the wind energy conversion unit for step
changes in wind speed. Initially the unit is running with a constant wind speed of 6.0 m/s. Two
excitation capacitor banks (450µF each, delta configured) are connected at the generator
terminals. One capacitor bank is permanently connected to the generator.
Figure 3.1-9 shows the rectifier output current and the generator speed in response to step
changes in wind speed from 6.0 m/s to 7.5 m/s in steps of 0.5 m/s at t = 4.5s, t = 12.0s and t =
18.0s. Downward step change in wind speed is also shown. The output power of the unit is
limited during the downward step change in the wind speed from 7.5 m/s to 7 m/s at t = 24.0s.
The unit is therefore able to track the reference speed under the proposed control scheme both for
upward and downward step changes in the wind speed within the steady state output power limit
of the rectifier.
Figure 3.1-10 shows a capacitor switching event (one bank is taken out) used to control
excitation of the induction generator in order to control the power factor and also to prevent
saturation of the controller for the simulation case shown in Figure 3.1-9. The turbine-generator
mechanical system is well damped even though losses in the system have been neglected.
Switching of the capacitor bank connected at the generator terminal excites the torsional mode of
the mechanical system (mode 1 in Table 3.1-2) which however, is sufficiently damped (plot 3,
Figure 3.1-10).
39
Figure 3.1-9: WECU; Response to step changes in wind speed, 1) wind speed 2) dc output current and
rectifier current limitation 3) optimum, reference and actual speed of the generator
Figure 3.1-10: WECU; Response to step changes in wind speed, 1) generator reactive power
consumption and excitation capacitor bank switching event 2) generator output power 3) angular
displacement between the generator and the turbine rotors
40
4. Step Changes in DC Bus Voltage
In practice step changes in the dc bus voltage will not occur, however this case is presented to
demonstrate the ability of the porposed control scheme to limit output power of the generator
during transient disturbances on the dc bus when its voltage is supported by a battery storage in
the islanded operation or when it is supported by the VSC in the grid connected mode.
Figure 3.1-11 shows system response (continuation of the previous simulation case) to step
changes in the dc bus voltage with constant wind speed of 7 m/s at the turbine hub, and one
excitation bank connected to the generator terminals (450µF, delta configured). The dc source
voltage is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 1.05 per unit at t = 30.0s and back to 1.0 per unit at t
= 31.0s. At time t = 32.0s, the dc source voltage is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.95 per unit
and back to 1.0 per unit at time t = 33.0s. After each disturbance in the dc source voltage the unit
attains a new steady state operating point. The control scheme is able to maintain the output
power of the unit despite disturbances on the dc side. The step changes in the dc bus voltage also
excites torsional mode of the system (plot 3) which decays out quickly.
Figure 3.1-11: WECU; Response to step changes in the dc bus voltage, 1) dc bus voltage 2) rectifier
output current 3) angular displacement of the generator with respect to the wind turbine
41
3.1.3.2 Performance under Dynamic Wind Conditions
Figure 3.1-12 shows system operation for dynamic conditions of the wind speed which has the
following characteristics:
Vmean = 6.0 m/s, V gust = 1.0 m/s, Vramp = 0.5 m/s together with noise components [61].
Figure 3.1-12 (plot 2) also shows switching events of the two capacitor banks at time t =
4.25s, 13.6s, 14.0s, 16.4s, 18.35s and 19.6s. One capacitor bank (450µF, delta configured) is
permanently connected to the system while two other capacitor banks of the same rating (delta
configured 450µF capacitors) are switched in and out based on a hysterises band around the
generator speed thresholds. A hysterises band has been used in order to reduce switching events
during the course of operation of the wind energy conversion unit. At higher speed above 0.97
per unit, both capacitor banks are taken out and only the permanently connected bank (number 1)
of equal rating provides for the excitation requirements of the generator. The two capacitor banks
(number 2 and 3) are connected back as the generator speed passes thresholds while coming
down towards the lower end of the operating speed range of the unit. The capacitor banks have
been sized to meet the excitation requirements of the generator while keeping the power factor
reasonably high to reduce internal losses in the machine.
Referring to Figure 3.1-12 (plot 2), at t = 4.25s, the third capacitor bank is taken out and the
unit operates with one fixed capacitor bank connected to the generator terminal. At t = 13.6s, the
bank is connected back as the generator speed drops below 0.96 per unit and taken out again as it
passes the 0.97 per unit threshold. The bank is connected back at t = 16.4s and remains
connected thereafter. The second capacitor bank (number 2) is connected to the generator
terminals at t = 18.35s when its speed falls below 0.9 per unit and remains connected as long the
generator speed remains below 0.91 per unit (till the time t = 19.6s).
It is concluded that the proposed regulator gives acceptable speed tracking within the output
power limits of the generator and the rectifier. The fast acting current-controlled speed regulation
scheme also provides adequate damping of the mechanical oscillations caused by capacitor
switching events (plots 2 & 3).
42
Figure 3.1-12: WECU; Operation during dynamic wind speed conditions, 1) wind speed 2) optimum,
reference and actual speed of the generator and capacitor bank switching events 3) Reference and actual
output dc current
43
3.2 MODULE: VSC-UTILITY GRID
Control objectives of the system module ‘VSC-Utility grid’ (shown in Figure 2.3-3) and a
control scheme utilizing PI compensators are presented in the following sections. This is
followed by eigenvalue sensitivity analysis of the system. Modeling details of the module are
given in Appendix D wherein the PLL and the sensor dynamics have been included. A PLL is
used to track the phase angle of the system voltage space vector [62]. The VSC has been
operated as a current regulated voltage source [52].
3.2.1 CONTROL STRUCTURE
The following objectives are identified for the control of the VSC:
1. Transfer available power at the dc side to the utility grid and thus regulate the dc bus
voltage
2. Provide reactive power support to achieve rms voltage control at the PCC or the load bus
(based on the feedback signal which could come from the PCC or the load bus rms
voltage). In this section the load bus rms voltage has been controlled since no other load on
the feeder has been assumed.
Figure 3.2-1 shows a single line schematic and the control structure proposed for the VSC-Utility
grid system module. The diagram also shows the sign convention (used in appendix D for
modeling of the system). The VSC control has been adopted from [52] where the effects of the
cross coupling between the orthogonal components of the VSC output current have been
minimized by adding forward compensating terms (cross feedback) corresponding to the voltage
drop across the utility network. An outer PI compensator based dc voltage regulation loop
provides reference signal to the inner active current controller while the reference to the reactive
current controller comes from the outer rms voltage regulation loop.
The dc current injected at the dc bus, which is assumed as a (known) disturbance is forward
fed to the inner q axis current controller thereby bypassing the slow dynamics of the dc voltage
regulator. The converter interfacing reactor and the power factor correction capacitors at the PCC
provide the necessary current and voltage harmonic suppression. To minimize interaction
between the active and reactive current regulators to a minimum during transient system
operation, the control loop that supplies reference for the inner reactive current controller will be
designed to have adequately slow dynamics as compared to the dc voltage regulation loop and
44
the inner current control loops. For this purpose the time constant of the LPF in the rms voltage
control loop has been selected large enough (10ms) such that during fast transient voltage
disturbances the reactive current reference output of the regulator remains essentially constant
i.e. the variations in the reactive current reference are of much slower frequency than that of the
active current reference. Also the maximum reactive current supplied by the converter will be
dependent upon the value of the active current component being delivered by the converter at
any given time during its operation.
A fundamental frequency nonlinear model of the ‘VSC-Utility Grid’ system module
together with the associated control scheme shown in Figure 3.2-1 has been developed in
appendix D. The ‘VSC-Utility Grid’ system model has 33 state variables whereas 2 control
variables namely the dc bus reference voltage and the three-phase rms reference voltage of the
load bus make up the input vector of the closed loop system. Of the 33 state variables, 11 state
variables belong to the VSC component and its associated control scheme, 16 state variables
make up the load including the load network of which 5 state variables belong to each of the two
induction motor loads, 4 state variables are associated with the utility supply and 2 state variables
belong to the PLL device.
45
Figure 3.2-1: VSC-Utility Grid; Single line schematic and control structure
46
A linear model of the system module (based on the nonlinear model given in appendix D) has
been developed and analyzed in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment. In this section results of
the eigenvalue sensitivity analysis with respect to operating point and control parameters are
presented.
Parametric sensitivity analysis has been carried out with respect to control parameters at the
steady state operating points given in Table 3.2-1. Sesitivity with respect to operating point has
also been considered for operating conditions other than those given in Table 3.2-1 (explained
below). During all the steady state operating conditions the load connected to the system remains
unchanged as also the capacitors connected to the PCC and the load bus. Static load (SL1),
which has a constant lagging power factor of 0.81 and the load torques TL1 and TL2, have been
kept at 0.5 per unit each. Two capacitor banks each of 1.5µF capacity (at 13.8kV) are connected
to the PCC and the load bus.
Table 3.2-1: VSC-Utility Grid; Steady state operating points
DC Source VSC Utility Supply Load
Id[p.u.] P [p.u.] P [p.u.] Q [p.u.] P [p.u.] Q [p.u.] P [p.u.] Q [p.u.]
Case 1 -1.0 1.0 1.0 1.31 1.66 -1.34 0.64 0.31

Case 2 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.94 0.65 0.97 0.64 0.31
Case 3 1.0 -1.0 -1.0 0.35 0.34 0.39 0.64 0.31
The steady state conditions considered for the operating point sensitivity of the system
eigenvalues correspond to different level of dc current injection at the dc bus (Figure 3.2-1). The
steady state operating conditions (total 13) cover the full range of operation of the VSC from full
load in the rectifier mode (case 1 in Table 3.2-1) to full load in the inverter mode (case 3).
Table 3.2-2 gives eigenvalues of the system module for the steady state operating conditions
namely; case 1, case2 and case 3 which are identified in Table 3.2-1. All the eigenvalues in Table
3.2-2 remain in the negative half of the complex plane indicating that the system remains stable
for full load in the rectifier mode to full load operation in the inverter mode.
47
Referring to Table 3.2-2, real poles 32 and 33 are associated with the outer dc compensator (PI 1
in Figure 3.2-1) and the PLL respectively, each with a participation factor of 1.0 per unit. The
dominant eigenpair (32, 33), for the noload condition and full load condition in the inverter
mode, is associated with the PLL dynamics (participation factors of 1.0 and 0.16 per unit for the
two state variables of the PLL). The same eigenpair has significant but diminishing contribution
(<0.9 per unit) from the state variable associated with the outer dc compensator for higher
loading conditions in the inverter mode of operation. It is concluded that the PLL has a greater
influence in the inverter mode of operation of the VSC.
Table 3.2-2: VSC-Utility Grid; Eigenvalues corresponding to the steady state operating points identified
in Table 3.2-1
λ CASE 1 CASE 2 CASE 3

Number
1, 2 -13.066 ± 87887i -13.047 ± 87887i -13.039 ± 87887i
3, 4 -13.041 ± 87133i -13.040 ± 87133i -13.040 ± 87132i
5, 6 -102.39 ± 6298.3i -102.20 ± 6298.8i -102.04 ± 6299.2i
7, 8 -101.01 ± 5545.5i -100.70 ± 5544.9i -100.41 ± 5544.4i
9, 10 -211.15 ± 620.31i -226.35 ± 618.04i -241.23 ± 616.07i
11, 12 -514.67 ± 376.68i -514.67 ± 376.74i -514.67 ± 376.76i
13, 14 -297.04 ± 293.08i -297.04 ± 293.14i -297.05 ± 293.17i
15, 16 -23.736 ± 376.46i -23.718 ± 376.49i -23.701 ± 376.48i
17, 18 -70.468 ± 226.42i -74.659 ± 231.99i -78.315 ± 237.09i
19, 20 -77.448 ± 95.669i -77.439 ± 95.797i -77.426 ± 95.876i
21 -130.05 -130.06 -130.12
22 -99.608 -88.855
-82.637 ± 8.6815i
23 -77.055 -81.763
24, 25 -6.4776 ± 37.16i -6.4834 ± 37.19i -6.488 ± 37.213i
26, 27 -31.661 ± 23.381i -31.134 ± 23.607i -30.459 ± 23.712i
28 -20.608 -20.567 -20.539
29 -7.2181 -7.1974 -7.1888
30 -7.1434 -7.1299 -7.1143
31 -14.228 -14.168 -14.113
32 -10.25
-11.26 ± 0.1081i -11.644 ± 0.41263i
33 -11.587
Figure 3.2-2 gives a graphical presentation of the movement of the two eigenvalues ‘32’ and
‘33’ (Table 3.2-2) for steady state conditions with dc bus loading from -1.0 per unit (case 1 in
Table 3.2-1) through 0.0 (case 2) to 1.0 per unit (case 3) in steps of 0.167 per unit (50A). A total
of 13 steady state operating points have been considered including those for which the
eigenvalues are given in Table 3.2-2. The eigenvalues (Figure 3.2-2) are numbered for steady
state conditions with numeral ‘1’ referring to the full load rectifier mode (case 1) while numeral
48
‘13’ indicates the full load inverter mode of operation (case 3) and numeral ‘7’ indicates the
noload condition (case 2, real power exchange between the dc and ac side is zero).
Figure 3.2-2: VSC-Utility Grid; Plot of the eigenvalues (32, 33) corresponding to operating conditions
from full load in rectifier mode ( I d = -1.0 p.u.) to full load in inverter mode ( I d = 1.0 p.u.)
Parametric sensitivity analysis has been performed initially at the steady state operating point
pertaining to ‘case 2’ in Table 3.2-1. Table 3.2-3 gives system eigenvalues for ‘case 2’ and
identifies components that have major or minor contribution in each (pair) of the eigenvalues.
Major contribution has been defined based on a participation factor of 1.0 per unit while minor
contribution has been defined as a participation factor greater than 0.05 per unit. Major
contribution has been identified by the letter ‘X’ while minor contribution is idicated by the letter
‘x’. Dominant modes affected by the VSC and its associated control scheme have also been
noted in Table 3.2-3. It should be noted that the load in Table 3.2-3 also includes the interposing
transformer and feeder between the load bus and the PCC whereas the PCC itself has been
considered as part of the Utility Grid.
49
Table 3.2-3: VSC-Utility Grid; Eigenvalues and mode association for ‘case 2’
Dominant System Components

λ VSC Utility Grid Load PLL
-13.985 ± 9669.7i - - X -
-14.119 ± 8915.8i - - X -
-104.47 ± 4348.6i x X x -
-102.51 ± 3595i x X - -
-224.78 ± 622.22i X x - -
-508.88 ± 376.33i - - X -
-300.82 ± 292.31i - - X -
-23.714 ± 376.42i - - X -
-76.48 ± 229.48i [Mode 3] X x - x
-75.925 ± 109.4i - - X -
-130.03 X - - -
-85.122 ± 6.4713i [Mode 4] X - x x
-7.0019 ± 36.022i - - X -
-30.982 ± 23.242i [Mode 2] X - x x
-7.1885 X - - -
-7.1324 X - - -
-15.286 - - X -
-13.114 x - X x
-11.309 ± 0.12524i [Mode 1] x - x X
Table 3.2-4 gives state association with corresponding participation factors for the dominant
modes identified in Table 3.2-3, in which (q,d) represents the orthorgonal components and LPF1,2
refers to the first order low pass filters ‘LPF 1’ and ‘LPF 2’ in Figure 3.2-1.
Table 3.2-4: VSC-Utility Grid; Dominant modes, mode association of state variables and participation
factors for ‘case 2’
Mode Number and Participation Factors

Component/State Variable
Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3
DC Capacitor 0.11 0.04 0.400
Terminal Currents (q,d) - - , 0.100 0.395, 0.577
Inner Regulators (q,d) 0.038 , - - -
VSC and
Control Scheme Inner LPFs (q,d) - - , 0.153 0.536 , 1.0
Outer Regulators (q,d) 0.845 , - - , 1.0 -
Outer LPF1,2 - 0.487 , 0.499 0.059
x1pll 1.0 0.040 -
PLL
x2pll 0.132 0.123 0.054
Currents (q,d) - - 0.057 , 0.075
Utility Network
PCC voltage (q) - - -
- - -
Load Network
Induction Motors (LM1,2) - , 0.082 - , 0.436 -
50
For all the subsequent figures in this section, variations in a control parameter are indicated as
[xi; s; xf] meaning that the parameter value is varied from ‘xi’ per unit to ‘xf’ per unit in steps of
‘s’ per unit. The numerals accompanying an eigenvalue on the root locus indicates the step
number with ‘xi’ marked as 1.
Table 3.2-4 indicates that mode 1 is mostly influenced by the PLL and the dc bus voltage
regulator. Figure 3.2-3 gives loci of the eigenvalue for mode 1 for variations in the proportional
and integral constants K pd , K id of the dc voltage regulator (PI 1) repectively. Referring to
Figure 3.2-3, the complex eigenpair of mode 1 gives rise to two real poles when the value of the
proportional constant K pd of the dc bus voltage regulator (PI 1) is either increased or decreased
from its initial value. The parameter K id has a similar but opposite effect. The root locus
suggests the use of lower values for the proportional constant K pd and higher values for the
integral constant K id .
Figure 3.2-3: VSC-Utility Grid; Loci of the eigenvalues corresponding to mode 1 for variations in K pd
and K id of the outer dc regulator
51
Figure 3.2-4 gives the loci of the eigenvalues pertaining to mode 1 for variations in the
proportional and integral constants K pi , K ii of the inner current regulators (PI 2 and PI 4 in
Figure 3.2-1). Referring to Figure 3.2-4, increasing the proportional gain K pi results in the
complex pole pair of mode 1 to degenerate into two real poles while decreasing the integral gain
K ii gives rise to the same effect. The proportional and integral gains of the inner current
regulators have opposing effects on the behaviour of this mode. Control of mode 1 is lost for
higher and lower values of K pi and K ii respectively. This mode is sufficiently damped and does
not affect system stability.
Figure 3.2-4: VSC-Utility Grid; Loci of mode 1 for variations in K pi and K ii of the inner current
regulators
Mode 2 is highly influenced by the dynamics of the rms voltage control loop, induction
motor ML2 and the PLL. Effects of the proportional and integral constants K pv and K iv of the
outer rms voltage regulator (PI 3 in Figure 3.2-1) are shown in Figure 3.2-5. This mode exhibits
52
higher frequency and reduced damping for higher values of K iv . The proportional constant K pv
has the opposite but much less significant effect on the movement of mode 2. As confirmed from
the participation of the state variables in this mode (Table 3.2-4), variations in the integral
constant K id of the dc voltage regulation loop do not have any significant effect on either the
frequency or the damping of the mode 2. This is also true for the proportional constant K pd of
the dc voltage regulator.
Figure 3.2-5: VSC-Utility Grid; Plot of the positive eigenvalues corresponding to Mode 2 for variations
in the parameters of the current and dc voltage regulators
Figure 3.1-6 gives root loci for mode 2 for variations in the time constant τ vfb of the LPF 2
in the feedback loop of the rms voltage regulator (Figure 3.2-1). This parameter has a relatively
significant and opposing effect as that of the proportional constant K pv . Since the two low pass
filters LPF 1 and LPF 2 are in series these exerts similar effect on mode 2 as confirmed by their
participation factors given in Table 3.2-4.
53
Figure 3.2-6: VSC-Utility Grid; Plot of the eigenvalue of mode 2 for variations in the parameters τ vfb
and K iv
Figure 3.2-7: VSC-Utility Grid; Traces of the eigenvalue of mode 2 for variations in K pi and K ii of the
inner current regulators
54
Root loci of mode 2 corresponding to variations in the proportional and integral constants K pi ,
K ii are given in Figure 3.2-7. The proportional constant K pi exerts relatively significant
influence on the damping and the frequency of mode 2 which diminishes with higher value of the
constant K pi .
Mode 3 is caused by the interaction of the low pass filters in the feedback paths of the inner
current control loops and the terminal currents of the VSC. Traces of the eigenvalue associated
with mode 3 in Figure 3.2-8, indicates that this mode will cause instability for very low values of
the proportional gain K pi of the inner current regulators (PI 2 and PI 4). The constant K pi has
significant effect on both frequency and damping of this mode. The integral constant K ii has a
relatively insignificant effect on this mode. A typical value (3.0ms) has been used for the time
constants of the low pass filters in the inner current regulators.
Figure 3.2-8: VSC-Utility Grid; Trace of the eigenvalue associated with mode 3
55
From the operating point sensitivity analysis it has been established that the dominant
eigenvalues of the system are relatively independent of the steady state operating conditions
(from full load in the rectifier mode to full load in the inverter mode of operation of the VSC).
Selection of the VSC control parameters can thus be carried out by considering the no-load case
alone (VSC real power exchange is zero).
From parametric sensitivity analysis it is concluded that of all the control parameters, the
proportional gain K pi of the inner current regulators has a significant effect on the dominant
modes of the system. A higher value should be selected for this parameter. System and control
parameters are given in appendix A. Fine tuning of the control parameters generally needs to be
performed in PSCAD/EMTDC digital simulation environment where factors such as overshoot,
harmonic content of the converter delivered current and the PCC (and/or the load bus) voltage
would need to be considered.
In the following sections results are presented from digital simulations of the detailed nonlinear
model of the VSC-Utility Grid system module performed in PSCAD/EMTDC software
environment. A switching frequency of 3.96 kHz (66x60Hz) has been used for the VSC gating
control in the PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software.
3.2.3.1 Steady State Performance
The system is operating in steady state and the converter is delivering 0.97 per unit of ‘active’
and 0.4 per unit of ‘reactive’ current with a dc current injection of 1.0 per unit on the dc side.
Both the individual harmonic magnitudes as well as the THD for the current and the voltage are
less than the limits recommended by [55]. THD is less than 0.05% for the converter terminal
current and less than 0.02% for the PCC voltage. These results have been achieved with a
capacitor of 1.5µF at the PCC (at 13.8kV). The results (not shown) are also within limits for a
capacitor value of 0.75µF at the PCC.
3.2.3.2 Dynamic Performance
The following should be noted about the simulation results presented in this section:
1. The base power used is 300kVA with the converter rated at 1.3 per unit.
56
2. The instantaneous ‘abc’ reference frame variables have been expressed in per unit based on
their maximum values corresponding to their nominal rms values.
3. The per-unitized (induction motor) load torques are based on the respective machine rating.
4. The VSC switching method is based on SPWM at the switching frequency of 3960Hz
(66x60 Hz).
Figure 3.2-9 and Figure 3.2-10 shows response of the system to load transients and to step
changes in the reference signals for the dc bus voltage and the rms voltage at the load bus. The
two figures have been drawn for the same time duration.
Initially the system is running under no-load conditions with a 1.5µF capacitor connected at
the PCC (at 13.8kV). A dc current id = 0.66 per unit is injected at the dc bus by a constant
current source. The injected power into the dc bus is transferred to the utility side by the
converter together with a reactive power import to maintain the rms voltage at the load bus at 1.0
per unit. At time t = 1.5s, a lagging power factor (0.81) static load (SL1 in Figure 3.2-1) of 0.28
per unit rating is connected to the system at the load bus. At t = 2.5s an induction motor load
(ML1 rated at 0.127 per unit or 38kW) is connected to the load bus while running at synchronous
speed with zero load at its shaft. A second capacitor bank of 1.5µF is connected to the PCC
(13.8kV) at time t = 3.75s. At time t = 4.5s another static load (SL2) rated at 0.28 per unit (power
factor of 0.81 lagging) is switched on and at t = 5.5s full load torque is applied on motor ML1.
At time t = 6.0s the dc current injection is step increased to 1.0 per unit. At t = 7.0s another
induction motor load (ML2) is connected to the system while running at synchronous speed with
zero load torque. The motor load ML2 is rated at 0.273 per unit (82kW). The load torque on
motor ML2 is then step increased to 1.0 per unit at t = 8.0s. At time t = 8.5s the dc reference
signal is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 1.03 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit at time t = 9.5s.
At t = 10.5s the reference rms voltage signal is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.98 per unit
and back to 1.0 per unit at time t = 11.5s.
Figure 3.2-9 and Figure 3.2-10 show that after each event mentioned above, the system
returns to a stable operating state. Also the rms voltage of the load bus remains within the
performance bounds of the ‘no interruption in function’ region specified by the ITI curve during
all load switchings and dc side disturbances. The dc bus voltage remains tightly regulated despite
disturbances (in the form of external dc current injection) at the dc bus.
57
Figure 3.2-9: VSC-Utility Grid; Response to load switchings and step changes in reference voltages of the dc bus and the load bus, 1) dc current
(disturbance) 2) & 3) ‘active’ and ‘reactive’ terminal currents of the VSC
58
Figure 3.2-10: VSC-Utility Grid; Response to load switchings and step changes in reference voltages of the dc bus and the load bus, 1) reference and
actual three phase rms voltage at the load bus 2) reference and actual dc bus voltage
59
3.3 MODULE: BATTERY STORAGE AND DC-DC CONVERTER
The assumed storage medium consists of a bank of lead-acid batteries. Control objectives have
been given first, followed by results of stability and parametric sensitivity analysis. The results
from the eigenvalue analysis of the system have been verified using detailed nonlinear model in
the PSCA/EMTDC simulation software. Selection of the module components and the details of
modeling these components are given in appendix E.
3.3.1 MODELING AND CONTROL
The dc-dc converter control is to:
1. Facilitate bidirectional power flow control for battery charging and discharging purposes.
2. Provide dc bus voltage regulation.
During islanded operation of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system, the storage
device will be used for steady state and transient power support as per the power management
strategy described in section 2.1.1. An adequately fast control response is therefore desirable.
Current Programmed Mode (CPM) control using peak inductor current has been used for the
converter duty ratio control which has the inherent characteristic of over-current protection of the
switching devices [132].
Figure 3.3-1 shows control schematic of the system module. A controlled current source
connected to the dc bus represents power contribution to or from the other two system modules
namely the wind energy conversion unit and the VSC-Utility grid. A small signal model of the
battery storage and dc-dc converter module with CPM based control of the dc-dc converter is
given in Figure E-6.
Referring to Figure 3.3-1, the load current on the dc bus is forward fed to the dc bus voltage
control loop which regulates the output current of the battery storage to meet load demand while
maintaining the dc bus voltage. This arrangement bypasses the dynamics of the voltage control
loop resulting in a relatively faster response time. The control scheme given in Figure 3.3-1 will
be suitably modified when the battery storage and dc-dc converter system module is used to
support the dc bus voltage while it is operated with the VSC unit as shown in Figure 5.4-1 and
Figure 5.6-1 as also when the storage alone is used to meet load demand in the system through
the VSC unit as shown in Figure 5.5-1.
60
Modeling details of the module with the control structure shown in Figure 3.3-1 are given in
appendix E. The battery storage and dc-dc converter model has 4 state variables of which 1 each
is associated with the battery storage, the dc-dc converter and the dc bus and 1 state variable is
associated with the dc voltage regulator. The dc bus reference voltage makes up the input vector
of the closed loop system.
Results of the eigenvalue sensitivity analysis with respect to control parameters and with respect
to steady state operating points are presented in the following sections. Predictions from linear
analysis have been verified using the detailed nonlinear model of the system module in the
PSCAD/EMTDC simulation environment.
Figure 3.3-1: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter; Control structure and schematic diagram
1. Boost Mode of Operation
Table 3.3-1 gives the eigenvalues and the location of the corresponding RHP zero of the system
module at different steady state operating points in boost mode of operation. The equilibrium dc
61
loading conditions at nominal dc bus voltage (1.0 per unit) are also listed in the table. There is no
oscillatory mode during moost mode of operation and all the eigenvalues of the system are in the
left half of the complex plane.
Referring to Table 3.3-1, the dominant eigenvalues exhibit little shift from one equilibrium
operating point to another thereby indicating a relatively uniform operation of the module over
the operating range, in boost mode. The effect of the RHP zero which gives the system a non-
minimum phase nature, is more pronounced at higher loadings and has negligible influence at
low loading conditions because of the fact that the capacitor terminal voltage will drop relatively
quickly at higher loading during the period that the inductor current is being built up. During this
period the dc capacitor alone supports the load and as such its value has a bearing on the location
of the RHP.
Table 3.3-1: Battery Storage and dc-dc converter (Boost mode of operation); Poles and RHP zeros at
different steady state operating points
Io [p.u] 0.167 0.333 0.500 0.667 0.833 1.00
λ1 -4369.3 -3822.8 -3264.4 -2689.7 -2090.9 -1445.7
λ2 -26.896 -26.416 -25.954 -25.508 -25.075 -24.652
λ3 -86.608 -98.092 -112.56 -132.78 -164.82 -228.29
λ4 -62.481 -61.052 -60.095 -59.37 -58.778 -58.269
RHP Zero 1019.2 484.98 306.34 216.57 162.32 125.8
2. Buck Mode of Operation
Table 3.3-2 gives the eigenvalues of the system module at different steady state operating points
in buck mode of operation. The equilibrium dc loading conditions at nominal dc bus voltage are
also listed in Table 3.3-2. The system remains stable with all the eigenvalues in the left half of
the complex plane. There is only one oscillatory mode (λ3,4) during buck mode of operation of
the dc-dc converter. The oscillatory mode is considerably damped. It is noted that the damping of
the mode increases while its frequency is reduced for higher loading conditions.
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Table 3.3-2: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck mode of operation); Eigenvalues at different
steady state operating points
Io
-0.167 -0.333 -0.500 -0.667 -0.833 -1.00
[p.u]
λ1 -10312 -9894.2 -9453.8 -8988 -8493.9 -7968
λ2 -31.245 -30.479 -29.782 -29.141 -28.544 -27.984
λ3,4 -56.769±12.182i -58.429±12.108i -60.235±11.787i -62.239±11.096i -64.5± 9.7864i -67.141±7.1648i
Figure 3.3-2 gives loci of eigenvalue loci λ2 and λ3,4 when the dc-dc converter is operating
in buck mode corresponding to the steady state operating points listed in Table 3.3-2. The steady
state dc loadings are at nominal dc bus voltage (1000V or 1.0 per unit).
Figure 3.3-2: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter; Loci of the eigenvalues λ2 and λ3,4 corresponding
to the steady state operating points given in Table 3.3-2
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Figure 3.3-3 through to Figure 3.3-6 show eigenvalue loci for the boost and the buck mode of
operation of the dc-dc czonverter, as the proportional constant K pdc and integral constant K idc of
the dc voltage regulator are varied from 0.0 per unit to 1.8 per unit of their initial values, in steps
of 0.15 per unit ([0.0: 0.15: 1.8]). The following steady state points have been considered:
Boost Mode: I o = 0.5 per unit; V dc = 1.0 per unit
Buck Mode: I o = -0.5 per unit; V dc = 1.0 per unit.
1. Boost Mode of Operation
Referring to Figure 3.3-3, the two dominant real poles (λ2,4) given in Table 3.3-1 give rise to an
oscillatory mode at lower values of the proportional constant K pdc . The constant K pdc is varied
from 0.0 per unit to 1.8 per unit in steps of 0.15 per unit.
Figure 3.3-3: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Boost Mode); Eigenvalue trace with respect to the
proportional gain K pdc
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At extremely low values (approaching zero) for the proportional constant K pdc , the system
exhibits very low damping while higher values (≥10) for K pdc result in a stable and well
damped system response during the boost operating mode of the dc-dc converter.
Figure 3.3-4 shows root locus of the dominant eigenvalues of the system for variations in the
integral constant K idc in the boost mode of operation. At higher values of the integral constant
the two most dominant real eigen values (λ2,4) give rise to an oscillatory mode. The resultant
mode however has sufficient damping and is not of any concern.
Figure 3.3-4: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Boost Mode); Eigenvalue trace with respect to the
integral gain K idc
2. Buck Mode of Operation
Figure 3.3-5 gives the root loci of the dominant eigenvalues (λ2 and λ3,4 in Table 3.3-2) of the
storage and dc-dc converter module in the buck mode of operation for variations in the
65
proportional constant K pdc . The proportional constant K pdc is varied from 0.8 per unit to 1.2
per unit in steps of 0.001 per unit.
Referring to Figure 3.3-5, mode (λ3,4) degerates into two real poles for one particular value
of the of K pdc (0.917 p.u.) with λ2 lying in the middle between the two. For higher values of
K pdc , the real pole λ2 is located on the RHS of the locus for the mode (λ3,4) while for lower
values of the constant the real eigenvalue λ2 is located farther along the real axis on the LHS of
the of the eigenvalue locus of the oscillatory mode. Extremely low values of K pdc (~ 0) will
result in a low frequency sustained oscillatory response of the module. A higher value (≥10) of
the proportional constant K pdc is therefore suggested for a fast and adequately damped response.
Figure 3.3-5: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck Mode); Root loci with respect to the
proportional constant K pdc
66
Figure 3.3-6 shows locus of the eigenvalue for the oscillatory mode (λ3,4) of the dc-dc converter
in the buck operating mode for variations in the integral constant K idc . The integral constant
K idc is varied from 0.8 per unit to 1.5 per unit in steps of 0.001 per unit. The root locus plot in
Figure 3.3-6 shows that a high value (≥200) for the integral constant K idc would result in an
adequately fast and well damped response.
Figure 3.3-6: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck Mode); Root locus with respect to the
integral constant K idc
Final selection of the two constants K pdc and K idc should take into account the frequency
variations of the oscillatory modes in the other two system modules so that undesirable mutual
interaction between the three system modules can be avoided when these are operated
interactively.
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Digital simulation results of the nonlinear detailed system model developed in the
PSCAD/EMTDC environment are presented below. A converter switching frequency of 3.0 kHz
has been used.
1. Step Changes in Current
Figure 3.3-7 shows response to step changes in dc side injected current while the dc-dc converter
is operating in the boost mode. Referring to the first graph, initially a 0.5 per unit current is being
drained from the dc bus (representing the VSC as a known disturbance) and the system operates
in a quasi steady state condition. At time t = 0.6s the dc current drain is step changed from 0.5
per unit to 0.67 per unit and back to 0.5 per unit at t = 0.9s. At time t = 1.2s the load current is
reduced in one step from 0.5 per unit to 0.33 per unit and back to 0.5 per unit at time t = 1.5s.
The dc-dc converter response is almost immediate due to forwarding feeding of the disturbance
current.
Plot 2 in Figure 3.3-7 shows the dc bus voltage during step changes in the output current
from the dc bus side. The response of the dc-dc converter system is adequately damped and
stable and the dc bus remains regulated within a narrow band of ±1.0% around the nominal value
of 1.0 per unit.
Figure 3.3-7: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Boost Mode), 1) dc output and inductor current
2) dc bus voltage
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The sequence of events shown in Figure 3.3-7 is repeated in Figure 3.3-8, however the
disturbance current is now injected into the dc bus and the dc-dc converter is operating in the
buck mode. Here also operation of the system module is stable and the dc bus voltage is tightly
regulated within a very narrow band of ±0.4% around the nominal value.
Figure 3.3-8: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter (Buck Mode), 1) injected at the dc bus and
inductor current 2) dc bus voltage
2. Step Changes in Reference Voltage
Figure 3.3-9 gives system response to step changes in the dc bus reference voltage. Plot 1 shows
system response when the dc-dc converter is operating in a boost mode with a constant current
load of 0.5 per unit at the dc bus.
Initially the reference voltage signal is set at 1.0 per unit. At time t = 1.8s the reference
voltage is step changed to 1.05 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit at t = 2.5s. At time t = 2.4s the
reference is again step changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.95 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit at time
t = 2.7s. In each case the dc bus voltage is maintained at the reference level within a settling time
of less than 100ms with an overshoot of less than 20%. The nonminimum phase nature of the
system in the boost mode is evident from plot 1 in which the initial system response is opposite
to that of the commanded step change in the dc bus voltage.
Plot 2 in Figure 3.3-9 gives the system response to step changes in the reference dc bus
voltage during a buck mode of operation. A constant dc current of 0.5 per unit is being injected
during these step changes. The sequence of events in the buck mode of operation is the same as
that in the first plot for the boost mode of operation. During both the boost and the buck mode of
69
operation the module is able to track the reference signal for the dc bus voltage with acceptable
overshoots (less than 20%) and with adequately fast settling times (less than 100ms).
Figure 3.3-9: Battery Storage and DC-DC Converter, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage in boost
mode 2) reference and actual dc bus voltage in buck mode
3.4 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
In this chapter control schemes and linear analysis results of the three system modules namely
the wind energy conversion unit, the VSC-Utility grid system and the Storage and dc-dc
converter system have been presented. Control performance for the three system modules has
been verified through simulations using detailed nonlinear models of these systems in
PSCAD/EMTDC simulation software.
3.4.1 MODULE: WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT
1. Control scheme for the system module ‘wind energy conversion unit’ has been presented. A
new current-controlled speed regulation scheme for the unit has been proposed. The control
scheme is a modification of the conventional linear PI compensator based speed regulator
with generator speed as the feedback signal, using a thyristor-controlled rectifier. The
conventional regulation scheme has been augmented with an inner current control loop to
provide transient and steady state output power control of the unit as shown in Figure 3.1-1.
2. A complete mathematical model of the wind energy conversion unit with the proposed
control scheme has been developed which is given in Appendix C. The model takes into
70
account magnetic nonlinearity of the induction generator using the commonly available no-
load terminal voltage verses current characteristics of the machine.
3. Eigenvalue sensitivity analysis with respect to operating point and with respect to control
parameters has been presented. The analysis has been performed with the linear analysis
tools available in MATLAB/SIMULINK using the numerical, linear state space models
extracted from the fundamental frequency nonlinear model given in Appendix C.
4. Time domain simulation results from PSCAD/EMTDC of the detailed nonlinear model of
the wind energy conversion unit have been presented to substantiate results from the linear
system study.
The following conclusions have been arrived at, based on the results of the linear and nonlinear
analysis:
1. The proposed current-controlled speed regulation of the wind turbine unit ensures that the
generator and rectifier power limits are respected under all steady state and common
transient operating conditions by imposing limits on the inner current regulator. The
transient operating conditions may include upward and downward step changes in the
reference speed and switching of the excitation capacitor banks among others.
2. The proposed control scheme provides robust and uniform performance over the entire
operating speed range of the wind energy conversion system using three parallel connected
static capacitor banks. The level of excitation is step changed during operation of the unit
over its speed range.
3. The current-controlled speed regulation of the wind turbine unit provides rejection
capabilities for the dc bus voltage disturbances and provides sufficient damping of the
turbine-generator torsional mode for the otherwise lossless mechanical system. It reduces
mechanical oscillations caused by switching of the excitation capacitors and by the
variations of the dc bus voltage.
4. The turbine-generator torsional mode is affected by the proportional constants of both the
outer and the inner compensators. Higher values of these control parameters result in
increased damping and reduced frequency of the mode. Integral action in the inner current
control loop alone does not provide any damping of the torsional mode and will result in
mechanical instability of the system. On the other hand simple gain in the inner
compensator can ensure system stability however this results in excessive control activity
71
and poor step response. Integral constant in the outer compensator does not affect the
torsional mode of the mechanical system.
5. The time constant of the LPF in the inner compensator of the wind turbine speed regulation
scheme can also affect system performance and stability. Higher values of the time constant
will result in instability of the system due to modes associated with both electrical and
mechanical systems.
6. Tuning of the control parameters of the wind energy conversion unit should be carried out
at higher loadings (higher operating speeds) since variations in control parameters cause
significant movements of the system eigenvalues at higher loadings of the unit.
3.4.2 MODULE: VSC-UTILITY GRID
1. A control scheme for the VSC-Utility grid system module has been presented based on the
traditional control approaches using linear PI compensators.
2. A synchronous reference frame based model of the VSC-Utility grid module with the
associated control scheme has been developed and is presented in appendix D. The model
takes into account dynamics associated with the PLL, network and the sensors.
3. Eigenvalue sensitivity analysis of the system module with the proposed control scheme has
been presented with respect to steady state operating point and with respect to control
parameters.
4. Results from linear analysis have been verified through digital simulations of the detailed
model of the VSC-Utility grid module in PSCAD/EMTDC (given in Appendix D).
The following conclusions are drawn based on the results of the linear analysis in
MATLAB/SIMULINK and the simulations results from PSCAD/EMTDC:
1. The proposed model of the VSC-Utility grid system in the synchronous reference frame
captures the dynamics of the module in sufficient details and therefore provides accurate
results, which have been validated using results from the detailed system model in
PSCAD/EMTDC. Stability issues therefore can be investigated with confidence using the
linearized model obtained from the proposed fundamental frequency nonlinear model of the
system module.
2. PLL dynamics play an important role in the stability investigation of the system particularly
in the inverter mode of operation.
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3. Sensor dynamics represented by an LPF in the feedback loops with a sufficiently small time
constant (3ms) do not affect stability properties of the system.
4. The VSC-Utility grid system is stable in both the rectifying and in the inverter mode of
operation with the control scheme utilizing linear PI compensators.
5. THD of the PCC voltage and the injected current by the VSC are within the limits
recommended by [55] (<0.02% and <0.05% respectively).
6. The rms voltage of the regulated load bus remains within the performance bounds specified
by the ‘no-interruption in function region’ of the ITI curve for all load-switching
conditions.
7. Parametric analysis of the system module shows that mode 3 will cause instability for low
values of the proportional constant in the inner current regulators of the VSC-Utility grid
system.
8. Of all the control parameters in the VSC-Utility grid system module, the proportional
constant of the inner current regulators has the greatest influence on the dominant
oscillatory modes. Higher values for the proportional constants of the compensators in both
the outer dc and the inner current regulation loops are suggested to increase damping of the
dominant oscillatory modes.
9. Tuning of controllers for the VSC-Utility grid system could be done while in no load
operation (active power exchange is zero or minimal) as suggested by the operating point
and parametric sensitivity analysis of the eigenvalues of the linearized system.
3.4.3 MODULE: BATTERY STORAGE AND DC-DC CONVERTER
1. Control scheme for the storage and dc-dc converter system using CPM duty ratio control
and linear PI compensator has been presented.
2. A detailed mathematical model of the module with the associated control scheme has been
developed and is given in appendix E.
3. Eigenvalue sensitivity analysis with respect to operating point and with respect to control
parameters has been presented for both buck and boost mode of operation of the dc-dc
converter.
4. Results from the linear analysis have been confirmed through digital simulations of the
detailed nonlinear model of the unit in PSCAD/EMTDC.
The following conclusions are based on the results of the linear and nonlinear analysis:
73
1. The battery storage and dc-dc converter system module is stable under the proposed control
scheme in both buck and in boost modes of operation.
2. DC bus voltage is tightly regulated (within ±0.3% of the nominal) with the selected control
parameters (given in appendix A) in both modes of operation of the dc-dc converter for
large step changes in the load current at the high voltage dc bus.
3. It is concluded that selection of the proportional constant K pdc and the integral constant
K idc requires careful considerations and should take into account possible interactions with
the oscillatory modes in the VSC-Utility grid system.
CHAPTER 4
SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL
T his chapter presents a supervisory hybrid control strategy for the automatic control of
the wind energy conversion and storage system. It gives an overview of the hybrid
control systems and the mathematical formalisms that have been developed for modeling such
systems. Hybrid automata based model of the wind energy conversion and storage system has
been presented and a supervisory hybrid control scheme for the system has been proposed. This
is followed by an overview of the transition management required in the satisfactory operation of
such a hybrid control system. Details of the management strategies for operating state and mode
transitions used in conjunction with the proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme are given at
the end of the chapter.
4.1 HYBRID CONTROL SYSTEMS
A hybrid control system consists of both continuous and discrete valued states. Both these states
influence the dynamic behavior of the system. Hybrid systems embrace a wide range of
applications from process control to aerospace to power systems [22]-[27]. Such a control
paradigm of real world systems is appealing from several perspectives, some of which are:
1. Performance that exceeds any fixed classical or nonlinear smooth controller e.g.
• Optimality
• Adaptation
• Stability
2. Performance that reflects multiple objectives e.g.,
• Response speed
• Accuracy
• Robustness
• Disturbance rejection
3. Performance that respects state and control constraints
For a detailed discussion of the above, the reader is referred to reference [19].
74
75
While classical control represents a balanced trade off between multiple performance objectives
using a single feedback function, a hybrid control is used to achieve multiple objectives by
utilizing a set of a priori specified family of feedback functions. Neither a linear nor a nonlinear
control law can guarantee performance objectives over the entire range of operation of a large
number of nonlinear physical systems.
Besides the growing complexity of physical systems, modeling and control complexity of
such systems make modular and decentralized control architecture also more appealing. The
complex system is thus divided into smaller pieces that easily lend themselves up for treatment
with classical modeling and control tools. The different pieces are then put together to form the
larger control system. Coordination among the different pieces of a complex system or different
controllers of a single system is achieved through a supervisory control layer. There is a large
body of literature available on the subjects, both hybrid systems and supervisory control, some of
which are given in the references [63]-[71].
4.2 HYBRID MODEL OF THE STUDY SYTEM
Development of a comprehensive mathematical formalism for hybrid systems is still an active

field of research [20], [71], [72]. There are basically three types of frameworks available for the
study of hybrid control systems [20]:
1. Equation based models

2. Models based on Finite State Machines (FSM)
3. Petri Nets formalism
The first modeling framework has roots in system science while second and third are graph
theoretic models from computer science. A recent development is the hybrid automaton, which is
an extension of the FSM and has found widespread acceptance [20]. Varying version of this
framework have been reported in the literature, however both discrete events and continuous
time dynamics are given in sufficient detail such that the resultant model captures most of the
properties of a hybrid system.
In this research work a formal representation of the system has not been attempted since our
objective is the validation of operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system under
the proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme through nonlinear time domain simulations.
Consequently hybrid modeling of the subject wind energy conversion and storage system is not
76
explicitly given in mathematical terms, rather through graphical representation in the form of
hybrid automata.
4.2.1 FINITE HYBRID AUTOMATA
In developing the system STD shown in Figure 2.2-1, it had been assumed that the operating
state changes instantaneously. This however is a gross simplification. Consider the Finite Hybrid
Automata (FHA) of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system shown in Figure
4.2-1, which has been developed from the STD of the system by incorporating two transient
operating states of FOS (Fault Operating State) and SOS (Synchronization Operating State) and
an Over Current Control scheme (OCC). The OCC operation will involve control of the VSC as
a current source using Hysteresis Space Vector Modulation (HSVM) for gating signal
generation. The hybrid switching and control of the VSC has been described in section 4.3.3.
Appendix B describes the process of arriving at the FHA of the system shown in Figure 4.2-1.
The wind energy conversion and storage system has two operating modes as discussed in
CHAPTER 2. While in grid-connected mode, in any operating state, the system may experience
transient operating conditions as a result of either some load switching or due to some fault. Both
these transients may either be internal or external to the wind energy conversion and battery
storage system and may cause violations of performance bounds or violation of the VSC rating
limit or both.
Violation of the performance bounds and/or VSC rating limit due to normal disturbances in
the system will result in the activation of the OCC operation of the VSC. If performance
violations are a result of a utility side fault disturbance (D = 1) then the system will immediately
transition to the transient operating state FOS (operating state #10). During FOS operating state
the VSC will also be controlled using the OCC scheme. If the disturbance is persistent and the
rms voltage at the PCC crosses the preset bounds within the upper and lower voltage bounds
given by the ITI curve, then the system will go into the off-grid mode of operation otherwise
after a short stay in the FOS will return to the original operating state in the grid-connected mode
with an active OCC control scheme of the VSC.
A situation similar to the FOS in the grid-connected mode can be described by defining a
fault operating state in the off-grid mode of operation caused by an internal disturbance (ID).
That case however, is outside the scope of this work.
77
Mode transition from on-grid to off-grid operation may either be direct (pre-planned) or due to
some disturbance (accidental). The system will change operating modes through the transient
operating state FOS when mode transition is triggered by a disturbance i.e. by a fault on the
utility feeder. The wind energy conversion and storage system can transition to any of the
operating state #2 (Standby), #3 (Storage) or #4 (WECU + Storage) while changing operation
from on-grid to off-grid mode. Pre-planned transitions from on-grid to off-grid mode (S = 0, D =
0) will be direct and will not involve the transient fault operating state #10 (FOS).
Mode change from off-grid to on-grid is a controlled transition in which the system will go
through the transient operating state SOS (operating state #5). The wind energy conversion and
storage system can proceed to any of the two operating states #6 (WECU + Storage + Utility) or
state #9 (Storage + Utility) depending on the availability of the wind energy conversion unit
(WECU). Any disturbance internal or external during such a controlled transition through the
transient operating state SOS that may result in violation of performance bounds will cause the
system to fall back into the off-grid mode of operation and immediately to proceed to shutdown
if the disturbance is permanent and internal to the wind energy conversion and storage system.
However no internal faults have been simulated.
78
Figure 4.2-1: Finite Hybrid Automata (FHA) of the wind energy conversion and storage system
79
4.3 SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL OF THE STUDY SYSTEM
Supervisory control is required to coordinate the application of the control schemes meant for the
operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system in the various operating states
depicted by the FHA in Figure 4.2-1. Supervisory control is also needed to steer the system from
grid-connected mode to the off-grid mode of operation and vice versa according to the route plan
given by the FHA and to ensure that power quality remains within the steady state and transient
specifications given in section 2.4. The supervisory control will not only be acting on the
primary and secondary regulators but also the control plant itself, in this case the wind energy
conversion and storage system, to ensure proper system performance during preplanned and
accidental state transitions.
4.3.1 SUPERVISORY CONTROL REQUIREMENTS
To achieve coordination among the different possible control schemes and to ensure that the
system performance remains within the specified limits, the supervisory control is required to
manage the following based on the available local information in the wind energy conversion
and battery storage system:
1. Provide steady state and transient power management as outlined in section 2.1.1
2. Provide load management during islanded operation according to the available capacity of
the energy sources in the wind energy conversion and storage system as outlined in section
2.1.2.
3. Provide suitable input reference signals to the primary regulators.
4. Provide system ride-through capability and switch-overload protection during temporary
faults on the utility system by switching between Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation
(SPWM) and Hysteresis Space Vector Modulation (HSVM) based gating and control of the
VSC. The hybrid switching and control of the VSC has been described in section 4.3.3.
5. Manage switching among the different candidate controllers (or control schemes) suitable
for the control objective at hand, for all the solid state switching devices.
6. Provide suitable actions to keep PCC or load bus voltage excursions within the performance
specifications outlined in section 2.4. The supervisory actions may either be on the
regulators (or control schemes) or on the plant itself, e.g. opening of the tie circuit breaker
to isolate the wind energy conversion and battery storage system from the utility grid in the
case of an external fault.
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4.3.2 SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL PHILOSOPHY
As outlined in the power management strategy in section 2.1.1, the storage element will act both
as a sink and a source for the wind energy conversion and battery storage system during steady
state as well as in transient operating conditions during off-grid mode of operation. In higher
wind conditions when storage element is full up to its capacity, instead of operating the wind
turbine at suboptimum level, a dc or ac side dummy load could be switched in. If this
arrangement is followed and a dc dummy load is implemented then both the VSC and the dc-dc
converter could have lower MVA capacities with respect to the maximum power generation limit
from the wind turbine. System optimization aspects however have been ignored in this thesis and
no dummy load is considered. It is assumed that the wind energy conversion unit has a maximum
rating corresponding to the turbine power curve i.e. 1.2 per unit while both the storage and the
VSC are rated at 1.3 per unit.
In grid-connected mode of operation all the generated power will be transferred to the utility
side as and when available except for the conditions where the storage element needs to be
topped up. Thus during charging, or discharging in the case of overcharge (an assumption),
storage element will become interactive with the rest of the system. All power transients during
this mode of operation will be dumped onto the utility grid except when the instantaneous power
rating of the utility-side converter may exceed its limit or when the dc bus voltage moves outside
of the band between the maximum and the minimum allowable values. In that case, part of the
generated power will be diverted to the storage element. This may happen during initial start-up
of the wind turbine or during peak generation periods as also during system transient conditions.
With the normal capacity factor of 42% or less for the present generation of wind turbines, this
situation will arise infrequently except for the start-up periods where it is still possible to
formulate a control strategy that brings down the wind energy conversion unit to the optimum
speed level while limiting its power output levels to those manageable during the particular
operating conditions. This again will involve some sort of hybrid control where possibly the
control reference speed is increased to reduce the output power and then gradually decreased to
the optimum level to contain the amount of power extracted from the WECU. In this thesis
control of the WECU has not been configured to add into the transient stability management of
the wind energy conversion and storage system.
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The following points have been kept in mind while designing a supervisory hybrid control
scheme for the wind energy conversion and storage system:
1. System is started up using storage element alone

2. After startup the system should be able to serve the load or connect to the grid directly as
the case may be
3. Various component ratings should be respected during normal or abnormal operation of the
wind energy conversion and storage system (e.g., during a fault on the utility feeder)
4. The wind energy conversion and storage system should be able to follow the FHA with
minimal transients during movement from one operating state to another in both on-grid
and off-grid mode of operation including transitions between the two modes
5. The wind energy conversion and storage system should be able to hookup with the utility
grid during load switching and other normal system disturbances e.g. voltage dips on the
utility or the wind energy conversion and storage side of the tiebreaker, during and
immediately after synchronization
6. The system should have fault ride-through capability during utility side temporary faults
provided performance limits are not violated in which case the wind energy conversion and
storage system will be disconnected from the main utility feeder and will continue
operation in the islanded mode
7. The outer dc voltage regulation loop of the VSC will be used for regulating the dc bus
voltage during on-grid mode of operation
8. Storage support during on-grid operation will be utilized only for limiting terminal current
of the VSC and to maintain the dc bus voltage during such conditions. When the dc bus
voltage is within the desirable operational limits then the storage support will come in the
form of charging or discharging during transient disturbances. Storage based dc bus voltage
regulation will take over in case the upper and lower limits of the dc bus voltage have been
violated. The decision to hand over dc bus voltage regulation to the control loop associated
with the storage element will be based on an inner and outer hysteresis band around the
nominal value of the dc bus voltage. Control will be transferred to the storage based
regulation loop when the outer band is violated and handed back over to the VSC based
control scheme once the dc bus voltage falls back to within the limits of the inner band.
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Using a single control law, whether based on linear or nonlinear control techniques, to achieve
the above stated objectives is not possible. Even linear control becomes nonlinear when various
control limitations are considered e.g. rating limitations of the various components. The strategy
adapted here is to analyze various operating regimes of the system and devise a suitable
mechanism to switch between candidate controllers and/or shape their reference inputs such that
the wind energy conversion and storage system takes the desired route and operates within the
limits of the prescribed performance criteria.
The state of the art in the hybrid control systems at this stage of its development does not
provide any analytical tools to synthesize hybrid supervisory control for the wind energy
conversion and storage system nor does it provide any analytical means for investigating system
stability and performance under such a supervisory control scheme. In the absence of any
analytical means and theoretical guarantees, therefore the only viable alternative to ensure proper
system operation is to imagine all possible operating conditions that may be encountered while
the system follows the proposed hybrid automata given in Figure 4.2-1 using time domain
simulations of the detailed nonlinear system and to devise suitable supervisory control action that
will be taken during such conditions. In this thesis electromagnetic transients simulation software
PSCAD/EMTDC has been used for the purpose.
A crafted transition management strategy based on the analysis of the time domain
simulation results will be required for proper system operation under the proposed FHA model of
the wind energy conversion and storage system. In the following paragraphs various control and
transition management strategies have been described which have been used in conjunction with
the proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme for the automatic control of the study system.
4.3.3 HYBRID CONTROL OF VSC: VALVE SWITCHING CONTROL
A hybrid control and gating scheme is proposed for the control of the VSC to impart fault ride-
through capability to the wind energy conversion and battery storage system during grid-
connected mode of operation. This objective is achieved by operating the VSC as a controlled
current-source with Hysteresis Space Vector Modulation (HSVM) based control scheme. Under
‘normal operating conditions’ however, the VSC will be operated as a current regulated voltage-
source with Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation (SPWM) based control scheme.
In the grid connected mode during normal operating conditions, SPWM based control of the
VSC is preferred for the following reasons:
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1. Higher converter efficiency due to relatively low switching frequency requirements
2. adequately fast control response
3. Low amplitude sideband harmonics around the switching frequency and its integral
multiples which are, in the frequency domain, separated by a large distance from the
fundamental frequency and are easily filtered out if required to achieve steady state
performance objectives [74].
Under transient fault operating conditions however, stability of the converter operation takes
precedence over steady state considerations. In the FOS operating state during fault conditions
on the utility side (D = 1) and during OCC operation for limiting converter output current during
normal system disturbances, the VSC will be driven as a controlled current source with HSVM
based control scheme. Control of the VSC using HSVM has the following advantages [74]:
1. Fast transient response

2. Immunity to dc bus voltage ripple
3. Insensitivity to system parameters
4. does not require system phase information
5. Inherent overcurrent protection
To achieve transient performance objectives as outlined in section 2.4.2, a simple hysteresis

based valve switching, which drives the converter as a controlled current source could be used.
Conventional hysteresis control however causes unnecessary switching operations resulting in
high switching frequency. The high switching frequency gives rise to concerns for thermal
stability of the VSC and its associated gate-driving circuitry [75]. Besides, operating frequency
of the present generation of IGBT switches is limited to about 10 kHz for up to 1 MW power
handling capacity [76]. HSVM based switching has been shown to have considerably lower
operating frequency than conventional hysteresis based switching control for the same width of
the hysteresis band [77]. Different valve switching techniques based on Space Vector
Modulation (SVM) have been proposed for improved response with reduced switching
frequency [78].
Figure 4.3-1 shows the proposed hybrid switching and control scheme for the VSC in which
the two gating strategies employed are:
1. Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation
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Figure 4.3-1: Hybrid switching control of the VSC

85
2. Space Vector Modulation
Details of the SPWM based control scheme are provided in section D.1.6 in appendix D, while
implementation details of HSVM are given in reference [73]. In this thesis, the converter
switching frequency has been restricted to10 kHz during HSVM based gating control.
The proposed hybrid switching and control of the VSC will utilize the two switching
strategies interchangeably to ensure proper system operation during both steady state and
transient system operating conditions. SPWM based control will be used to satisfy steady state
operating requirements while HSVM based control will be used to provide stability and
continuity of operation during and after the temporary transient fault conditions.
Transition management involving re-initialization and parameter scheduling for switching
between SPWM and HSVM based control schemes has been described in sections 4.3.4.1 and
4.3.4.2. Reactive power support will be suspended during transient fault conditions to limit
reactive current contribution by the converter. This will be achieved by resetting the PI
compensator (in Figure 4.3-1) in the rms voltage control loop to zero during such conditions.
This strategy will make sure that the VSC would cause minimum or no interference with the
operation of the feeder protection system.
The switching decision between the two control schemes will be based on the following
events:
1. Violation of single phase peak voltage limits
2. VSC capacity violation
The single-phase peak voltage will be determined using the ‘Voltage Envelop’ tracking of the
individual phases by utilizing the concept of ‘energy operator’ outlined in [44].
Figure 4.3-2 illustrates the need for hybrid control and switching scheme as outlined above.
The case study presents simulation results obtained using PSCAD/EMTDC in which the system
is initially operating in the operating state # 7 (WECU + Utility). Two capacitor banks (each
0.75µF, delta configured) are connected at the PCC. A 0.76 per unit static load with a power
factor of 79% lagging and one induction motor load (0.2 per unit with rated load torque) are
connected to the load bus. The initial dc output current of the WECU is 0.76 per unit and the rms
voltage at the PCC is being regulated at 1.0 per unit.
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Referring to Figure 4.3-2, three successive single line to ground faults are applied on phase ‘a’
(A-G fault) at three different locations along the utility feeder. The first fault event occurs at the
PCC at time t = 0.26s, the second event occurs at mid point along the utility feeder at time t =
0.97s and third event happens at the start of the utility feeder at time t = 1.67s. In each case the
fault duration is 5 cycles with a fault resistance of 2Ω. The three fault events are marked on plot
2 as 1, 2 and 3. Plots on the Left Hand Side (LHS) represent the case when only SPWM based
control and gating scheme is used while plots on the Right Hand Side (RHS) give results for the
case when hybrid control of the VSC is excersized.
Figure 4.3-2: Operation of the VSC with only SPWM and with hybrid valve switching control, 1) a
phase voltage at the PCC, instantaneous value and amplitude 2) fault current 3) reference and actual
phase ‘a’ converter current
Plot 3 in Figure 4.3-2 shows that the reference is faithfully tracked during fault condition
with HSVM based control scheme of the VSC and hence it is possible to limit the output current
of the converter in such operating conditions. The control scheme based on SPWM on the other
hand fails to track the reference signal during such single line to ground fault operating
conditions and hence fails to restrict the output current of the converter. The situation is much
worse for phase faults and multiple phases to ground faults.
Figure 4.3-3 shows duty ratio and gating frequency of the upper switch connected to ‘a’
phase in the three-leg VSC converter before, during and after the temporary A-G fault at the
PCC as shown in Figure 4.3-2, with a corresponding converter switching control sequence of
SPWM-HSVM-SPWM. The duration of OCC operation (HSVM) is about 140ms.
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Figure 4.3-3: Operation of the VSC under hybrid valve switching control, 1) cycle-to-cycle based
instantaneous duty ratio and the average duty ratio over a power cycle 2) instantaneous switching
frequency and the average frequency over a power cycle
4.3.4 CONTROL TRANSITION MANAGEMENT
During transition between any two permissible operating states as allowed by the FHA, the
system variables may evolve undesirably due to the sudden change in the control action due to a
change in the control laws accompanying the state change. This is almost always the case due to
accidental transitions caused by system faults. A transition management strategy is therefore
required to keep the state variables within permissible operating bounds during such transient
conditions [79]. These bounds are defined based on the stability margins, the ratings of the
system components and operating philosophy of the system among other considerations. Lastly
the duration of such a transitional stage, in this research work, is governed by the ITI (formerly
CBEMA) curve defined for the ride through capabilities of sensitive electronic equipment.
Transition management is required both for pre-planned and accidental state transitions. A
useful reference for transition management is provided in [79]. Various means of bumpless
transfer between different regulators have been used in practice [80], [81] e.g.:
1. Output blending
2. Parameter blending
3. Transient management
4. Gain scheduling
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5. State initialization
In the research work presented in this thesis, gain scheduling and state initialization have
been used, besides input reference shaping and forward fed signal transfer, as means for a
smooth transfer between the active and the latent controllers.
4.3.4.1 State Initialization
The VSC control uses the same control laws but different switching techniques for situations
where regulation error or other performance and control objectives are violated (e.g. maintaining
PCC rms voltage level). Referring to Figure 4.3-1, for a smooth transition from HSVM to
SPWM based switching control of the converter, the output of the PI compensators in the inner
current loops (PI 2 and PI 4) are reinitialized when valve switching control is transferred from
the former to the latter. For this purpose the terminal voltage of the converter could be monitored
to provide the required resetting values. However beside a delayed reponse of the sensors,
accurate determination of the qd components of the converter terminal voltage space vector is
difficult due to large harmonic content of the VSC terminal voltage. This arrangement also
requires an additional set of voltage sensors at the converter terminals.
The qd components of the terminal voltage space vector can be accurately estimated from
the (known) gating signals to the converter. The converter gating signals can be used to
determine the αβ composition of the space vector commanded of the converter [77]. The qd
components can then be calculated from the αβ composition of the terminal space vectors of the
VSC, using the following transformation:
 v q  2  cos θ sin θ  vα 
  =    (4-1)
 v d  3  sin θ − cos θ  v β 

where θ is the PLL derived angle of the voltage space vector at the PCC.
The qd reference frame based voltage signals are then passed through a LPF to obtain a
smooth initializing signal. A time constant of 10ms has been used for the LPF for a smooth and
reasonably fast response. Figure 4.3-4 schematically shows the arrangement for obtaining the
resetting values of the inner current regulators during the OCC based operation of the VSC.
Referring to Figure 4.3-1, inverse transition between the two types of switching strategies
i.e. from SPWM to HSVM based switching does not involve any reinitialization since the same
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outer control loops provide reference signals to the inner current regulators of the SPWM based
control scheme and to the space vector generator of the HSVM based gating control.
Figure 4.3-4: Re-initialization of inner current regulators for smooth transition from HSVM to SPWM
based valve-switching control
Referring to Figure 4.3-4, the reference current signals are transformed back to the abc
coordinates using the PLL estimated phase information of the PCC voltage space vector. The
reference currents in the abc refrence frame are then compared with the feedback signals from
the converter terminal current sensors. The error signal is fed to a space vector generator, the
details of which are provided in reference [73], for gating signal generation during HSVM
operation. In this thesis, the maximum switching frequency during HSVM operation has been
restricted to 10 kHz. To achieve this limit the input to the space vector generator is sampled at
the minimum required samping frequency of 20 kHz (Sampling Theorem1).
Figure 4.3-5 shows simulation results corresponding to the first fault event (single line to
ground fault at PCC) shown in Figure 4.3-2. The first plot shows orthogonal components of the
reference voltage which are the output of the inner current regulators while the second plot
shows orthogonal components of the converter output currents. The duration of the OCC
operation (HSVM on duration) is shown on both plots. With the start of the OCC operation, the
inner regulators are initialized to follow the signals vqt(reset) and vdt(reset) which are the output of
the initialization scheme shown in Figure 4.3-4. At the end of the OCC operation, SPWM based
control scheme takes over and at the same time rms voltage control of the PCC voltage is
resumed. It can be seen that control transition from HSVM based control scheme to the SPWM
based control scheme is transient free with the proposed re-initialization scheme.
1
Also known as Whittaker–Nyquist–Kotelnikov–Shannon sampling theorem
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Figure 4.3-5: Re-initialization of inner current regulators, 1) duration of the OCC operation and
orthogonal components of the converter terminal voltage for resetting of inner current regulators 2)
duration of the OCC operation and the orthogonal components of the terminal current of the converter
4.3.4.2 Parameter Scheduling
Referring to Figure 4.3-1, adaptation of the first order LPF in the rms voltage control loop
consists of reducing the filter time constant during HSVM based switching control (1.0 ms used
in the subsequent simulations). At the end of the HSVM based control event, the time constant of
the LPF is adjusted back to a relatively high value (10 ms) to contain control activity in order to
achieve (quasi) steady state harmonic limits imposed during normal system operation. This
action on the LPF in the rms control loop makes sure that the feedback signal to the control loop
is the current value of the PCC rms voltage when the voltage regulation loop becomes active
again.
4.3.5 MODE TRANSITION MANAGEMENT
Mode transition management becomes necessary when the transition is caused by a fault on the
utility side in the case of on-grid to off-grid transition and also when the wind energy conversion
and storage system goes from off-grid mode to on-grid mode of operation. The former is an
accidental transition and has been taken care of by introducing the additional transient operating
state of FOS while the latter is a controlled (pre-planned) transition, which requires proper
synchronization procedure during the SOS operating state.
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4.3.5.1 Synchronization
The procedure given in [82] has been used for synchronization control and is shown in Figure
4.3-6. Referring to Figure 4.3-6, the q components of the voltage space vector on either side of
the (open) tiebreaker are used by a PI compensator to alter the reference operating frequency of
the wind energy conversion and storage system (islanded mode of operation) in order to align the
voltage space vector of the PCC with that of the utility feeder at the PCC.
In order to minimize transients the difference between the d components of the PCC voltage
space vectors on either side of the tiebreaker is brought to within 3%. For this purpose the
auxiliary loop in the reference input containing an integrator as shown in Figure 5.5-1 is disabled
by initializing the integrator to zero and the reference signal is switched to the measured rms
voltage signal at the PCC from the utility side of the tiebreaker. Regulation of the load bus
voltage is delayed for 100ms after closing of the tiebreaker to allow for any transients caused by
the synchronization to subside.
Figure 4.3-6: Frequency control during synchronization
As soon as the wind energy conversion and storage system is successfully synchronized with
and connected to the utility grid, HSVM based valve switching control scheme will take over
control of the VSC gating signals. This is done to make sure that performance remains within
limits in the presence of temporary transient disturbances caused by load switching and/or
temporary utility side disturbances immediately after the wind energy conversion and storage
system is latched on to the utility feeder. Also during the HSVM based control immediately after
synchronization, the transition between the forward fed signals in the two dc regulation loops is
completed. This is further explained below:
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4.3.5.1.1 Signal Transfer
The PI compensators in the dc regulation loops belonging to the battery storage and dc-dc
converter and the VSC-Utility grid modules, are initialized to zero when they are switched
among themselves. However, the forward fed signals used for power transfer are controlled in a
manner that they are gradually transferred from zero to maximum from the storage based
regulator to the VSC based regulation loop when the latter is required to take over after
synchronization. At the end of the signal transfer event control is handed over to the VSC based
regulator. On the other hand no special transition management is required when VSC based dc
regulator hands over control to the storage based dc regulator since the latter has a much faster
response. In this case forward fed signals are directly transferred to the storage based dc
regulation loop.
4.3.5.2 On-grid to Off-grid Transition
During normal on-grid mode of operation with SPWM valve switching control, the VSC is
controlled as a current-regulated voltage source. In the off-grid mode of operation however, the
VSC is operated as a constant frequency, controlled voltage source whose magnitude is directly
controlled based on the feedback signal from the PCC rms voltage. For transition between on-
grid to off-grid mode of operation, the PI compensator of the PCC rms voltage regulator (Figure
5.5-1) is re-initialized. The initialization value comes from the output of the active current
regulator ( v qtr in Figure 4.3-1) used in the grid-connected mode of operation after passing it
through a first order LPF with a time constant of 50ms.
Pre-planned transition will cause the wind energy conversion and storage system to switch
operation directly from on-grid to off-grid mode. In the situation where the transition is caused
by faults on the utility side the wind energy conversion and storage system will go through the
transient operating state of FOS in which HSVM based gating control of the VSC will be active
to contain the amount of current contributed by the VSC. The decision to disconnect the utility
feeder during fault operation will be based on the violation of the steady state operating limits of
the three phase rms voltage at the PCC (±10% of nominal) or the peak voltages of any two
phases being simultaneously lower than 70% of the nominal. This is necessary in order to be able
to keep the rms voltage within limits specified by the ‘no interruption in service’ region of the
ITI curve.
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4.4 FLOW CHART
The proposed supervisory hybrid control is inevitably a software enabled control scheme.
Software implementation of the supervisory hybrid control scheme will vary depending on the
implementation platform and the software development philosophy. A simplified, self-
explanatory flow chart of the supervisory control scheme is given in Figure 4.4-1.
Figure 4.4-1: Simplified flow chart for software implementation of the supervisory hybrid control
scheme
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4.5 SUMMARY
This chapter describes the supervisory hybrid control scheme for the wind energy conversion and
battery storage system. After reviewing the state of the art in hybrid control system, the chapter
gives details of the hybrid automata based model of the study system and provides strategies for
control and operating state transitions of the system.
The following are the main contributions of this chapter:
1. Finite hybrid-automata based model of the wind energy conversion and storage system has
been presented.
2. Supervisory hybrid control requirements have been defined.
3. Based on the specified requirements, a supervisory hybrid control scheme has been
proposed.
4. Control scheme and operating state transition management strategies have been developed,
which include:
a. Hybrid switching and control of the VSC utilizing SPWM and HSVM based
gating signal generation during normal and transient fault operating states of the
study system, respectively
b. Compensator initialization mechanisms for bumpless transfer between the active
and latent controllers
c. A simple adaptation mechanism for the time constant in the LPF of the rms
voltage control loop during on-grid mode of operation
d. Strategy for the transfer of reference control signals during switching between the
dc voltage regulators associated with the VSC and the dc-dc converter control
schemes
e. Transition management strategy for accidental mode transitions
f. Transition management strategy for off-grid to on-grid mode transition
5. A simplified flow chart for the software implementation of the supervisory hybrid control
scheme has been presented.
CHAPTER 5
SYSTEM OPERATION UNDER NORMAL CONDITIONS
I n this chapter operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system has been
investigated for performance and stability through digital time domain simulations
studies of the detailed nonlinear model(s) in PSCAD/EMTDC. The chapter deals with only those
operating states that are described by the FHA of Figure 4.2-1 and which involve a combination
of the three system modules that have been investigated for stability and performance in
CHAPTER 3. The objective is to study the interaction of the control laws that have been devised
for the individual system modules and which have been configured to achieve stability and
performance objectives of the wind energy conversion and storage system in the various
operating states shown in Figure 4.2-1, under normal operating conditions. The normal operating
conditions refer to operating scenarios which may involve load switching and switching of
control schemes but these do not involve transitions between operating states and do not involve
any fault scenarios.
5.1 STUDY CASES
Table 5.1-1 lists the operating states which have been investigated in this chapter. It also lists the
objectives of the reported study cases.
Table 5.1-1: Study Cases and Objectives of the Performance Investigation; System Operation Under
Normal Conditions
Operating State
System Configuration Objectives of the Performance Study
#
Steady state operation, hybrid valve switching control,
parameter scheduling, reactive power control with dynamic
7 WECU + UTILITY
limits2, step responses, switching events, stochastic wind
conditions
WECU + STORAGE (off- Steady state operation, step responses, load and capacitor bank
4
grid) switching events, battery charging and discharging operations
2
Based on the instantaneous active output current of the converter in order to be able to limit total output current of
the VSC
95
96
Steady state operation, load switching, response to external dc
9 STORAGE + UTILITY
current disturbances, step responses (various)
Steady state operation, load switching events, response to
3 STORAGE + VSC external dc current disturbances, step responses, reference
shaping
Steady state operation, step responses, load and capacitor bank
WECU + STORAGE + switching events, stochastic wind conditions, battery charging
6
UTILITY and discharging operations, reactive power control with dynamic
limits (VSC)
5.2 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT-UTILITY GRID
This section provides simulation results of the operation of the wind energy conversion and
storage system in the operating state #7 (WECU + Utility, Figure 4.2-1). Control structure of the
wind energy conversion and storage system in this operating state is a combination of the control
schemes used for the two system modules namely; i) wind energy conversion unit and ii) VSC-
Utility Grid which are given in Figure 3.1-1 and in Figure 4.3-1 respectively.
5.2.1 CONTROL SCHEME
Figure 5.2-1 gives the single line schematic and control structure of the wind energy conversion
and storage system during operating state #7 (Figure 4.2-1) in which the wind generated power is
delivered to the utility grid through the VSC interface. The load may or may not be present
which constitutes different operating conditions within this operating state. Figure 5.2-1 also
shows the hybrid switching and control strategy used for the VSC as explained in section 4.3.3.
Referring to Figure 5.2-1, the external current signal in Figure 4.3-1 has been replaced with
the actual output current from the thyrsitor rectifier unit. Proper operation of the WECU and the
VSC is ensured by the dc bus voltage regulator which is part of the VSC control scheme. The
wind generated power is transferred to the utility grid as and when available using the inner
current regulator of the grid side converter. The objective is to minimize dc bus voltage
variations in order to provide power tracking and maintain stability of WECU.
The decision to switch between SPWM and HSVM based control and gating schemes is
based on the amount of the total current delivered by the converter. When the converter total
current output exceeds 1.29 per unit, HSVM based gating and control scheme is enabled which
97
Figure 5.2-1: Single line schematic and control structure of the study system in the operating state #7 consisting of the two system modules
i) WECU and ii) VSC – Utility Grid
98
remains active till the converter output current drops to 1.28 per unit with an off delay time of
100ms. Reactive power support is enabled as long as the converter active current output is less
than 85% of the converter current limit which has been set at 1.3 per unit. The reactive current
limit of the converter is dynamically adjusted based on the active current output of the converter.
Once disabled, reactive power support is not resumed until active current output of the converter
drops to 75% of its maximum limit. During the period when reactive power support is suspended
(by reseting the rms voltage compensator to zero) the LPF time constant is changed from 10.0ms
to 1.0ms so that control activity can resume with respect to the most recent value of the rms
voltage feedback signal.
In practical applications, converters are usually oversized since their controls are generally
not designed (or unable) to restrict their output currents during severe system disturbances e.g.,
during closeup faults in the utility system. With a lower capacity of 1.3 per unit assumed for the
converter in the study system it will be shown that the practice of oversizing converters can be
abandoned by using the hybrid control and gating scheme for the VSC proposed in section 4.3.3,
allowing for more economical solutions to power system problems that require the use of
switching converters. It however will be noticed in the subsequent sections and in CHAPTER 4,
that the selection of suitable converter capacity needs to take into account not only the active
power requirements in the system but also needs to take into account reactive power support that
the converter would be required to deliver during maximum wind power generation periods
under noload conditions. This is effectively an optimization problem requiring solution in the
form of montecarlo simulations in which multiple variables are changed simultaneously to find
optimum sizing of the converter. The optimization problem relating to component sizing has not
been addressed in this thesis.
In the following sections simulation results are presented for different operating scenarios to
evaluate the performance of the wind energy conversion and storage system in the subject
operating state. The following points are common to all these scenarios:
• A permanent capacitor bank of 450µF (39.1kVAR star configured at 480 volts) is

connected to the load bus
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• Two capacitor banks of equal rating (53.85kVAR, 0.25 µF delta connected capacitors
at 13.8kV) have been used at the PCC. One capacitor bank is permanently connected
while the second bank is connected to the PCC as the load increases to reduce reactive
power demand from the VSC.
• Three capacitor banks of equal rating (300µF delta configured) have been used for
excitation control of the induction generator. One capacitor bank is permanently
connected while the other two capacitor banks are connected to the generator terminal
according to a hysteresis based control strategy using generator operating speed as
explained in CHAPTER 3.
• Initially the system is operating at no-load with the VSC delivering 0.64 per unit of
active current iqtmr and -0.89 per unit of reactive current idtmr with a total VSC output
current of 1.1 per unit. The initial dc output current of the wind energy conversion unit
is 0.66 per unit with a constant average wind speed of 6.0 m/s at the turbine hub.
5.2.2.1 Steady State Performance
The steady state operating conditions are the same as the initial conditions described above. With
the SPWM based control scheme, the THD for the converter current is less than 0.06% while that
for the PCC voltage is less than 0.03%. These values are well below the steady state performance
limits specified in section 2.4.1.
5.2.2.2 Dynamic Performance
1. Step Changes in Wind Speed
Figure 5.2-2 through Figure 5.2-4 shows system operation for step changes in the input wind
speed. Initial conditions are the same as described in section 5.2.2. Referring to Figure 5.2-2, at
t=7.0s wind speed is step changed from 6.5 m/s to 7.0 m/s. Output power from the WECU
initially decreases to allow for the turbine to accelerate to the higher optimum operating speed.
The active current output of the converter shown in Figure 5.2-3 (plot 1) also decreases with a
corresponding decrease in the reactive current (plot 2). As the output power from the WECU
increases so does the total output current of the VSC (plot 3). When the converter output current
reaches the threshold (1.29 p.u.), HSVM based control and gating scheme of the VSC is enabled
(OCC operation, Figure 4.2-1) in order to limit its output current. Reactive power support from
100
the converter is also suspended as the active current component has reached 85% of the converter
maximum limit. After a preset duration of 100 ms, the converter again starts operation with
SPWM gating and control scheme while reactive power contribution from the converter remains
suspended.
Referring to Figure 5.2-2, at time t = 13.0s, wind speed is further increased in step from 7.0 m/s
to 7.5 m/s. The initial decrease in the WECU output current causes the active current output of
the VSC to fall below the minimum level (75% of the VSC maximum current limit) which
enables reactive power support from the VSC. However the sudden increase in the converter
reactive current causes violation of the converter current limit again enabling OCC operation of
the VSC and at the same time reactive power support is disabled once again. The reactive power
support remains suspended for the rest of the simulation time as the converter active current
output remains above the minimum specified threshold (75% of converter limit) below which
reactive power support is set to resume. Plot 3 in Figure 5.2-3 shows events of the converter
maximum current violation. It also shows the duration of the OCC operation.
Figure 5.2-4 shows the dc bus voltage and the rms voltage at the load bus during step
changes in the wind speed described above. The dc bus voltage is regulated within a very narrow
band (±0.5%) while the rms voltage at the load bus remains within the ‘no-interrruption in
function’ region of the ITI curve.
During the time when a higher reactive current output is demanded of the converter but the same
is limited due to the dynamic limitation on its reactive current output, unwanted interaction arises
(results not shown) between the active and reactive current regulators. This unwanted interaction
is magnified (however contained) due to cross coupling between the two current components and
due to limited response speed of the converter under SPWM based switching scheme. It is
therefore necessary to suspend reactive current contribution during high wind speed regimes. It is
also pointed out that the current control speed regulation scheme is able to shield the wind
energy conversion unit from the effects of the dc bus voltage variations arising out of the
unwanted interaction described above.
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Figure 5.2-2: Operating State # 7; System Dynamic Performance for Step Changes in Wind Speed, 1)
wind speed 2) rotor optimal, reference and actual speed
Figure 5.2-3: Operating State # 7; System response to step changes in wind speed, 1) rectifier output
current and active current output of the VSC 2) VSC reactive current output 3) VSC total current output
and HSVM on duration
102
Figure 5.2-4: Operating State # 7; System response to step changes in wind speed, 1) dc bus voltage 2)
load bus rms voltage
This case study confirms that the proposed hybrid control scheme is stable and enables
system operation within the specified performance limits during operating conditions involving
step changes in wind speed. The dc bus voltage is tightly regulated within ±0.5% of the nominal
value. The VSC can exert direct control on the PCC voltage and using rms voltage signal of the
load bus to to control the PCC voltage gives rise to large transients which however are limited
due to higher time constant of the first order LPF in the feedback loop. A better strategy is
proposed in section Figure 5.5-1 in which the reference signal to the voltage control loop for
regulating rms voltage at the PCC is shaped to provide indirect regulation of the load bus
voltage. This strategy has also been used later in CHAPTER 4 which investigates stability and
performance of the supervisory hybrid control scheme for large transients involving transitions
of the operating state of the study system.
2. Load Switching
Figure 5.2-5 and Figure 5.2-6 give simulation results when the system is operating under load
switching conditions with a constant wind speed at the turbine hub. Initial operating conditions
are the same as given in section 5.2.2. Wind speed is held constant at 6.0 m/s. The various load
switching events are marked on plot 1 in Figure 5.2-5. Switching event of the second capacitor
103
bank at the PCC has also been identified in Figure 5.2-5. It is pointed out that induction motor
loads are connected to the load bus while these are running at almost synchronous speed with
zero load torque.
Figure 5.2-5: Operating State # 7; System Operation under Load Transients, 1) load bus rms voltage 2)
dc bus voltage load 3) rectifier output current
Referring to Figure 5.2-5, plot 1 shows the rms voltage at the load bus. At time t = 20.0s the
load bus reference rms voltage signal is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.98 per unit and back
to 1.0 per unit at t = 22.0s. As the converter has a higher reactive power support capability due to
low active power delivery from the WECU therefore the load bus voltage is well regulated and
remains within the steady state limits of ±10%. Referring to Figure 5.2-6, HSVM based control
of the VSC is activated due to the connection of motor load ML2 at t = 15.0s (event marked on
plot 1 in Figure 5.2-5) and is caused by a sudden increase in the reactive power demand from the
converter.
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Plot 2 in Figure 5.2-5 shows the dc bus voltage which remains within ±1.0% of the nominal. Step
changes in the dc reference voltage are applied at time t = 24.0s from 1.0 per unit to 1.03 per unit
and back to 1.0 per unit at t = 26.0s. The downward step in the reference dc bus voltage causes
converter output current to reach above 1.29 per unit which invokes HSVM based control of the
VSC for a preset minimum period of 100ms (plot 3 in Figure 5.2-6). Plot 3 of Figure 5.2-5 shows
the rectifier output current which is tightly controlled by the speed regulation scheme of the
generator and provides a constant output power corresponding to the constant wind speed level at
the turbine.
Figure 5.2-6: Operating State # 7; Control performance under load transients, 1) VSC ‘active’ current
2) VSC ‘reactive’ current 3) VSC total current and HSVM on duration
This case also demonstrates the need for hybrid switching and control scheme for the VSC.
HSVM based gating and control of the VSC is invoked when the large induction motor load is
switched in and when a downward step change is commanded in the dc bus voltage. The results
presented in Figure 5.2-5 and Figure 5.2-6 confirm that the proposed control scheme shown in
Figure 5.3-1 is stable and that transient performance of the system remains within the ‘no-
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interruption in function’ region given by the ITI curve. This case also shows that the wind
turbine control provides robust speed tracking and effectively isolates the WECU from the
disturbances on both the dc and the ac side of the VSC. The dc bus voltage remains tightly
regulated which validates the philophosy of the decoupled control design for the wind energy
conversion and storage system.
3. Load Switching and Stochastic Wind
Figure 5.2-7 through Figure 5.2-9 gives simulation results of the operation of the system during
stochastic wind conditions accompanied by load switching events. Initial conditions are the same
as in the previous two cases. Load switching events and step changes in the reference signals of
the rms voltage at the load bus and the dc bus voltage follow the same sequence with the same
time interval between successive events as in the previous case. However unlike the previous
case the sequence of load switching events starts at time t = 3.0s.
The stochastic wind conditions are:
Mean wind speed at the turbine hub: Vmw = 3.5 m/s
Gust component of the wind speed: Vgw = 1.0 m/s with a gust period of 5.0s,
Ramp component of the wind speed: Vrw = 0.5 m/s and a ramp period of 2.0s.
The stochastic wind speed also contains randomly generated noise components [61].
Figure 5.2-7 shows the wind speed level and the corresponding regulated speed of the
generator. At time t = 1.0s wind speed is allowed to change stochastically with the above
mentioned disturbance components. Generator (and hence the turbine) rotor speed follows the
commanded reference speed which is obtained by filtering the high speed components of the
optimal turbine speed corresponding to the wind speed at the turbine hub. It is noted that during
the period when the turbine is accelerating the reference speed is closely followed while during
decelaration this is not the case. The reason is that the generator output power is restricted to 1.2
per unit during its operation. The operation of the WECU over the speed range shown in Figure
5.2-7 also involves switching of the excitation capacitors however these events have not been
shown.
Figure 5.2-8 shows the rms voltage at the load bus and the dc bus voltage during wind
conditions shown in Figure 5.2-7 and with load switching events mentioned earlier. Load bus
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rms voltage remains within the transient specification limits and also within the steady state
limits of ±10% however entails sever variations due to frequent enabling and disabling of the rms
voltage regulator which is caused by large variations in the active output power from the wind
energy conversion unit. The dc bus voltage has relatively large variations however remains
within ±1.5% of the nominal. The large variations in the dc bus voltage are partly due to frequent
enabling and disabling of the reactive power support from the VSC due to its capacity limitation.
It is therefore concluded that within the assumed limitations on the output current of the VSC, a
better control strategy would be to disable rms voltage regulation during stochastic wind
conditions with sever disturbances. This would avoid frequent use of OCC operation in case of
violations of the output current limit of the VSC and would also avoid any unwanted interaction
between the active and reactive current components (caused by the dynamic limit on the reactive
power support as explained in section 5.2.1).
Figure 5.2-7: Operating State # 7; System response during dynamic wind speed and load transients, 1)
wind speed 2) generator optimum, reference and actual speed
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Figure 5.2-8: Operating State # 7; System Control during dynamic input wind speed and load transients,
1) load bus rms voltage 2) dc bus voltage
Figure 5.2-9: Operating State # 7; System response to dynamic wind conditions and load transients, 1)
& 2) VSC ‘active’ and ‘reactive’ current components 2) space vector magnitude of the VSC current
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The operation of the WECU shown in Figure 5.2-7 through Figure 5.2-9, does not involve OCC
operation of the VSC since the total output current of the converter remains below its maximum
limit of 1.3 per unit (plot 3, Figure 5.2-9). This however may not be true for all wind conditions.
This case study shows that the proposed control scheme for the grid-interactive wind energy
conversion system is stable when the system is operating under the simultaneous wind speed and
load switching conditions. The SPWM based control scheme is capable of tracking the reference
signals under such operating conditions. The dc bus voltage is maintained within 1.5% of its
nominal value and the rms voltage of the load bus remains within the transient performance
limits specified in section 2.4.2.
Referring to the case studies presented above, it is concluded that the proposed control
scheme shown in Figure 5.2-1 devised for the operating state #7 (WECU + Utility) is stable
under all operating conditions and can ensure performance targets specified in 2.4.2.
5.3 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT-STORAGE
This section presents operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system in the
operating state #4 (WECU + Storage, Figure 4.2-1). In this operating state operation of the wind
energy conversion unit is supported by the battery storage through the bi-directional dc-dc
converter. The objective is to investigate interaction of the control schemes developed for the
WECU system module and the battery storage and dc-dc converter module through time domain
simulations in PSCAD/EMTDC. In this section therefore, the load and the VSC interface are not
part of the system.
5.3.1 CONTROL SCHEME
Figure 5.3-1 shows single line schematic and control structure of the wind energy conversion and
battery storage system. The control structure has been obtained by combining the control
schemes developed for the ‘WECU’ system module which is shown in Figure 3.1-1 and the
‘battery storage and dc-dc converter’ module shown in Figure 3.3-1. Referring to Figure 5.3-1,
the battery storage absorbs the wind-generated power while providing dc bus voltage regulation
to enable proper operation of the wind energy conversion unit. Simulations have been carried out
using the detailed nonlinear model in PSCAD/EMTDC and the results are presented in the
following paragraphs.
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Figure 5.3-1: Single line diagram and control schematic of the study system in the operating state #4 consisting of the two system modules of (a)
wind energy conversion unit (b) battery storage and dc-dc converter
110
Figure 5.3-2 shows simulation results when the system is operating under constant and stochastic
wind speed conditions. The initial conditions are given below:
Mean wind speed at the turbine hub: Vmw = 6.0 m/s
Excitation Capacitance: 600 µF (two equal banks of 300 µF, each delta configured)
Id = 0.66 per unit (198A), Vdc = 1.0 per unit (1000V), ωT = ωg = 0.917 per unit
Generator line-line terminal voltage; V g (L-L) = 1.163 per unit (802.47V)
Turbine output torque; TT = -0.746 per unit
Initially the unit is operated with a constant wind speed of 6.0 m/s. At time t = 9.0s the wind
speed is step changed from 6.0 m/s to 6.5 m/s and back to 6.0 m/s at t = 16.0s.
Stochastic wind speed is simulated at time t = 22.0s and onward with wind speed properties as in
section 5.1. The dc reference voltage signal is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.95 per unit at t
= 30.0s and back to 1.0 per unit at time t = 32.0s, during stochastic wind operation of the unit. In
Figure 5.3-2 switching events of the excitation capacitor banks are also identified (plot 3, 1=on,
0=on) which occur during variable speed operation of the WECU under the dynamic wind
conditions. Switching in of the capacitor banks causes mechanical oscillations between the
turbine and the generator rotors which can be observed in plot 1 and in the output current of the
rectifier (plot 3) at around time t = 30.5s and t = 33.6s. The mechanical oscillations however
damp out quickly.
This case study shows that the dc-dc converter provides tight regulation of the dc bus
voltage (within ±0.4%) while transferring the wind generated power to the battery storage both
during constant wind speed involving step changes and during dynamic wind conditions. No
appreciable mechanical oscillations occur due to step changes in the reference dc bus voltage or
due to switching of excitation capacitor banks during dynamic wind conditions due to current
controlled speed regulation scheme of the WECU and tight regulation of the dc bus voltage
around its nominal value. The case study confirms stability of the control scheme for the wind
energy conversion and battery storage system in the operating state #4 (WECU + Storage).
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Figure 5.3-2: Operating State # 4; System response to changes in wind speed, 1) dc bus voltage 2)
generator L-L terminal voltage and capacitor switching events 3) wind speed
5.4 STORAGE-UTILITY GRID
In this section operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system has been considered
in the operating state #9 (Storage + utility, Figure 4.2-1). In this operating state the two system
modules shown in Figure 2.3-3 and in Figure 2.3-4 are interacting with each other.
Since the hybrid control strategy presented in CHAPTER 4 also envisages the use of the storage
element for dc voltage regulation during periods of temporary disturbances on the utility as also
on the dc bus, therefore dc bus voltage regulator associated with the dc-dc converter control has
been used in the control scheme shown in Figure 5.4-1. The proposed control structure is a
combination of control schemes shown in Figure 3.2-1 and in Figure 4.3-1. To confirm stability
and performance of the system under large transients, the storage is required to meet the active
power demand of the load in the storage-utility grid system (operating state #9). At times utility
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Figure 5.4-1: Single line diagram and control schematic of the study system in operating state number #9 consisting of the two system modules
of (a) battery storage and dc-dc converter (b) VSC-Utility Grid
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supply will also be used for charging the batteries; therefore the control scheme also includes a
charging-current control input to the active current regulator of the VSC. To facilitate external dc
source other than the storage element, a controlled current source has been connected to the dc
bus, which acts as a known disturbance. Any surplus or deficiency in power supply from the
external dc source vis-à-vis load demand will be met by the storage element.
Figure 5.4-2 through Figure 5.4-5 shows system response under the proposed control scheme
during load switching conditions and during conditions involving reference step changes.
1. Load Switching
Figure 5.4-2 and Figure 5.4-3 show response of the storage-utility grid system for conditions
involving load switching only. The switching events are marked on plot 2 in Figure 5.4-2.
Initially the system is running at no load with the storage supporting the dc bus voltage. A 450µF
capacitor bank (star configured) provides reactive power support at the load bus (at 480 V) and a
0.25µF capacitor bank (delta configured) is connected at the PCC (at 13.8kV). The dc bus
voltage and the rms voltage of the load bus are at 1.0 per unit. The active and reactive currents of
the VSC are 0.0 per unit and -0.73 per unit, respectively. The external dc current representing the
WECU as a known disturbance is 0.0 per unit.
Referring to Figure 5.4-2, the following switching events have been simulated:
A 0.5 per unit charging current is drawn from the utility side at time t = 1.5s. The charging
process is terminated at t = 2.5s. At time t = 3.0s motor load (ML1) rated at 51 hp (38 kW or
0.127 p.u.) is connected to the load bus while it is running at no load at almost synchronous
speed. At time t = 4.0s a static load (SL1, 0.28 per unit) with a power factor of 0.81 lagging is
connected to the load bus. At t = 5.0s full rated torque is applied to the motor ML1 running at no
load. At time t = 6.0s another induction motor load (ML2) rated at 107 hp (0.273 p.u. or 82 kW)
is connected to the bus while it is running at no load at synchronous speed. Another static load
(SL2, rating equivalent to that of SL1) is connected to the load bus at time t = 7.0s and at time t =
8.0s full load torque is applied on the induction motor ML2.
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Figure 5.4-2: Operating State # 9; Response to load switching events, 1) dc bus voltage 2) 3 phase rms
voltage at the load bus
Figure 5.4-3: Operating State # 9; Response to load switching events, VSC terminal currents, 1) ‘active’
current component 2) ‘reactive’ current component 3) maximum current limit and actual output current
of the VSC and OCC duration
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The converter output currents are shown in Figure 5.4-3 corresponding to the events given in
Figure 5.4-2. Plots 1 and 2 show the active and reactive current components respectively while
plot 3 shows the total current output of the converter. Over current control mechanism (OCC,
Figure 4.2-1) is activated twice due to the large and sudden fluctuations in the converter output
currents caused by the connection of the motor load ML2. It should be noted that the control
scheme is configured to follow load demand as explained in section 5.4.1.
This case study shows that the storage-utility grid system under the proposed control scheme
remains stable during operation involving load switching events. The control scheme is able to
track the active current demand of the load branch while maintaining the dc bus voltage and the
rms voltage of the load bus within the specified transient operating limits. The dc bus voltage is
maintained within ±4.0% while the rms voltage at the load bus remains within ±7.0% of its
nominal value. The over current control mechanism (HSVM control and gating scheme of the
VSC) is also able to contain the converter output current below its maximum limit.
2. Step Changes in DC Current
Figure 5.4-4 gives simulation results for step changes in the external dc current source
(disturbance) for initial conditions where full load is connected to the load bus. This case is a
continuation of the previous simulation case which involved load switching events.
Referring to Figure 5.4-4, a 0.35 per unit dc current is injected into the dc bus at time t =
10.0s. At time t = 12.0s the dc injected current is step changed from 0.35 per unit to 0.5 per unit
and to 1.0 per unit at time t = 14.0s. The dc current is reduced from 1.0 per unit to 0.5 per unit at
time t = 16.0s and held constant thereafter.
This case study illustrates the robustness of the proposed control scheme to the presence of
the external disturbances on the dc bus and shows that both the dc and the rms voltage of the
load bus are tightly regulated. The dc bus voltage and the rms voltage of the load bus remain
within ±2.0% and ±0.1% of their nominal values, respectively. The system remains stable during
these events and the ac side remains virtually isolated from the disturbances on the dc side.
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Figure 5.4-4: Operating State # 9; Response to step changes in the dc current, 1) dc current 2) dc bus
reference and actual voltage 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the load bus
5. Step Changes in Reference Signals
Figure 5.4-5 gives control response to step changes in the dc and the rms voltage reference
signals. Initially full load is connected to the load bus and all the load demand is met by the
battery storage (continuation of the previous case #2). A constant dc current of 0.5 per unit is
being injected at the dc bus.
Referring to Figure 5.4-5, at time t = 18.5s the reference dc bus voltage is step changed from
1.0 per unit to 1.03 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit at time t = 20.0s. The reference rms load bus
voltage is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.98 per unit at time t = 21.0s and back to 1.0 per
unit at t = 22.0s. Operation of the system remains stable and the signals are tracked within
reasonable settling times and overshoots. Settling time and overshoot in case of the dc voltage
regulation is (<) 102ms and (<) 12% respectively while these are (<) 75ms and (<) 4%
respectively for the rms voltage regulation.
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From the simulation cases presented above, it is concluded that operation of the study system in
the operating state #9 (Storage + Utility, Figure 4.2-1) remains stable and within the performance
limits (specified in section 2.4) under the propsed control scheme shown in Figure 5.4-1.
Figure 5.4-5: Operating State # 9; Response to step changes in reference voltage signals, 1) reference
and actual dc bus voltages 2) reference and acutal rms voltages of the load bus
5.5 STORAGE-VSC-LOAD
In this section operation of the study system is considered in the operating state #3 (Storage +
VSC, Figure 4.2-1). In this operating state, the system is composed of the battery storage
interfaced to the load through the dc-dc converter and the VSC interface. The system is in the
islanded mode of operation and all the load demand is met by the storage element alone. As
outlined in CHAPTER 4, during islanded operation the VSC is operated as a directly controlled
voltage source
The single line schematic and control structure of the system in the operating state #3 is given in
Figure 5.5-1. The control structure is composed of the control scheme for the system module
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‘storage and dc-dc converter’ shown in Figure 3.2-1 and a propsed control scheme for the VSC
unit for its operation during islanded conditions. The large induction motor load (ML2) is
disconnected from the load bus during islanded operation according to the power management
strategy given in section 2.1.1, in order to limit the amount of the dynamic load to within the
handling capability of the battery storage.
Referring to Figure 5.5-1, the external dc current source represents the WECU as a known
disturbance. Any surplus or deficiency in power supply from the external dc source is met by the
storage element. The active current drawn by the load is forward fed to the dc bus voltage
regulation scheme for rapid response to variations in load demand. The VSC generates a
balanced set of constant frequency sinusoidal three phase voltages to achieve the commanded
rms voltage at the PCC. A tuned oscillator provides the constant reference frequency signal.
A simple PI compensator has been used to control the voltage magnitude at the PCC. The
proportional and the integral constants of the PI compensator have been set at 0.3 and 15.0
respectively. To control the rms voltage at the load bus a correction term corresponding to the
voltage drop between the PCC and the load bus is added to the external reference signal. The
modified reference signal is then used to control the output voltage of the VSC corresponding to
the feedback signal of the rms voltage at the PCC. For this purpose an integral compensator with
a time constant of 0.1s has been used. It has been shown in the simulation studies given in the
following paragraphs that with the proposed reference shaping, the load bus voltage can be
controlled indirectly to meet the performance specifications given in section 2.4. The proposed
reference shaping method does not require knowledge of the parameters of connecting branch
and the interposing transformer between the PCC and the load bus. This method of indirect
control of the rms voltage at the load bus has also been used in CHAPTER 4 for grid-connected
operation of the study system as opposed to the direct control scheme given in the previous
sections.
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Figure 5.5-1: Single line diagram and control schematic of the study system in the operating state number #3 consisting of the battery storage
and dc-dc converter module interfaced to the load through the VSC
120
This section presents simulation results in which the following events have been considered.
1. load switching
2. step changes in dc current
3. step changes in reference signals
1. Load Switching and Step Changes in DC Current
Figure 5.5-2 and Figure 5.5-3 give system response for load switching and step changes in the
external dc current. Each figure covers the time duration involving both load switching and step
changes in the external dc current. Initially the system is running at no-load. Only one capacitor
bank (0.25µF, delta configured) is permanently connected to the PCC (at 13.8kV). A 450µF
capacitor bank (star configured) is permanently connected to the load bus. The VSC is absorbing
0.3 per unit of reactive current and there is no current contribution from the external dc current
source.
Figure 5.5-2: Operating State # 3; Response to load switching and step changes in external dc current ,
1) reference and actual dc bus voltage 2) reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and
actual rms voltage at the load bus
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Figure 5.5-3: Operating State # 3; Response to load switching and step changes in the external dc
current, 1) external dc source current 2) active current component of the VSC 3) reactive current
component of the VSC 4) total output current of the VSC
Referring to Figure 5.5-2, motor (ML1) is connected to the load bus at time t = 2.0s while it
is running at synchronous speed with zero load torque. This is followed by connection of the
static load (SL1) at time t = 3.0s. At time t = 4.0s, full load torque is applied on the motor ML1.
Another static load (SL2, of rating equivalent to that of SL1) is connected to the load bus at time
t = 5.0s. The system returns to a stable steady state operation after initial transients caused by
each load switching event. The rms voltages at the load bus and at the PCC remain within the
transient operating limits given by the ITI curve and the dc bus voltage remains tightly regulated
to within ±1.5% of the nominal value.
Referring to Figure 5.5-3, the external dc current disturbance is step changed at time t = 6.0s
from 0.0 per unit to 0.1 per unit, from 0.1 per unit to 0.15 per unit at t = 8.0s, from 0.15 per unit
to 0.3 at t = 10.0s and from 0.3 per unit to 0.0 per unit at time t = 12.0s. The step changes in the
external dc current representing WECU as a know disturbance does not affect the output current
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of the VSC and the dc bus voltage remains within ±1.5% of the nominal. Plot 4 in Figure 5.5-3
gives the total current output of the VSC which remains below its maximum limit (1.3 per unit)
and remains unaffected by the step changes in the external dc current injected at the dc bus.
The dc bus voltage is regulated within ±1.5% and the rms load bus voltage remains within
the bounds of the ‘no-interruption in function’ region of the ITI curve. This case study shows
that the proposed control scheme is stable and ensures that the load demand is met within the
performance constraints outlined in CHAPTER 2.
2. Step Changes in Reference Signals
Figure 5.5-4 gives simulation results for step changes in the references for the dc bus voltage and
the rms voltage at the load bus. The simulation results are a continuation from the previous case
study shown in Figure 5.5-2 and Figure 5.5-3. Initially load demand from the static loads (SL1
and SL2) and the motor load (ML1, with full load torque) is being served by the battery storage.
Figure 5.5-4: Operating State # 3; Response to step changes in reference signals, 1) reference and actual
voltages of the dc bus 2) reference and actual rms voltages at the PCC 3) reference and actual rms
voltages at the load bus
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Referring to Figure 5.5-4, the dc reference voltage is step changed from 1.0 per unit to 1.03 per
unit at time t =14.0s and back to 1.0 per unit at t = 15.5s. The reference rms voltage is step
changed from 1.0 per unit to 0.98 per unit at time t = 16.0s and back to 1.0 per unit at time t =
17.0s. The step change in the dc bus reference signal causes considerable variations in the rms
voltage at the PCC and the load bus. The integral term in the control loop adjusts the reference
PCC rms voltage signal to achieve the desired rms voltage at the load bus which is kept within
the steady state voltage limits and the transient performance bounds dictated by the ITI curve, for
step changes in the dc bus reference voltage and also for step changes in the reference signal for
the rms voltage at the load bus.
The case studies presented above confirm that the dc-dc converter control scheme provides
sufficiently fast response to achieve transient performance targets. The VSC output current
remains well below the maximum limit of 1.3 per unit and load demand is met within the
performance constraints given in section 2.4. The proposed control scheme provides stable
system operation during operating conditions involving load switching, step changes in the dc
disturbance current and during step changes in the reference signals for the dc bus voltage and
the rms voltage at the load bus.
5.6 WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT-STORAGE-UTILITY GRID
In this section operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system has been considered
in the operating state #6 (WECU + Storage + Utility, Figure 4.2-1). All the three system modules
namely i) the wind energy conversion unit, ii) the battery storage and dc-dc converter, and iii) the
VSC-Utility Grid are interacting during this operating state of the wind energy conversion and
battery storage system. The three system modules are shown in Figure 2.3-2 through Figure
2.3-4. In the following sections a control structure has been proposed using control scheme of the
individual system modules given in Figure 3.1-1, Figure 3.3-1and in Figure 4.3-1. Performance
and stability of the proposed control scheme have been investigated using the detailed nonlinear
model of the system in PSCAD/EMTDC.
The control scheme for the wind energy conversion and storage system in the operating state #6
(WECU + Storage + Utility) has been designed to achieve the following objectives:
1. Active power demand of the load will be met by the utility feeder.
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2. Reactive power support will be provided to regulate PCC (or load bus) rms voltage.
3. The bidirectional dc-dc converter will be used for regulating the dc bus voltage.
4. All the available wind generated power will be transferred to the utility side except during
charging of the storage batteries.
Figure 5.6-1 shows single line schematic and control structure for the operation of the wind
energy conversion and storage system in the operating state #6.
Referring to Figure 5.6-1, a control signal for the charging current has been added to the
scheme which is forward fed to the current regulator of the dc-dc converter for fast control
response. The current from the WECU is also forward fed to the VSC active current regulator for
the same purpose. During charging period output from the VSC will be reduced by the amount of
the charging current. Thus if sufficient power is not available from the WECU, then the
remaining amount of the charging current will be imported from the utility grid. The VSC gating
control is based on the hybrid switching control strategy in order to keep its current output within
the allowable limit of 1.3 per unit (OCC operation, Figure 4.2-1). The HSVM based VSC control
(OCC operation) is enabled when either converter current limit exceeds 1.29 per unit or when the
individual phase rms voltage of the load bus falls below 95% of the nominal value in order to
keep rms voltage variations within the bounds given by the ITI curve. The HSVM based gating
and control scheme (OCC operation) remains active for a minimum of 150ms after the initial
disturbance which has caused its activation, is over.
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Figure 5.6-1: Single line schematic and control structure of the study system in the operating state #6 (WECU + Storage + Utility) where all
the three system modules are in service
126
The case study presented below takes into account the following operating conditions:
1. Steady state operation of the WECU during no-load condition

2. Storage charging operation during constant wind speed
3. Dynamic wind conditions with:
a. Load switching events
b. Step changes in reference signals for rms voltage at the load bus and the dc
bus voltage
c. Capacitor switching events both at the generator and at the load side
Initially the wind energy conversion and storage system is operating under the following steady
state conditions:
Vdc = VLrms = Vbt = 1.0 per unit, wG = 0.9166 per unit,
Id = 0.655 per unit, Iqtmr = 0.655 per unit, Idtmr = -0.9 per unit,
IqLmr = 0.0 per unit, IdLmr = -0.13 per unit, Ib = 0.0 per unit,
where Vbt is the battery terminal voltage and Iqtmr, Idtmr are the orthogonal components of the
converter output current measured with respect to the relative reference frame (sensor outputs) as
explained in appendix D. The variables IqLmr, , IdLmr are the orthogonal current components of the
load branch in the relative reference frame. The VSC total output current is 1.114 per unit. A
0.25µF, delta configured capacitor bank is connected to the PCC. Two capacitor banks each
300µF (delta configured) are connected at the generator terminal. Three capacitor banks have
been used, all of equal rating, for the excitation control of the generator with one permanently
connected while the other two capacitor banks are switched in and out depending on the
generator speed.
Referring to Figure 5.6-2, the constant input wind speed to the turbine model is step changed
from 6.0 m/s to 6.5 m/s at time t = 9.0s and back to 6.0 m/s at t = 16.0s. Random wind speed
operation is simulated at time t = 22.0s with the stochastic wind speed characteristics the same as
in section 5.2.2.2. Switching events of the excitation capacitor banks are also marked on plot 2 in
the same figure.
Figure 5.6-3 shows the dc bus voltage and the three phase rms voltage at the load bus. Step
changes in the reference signal are from 1.0 per unit to 0.98 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit for
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the rms voltage at the load bus at time t = 32.0s and t = 34.0s. Step changes in the reference
signal for the dc bus voltage are from 1.0 per unit to 1.03 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit at t =
36.0s and t = 38.0s. The dc bus voltage is regulated within a narrow band of ±2.0% while the rms
voltage at the load bus satisfies the operating performance limits of the ‘no-iterruption in
function’ region of the ITI curve.
Referring to Figure 5.6-4 and Figure 5.6-5, a charging current of 0.15 per unit is requested at
t = 14.0 s while the system is operating at no load with a constant wind speed at the turbine hub.
The charging current is dropped to 0.0 per unit at t = 15.0s. The different switching events at the
utility side are as follows:
ML1 connection at t = 23.0s; full shaft-load application at t = 24.0s; SL1 connection at t = 25.0s;
ML2 connection at t = 27.0s wilth full shaft-load applied at t = 28.0s; Additional capacitor bank
of 0.25 µF (delta configured) is connected at PCC at time t = 30.0s; SL2 is connected at time t =
31.0s. It is pointed out here that the induction motors (ML1 and ML2) are connected to the load
bus while these are running at almost synchronous speed with zero load torque. Figure 5.6-4 also
shows the time intervals during which HSVM based VSC control is active (OCC operation,
Figure 4.2-1). It should be noted that the second event of OCC operation is caused by the
switching event of the capacitor bank at the PCC.
In this case study both constant wind speed operation with step changes and stochastic wind
regime operation of the system with load switching and step changes in reference signals have
been simulated. The system returns to steady state operation after each transient condition. It is
concluded that the operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system in the grid-
connected mode, where all the three system modules are in service, is stable and the performance
of the system remains within the specified steady state and transient limits.
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Figure 5.6-2: Operating State # 6; Response to variations in wind speed, 1) wind speed 2) optimum,
reference and actual speed of the generator 3) output current of the thyristor-controlled rectifier
Figure 5.6-3: Operating State # 6; Response during load switching, wind speed changes and step
changes in the reference voltage signals, 1) dc bus voltage 2) rms voltage at the load bus
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Figure 5.6-4: Operating State # 6; Response to load switching and step changes in reference signals, 1)
active current components 2) reactive current components 3) converter limit, total output current and
HSVM on duration
Figure 5.6-5: Operating State # 6; Response of the storage element to load switching and reference step
changes, 1) battery terminal voltage 2) battery terminal current
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In this chapter control schemes have been presented for the operation of the wind energy
conversion and storage system in the operating states where two or more of the system modules
are interactive. Normal system conditions have been considere which include:
1. Steady state operation

2. Step and dynamic wind speed changes
3. Switching of capacitor banks on the generator side as also on the utility side
4. Load switching events
In all the operating states of the wind energy conversion and storage system considered in this
chapter, stability and performance of the control schemes have been investigated through digital
time domain simulations of the detailed nonlinear models of the system using PSCAD/EMTDC
simulation software.
The following conclusions are based on the results presented in the preceding sections:
1. Modular control approach for the wind energy conversion and storage system, presented in
section 2.3.1, has been validated through time domain simulations.
2. It has been shown that different control structures developed for the individual system
modules of the wind energy conversion and storage system shown in Figure 2.3-2 through
Figure 2.3-4 can be combined together to suit operational requirements of the system in its
different operating states (as depicted in Figure 4.2-1).
3. In all the operating states considered in section 5.1 through section 5.6, operation of the
wind energy conversion and storage system conforms to the steady state and transient
performance criteria given in section 2.4. The control schemes provide stable system
operation in each operating state of the wind energy conversion and storage system.
4. In sections 5.1 and 5.6 it has been shown that the VSC output current can be contained
below the maximum allowable (1.3 p.u.) limit using HSVM based control and gating
scheme during grid interactive mode under normal operating conditions, with a restricted
switching frequency of 10 kHz. Transition management for switching between HSVM and
SPWM based control and gating schemes of the VSC provides a relatively bumpless
transfer between the two.
5. In the operating state #7 (WECU + Utility) in section 5.1, it has been shown that the
dynamic limitation on the reactive power support of the VSC should be employed with
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care. To avoid unwanted interaction between the real and reactive current controllers of the
VSC (results not shown), the reactive power support from the converter should be disabled
during system operation under sever disturbances in wind speed while no load is connected
to the load bus.
6. It is concluded that SPWM based control scheme of the VSC is not able to contain the
converter output current during interaction of the active and reactive current regulators
caused by dynamic limitations on the reactive current component of the VSC (results not
shown). If reactive current is not restricted to a lower percentage of the maximum converter
limit as has been done in section 5.1, the dynamic limitation on the reactive current control
may cause system operation to become unstable.
CHAPTER 6
SYSTEM OPERATION INVOLVING STATE TRANSITIONS
I n the previous chapter it was shown that operation of the wind energy conversion and
storage system under the proposed control schemes for the individual operating states of
the system (Figure 4.2-1) is stable and conforms to the steady state and transient performance
specifications given in section 2.4. Control schemes for the system configuration in each
particular operating state were obtained by combining and reconfiguring the control schemes
given in Figure 3.1-1, Figure 3.2-1 and Figure 4.3-1 of the individual system modules (Figure
2.3-2 through Figure 2.3-3) using the modular control design philosophy proposed in section
2.3.1.
In this chapter stability and performance of the supervisory controller is investigated under
system operating conditions which involve inter-mode transitions and transitions among
operating states as represented by the FHA of Figure 4.2-1 within each operating mode of the
study system. It should be noted that a transition between two operating states connected by a
particular (directional) transition path shown in Figure 4.2-1 is also accompanied by a transition
between the control schemes corresponding to the particular system configurations (composition
of active energy sources in the system) in the two operating states.
As proposed in section 2.5, stability and performance characteristics of the supervisory
controller (given in section 4.3) will be evaluated using time domain digital simulations of the
detailed nonlinear model of the study system in PSCAD/EMTDC.
Results of the simulation studies are presented in the following sections in which the
‘startup’ process (transient operating state #1) has been described first. The following should be
noted:
1. All the circuit breakers including breakers connecting load to the load bus and the capacitor
banks to the load bus and to the PCC have been modeled as nonideal which can interrupt
current only at zero crossing.
2. Two capacitor banks (each 0.25µF, delta configured) have been used for reactive power
support at the PCC.
3. Capacitor bank switching is blocked during mode transitions and during OCC operation
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133
until after the system has stabilized.
4. To allow for proper re-initialization of the inner current regulators of the SPWM based
control scheme and for separating the control switching event from the transients
subsequent to the fault event, the OCC operation of the VSC when enabled remains active
for a minimum duration of 150ms.
6.1 STUDY CASES
Table 6.1-1gives a summary of the operating-state transitions considered in this chapter. All the
transition cases have been simulated and clearly illustrate the stability of the supervisory control
of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system.
Table 6.1-1: Study Cases; System Operation Involving State Transitions

Transitions
Operating
Mode
System Configuration3 Cause of Transition
12 START UP STANDBY Start up operation of the system

OFF-GRID MODE
23 STANDBY STORAGE Load switching
34 STORAGE WECU + STORAGE Start up of the wind energy conversion unit
PRE-PLANNED TRANSITIONS
43 WECU + STORAGE STORAGE Blocking of thyristor rectifier unit
32 STORAGE STANDBY Disconnection of load bus
WECU+UTILITY
76 Storage charging operation
WECU+STORAGE+UTILITY
WECU+STORAGE+UTILITY
ON-GRID MODE
69 Blocking of thyristor rectifier unit

STORAGE+UTILITY
98 STORAGE+UTILITY VSC+UTILITY Termination of the charging process
87 VSC+UTILITY WECU+UTILITY Unblocking of thyristor rectifier unit
78 WECU+UTILITY VSC+UTILITY Loss of wind power due to low wind level
3
Refer to Figure 4.2-1
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OFF-GRID ON-GRID
45 WECU + STORAGE SOS
6 WECU+STORAGE+UTILITY (OCC)
PRE-PLANNED TRANSITIONS
Synchronization
(OCC) WECU+STORAGE+UTILITY
6 WECU+UTILITY
ON-GRID OF-GRID
Pre-planned mode transition, motor load ML2

83 VSC+UTILITY STORAGE
is kept disconnected from the load bus
State transition due to temporary single-line-to-

WECU+UTILITY FOS
7 10 ground fault at the PCC, employs storage
ON-GRID MODE
(WECU+STORAGE+UTILITY)
7 support during the transient operating state of
WECU+UTILITY
FOS, no-load operation
ACCIDENTAL TRANSITIONS
7 10 WECU+UTILITY FOS State transition due to temporary single-line-to-

7 (WECU+UTILITY) WECU+UTILITY ground fault at the PCC, no-load operation
ON-GRID OF-GRID MODE
9 10 STORAGE+UTILITY FOS Single-line-to-ground fault at the PCC, full

3 (STORAGE+UTILITY) STORAGE load operation
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6.2 SYSTEM STARTUP AND STANDBY
The startup process and standby operation (states #1 and #2 respectively, Figure 4.2-1) of the
wind energy conversion and storage system is shown in Figure 6.2-1 and Figure 6.2-2. The
control structure shown in Figure 5.5-1 has been used. In line with the control philosophy and the
FHA given in CHAPTER 4, the wind energy conversion and storage system is started with the
help of the storage element. A breaker with a 0.5Ω pre-insertion resistor has been used to contain
the inrush current when the storage element is connected to the fully discharged dc bus capacitor.
In the absence of the pre-insertion resistor the battery is shorted for the period during which the
dc bus voltage is less than the battery terminal voltage due to the anti-parallel diode (switch S2,
Figure 3.3-1) in the dc-dc chopper circuit. Under such conditions the chopper control will not be
able to contain the battery output current. The pre-insertion resistance is chosen such that the
maximum battery current remains within its rating limit (1.3 per unit current at the dc bus side)
and is applied for a period of 40ms during which time the dc capacitor is charged to a sufficiently
high level (approximately 0.47 p.u.) after which chopper control dictates the battery output
current.
Initially the dc capacitor is in a completely discharged state. The dc bus is isolated from both
the wind energy conversion unit and from the PCC (Figure 1.3-1). The tie circuit breaker (TCB,
Figure 1.3-1) is in open position. One capacitor bank (0.25 µF, delta configured and completely
discharged) is connected to the PCC. The load bus is kept disconnected.
Referring to Figure 6.2-1, the breaker connecting the dc bus to the battery storage is closed
at time t = 0.02s with a pre-insertion resistance of 0.5 Ω, during the ‘startup’ operating state
(state #1, Figure 4.2-1). The pre-insertion resistance is bypassed at time t = 0.06s. The dc bus
voltage is stabilized by the time t = 0.16s. After completion of the ‘startup’ process the VSC
control is activated at time t = 0.37s and at the same time the reference signal is ramped up from
0.0 per unit to 1.0 per unit in about 100ms. The rms voltage at the PCC is then stabilized at 1.0
per unit by the time t = 0.5s and the system thereafter starts operation in the ‘standby’ operating
state.
Plots 1 and 2 in Figure 6.2-1 show the dc bus voltage and the rms voltage at the PCC
respectively. The time instant at which the pre-insertion resistance is bypassed is marked on plot
1. The overshoot in the dc bus voltage during the startup process is below 10% which settles
down to the nominal value of 1.0 per unit in about 210ms. Plot 3 in Figure 6.2-1 shows the
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instantaneous voltage at the PCC in the ‘abc’ reference frame. Due to the ramping up (reference
shaping) of the input reference signal to the VSC voltage control loop the overshoot in the rms
voltage at the PCC is only 2.5% since this procedure avoids the inrush currents caused by the
step-up transformer and the capacitor banks connected to the PCC (Figure 1.3-1).
Figure 6.2-1: Startup and Standby Operation, 1) dc bus voltage 2) reference and actual rms voltage at
the PCC 3) phase voltages at the PCC
Plot 1 in Figure 6.2-2 shows the orthogonal components of the VSC terminal current in the
relative reference frame (appendix D, section D.1.5). Plot 2 in Figure 6.2-2 shows the battery
terminal voltage which drops to around 0.84 per unit during full load on the storage element. Plot
3 in Figure 6.2-2 shows the terminal current of the battery storage which is restricted to below
the maximum current limit of the dc-dc converter unit (assumed 1.3 per unit at the high voltage
side). Nominal duty ratio at no load (2.5) has been used for per unitizing the battery current at the
lower voltage side (battery side).
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Figure 6.2-2: Startup and Standby Operation, 1) orthogonal current components of the VSC 2) battery
terminal voltage 3) reference and inductor current
6.3 STATE TRANSITIONS
In the following sections worst case transitions of the study system between operating states
given by the FHA (Figure 4.2-1) of the system are presented in order to assess stability and
performance of the proposed supervisory controller.
6.3.1 OFF-GRID MODE OF OPERATION
In the off-grid mode of operation there are three normal operating states of the system namely
state #2 (Standby), state #3 (Storage) and state #4 (WECU + Storage) in which the system can
operate for extended periods of time. Control structures for the operation of the system in the off-
grid mode are shown in Figure 5.3-1 and in Figure 5.5-1. In Figure 5.5-1 the wind energy
conversion unit has been represented as a known disturbance. It should be noted that there is no
change in the system control structure between the three operating states except that the rms
voltage at the PCC is regulated rather than the rms voltage of the load bus during the time when
it is disconnected from the PCC. No supervisory control actions on the regulators are required
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during the off-grid mode operation of the system. The load bus could be connected while the
system is in operation in any of the three operating states (#2, #3 or #4).
Figure 6.3-1 to Figure 6.3-3 give simulation results for the inter-state transitions during
islanded operation of the study system. Initially the system is running in the standby operating
state (#2, Figure 4.2-1) in which the PCC is energized and the rms voltage is stabilized at
nominal value. A single capacitor bank (0.25µF, delta configured) is connected to the PCC.
Referring to Figure 6.3-1, at time t = 1.87s the load bus is energized by closing the circuit
breaker LCB (Figure 1.3-1) with a capacitor bank (450 µF, star configured) permanently
connected to it. The system then starts operation in state #3. Till that point in time no load is
connected to the load bus. Regulation of the load bus voltage is enabled after a delay of 200ms
and its rms voltage is stabilized at the nominal value in about 240ms. At time t = 2.25s full load
consisting of the two static loads SL1, SL2 and one induction motor load ML1 with rated torque
and running at rated speed (0.944 p.u.) is connected to the load bus simultaneously. The rms
voltage of the load bus drops to 0.986 per unit after the load connection event and recovers
rapidly. Wind energy conversion unit is brought into the scheme at time t = 2.55s by enabling
gating control of the thyristor rectifier. Before the thyristor rectifier is turned on, the induction
generator was energized and it was running above the optimal speed (reference speed) of 1.033
per unit corresponding to a wind speed of 7.4m/s. The start of this event causes the study system
to move to operating state #4 from its previous operating state #3. Reffering to plots 3 in Figure
6.3-1 and in Figure 6.3-2, the system moves from operating state #4 to state #3 when the WECU
is disabled by blocking the thyrisotr rectifier unit at time t = 2.88s. The load bus is then
disconnected at time t = 3.16s which causes the system to change operating state from state #3 to
state #2 (Standby).
Plots 2 and 3 in Figure 6.3-1 also show the envelope of the ‘no-interruption in function’
region of the ITI curve. At the start of the first event at time t = 1.87s and immediately after the
occurrence of the event at time t = 3.16s it is the rms voltage of the PCC that is being regulated
and the ITI voltage envelope for the ‘no-interruption in function’ region has been shown for the
PCC voltage. During the connection of the full load it is the rms voltage of the load bus which is
being regulated (enabled after 200ms of the load bus connection to the PCC) and the ITI voltage
envelope is shown for that particular event. The rms voltages at the PCC as well as at the load
bus remain within the ITI performance limits for the electronic equipments sensitive to voltage
disturbances. It should be noted that connection and disconnection of the load bus at no load
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causes interactions between the orthogonal current controllers, and is a result of the low losses in
the system during no load operation. The dc bus voltage remains within ±5% of the nominal
value during the full load switching and during the various state transitions (Figure 4.2-1) in the
off-grid mode of operation of the system. Referring to Figure 6.3-3, it should be noted that the
rapid response of the dc-dc converter and the controlled current-source nature of the WECU unit
results in low amplitude variations (±1% of the nominal) in the dc bus voltage to events
corresponding to the state transitions involving the WECU module.
Figure 6.3-1: Off-grid operation; Inter-state transitions among state #2 (Standby), state #3 (Storage +
VSC) and state #4 (WECU + Storage), 1) dc bus reference and actual voltage 2) reference and actual
rms voltage at the PCC and ITI performance limits 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the load bus
and ITI performance limits 4) Operating state of the system
140
VSC) and state #4 (WECU + Storage), 1) orthogonal current components of the VSC 2) orthogonal
current components of the load bus 3) rectifier output current, total instantaneous current of the load
branch and the output current of the VSC
VSC) and state #4 (WECU + Storage), 1) battery terminal voltage 2) reference and actual battery
terminal currents
141
The above case study shows that the control scheme of the system in the off-grid mode is stable
during its operation involving state transitions under the most severe operating conditions.
Referring to Figure 5.2-5 and Figure 5.4-2 it is concluded that with the proposed control scheme,
the wind energy conversion unit could be considered as a constant current source during transient
operation of the system. Therfore a constant current source could be used instead of the WECU,
for transient performance and stability evaluation of the control scheme of the study system,
since with the dc bus voltage tightly regulated, the WECU dynamics are almost decoupled from
the rest of the system.
6.3.2 ON-GRID MODE OF OPERATION
In the following sections state transitions of the study system during on-grid mode of operation
are considered. Both ‘normal’ and temporary fault conditions have been taken into account.
6.3.2.1 State Transitions during Normal Operation
Figure 6.3-4 through Figure 6.3-6 give simulation results for state transitions during on-grid
mode of operation under normal operating conditions. Two capacitor banks (each 0.25µF, delta
configured) are connected to the PCC. Full load and two capacitor banks (each 450µF, star
configured) are connected to the load bus. The load (Figure 1.3-1) is composed of two equally
rated static loads SL1, SL2 and two induction motor loads ML1, ML2 with rated load torques.
The wind speed at the hub of the wind turbine is held constant at 7.4 m/s. The system is initially
operating in state #7 (WECU + Utility, Figure 4.2-1) with the wind turbine running above the
optimal reference speed of 1.033 per unit. The following initial conditions are noted:
Id = 1.0 per unit, Iqt = 0.97 per unit, Idt = 0.36 per unit
Vrmspcc = 1.013 per unit, VLrms = 1.0 per unit, Vbt = 1.0 per unit (with Vb = 1.0 per unit = 400V)
The total output current of the VSC is 1.03 per unit while total load current is 0.91 per unit. All
the wind generated power is being transferred to the utility side.
Referrring to Figure 6.3-4, constant current charging of the battery storage is initiated by
reducing the the voltage of the constant dc source (Vb) in the equivalent model of the battery
storage from the nominal 1.0 per unit (400V) to 0.9 per unit (360V) at time t = 2.95s. The system
therefore transitions from its initial operating stat #7 to the operating state #6 (WECU +Storage +
Utility). During this operation the battery storage is being charged with a constant current (Ib
[HV side] = 0.86 per unit) by directing part of the wind generated power to the storage element
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through the forward feed scheme shown in Figure 5.6-1. Under these operating conditions the
VSC has still enough capacity to meet the reactive power demand in order to maintain the rms
voltage of the load bus at 1.0 per unit. It should be noted that instead of directly controlling the
rms voltage at the load bus as shown in Figure 5.6-1, the reference shaping scheme introduced in
section 5.5 (Figure 5.5-1) has been used for indirect control. This permits voltage regulation
scheme to be active during OCC operation (D = 0, Figure 4.2-1) as also during transient system
operation under utility side fault contitions (D = 1).
Figure 6.3-4: State transitions during on-grid mode of operation, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage
2) reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and rms voltage at the load bus 4) system
operating state and OCC operation intervals
Referring to plot 3 in Figure 6.3-5, the system is forced to transition to operating state #9
(Storage + Utility) by blocking gating control of the thyristor rectifier unit at time t = 3.4s. In the
absence of the wind power generation the required battery charging-power is now imported from
the utility side. Referring to plot 3 in Figure 6.3-5, the sudden loss of wind power generation and
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the constant charging current load on the VSC results in the total converter current to hit the
level of 1.29 per unit at time t = 3.42s which initiates OCC operation (HSVM based control and
gating scheme of the VSC) in order to limit the converter output current below 1.3 per unit. At
the same time reference shaping of the rms voltage control loop is disabled (to avoid frequent use
of the OCC operation due to limited capacity of the converter, assumed to be 1.3 per unit). The
disabling of the reference shaping is obtained by reseting the output of the integrator in the
auxiliary loop of the rms voltage regulator to zero. This results in the regulation of the rms
voltage at the PCC at the nominal level (rather than the rms voltage at the load bus). Once
initiated, the OCC based operation of the VSC continues for a minimum of 150ms after which
SPWM based control and gating scheme of the converter takes over again. Reference shaping is
resumed 100ms after the SPWM based control scheme of the converter is enabled.
Referring to plot 3 in Figure 6.3-5, at the end of the first OCC operation the converter total
current is still at the threshold level of 1.29 per unit causing another cycle of the OCC operation.
In the meanwhile charging process is terminated at time t = 3.6s and the system switches to the
operating state #8 (VSC + Utility) with the OCC based control scheme of the converter. In the
operating state #8, the VSC is only supplying reactive power to the system. The converter has
therefore adequate capacity to meet the reactive power demand at the end of the second OCC
operating cycle and also when the reference shaping of the rms voltage regulator resumes at time
t = 3.82s (plot 2, Figure 6.3-4). The rms voltage at the load bus is therefore again stabilized at the
nominal level while in operating state #8.
The firing angle control of the thyristor rectifier is enabled again at time t = 4.1s and the
speed regulation scheme of the WECU tries to extract maximum power from the unit to bring
down its speed to the reference value of 1.033 per unit. With the chosen parameters of the inner
current regulator in the speed regulation scheme and the relatively slow response of the rectifier
unit, there is an overshoot of approximately 0.395 per unit in the output current of the recitifier
which is about 0.295 per unit above the rating of the VSC. Over current control (OCC) of the
VSC is therefore enabled to restrict the output current to below 1.3 per unit. At the same time
reference shaping of the rms voltage regulator is disabled. During this time the reactive current
output of the converter is reduced since it is dependent on the active current output of the
converter at any given time during its operation. The reactive power support is suspended at time
t = 4.17s when the active current output of the converter reaches the level of 1.2 per unit and
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would not be resumed until the active current drops below 1.0 per unit. This causes the rms
voltage at the load bus to increase momentarily to about 1.01 per unit.
Figure 6.3-5: On-grid mode of operation; transitions during normal operation, 1) reference and actual
active current component of the converter 2) reference and actual reactive current component of the
converter 3) rectifier output current and total current of the load branch and the VSC
Figure 6.3-6: On-grid mode of operation; transitions during normal operation, 1) battery terminal voltage
2) reference and actual battery current
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After the OCC operation the wind generated power is within the handling capability of the VSC
and normal operation resumes whit the rms voltage of the load bus being regulated at 1.0 per unit
again. As the turbine speed falls below the reference value, the output of the unit gradually
reduces to zero at which point the system moves on to state #8 (VSC + Utility) at time t = 5.05s.
In this operating state the active power output of the converter falls near to zero and its reactive
current output increases to about 0.95 per unit to hold the rms voltage at the load bus at the
nominal value.
This case study confirms the stability of the supervisory control scheme for state transitions
under normal operating conditions during on-grid mode of operation of the study system.
Though the VSC capacity is not enough (with the chosen capacity values of the static capacitor
banks) to pursue rms voltage regulation of the load bus, the rms voltage at the laod bus as also at
the PCC remains within the transient performance limits. The case study highlights the fact that
individual system components should be adequately rated for adverse operating conditions of the
system. It also shows that given proper capacity of the VSC, the reference shaping scheme of the
rms voltage regulator can be successfully employed to indirectly control the voltage at the load
bus without sacrificing control response of the VSC as was done using the direct rms voltage
control scheme for the load bus (Figure 5.6-1).
6.3.2.2 State Transitions during Temporary Fault Conditions
Figure 6.3-7 through Figure 6.3-9 show state transitions of the study system from operating
states within the normal operating regime during the on-grid operating mode (D = 0) to the
transient operating state FOS (D = 1) and back to the normal operation. Two such transitions,
representing worst case scenarios, have been shown with the transition sequence of state #7 to
state #10 and back to state #7. The first transition cycle illustrates the transient storage support
strategy outlined in section 4.3.2.
Initially the system is operating with the load bus connected to the PCC under a no-load
condition. A capacitor bank (450µF, delta configured) is permanently connected to the load bus.
For the simulation period considered, both capacitor banks at the PCC are connected to the
system. At the start of the simulation period at time t = 2.0s, the recitifier is delivering 1.06 per
unit current at the dc bus with the turbine running at a slightly higher speed above the reference
speed of 1.033 per unit (corresponding to a constant wind speed of 7.4 m/s). The VSC is
delivering the wind generated power to the utility side with an active current ouput of
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approximately 1.01 per unit. The rms voltage regulation is suspended for the time being since the
active current output of the converter previously after crossing the threshold of 1.2 per unit
remains above 1.0 per unit. It is recalled that the voltage regulation scheme is disabled when the
active current output of the VSC increases above 1.2 per unit and is not resumed until it drops
below 1.0 per unit.
Referring to Figure 6.3-7, a single phase line to ground (A-G) fault is applied at the PCC at
time t = 2.09s. The fault resistance is 0.001Ω. The fault is applied for a duration of 3 cycles.
Immediately after the fault, the converter current shoots to above the threshold level causing
activation of the OCC and simultaneously the system moves to the FOS operating state (state
#10). It is mentionead here that during FOS operation the VSC uses the HSVM based control
and gating scheme in order to ensure continuity of system operation. From plots 1 and 3 in
Figure 6.3-9, it is noted that the converter current actually shoots above the converter current
limit of 1.3 per unit and that the HSVM based swiching of the converter seems not to be able to
restrict output current of the converter to below its rating. This however is not the case and can
be explained in terms of the modeling of the HSVM based switching scheme in
PSCAD/EMTDC wherein interpolation of the switching instances has been ignored. Another
factor is the bandwidth of the inner and outer bands for the generation of the switchsing patrons
for HSVM based gating signal generation. A bandwidth of 30A has been used for the outer band
and 22.5A has been used for the inner band [77]. In the absence of interpolated switching
instances the HSVM based control is affected by the simulation time step (5µs used for
simulations in PSCAD/EMTDC).
Referring again to Figure 6.3-7, during the single line to ground fault the dc bus voltage
exceeds the threshold of 1.08 per unit. This causes storage support to be called in (plot 3) and the
excess current (reference ‘active’ current – converter limit of 0.6634) is diverted to the storage
by enabling dc-dc converter control. Storage provides support until the dc bus drops to below
1.04 per unit. Figure 6.3-9 shows the battery terminal voltage and current for the time interval
shown in Figure 6.3-7. The rapid control action of the dc-dc converter prevents further voltage
rise of the dc bus and quickly brings down the voltage to within the range for normal system
operation. It is pointed out that storage control scheme is not used for dc bus voltage regulation
during on-grid operation of the system whether under normal or during transient fault conditions.
Plots 2 and 3 in Figure 6.3-7 show that rms voltages at the load and at the PCC remain within the
ITI ‘no-interrruption in function’ region during and after the temporary fault operating conditions
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as also when full load is connected to the load bus at time t = 2.48s. The full load is composed of
the two static loads SL1, SL2 and the two induction motor loads ML1, ML2 with rated load
torques and running at rated speeds. Connection of the full load brings down the reactive power
support requirement from the VSC and OCC operation is not invoked during normal on-grid
operation thereafter until the initiation of another fault. Reference shaping is resumed again at
time t = 3.14s.
Another A-G fault at the PCC is applied at time t = 3.3s with identical fault characteristics.
This time the dc bus voltage rise remains below 1.08 per unit and storage support is therefore not
utilized. After cycling through the FOS operating state the system starts normal operation again
in state #7. Transient performance limits are not violated and the system remains stable during
and after the temporary single line to ground fault at the PCC.
Figure 6.3-7: On-grid operating mode; state transitions caused by single line to ground fault, 1) dc bus
and thyristor-controlled rectifier output voltage 2) three phase rms voltage at the PCC and the upper and
lower limits defined by the ITI curve 3) single phase rms voltage at the PCC and the ITI curve 4) control
signals used for state transition management
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This case study confirms that the supervisory control scheme developed for the study system is
able to provide stable system operation during temporary faults at the worst location on the
feeder (PCC) even during high wind power generation periods. The case study also illustrates the
transient power management strategy used in connection with over/under voltage of the dc bus.
It is confirmed that the performance of the supervisory controller remains within the transient
speicifications provided by the ITI curve.
It should be mentioned here that an alternate transient support scheme could be used in
which the WECU is allowed to over speed for the fault duration to reduce its output power such
that storage element would not need to be involved during voltage rise on the dc bus. The stored
energy in the wind turbine and generator system in the form of kinetic energy could then be
recovered by steering the wind turbine down to the optimal speed corresponding to the prevailing
wind conditions. The control scheme for the wind energy conversion unit however has not been
configured for transient power management during grid side disturbances.
Figure 6.3-8: On-grid operating mode; State transitions caused by single line to ground faults, 1) VSC
‘active’ current output 2) VSC ‘reactive’ current output 3) rectifier output current, total current of the
load branch and output current of the VSC
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Figure 6.3-9: On-grid operating mode; State transitions caused by single line to ground faults, 1)
battery terminal voltage 2) reference and inductor current
6.4 MODE TRANSITIONS
6.4.1 PRE-PLANNED TRANSITIONS
In the following sections simulation results are presented for the pre-planned mode transitions of
the study system. The transitions are from off-grid mode to on-grid mode of operation and vice
versa.
6.4.1.1 Synchronization
The worst case scenario of the WECU delivering the maximum current and the system catering
to the maximum load while in operating state #4 in the off-grid mode has been considered. In
this case the forward fed signal (dc current from the rectifier) requires gradual transfer from the
storage control scheme to the VSC based control scheme in order to divert wind generated power
from the storage to the utility side of the VSC with minimum transients. The following should be
noted:
1. Variations (for the synchronization process) in the oscillator output frequency (for VSC
control in islanding conditions) have been limited to ±2% of the nominal.
2. Regulation of the rms voltage scheme is not resumed until 400ms after successful
completion of the synchronization process to separate synchronization transients from the
control switching transient.
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During synchronization period, reference shaping is disabled and the reference signal in the inner
loop of the VSC output voltage control scheme shown in Figure 5.5-1 comes from the actual rms
voltage of the utility side of the TCB (Tie Circuit Breaker, Figure 1.3-1). The TCB is only closed
once the voltage space vectors at the two sides of the TCB are aligned with each other and the
difference between the rms voltages at the two sides is within 1%. Immediately after connection
to the utility, the VSC is operated as a controlled current source with HSVM based switching and
control scheme (OCC) for a minimum duration of 100ms. Also the active and reactive currents
supplied by the storage during islanded operating state (before connection to the utility when the
VSC has been operated as a directly controlled voltage source) are ramped down to zero. In a
similar fashion the rectifier output current is diverted to the utility side by ramping up the dc
current forward fed signal in the VSC control scheme from zero to 100%. Storage support of the
system is dropped after the successful synchronization and control transition process.
Figure 6.4-1 gives simulation results before, during and after the synchronization process.
Figure 6.4-2 and Figure 6.4-3 illustrate the transition management strategy used for minimizing
transients that would result because of switching between two different control schemes. Initially
a current of 1.2 per unit is being drawn from the induction generator since the wind turbine is
running at a slightly higher speed than the reference optimal speed (1.033 per unit)
corresponding to the reference wind speed of 7.4m/s. Full load (SL1, SL2 and ML1 with full
load torque) is connected to the load bus. A capacitor bank (0.25µF, delta configured) is
connected to the PCC and one capacitor bank (450 µF, star configured) is connected to the load
bus. The converter is delivering a total current of 0.64 per unit with nominal voltage at the load
bus (rms voltage of the load bus is being regulated).
Referring to Figure 6.4-1, the synchronization process starts at time t = 2.74s and
simultaneously voltage regulation is switched from the rms voltage at the load bus to that at the
PCC. The control scheme of the oscillator which is generating the reference frequency for the
VSC control in the islanding operation varies its frequency (plot 2 in Figure 6.4-1) in order to
align the voltage space vector at the PCC with voltage space vector at the utility side of the TCB.
After a 4ms synchronized operation, the PCC is connected to the utility feeder by closing the
TCB at time t = 2.88s.
Plot 3 in Figure 6.4-2 shows that immediately after the SOS operating state (#5, Figure
4.2-1) the system moves on to the operating state #6 (WECU + Storage + Utility) with OCC
operation of the VSC (HSVM based control and gating scheme). After the wind generated power
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is diverted to the utility side and the storage support is dropped, the system moves on to the
operating state #7 (WECU + Utility). The dc bus voltage shown in plot 2 indicates a slight
increase of less than 3% above the nominal value during diversion of the wind generated power
to the utility side.
Figure 6.4-3 shows the supervisory control actions on the primary regulators. Plot 1 shows
the command signal for changing control of the VSC as directly controlled voltage source to the
current controlled voltage source. It also shows the control signal for transferring dc regulation
control from the control scheme associated with the storage and dc-dc converter module (Figure
5.6-1) to the control scheme associated with the VSC (Figure 5.2-1). Plot 3 shows that the
forward fed signal (rectifier output current) is transferred between the two control schemes
mentioned above in a ramped fashion and at the end of the HSVM operation the VSC is used to
deliver the whole output power from the wind energy conversion unit to the utility side. The
discrepancy between the forward fed signals to the two control schemes, due to the static gains
(Gd2a and Gdc), primarily results in a slight increase in the dc bus voltage (plot 1 in Figure 6.4-2).
Figure 6.4-1: Mode transitions; synchronization, 1) ‘a’ phase voltage waveforms at the two sides of the
TCB and the synchronization interval 2) reference frequency and PLL outputs for the two sides of the
TCB 3) reference and actual rms voltages on the utility side of the TCB, at the PCC and at the load bus
152
Figure 6.4-2: Mode transitions; synchronization, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage 2) reference and
actual rectifier current, reference and actual ‘active’ current component of the converter 3) reference and
actual ‘reactive’ current of the converter 4) system operating state and duration of the OCC operation
Figure 6.4-3: Mode transitions; no load synchronization, 1) control signals 2) wind energy conversion
and storage system operating states
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The case study shows that the study system can transition from any of the three states namely
state #2 (Standby), state #3 (Storage) and state #4 (WECU + Storage) in the off-grid mode with
minimum transients to the two designated operating states namely state #6 (WECU + Storage +
Utility) and state #9 (Storage + Utility) through the intermediate synchronization operating state
SOS (state #5) while meeting transient performance requirements.
6.4.1.2 On-Grid to Off-Grid Transitions
1. Pre-planned Transitions
Figure 6.4-4 through Figure 6.4-6 illustrate a representative pre-planned transition from
operating state #8 (VSC + Utility) in the on-grid mode to operating state #3 (Storage + VSC) in
the off-grid mode. It represents the most severe operating conditions for pre-planned transition in
which the storage element is required to pickup the entire load after disconnection from the grid
(except ML2 which is disconnected when the TCB is in open position).
Figure 6.4-4: Pre-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage 2)
reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the load bus 4)
operating state
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Figure 6.4-5: Pre-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) active current component of the VSC
2) reactive current component of the VSC 3) space vector magnitude of the load branch and the VSC
output current
Figure 6.4-6: Pre-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) battery terminal voltage 2) battery
terminal current
Initially the system is operating in the grid-connected mode in operating state #8 wherein the
VSC is only supplying reactive power for regulation of the rms voltage at the load bus. The load
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bus is indirectly regulated at the nominal value by regulating the PCC voltage at 1.013 per unit
using reference shaping in the rms voltage regulation scheme as described earlier. Full load is
being served with two capacitor banks (0.25µF, each delta configured) connected to the PCC and
two capacitor banks connected at the load bus (450µF and 600µF, each star configured). The
VSC is supplying 1.07 per unit reactive current.
Referring to Figure 6.4-4 through Figure 6.4-6, opening of the circuit breaker TCB is
initiated at time t = 1.6s which completes in about 10ms at time t = 1.612s. With the opening of
the TCB, the second capacitor bank (600µF, star configured) is disconnected and the induction
motor load ML2 is dropped by opening their respective controlling breakers. With the complete
disconnection of the utility feeder the study system switches operation to state #3 in the off-grid
mode and simultaneously dc bus voltage control is handed over to the storage based control
scheme (Figure 5.5-1) and battery storage picks up the load (Figure 6.4-6). After initially
dropping to about 0.927 per unit the dc bus voltage recovers back to the nominal value at around
t = 1.74 per unit (in about 128ms). Referring to plots 2 and 3 in Figure 6.4-4, the rms voltages at
the PCC and at the load bus remains within the transient performance limits while plot 3 in
Figure 6.4-5 shows that the VSC output current remains within its maximum capacity (1.3 p.u.)
before, during and after the pre-planned mode transition.
The case study shows that the supervisory control provides stable operation of the study
system for worst case pre-planned transition from state #8 in the grid-connected mode to state #3
in the off-grid moperating mode while maintaining performance within the specified limits.
2. Accidental Transitions
Figure 6.4-7 through Figure 6.4-9 illustrate worst case scenario of an un-planned mode transition
from operating state #9 (Storage + Utility) in the grid-connected mode to the operating state #3
(Storage + VSC) in the off-grid operating mode. Before transition in the grid-connected mode,
full load was being served with two capacitor banks connected to the PCC and two capacitor
banks connected at the load bus as in the previous case.
Initially the VSC is supplying a constant charging current of 0.38 per unit (HV side) to the
storage element. The VSC is also supplying reactive power to the system with a reactive current
at 1.07 per unit to regulate the load bus voltage at the nominal value and the PCC voltage at 1.01
per unit. A single line to ground fault (A-G) is applied for a 3-cycle duration at the PCC on the
utility side of the TCB. The fault resistance is 0.001 Ω and the fault is applied at time t = 2.0s.
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The system changes operating state to state #10 (FOS) as soon as the fault condition is detected.
The single line to ground fault causes the three phase rms voltage at the PCC to go below 0.8 per
unit at which time induction motor load (ML2) is shed and the capacitor bank (600µF, star
configured) connected to the load bus is disconnected by initiating opening of their circuit
breakers. Opening of the TCB is initiated when the rms voltage at the PCC drops further to
below the level of 0.74 per unit. At the completion of the breaker opening operation at time t =
2.03s system control is handed over to the storage based control scheme shown in Figure 5.5-1 in
its operating state #3 (Storage + VSC) in the off-grid mode of operation. After the load is picked
up by the storage element, the dc bus voltage initially drops to about 0.85 per unit and recovers
to nominal value at around t = 2.189s. Plots 2 and 3 in Figure 6.4-7 also show the voltage
envelope of the ‘no-interruption in function’ region for the electronic equipment given by the ITI
curve. It is concluded that the rms voltage at the load bus and at the PCC remains within the
transient performance limits.
Figure 6.4-7: Un-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) reference and actual dc bus voltage 2)
reference and actual rms voltage at the PCC 3) reference and actual rms voltage at the load bus 4)
operating state and OCC operation duration
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Figure 6.4-8: Un-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) active current component of the VSC
2) reactive current component of the VSC 3) space vector magnitude of the load branch and the VSC
output current
Figure 6.4-9: Un-planned on-grid to off-grid mode transition, 1) battery terminal voltage 2) battery
terminal current
The supervisory controller provides a stable operation for the on-grid to off-grid mode
transition through the intermediary fault operating state FOS (state #10). It will be noticed from
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Figure 6.4-9 that the VSC output current however exceeds the limit of 1.3 per unit immediately
after the system starts operation in the islanding mode. The explanation to this lies in the
behaviour of the induction motors under fault conditions. The induction motor load (particularly
ML2 rated at 0.27 per unit or 82 kW) draws a large amount of reactive power during the period,
suppressing further the voltage at the load bus and hence at the PCC. After disconnection from
the utility, the battery storage and the dc capacitor are the only sources of energy supply within
the system to meet the load demand (including ML1) through the VSC interface. This causes
converter current limits to be exceeded. The motor load ML2 will need to be disconnected at an
earlier stage during the fault conditions (or during voltage sags under normal operation) than the
level of 0.8 per unit used in the simulation case presented in this section. It is mentioned here that
the VSC current remains within limits (results not shown) when the same fault is applied with
only SL1, SL2 and ML1 with rated load torque and a single capacitor bank (450µF, star
configured) connected to the load bus.
This case highlights the importance of proper sizing of the system components for
uninterrupted system operation during unplanned transition from on-grid to off-grid mode.
Proper coordination of the protection scheme of the induction motor load ML2 is required if the
system is to make a successful transition from on-grid to off-grid mode through the intermediary
fault operating state (FOS) during operating conditions depicted in the foregoing simulation case
with the assumed rating of the VSC (1.3 per unit). The case however indicates that control
remains stable for the state transition caused by the single line to ground fault at the PCC.
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This chapter considers large transients causing transition of the study system from one operating
state to another (shown in Figure 4.2-1). Each state transition requires switching between the
corresponding control schemes. The state and control scheme transitions are managed by the
supervisory control layer. The objective is to demonstrate stability and performance of the
supervisory control scheme through time domain digital simulations of the nonlinear detailed
model of the study system in PSCAD/EMTDC software environment. Besides transitions among
operating states in which the system can operate for extended periods of time, system operation
during startup (state #1) and during standby operating state (state #2) have also been described
and demonstrated.
The following conclusions are based on the simulation results presented in the preceding
sections:
1. The proposed supervisory control scheme is stable and drives the study system along the
specified route given by the FHA (Figure 4.2-1) of the system without exceeding transient
performance limits proposed in section 2.4.2.
2. The wind energy conversion and storage system can be imparted ride through capabilities
for temporary single phase faults on the utility side by using the hybrid control and gating
scheme for the VSC proposed in section 4.3.3.
3. The WECU module with the proposed control scheme (Figure 3.1-1) can be represented as
a constant current source for transient performance and stability evaluation of the study
system.
4. Transients associated with the pre-planned mode transitions and those caused by switching
of control schemes within each operating mode have been minimized by using transition
management schemes proposed in CHAPTER 4.
5. Proper coordination of the protection scheme for the motor load ML2 will be required if the
system is to successfully transition from grid-connected mode to off-grid mode due to a
single line to ground fault at the PCC, without exceeding converter maximum current limit
(assumed 1.3 per unit).
6. System components, particularly the VSC and the capacitor banks at the PCC and at the
load bus need to be properly sized for the converter to be able to regulate the rms voltage at
the load bus under all normal operating conditions.
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It should be noted that transient performance with respect to the single phase rms voltage at the
PCC cannot be maintained for faults at the utility feeder close to the PCC unless the wind energy
conversion and storage system goes into the off-grid mode of operation immediately after the
occurrence of fault. Therefore to ensure temporary fault ride-through capability of the wind
energy conversion and storage system, the single phase sensitive load if any would need to be
moved either on to the dc side or changes would be required in the configuration of the wind
energy conversion and storage system to ensure that operation of the sensitive single phase
equipment remains uninterrupted during operation of the system in the FOS (state #10).
CHAPTER 7
CONCLUSIONS
7.1 OVERVIEW
Operation and control of a wind energy conversion and battery storage system has been
presented in this thesis. A practical, radically different modeling and control design approach has
been proposed for the study system composed of a wind energy conversion unit and a battery
storage element with power electronic based converters which interface the two units to each
other and to the utility power system. A survey of the literature on the subject shows that so far
all of the published research has been focused on the individual control aspects of a wind energy
conversion system in either grid-connected mode or in the islanded mode of operation. There is
no published work that describes both operational and control aspects of a wind energy
conversion system in both modes of operation.
The modeling framework proposed in this thesis for the wind energy conversion and battery
storage system borrows its characteristics from the Finite Hybrid Automata (FHA) representation
of hybrid control systems. The original FHA framework is suitable for systems with relatively
few state variables. It therefore has found fewer applications to practical control problems
encountered in power systems where the control problem can be associated with a large number
of state spaces each with relatively large number of dimensions. The FHA modeling framework
also does not address the issue of transition management when a configurable hybrid system,
such as a power system, moves from one state space to another. Also the state transitions are
assumed to be instantaneous. This assumption generally is not valid for control problems
concerning power systems. The FHA framework in its present form therefore becomes
impractical for a large number of control problems relating to power systems.
Control design of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system is another issue
which is related to the modeling of the system. The study system presents a complex Multiple-
Input-Multiple-Output (MIMO) control problem. The control design problem has been simplified
by using a modular control design approach suggested by the State Transition Diagram (STD) of
the study system. A careful analysis of the operation of the system using the STD, which is the
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162
basis for the proposed modified FHA model of the system given in Figure 4.2-1, reveals that the
system can be partitioned along the dc bus into three independent system modules based on
certain assumptions. Control design for each module has then been carried out in isolation from
the rest of the system, with assuming that the three system modules are decoupled when the dc
bus voltage is tightly regulated. The modified FHA of the system has then been used to devise
suitable schemes for the system when the individual system modules are operated in various
combinations as depicted by the FHA in Figure 4.2-1, in order to meet the steady state and
transient performance specifications outlined in CHAPTER 2.
Modularization is the underlying principle of the practical approach of modeling and control
design presented in this thesis, in the context of the wind energy conversion and battery storage
system. Unlike the original FHA which is based on the state space composition of a system, the
proposed modified framework represents operation of the wind energy conversion and storage
system based on the allowable combinations of the energy sources in the system. The modified
FHA of the system also reveals partitioning axes for modularization of the system and thus
provides a basis for a modularized control design. Each allowable combination of the energy
sources in the system (defined in this thesis as an ‘operating state’) requires a different control
scheme for the system. Within an operating state, changes in state space of the system due to
changes in control scheme are represented by multiple substates within that operating state. This
allows for the building block modules to be considered on their own in each operating state of
the system and suitability of one control scheme or another can be assessed and envisioned with
respect to steady state and transient response objectives. This also allows for considerations of
suitable transition management of control schemes according to the different system
configurations when a supervisory layer is considered for the overall control management of the
system.
A supervisory control mechanism designed on the basis of the proposed modified FHA of
the system provides coordination among the different control schemes designed for individual
operating states in order to drive the wind energy conversion and battery storage system along
the prespecified routes given by the FHA of the system. The proposed supervisory hybrid
controller of the study system uses power and load management strategies for transient and
steady state power balance in the system and implements transition management strategies for
bumpless transfers between control schemes (regulators) as also for smooth transitions from one
operating state to another.
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The control design and operation management principles developed for the supervisory hybrid
control of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system presented in this thesis could
also be applied to other control problems of similar nature where coordinated operation and
control of a system with several local generation sources is required. Steps involved in the design
process are given at the end in appendix B.
7.2 CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are presented based on the research reported in this thesis:
1. It is concluded that the complex control problem of a wind energy conversion and storage
system can be handled using hybrid control techniques and a modular control design
approach.
2. The successful operation of the wind energy conversion and storage system requires
formulation of suitable power and load management strategies. Transition management
strategies are also required for smooth transition between the two operating modes (on-grid
and off-grid operation) and between the various possible operating states of the system
within each operating mode.
3. It is concluded that control schemes based on simple linear control laws together with the
hybrid switching scheme for the VSC, could be combined and coordinated through a
supervisory control layer for the automatic operation of the wind energy conversion and
battery storage system in an operating space that consists of many different possible
operating conditions. Apart from steady state and normal dynamic operating conditions, the
operating space may also include state transitions caused by a change in the system control
structure alone or due to a change in the configuration of the wind energy conversion and
storage system accompanied by a change in the control scheme.
4. The proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme of the study system provides flexibility in
the control of the system to suite different operating requirements under different operating
conditions. It allows for the pursuit of multiple control objectives for the system, e.g.
maintaining operation within transient performance specifications and limiting converter
output current during utility side faults in order to impart temporary fault ride-through
capability to the wind energy conversion system.
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7.3 CONTRIBUTIONS
The following are the main contributions of this thesis:
1. A modified modeling and control design approach based on the finite hybrid automata
framework of hybrid control systems has been proposed for the representation of the
operation and for the design of a supervisory hybrid control scheme for the wind energy
conversion and storage system.
2. Automatic operation and control of the wind energy conversion and storage system has
been demonstrated, using a supervisory hybrid controller which drives the system along a
pre-specified route represented by a modified FHA of the system. It has been shown that
the supervisory hybrid controller can be synthesized using traditional control schemes and
simple linear compensators in conjunction with suitable transition management strategies.
3. A hybrid control and gating scheme for the VSC has been presented which gives the wind
energy conversion system the capability of fault ride-through during grid-connected mode
of operation for temporary faults originating on the utility side. The proposed hybrid control
and gating scheme provides integrated protection and control of the VSC. It also avoids
over sizing of the converter which is otherwise a common practice to ensure continuous
system operation.
4. A novel current controlled speed regulation of the wind driven induction generator has been
presented. The proposed control scheme provides robust and uniform performance over the
entire speed range within the constraints imposed on the system operation. These
constraints include:
• Operating speed range of the generator

• Limitations on the output of the generator and thyristor-controlled rectifier
• Limitations on the mechanical oscillations of the generator-wind energy conversion
unit
The proposed speed regulator provides robust performance in the face of internal and
external system disturbances. The internal system disturbances may originate on:
• the dc side of the thyristor-controlled rectifier due to dc bus voltage fluctuations or

• on the generator side of the system due to capacitor switching which may also cause
extreme mechanical stresses in the system
External disturbance comes in the form of wind speed variations.
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5. The concept of transition management has been introduced in the context of the supervisory
hybrid control of the wind energy conversion and storage system for a smooth transition
among the various operating states given by the FHA of the system. It should be noted that
a transition in the operating state of the study system also involves switching between the
associated control schemes of the system in the pre and post-transition operating states.
6. A reference shaping technique has been introduced for the indirect control of the rms
voltage of the load bus to achieve transient performance specifications by exercising direct
control over the PCC voltage using the VSC. The proposed technique has the advantage
that it does not require knowledge of the parameters of the load branch between the load
bus and the PCC and can be used both in grid-connected and in islanded operation of the
wind energy conversion and battery storage system.
7.4 FUTURE WORK
The following potential research areas are identified:
1. Hardware and software implementation of a scaled down wind energy conversion and
battery storage system with the proposed supervisory hybrid control scheme reported in this
thesis.
2. Hybrid control of an expanded wind energy conversion and battery storage system
containing other forms of distributed generation e.g. a micro turbine connected at some
node other than the PCC, in a micro grid configuration.
3. Operation of the reported wind energy conversion and storage system with an expanded
FHA model which accounts for transient fault operating states due to internal faults within
the wind energy conversion and storage system itself.
4. Application of the proposed hybrid modeling and control design approach suggested in this
thesis towards systems containing multiple energy sources in a micro grid configuration.
APPENDIX A
SYSTEM PARAMETERS
Parameters of the wind energy conversion and battery storage system are given in Table A-2, in
per unit. Base values are given in Table A-1 while Table A-3 gives control parameters for the
system.
Table A-1 Base values

Name and Description Base Value4
Vdc : DC Bus Voltage 1000 V
Vb : Battery Voltage 400 V
Id : DC Current 300 A
Ib : Battery Current 750 A
Iqd : qd reference frame Currents 510.31 A
Vqd : qd reference frame Voltages 391.92 V
Table A-2 System parameters
Component Parameter Symbol Value
Inertia Constant Ht 2.5 p.u.

Wind Turbine5
Mechanical damping - 0.0
Inertia Constant Hg 0.48 p.u.

Induction Generator6
4
The base values on the AC and the DC side of the converter are based on a power base of 300 MVA with rated
base voltages on either side of the converter. A nominal duty ratio of 2.5 has been used for base values on the
battery side of the dc-dc converter.
5
Dynamic characteristics are given in Figure C-3
6
Magnetizing characteristics are given in Figure C-5
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167
Component Parameter Symbol Value
Stator Reactance X ls 0.119 p.u.
Rotor Reactance X lr 0.119 p.u.
Induction Generator Stator Resistance rs 0.012 p.u.
Rotor Resistance rr 0.0085 p.u.
Reactance of the magnetizing branch Xm 4.366 p.u.
capacitance C dc 40.0mF
DC Bus inductance Ldc 0.05H
Resistance Rdc 0.0318Ω
Series Resistance Rbs 30.0mΩ
Resistance of the parallel branch Rbp 25.0mΩ
Battery Storage and dc-dc

Capacitance in the parallel branch C bp 0.6F
converter
Constant voltage source Vb 400 V
Inductance Lb 0.003H
Reactance of the (ideal) transformer (13.8kV/480V, 0.5MVA) LL 0.08 p.u.
Resistance of the (ideal) transformer (13.8kV/480V, 0.5MVA) RL 0.0
Inertia Constant H m1 0.5 p.u.
Load7
Stator Reactance X ls1 0.065 p.u
Induction Motor
Load
Rotor Reactance X lr1 0.049 p.u.
ML1
Stator Resistance rs1 0.078 p.u.
Rotor Resistance rr1 0.044 p.u.
7
Core and winding magnetic saturation has been neglected for both induction motor loads
168
Induction Reactance of the magnetizing branch X m1 2.67 p.u.
Motor Load
ML1 Mechanical damping - 0.0
Load
Inertia Constant H m2 0.48 p.u.
Stator Reactance X ls 2 0.119 p.u.
Rotor Reactance X lr 2 0.119 p.u.

Induction
Motor Load
Stator Resistance rs 2 0.012 p.u.
ML2
Rotor Resistance rr 2 0.0085 p.u.
Reactance of the magnetizing branch X m2 4.366 p.u.
Resistance rsl 2.89 p.u.

Static Load
(SL1, SL2)
Reactance x sl 2.09 p.u.
Reactance 21.01 p.u.

Feeder
Resistance 12.58 p.u.
Utility Reactance of the (ideal) transformer (132kV/13.8kV, 25MVA) - 0.08 p.u.

Network
Thevenin Reactance - 29.87 p.u.
Equivalent
(Power Grid) Constant Voltage V∞ 132.0kV
Table A-3 Control parameters
Controller Parameter Symbol Value
Proportional constant (inner current loop) K piw 0.00785 rad A-1
Integral constant (inner current loop) K iiw 0.1745 rad A-1

Wind Energy
Conversion System Time constant (LPF, inner feedback loop) τ iw 3.0ms
Proportional constant (outer speed K pw 24.0 rad s-1 A-1

regulator)
169
-1 -1
Integral constant (outer speed regulator) K iw 8.0 rad s A
Wind Energy
Time constant (LPF, reference speed) τw 0.20s
Conversion System
Proportional constant (inner current loop) K pi 0.20 VA-1
Integral constant (inner current loop) K ii 1.43 VA-1

Grid-connected
operation Proportional constant (outer dc regulator) 10.0 AV-1
K pd
VSC
Integral constant (outer dc regulator) K id 100.0 AV-1
Reference Shaping Integral constant - 0.10s
Proportional constant - 0.30 p.u.

Islanded operation
Integral constant - 15.0 p.u.
Proportional constant K pdc 10.0 AV-1

Battery storage and
dc-dc converter Integral constant 200.0 AV-1
K idc
APPENDIX B
MODIFIED HYBRID MODELING FRAMEWORK
A hybrid system consists of continous and discrete state variables. In power systems, elements
such as generators and loads exhibit continous dynamics while the actions of protection elements
for example; constitute discrete events [83]. A number of different frameworks have been
suggested for modeling general hybrid dynamical systems [20]. Attempts have been made to
provide a suitable hybrid modeling framework for power systems [69], [83] and [84]. None of
these hybrid modeling frameworks however, provides for a systematic modeling and control
design approache. Apart from specific hybrid systems with a few state variables, there are no
analytical means for analysis and stability investigation of a switched hybrid system.
In the following sections an attempt has been made to provide for an integrated modeling
and control design approach for small scale power systems (micro-grids) in the context of the
wind energy conversion and battery storage system. Modularization is the underlying principle
for the proposed approach which borrows characteristics from the general FHA modeling
framework. However unlike the original FHA modeling paradigm, operation of the system is not
depicted based on the state space composition of the system, rather it is based on the allowable
composition of the energy sources in the system (defined as an ‘operating state’ of the system).
The basic philosophy behind this approach is the consideration that a different control scheme
will be required for satisfactory operation of the system in each operating state corresponding to
each allowable combination of the energy sources in the system. The modified FHA of the
system thus not only reduces modeling complexity but also provides for a basis for a modular
control design. Transition between different possible control schemes for the system in each
operating state can be depicted by substates corresponding to each control scheme. The modified
FHA of the system thus depicts system operation with a reduced number of operating states
where the transition paths among the allowable operating states of the system are prespecified. A
supervisory control layer is then used to combine the control schemes which have been devised
for system operation during each individual operating state, for the integrated control of the
170
171
system.
The hybrid control scheme with a hierarchical supervisory control layer offers the possibility
of combining and reconfiguring the individual control schemes of the system in order to pursue
multiple control objectives under varying operating conditions. This has been demonstrated with
respect to the study system reported in this thesis.
In the modified FHA representation, operation of the system is divided into two basic
modes:
1. Grid Connected Mode (on-grid operation)
2. Islanded Mode (off-grid operation)
The modified FHA of a system can be developed from the STD of the system. The STD of the
system is a graphical illustration of the operating logic for the system and is based on the
assumption that transition between the two modes (on-grid and off-grid) and between different
operating states within each mode is instantaneous.
Consider a generic small power system (micro-grid) consisting of three energy sources A, B
and C, besides the energy source in the form of the external power grid. Generally, operational
and control considerations will be the basis for the possible operating states of the system (e.g. a
wind energy conversion system cannot operate on its own without an external support due to the
intermittent nature of the wind). A STD for the system is shown in Figure B-1 where it is
assumed that all the desireable ‘normal’ operating states of the system are represented. The
assumption of an instantaneous transition between the two operating modes is in general a gross
simplification and as such not valid. A transient operating state in which the system is first
synchronized with the external power grid before it switches operation from islanded mode to
grid-connected mode is required. Similarly, a transient fault operating state need to be considered
when fault rid-through capability for the system is desireable.
System configuration together with the STD of the system will generally provide clues to the
suitable axes along which the system could be partitioned for modular control design. The STD
of Figure C-1 could be augmented with the transient operating states mentioned above together
with the assumed two different possible control schemes for the system operating state in which
the energy source C is in service, to arrive at the modified FHA of the system shown in Figure C-
2.
172
Figure C- 1: State Transition Diagram (STD) for a generic system with three energy sources A, B and C
Figure C- 2: Finite Hybrid Automata for the generic system with three energy sources A, B and C
173
The STD of a system with relatively fewer energy sources could be directly determined.
However, this may be relatively tedious when possible combinations of more than a few energy
sources are considered. Boolean logic could be used for obtaining the STD of a system from the
Operating Logic Diagram (OLD) in such situations. The OLD is a graphical representation of the
truth table for the energy sources (and the load) in the system. Figure C-3 gives the OLD for the
study system, as an example. Here two levels of the availability of the energy sources in the wind
energy conversion and storage system have been assumed, 1) low and 2) high. This may be the
case for low and high winds or low and fully charged storage batteries.
Figure C- 3: OLD for the wind energy conversion and storage system reported in this thesis
Figure C-3 gives only one side of the OLD in the off-grid mode of the system, the other is
similar with the system in the on-grid mode. The non allowable states could be striked out to
obtain the STD shown in Figure 2.2-1.
174
The supervisory control design process of a system with multiple operating states and multiple
generation sources can be divided into the following steps:
1. Formulate control objectives and modes of operation (on-grid, off-grid or both) and specify
performance requirements (for steady state and dynamic system operation).
2. Formulate load and power management strategies.
3. Obtain the Operation Logic Diagram (OLD) of the system.
4. Determine the State Transition Diagram (STD) of the system from the OLD developed in
the previous step by eliminating operating states that are not feasible and not desirable.
5. Obtain the FHA of the system by suplementing the STD with suitable transient operating
states such as Fault Operating State (FOS) if needed and Synchronization Operating State
(SOS) if both on-grid and off-grid mode of operation is required and by determining uni
and bi-directional transition paths among the various operating states of the system.
6. Carefull analysis of the system STD and/or FHA which depends on the particular system
configuration, suitable partition axis (axes) should be located.
7. Determine suitable control structures for the system in each of its operating state with the
objective to minimize control scheme transitions as the system will move from one
operating state to another following the proposed FHA for the particular system.
8. Determine suitable monitoring and control signals used by the supervisory control layer that
will be used for decision making regarding control and/or system configuration changes.
9. Verify control performance using established control techniques e.g., linear analysis and
using time domain simulations.
APPENDIX C
MODELING OF WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT
A schematic representation of the wind energy conversion unit is shown in Figure C-1, which
also shows the sign convention used for developing a mathematical model of the system in a qd
reference frame where the q axis is aligned along the stator ‘a’ phase voltage vector and leading
the d axis.
Figure C- 1: Schematic of the wind energy conversion unit and sign convention used for modeling
Referring to Figure C-1, the wind mass flowing across the turbine creates a lifting force on
the blades resulting in a rotational torque on the turbine. The turbine drives the mechanically
coupled squirrel cage induction generator, the electrical output power of which is regulated
through the thyristor-controlled rectifier bridge. A constant dc voltage source supports operation
of the wind energy conversion unit.
A control scheme for the unit is shown in Figure 3.1-1 which has been reproduced in Figure
C-2. In the following sections detailed description of the component-by-component modeling of
the wind energy conversion unit has been presented.
175
176
Figure C- 2: Single line control schematic of the wind energy conversion system
177
C.1 AERODYNAMIC MODEL OF THE WIND TURBINE
The wind turbine used in this thesis is a three-blade, horizontal axis stall regulated machine. The
input to the aerodynamic wind turbine model, wind speed, is generally a random variable both in
magnitude and direction and depends on many factors such as spatial distribution across the
plane of the rotor blades among others [85]. For the dynamic wind speed the following
expression is generally used [86], [87]:
Vw = Vmw + Vrw + Vgw + Vnw , (C-1)
where V w is the measured wind speed, Vmw is the average wind speed at the hub height, Vrw
and V gw are the ramp and the gust components and Vnw is the noise component present in the
wind.
A simplified model of the wind turbines used for power system stability studies generally
assumes a mean wind speed at its input with the output rotor power given by the following
expression [85]-[88]:
PT = C p (λ , β ) ρAVw ,
1 3
(C- 2)
2
where ρ is the air mass density, A is the rotor swept area and C p is a dimensionless power
coefficient whose value depends on the type and operating conditions of the wind turbine i.e. the
pitch angle β and the tip speed ratio λ . The ratio of the blade tip speed to wind speed is given
by:
Rω T
λ= . (C- 3)
Vw
Here R is the radius of the wind turbine rotor and ω T is its angular speed. For a constant pitch
wind turbine C p varies as a function of λ alone. The power coefficient has a maximum value
for a specific optimum rotor speed of the turbine at any specific wind speed.
The dynamic model of the wind turbine can be constructed by using a family of power
verses rotational-speed curves of the turbine for the operating range of the wind speed. The
178
dynamic wind turbine model used in this thesis consists of a family of normalized power verses
speed curves, shown in Figure C-3.
Figure C- 3: Wind turbine output power verses speed characteristics
C.2 INDUCTION GENERATOR
For an induction generator, magnetic saturation model in the machine plays a vital role in the
stable operation of the unit [89]. Also the machine model needs to take into account both stator
and rotor electrical dynamics. There are two fundamental circuit models used for the study of an
induction machine [90]. In one approach, which considers a symmetrical induction machine,
loop impedance method or the nodal admittance method is employed to come up with a per-
phase equivalent circuit model [91]. In the second approach, which is not restricted to the
symmetrical machine alone, fundamental machine theory is used to derive an orthogonal axis
model in the arbitrary reference frame [92]. The former approach is suitable only for steady state
studies while the later can be used for all possible operating conditions including asymmetries
both in the stator and the rotor circuits and nonlinearities such as magnetic saturation and
frequency effects [90]. A detailed discussion on induction machine modeling is provided in [91].
Magnetic nonlinearity of the machine core needs to be incorporated into the machine model for
excitation and sustained operation of the induction machine. Main flux saturation can be
represented in the machine model with both currents and flux linkages as state variables. In the
former cross coupling effect between the orthogonal circuits of the machine caused by the time
varying nature of the magnetizing inductance, is explicitly expressed while in the latter the effect
179
is implicitly accounted for [93]. A number of approaches have been suggested for incorporating
cross coupling effect for the study of saturated induction machines [93]-[96].
In this thesis the 4th order so-called ‘T’ model of the machine has been used in which both
the rotor and the stator leakage reactances are assumed equal [91]. Modeling of the main flux
saturation is based on the approach given in [97], [98]. The following points should be noted
about the machine model used in this thesis:
1. Currents have been used as state variables for the machine model in the qd reference frame.
2. Main flux saturation has been taken into account by using an assumed no-load terminal
voltage verses current characteristics of the machine.
3. The resistance of the magnetizing branch representing hysteresis and eddy current losses
has been neglected. The implication of this assumption is that the magnetizing flux is in
phase with the magnetizing current.
The equivalent orthogonal circuit model of a squirrel cage induction machine in the synchronous
reference frame rotating at ω rad/s is given in Figure C-3 in which all quantities are referred to the
stator side [95].
Figure C- 4: Synchronous reference frame equivalent circuit of a three phase induction machine
The voltage equations of the machine are given by:

180
v qg = rs iqsg + ω λ dsg + pλ qsg , (C- 4)
0 = rs i dsg − ω λ qsg + pλ dsg , (C- 5)
0 = rr i qrg + (ω − ω r ) λ drg + pλ qrg , (C- 6)
0 = rr i qsg − (ω − ω r ) λ dsg + pλ qsg , (C- 7)
where rs , rr are the resistances of the stator and rotor windings, Lls , Llr are the stator and rotor
d
leakage inductances and p= is the differential operator. The stator flux linkages λ qsg , λ dsg and the
dt
rotor flux linkages λ qrg , λ drg can be written as:
λ qsg = Lls i qsg + M (iqsg + i qrg ) , (C- 8)
λ dsg = Lls i dsg + M (idsg + i drg ) , (C- 9)
λ qrg = Llr i qrg + M (iqsg + iqrg ) , (C- 10)
λ drg = Llr i drg + M (idsg + idrg ) . (C- 11)
In the above equations M represents the mutual inductance between the stator and the rotor
windings.
C.2.1 Representation of Saturation
Only the nonlinearity of the mutual coupling between the stator and rotor windings has been
taken into account since saturation of the stator leakage reactance can be neglected as it is in
general much smaller compared to the air gap reactance [91]. Figure C-5 shows the assumed
magnetizing characteristics (reference) and the no-load test results on the symmetrical induction
machine implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC with the same reference characteristics. For accurate
linear analysis it is imperative that the machine model presented in these sections is a faithful
representation of the machine model implemented in PSCAD/EMTDC. For this purpose the
saturation characteristics of the machine in PSCAD/EMTDC (and not the reference
characteristics) have been approximated with a continuous function, as shown in Figure C-5.
181
Figure C- 5: No-load magnetizing characteristics of the machine (terminal voltage verses magnetizing
current)
The no-load saturation curve has been approximated with the following continuous function
using nonlinear regression (curve fitting) techniques as opposed to the common approach of
using polynomial and trigonometric functions that does not provide for a good fit of the assumed
characteristics.
vtpu = α {tanh( β i mpu + γ i mpu ) + δ impu } ,

2
(C- 12)
where vtpu , impu are the per unit terminal voltage and the magnetizing current, respectively. The
coefficients of the nonlinear function have been determined as:
α = 1.063543125, β = 59.0689323, γ = −6.44582632, δ = 0.202613043 .
Neglecting the voltage drop component of the stator winding resistance, the nonlinear
relationship of the mutual inductance M (in actual units) with the per unit magnetizing current
impu is then given by:
α {tanh( β impu 2 + γ impu ) + δ impu }

M =[ − Llspu ] Z base . (C- 13)
ω b impu
182
Here Z base and ωb are the base impedance and frequency respectively, and Llspu is the stator
leakage inductance in per unit.
The magnetizing current im for the machine circuit in Figure C-3, is given as:
im = (iqsg + iqrg ) 2 + (i dsg + idrg ) 2 . (C- 14)
The derivatives of the flux linkages given in equations C-5 to C-8 are then given by:
pλ qsg = Ls pi qsg + M piqrg + i qm pM , (C- 15)
pλ dsg = Ls pi dsg + M pidrg + i dm pM , (C- 16)
pλ qrg = M piqsg + Lr pi qrg + i qm pM , (C- 17)
pλ drg = M pidsg + Lr pi drg + i dm pM , (C- 18)
where;
iqm = iqsg + iqrg , (C- 19)
idm = idsg + idrg , (C- 20)
Ls = Lls + M , (C- 21)
Lr = Llr + M . (C- 22)
The derivative of the mutual inductance can be written in terms of partial derivatives as:
dM ∂im ∂i ∂i ∂i
pM = [ pi qsg + m pidsg + m pi qrsg + m pi drg ] . (C- 23)
di m ∂i qsg ∂idsg ∂iqrg ∂idrg
The partial derivatives in the above equation are given as:
∂im ∂i iqm
= m = , (C- 24)
∂i qsg ∂i qrg im
∂im ∂i i
= m = dm . (C- 25)
∂i dsg ∂i drg im
For equation C-13, the derivative of M with respect to im (in actual units) is given as:
183
dM α [{1 − tanh( β impu + γ impu ) }( 2β i mpu + γ ) + δ ] α [(tanh(β i mpu + γ i mpu ) + δ impu ]
2 2 2
=[ − ]Vbase ,
dim ω b impu ω b i mpu 2
(C- 26)
where Vbase is the base voltage.
Substitution of the stator and rotor flux linkages and their derivatives into the voltage equations
of the machine given in C-4 to C-7 gives the following equation:
 v qg   rs ωL s 0 ωM   i qsg 
    
 0   − ωLs rs − ωM 0   i dsg 
 0 = 0 (ω − ω g ) M rr (ω − ω g ) Lr   i qrg 
+
    
 0   (ω − ω ) M 0 (ω g − ω ) Lr rr  i 
   g   drg 
(C- 27)
 Lqs M qd Mq M qd   iqsg 
   
 M qd Lds M qd Md   idsg 
M p  ,
M qd Lqr M qd  i
 q   qrg 
M Md M qd Ldr  i 
 qd  drg 
where:
2 2
iqm dM idm dM
Lqs = Ls + , Lds = Ls + , (C- 28)
i m dim i m dim
2 2
iqm dM i dM
Lqr = Lr + , Ldr = Lr + dm , (C- 29)
i m di m i m di m
and
2 2
iqm idm dM i qm dM idm dM
M qd = , Mq = M + , Md = M + . (C- 30)
im di m im di m i m di m
The set of equations from C-27 to C-30 gives the model of the induction generator. The per unit
electrical torque produced by the induction machine is [95]:
ωb M
Te ( p.u .) = (i qsg i drg − idsg iqrg ) . (C- 31)
Vbase I base
184
C.3 MECHANICAL DYNAMICS
The mechanical coupling of the wind turbine-generator has been represented by its torsional
model with two lumped masses connected through an elastic shaft. The following should be
noted:
4. An ideal gearbox has been assumed and all the variables have been referred to the
generator side.
5. Both mutual and self-damping of the generator and the turbine rotors have been neglected.
The equivalent two-mass-spring torsional model adequately represents the dynamics of the wind
turbine and the generator mechanical system for most power system studies [86], [87]. The
model used in this thesis is shown in figure C-6. This model also reflects the effects of the
dynamic interactions between the turbine and the generator shafts, which in turn affect the
electrical quantities of the induction generator.
Figure C- 6: Turbine-generator mechanical coupling
The mechanical coupling between the turbine and the generator can be written as [60].
 ωb ωb   ω 
 ω g   0 − 2 H K ( p.u .) 0 K ( p.u.)  ω g   b 0 
   g 2H g    2 H g 
d θg  1 0 0 0  θ g   0 0  Te ( p.u.)  .
=   +  (C- 32)
dt  ωT   0 ωb ω
0 − b K ( p.u .)  ωT   0
ω  T
− b  T ( p.u .) 

   K ( p.u.)
θ   2H T 2H T  θ T   2H T 
 T 
0 0 1 0   0 0 
185
Here θ g , θT are the angular displacements of the generator and the turbine rotors, ωg and ωT
are their angular speeds, and Te( p.u.) and TT ( p.u.) are the generator electrical and the turbine
mechanical torque respectively, in per unit. The constant K( p.u.) represents the shaft stiffness in
per unit.
C.4 EXCITATION
In the presence of appropriate valued terminal capacitors and due to residual magnetism in the
machine core together with nonlinear magnetic characteristics as mentioned in the earlier
sections, an induction machine when driven by a prime mover, will have induced emf causing
leading current circulation between the machine and the terminal capacitors [99]-[101]. This is
the excitation phenomenon of the induction generator which has erroneously been termed as
‘self-excitation’. Excitation of the induction generator using static capacitors is caused by the
presence of a pair of unstable eigenvalues which causes terminal voltage of the machine to
increase exponentially until the machine operating point moves on to the saturated portion of the
curve [100].
The excitation phenomenon begins at a particular speed for a particular value of the terminal
capacitance and depends on the machine parameters and saturation characteristics [99]. For a
particular machine the value of the excitation capacitance lies within a range bounded by a
minimum and a maximum value. If the excitation capacitance lies outside this range then the
machine will fail to have induced emf.
Transformation into the qd reference frame of the nodal equation at the generator terminal
node with an ideal excitation capacitor branch, results in the following equations:
d
(v qg ) = − i qsg + i qr , (C- 33)
dt Ce
i dsg + i dr
ω = , (C- 34)
C e v qg
where i qr , i dr are the active and reactive components of the lagging current drawn by the
thyristor rectifier bridge, ω is the rotational speed of the synchronous reference frame and
C e is the excitation capacitance.
186
C.5 THYRISTOR RECTIFIER AND DC BUS
With suitable excitation the terminal voltages of the machine will be almost sinusoidal and the
machine will draw lagging sinusoidal currents, the magnitude of which will depend on the value
of the excitation capacitance and the power delivered by the machine. Since the six-pulse Graetz
bridge is connected to the machine terminal with an ideal isolating transformer, therefore
commutation inductance is nonexistent. The current drawn by the rectifier with a dc side inductor
and a constant dc voltage source will be of rectangular periodic form, the fundamental of which
will be displaced by an angle equal to the firing angle α of the bridge rectifier measured with
respect to the natural commutation of the bridge [102]. This is shown in figure C-7.
The thyristor-controlled rectifier can therefore be represented by the fundamental frequency

average-value model [102]-[104] where:
3 3
Vd = v qg cos α . (C- 35)
π
Figure C- 7: Waveforms for a six-pulse thyristor-controlled rectifier with a constant dc source
And from the power balance on the ac and the dc side of the rectifier, neglecting the bridge
internal losses:
2 3
iqr = i d cos α , (C- 36)
π
2 3
idr = id sin α . (C- 37)
π
187
The dc side of the rectifier is described by the following differential equation:
d 1 3 3 R 1
id = cos α v qg − d id − Vdc . (C- 38)
dt Ld π Ld Ld
C.6 CONTROL OF THE THYRISTOR RECTIFIER
Proportional-plus-Integral compensators have been used for regulators. Figure C-8 shows the
variables associated with a generic PI compensator. Referring to Figure C-8, the PI compensator
ki
of the form ‘ k p + ’ can be written in the state space form as:
s
d
x pi = k i ( x ref − x fb ) , (C- 39)
dt
y pi = x pi + k p ( x ref − x fb ) . (C- 40)
Figure C- 8: Proportional plus Integral (PI) compensator
With reference to Figure C-2, the equations for the outer speed regulation loop are then given as:
d
x piw = k iw (ω g − ω ref ) , (C- 41)
dt
idref = x piw + k pw (ω g − ω ref ) , (C- 42)
where k pw , k iw are the proportional and integral constants of the outer speeder regulator and idref
is the reference to the inner current control loop. With τ w as the time constant of the LPF, the
reference speed ω ref is given as:
d 1
ω ref = (−ω ref + ω optimal ) . (C- 43)
dt τw
188
The equations for the inner current regulator can be written similarly and are given below:
d
x piiw = k iiw (i dfb − i dref ) , (C- 44)
dt
α = x piiw + k piw (idfb − i dref ) , (C- 45)
d 1
idfb = (−idfb + id ) , (C- 46)
dt τ iw
where k piw and k iiw are the proportional and integral constants of the inner current controller, τ iw
is the time constant of the LPF in the feedback path and α is the firing angle of the thyristor
rectifier.
Equations C-12 to C-46 give the complete mathematical model of the wind energy conversion
unit. The model has 14 state variables out of which 4 describe the electrical dynamics of the
induction generator, 4 state variables are associated with the mechanical system, 1 state variable
describes the dynamics of the generator terminal node, 1 state variable is associated with the dc
link and 4 state variables describe the dynamics of the controllers.
The above system model can be linearized around an operating point and the small signal model
can be expressed as:
d ~
x = A~
x + Bu~ ,
dt
~
y = C~
x + Du~ .
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
The state vector is ~
x = [ iqsg idsg iqrg idrg ω~ g θ g ω~T θ T v~qg id ω~ref ~
x piw idfb ~
x piiw ]T , and the input
~ ~
vector is u~ = [TT ω T
optimal ] . A variable pertaining to the dc bus voltage could also be used in the
input vector u~ to study the effects of dc bus voltage variations on the different oscillatory modes
of the system. This exercise however has not been carried out as tight regulation of the dc bus
voltage has been assumed.
APPENDIX D
MODELING OF VSC – UTILITY GRID SYSTEM
In the following, a synchronous reference frame based nonlinear system model has been
presented that takes into account the dynamics of the Phase Locked Loop (PLL) together with
the network dynamics. The component models have been developed in state space form in a
complementary input-output relationship basis that are easily put together to form the overall
model of the VSC- Utility grid system. The choice of the reference node (PCC) makes it easier to
represent the system containing the VSC in either a grid-connected mode of operation or in an
isolated operating mode.
Reference [52] provides a mathematical modeling and control approach for a VSC
connected to a stiff utility system. However, for accurate analysis of the interactions of the VSC
with the utility system, network dynamics need to be taken into account [105]. Also, dynamics of
the PLL can play an important role in the stability of the system [106] and therefore need to be
included in the system model.
The model developed in the following sections includes both network as well as PLL
dynamics. Sensor dynamics are also taken into account. A distinction has been made between a
sensor, which is generally represented as a low pass filter, and the low pass filter itself.
The following points should be noted about the model:
1. The nonlinear model of the VSC-Utility Grid system is in the synchronous reference frame
with the q axis aligned along the PCC ‘a’ phase voltage and the d axis is lagging the q axis.
2. The VSC has been operated as a current regulated voltage source.
3. The PCC has been used as a reference point for modeling the VSC-Utility grid system and
is particularly useful in reducing modeling complexity in that few changes are required in
the system model, apart from the VSC control as shown in Figure 5.5-1, to represent the
grid-connected and isolated mode of operation of the system. Referring to Figure D-3, in
the isolated mode ω 0 is associated with the voltage space vector Vt of the VSC.
4. Various network components have been incorporated into the model as linear components.
5. The PLL has been taken into account as a linear device [106].
189
190
Figure 3.2-1 shows the single line control schematic of the VSC-Utility grid system repeated in
Figure D-1 for ease of reference. With reference to Figure D-1 and D-2, the following device and
control equations are derived:
D.1 MODELING
Figure D-1 gives the equivalent single line diagram of the VSC-Utility grid system. The
subscripts ‘q’ and ‘d’ indicate that the variable is in the orthogonal synchronous reference frame.
The additional subscript ‘r’ in the variable names in the subsequent paragraphs highlights the fact
that the quantity referred to is in the synchronous reference frame as determined by the PLL, e.g.
the orthogonal voltage components v qtr and v dtr shown in Figure D-2 are relative to the
synchronous reference frame qmdm. To avoid confusion, the reference frame determined by the
PLL would be called simply the ‘relative’ synchronous reference frame.
The space vector representation of the VSC-Utility grid system in the synchronous reference
frame is shown in Figure D-3. The angle θ in Figure D-3 is the displacement of the relative
reference frame qmdm with respect to the synchronous qd reference frame. Angle θ sr is the
position of the utility voltage space vector Vs with respect to the relative reference frame axis qm
and θ t gives the angular position of the converter terminal voltage space vector Vt while θ L
gives the position of the load bus voltage space vector VL in the synchronous reference frame.
The subscript ‘m’ in a variable name signifies a measured quantity, e.g. the output of a sensor.
D.1.1 Converter
The governing equations for the converter in the actual synchronous reference frame can be
written as:
 R 
d  i qt  − − ω  i  1  v − v 
  = L   qt  +  qt qpcc
 , (D-1)
dt  i dt   ω R   i dt  L 
−  v dt 
 L
d 3
C dc v dc v dc = v dc id − (i qt v qt + i dt v dt ) . (D-2)
dt 2
191
Figure D- 1: Single Line Schematic and Control Structure of the VSC-Utility grid Subsystem
192
Figure D- 2: Single line equivalent diagram of the system module ‘VSC-Utility grid’
Figure D- 3: Space Vector Representation of the VSC-Utility Grid system

193
Variables iqt and idt represent the orthogonal components of the converter terminal current it
while vqt and vdt are the orthogonal components of its terminal voltage vt . Equation D-2 comes
from the instantaneous power balance between the ac and the dc sides and takes into account the
instantaneous power of the interface reactor (step-up transformer).
D.1.2 Network Dynamics
The dynamics of the utility network are given by the following matrix equation:
 Rs 
− −ω 
d  i qs   Ls
 =  iqs  + 1  v qs − v qpcc  . (D-3)
dt  i ds   ω R  i 
− s  ds  Ls 
 v
ds


 Ls 

where iqs and ids are the active and reactive current components supplied by the utility, and v qs
and v ds are the qd components of the utility voltage at the PCC.
The dynamics of the load network (including the step down transformer) are similarly defined by
the following equation:
 RL 
− −ω 
d  i qL   Ls
 =  iqL  + 1  v qpcc − v qL  . (D-4)
dt  i dL   ω R  i 
− L  dL  LL 
 −v
dL


 LL 

Here iqL and idL are the qd components of the load current, and vqL and vdL represent the qd
components of the load bus voltage.
D.1.3 PLL
The linearized PLL dynamics are given by [106] as:
d  x1 pll   0 − k ipll  x1 pll   k ipll 

 =  + θ , (D-5)
dt  x 2 pll   1 − k ppll  x 2 pll   k ppll 
θ sr = x2 pll , (D-6)
where
194
 k ipll 
 θ 
x pll = s  and θ = θ s − θ sr .
1 
 ( x1 pll + k ppll θ ) 
s 
D.1.4 Node with a Capacitor Branch
The qd components of a node voltage, with a capacitor branch connected to the node, are related
to the sum of the currents at the node in the following general manner:
d  eq  0 − ω  e q   ∑ i q 
C   = C    +  . (D-7)
dt  ed  ω 0  e d   ∑ i d 
Variables eq and ed in equation D-7 are the q and d components of the node voltage ‘ e ’, ω
is the angular speed of the node voltage space vector, and iq and id are the active and reactive
current components entering the node.
From equation (D-7) the following relations are obtained at the PCC:
d 1
v qpcc = (i qt + i qs − i qL ) , (D-8)
dt C pf
1
ω=− (i dt + ids − idL ) . (D-9)
C pf
Similarly at the load bus the following relation holds:
d  v qL   0 − ω  vqL  1   iqL   ∑ iqSLj   ∑ iqMLj  

 =   +   −  − 
dt  v dL   ω 0  vdL  C L   idL   ∑ idSLj   ∑ idMLj   . (D-10)
    
Subscript ‘ j = 1,2... ’ represents the number of the connected Static Load ( SL ) and/or the Motor
Load ( ML ) at the load bus, as shown in Figure D-1.
In a grid-connected mode as in the case of the VSC-Utility grid system, the actual reference
frame qd is associated with the voltage space vector of the utility voltage source, i.e. Vs . The
relative position of Vs with respect to V pcc (or the q axis) can be determined from the following
relationship:
195
d
θs = ω0 −ω . (D-11)
dt
Angular speed ω0 of the voltage space vector at the infinite bus is a constant and has a value of
2 π f rad/s where f is the system operating frequency.
D.1.5 Sensor and Low Pass Filter Dynamics
Figure D-4 shows how the input and output of a sensor represented by a low pass filter and that
of a low pass filter itself in the two synchronous reference frames qd and qmdm have been
distinguished.
Figure D- 4: Representation of the dynamics of a Sensor and a Low Pass Filter (LPF)
Referring to Figure D-4, dynamic model of a sensor represented by an LPF  1  with the
 
 1 + s τ 
time constant τ , in state space form is given by:
d 1
xmr = (−xmr + xr ) , (D-12)
dt τ
where xr is the input and xmr is the output of the LPF. The additional subscript ‘ m ’ denotes
the ‘measured’ (output) value of an orthogonal component of the variable x and the subscript
‘ r ’ indicates that it is in the relative reference frame.
The output of the current sensors at the converter terminals are then given as:
d  i qtmr  1  − 1 0   i qtmr  1  i qtr 

  =     +   . (D-13)
dt  i dtmr  τi  0 − 1   i dtmr  τi  i dtr 
196
Equation D-13 can also be written as:
d  i qtmr  1  − 1 0   i qtmr  1  i qt 
  =     + R −1   . (D-14)
dt  i dtmr  τ i  0 − 1   i dtmr  τi  i dt 
The transformation matrix R is given as:
 cos θ sin θ 
R =  . (D-15)
 − sin θ cos θ 
Using the space vector magnitude of a node voltage for determining the rms voltage at that node,
the rms voltages at the PCC and at the load bus are given as:
d  v rmspcc  1  − 1 0  v rmspcc  1 3  v qpcc 

  =    +  , (D-16)
dt  v rmsL  τv  0 − 1  v rmsL  τv 2  v L 
where τ v is the time constant of the voltage sensor represented as a first order low pass filter and
v qpcc is the magnitude of the voltage space vector at the PCC. The space vector magnitude of the
load bus voltage v L is given by:
vL = v qL + v dL
2 2
,
where vqL and vdL are the q and d components of the voltage space vector V L .
D.1.6 Converter Control
Referring to Figure D-5, the equations for the dc voltage control loop could be written as:
d
x pid = k id (v dcref − v dcfb ) , (D-17)
dt
iqtref = id − {x pid + k pd (v dcref − v dcfb )} . (D-18)
Similarly the rms voltage control loop in the state space domain is given by:
d 1
v rmsm = ( v rmsm − v rmsfb ) , (D-19)
dt τ vfb
d
x pirms = k iv ( v rmsref − v rmsm ) . (D-20)
dt
idtref = x pirms + k pv (v rmsref − v rmsm ) . (D-21)

197
Figure D- 5: Outer voltage regulators
The equations for the current regulators are similarly given by:
d
dt
( )
x piUq = k ii i qtref − i qtmr , (D-22)
u q = x piUq + k pi (iqtref − iqtmr ) , (D-23)
vqtr = u q + ω 0 Lidtmr + v qpcc , (D-24)
x piUd = k ii (i dtref − i dtmr ),

d
(D-25)
dt
u d = x piUd + k pi (idtref − idtmr ) , (D-26)
vdtr = u d − ω 0 Liqtmr , (D-27)
where v qtr and v dtr are the voltages demanded of the converter by the current regulators in the
reference frame qmdm.
Referring to Figure D-6, the converter actual output voltages v qt and v dt are given as:
 v qt  v 
  = R  qtr  . (D-28)
 v dt   v dtr 
198
Figure D- 6: Converter terminal voltage components in the actual qd and relative qmdm synchronous
reference frames
D.1.7 Passive Load
The static load connected to the load bus can be written in a state space domain as:
 Rj 
− −ω 
d  iqSLj   L j  i qSLj  1  v qL 
 =  +  , (D-29)
dt  idSLj   R j  i dSLj  L j  v dL 
ω − 
 L j 

where ‘ j = 1,2... ’ is the number of the parallel connected static load as shown in Figure D-1, iqSL
and idSL are the static load q and d current components.
D.1.8 Induction Motor Load
The nonlinear induction machine model with fluxes as state variables is given by [95]:
 rsj X ' rrj ω rsj X mj 

− − 0 
 Dj ω0 Dj 
 
 ψ qsj  ω rsj X mj  ψ qsj 
'
 rsj X rrj  v qL 
 
 − 0 
   
d  ψ dsj  ω Dj Dj  ψ dsj  v 
  = ω0  ' 0  '  + ω 0  dL  , (D-30)
dt ψ qrj
'
 r rj X mj r ' rj X ssj ω − ω rj  ψ qrj 0
  0 − −    
ψ ' drj   D 
ω 0 ψ drj '   
   j Dj  0 
 '
r rj X mj ω − ω rj r ' rj X ssj 
 0 − 
 Dj ω0 D j 
199
D j = X ssj X ' rrj − X mj .
2
(D-31)
The algebraic relationships between machine fluxes and currents are:
 iqsj   X ' rrj 0 − X mj 0  ψ qsj 

    
 idsj  1  0 X '
rrj 0 − X mj  ψ dsj 
i  = D  − X 0 X ssj

0 ψ ' qrj 
, (D-32)
 qrj  j  mj  
 idrj 
 
 0
 − X mj 0 X ssj ψ ' drj 
where iqsj and idsj are the machine terminal currents ‘ j = 1,2... ’ represents a number assigned to
the motor load as shown in Figure D-1 and Figure D-2.
The mechanical dynamics for a lumped mass machine shaft are governed by the following
equation [95]:
ω
ω rj = 0 (Tej − TLj ) ,
d
(D-33)
dt 2H j
Tej =
3 X mj
(iqMLj i dMLrj − i dMLj iqMLrj ) . (D-34)
2 Pbasej
where ‘ j = 1,2... ’ is the number of the parallel connected induction motor load at the load bus,
Te and TL are the machine electrical and mechanical load torques respectively, in per unit based
on the machine rating. Variables i qMLj and i dMLj are the stator currents, and i qMLrj and i dMLrj are
the rotor currents of the induction machine in the stator reference frame.
The set of equations from (D-1) to (D-34) gives a detailed model of the system module
‘VSC-Utility grid’ which takes into consideration not only the network but also the PLL and the
sensor (voltage and current) dynamics. This modeling approach can be extended to a system
containing a VSC, with any number of nodes, for a detailed analysis of the system.
D.2 MODEL VALIDATION
The nonlinear model of the VSC-Utility Grid system described by equations D-1 through D-34
has been implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK environment using its GUI based equation-
solving features. A comparison of the simulation results from the nonlinear model in
MATLAB/SIMULINK with simulation results from the detailed system model developed in the
200
PSCAD/EMTDC simulation package is presented below. All the variables have been plotted in
per unit values.
The following should be noted:
5. The base power used is 300kVA with 1.3 per unit as the assumed maximum current limit
of the converter.
6. The instantaneous ‘abc’ reference frame variables have been expressed in per unit based on
their maximum values corresponding to their nominal rms values.
7. The per-unitized (induction motor) load torques are based on the respective machine rating.
8. The VSC switching control in PSCAD/EMTDC is based on SPWM and a switching
frequency of 3960 Hz (66x60 Hz) has been used.
Table D-1 gives control parameters used for simulations while base values for per
unitization are given in Table A-1 in appendix A. Figure D-7 through Figure D-9 shows system
response for load transients from the nonlinear model in MATLAB/SIMULINK and the system
model in PSCAD/EMTDC. All these figures have been drawn for the same time duration. The
various points along the time line when a particular load is connected (disconnected) from the
feeder have been marked in Figure D-7.
Table D-1: Control parameters
Name and Description Value
K pi : Proportional gain of the inner current regulators 0.2 [p.u.]
K ii : Integral gain of the inner current regulators 1.428 [p.u.]
K pd : Proportional gain of the dc voltage regulator 10.0 [AV-1]
K id : Integral gain of the dc voltage regulator 100.0 [AV-1]
K pv : Proportional gain of the rms voltage regulator 2.0 [AV-1]
K iv : Integral gain of the rms voltage regulator 1000.0 [AV-1]

201
Initially the system is running under no-load conditions with a 1.5µF capacitor connected at the
PCC (at 13.8kV). A dc current id = 0.66 per unit is injected into the dc bus by a constant current
source. The injected power into the dc bus is transferred to the utility side by the converter with a
reactive power import to maintain the load rms voltage at 1.0 per unit. At 1.5s a 0.81 lagging
power factor static load (SL1), 0.28 per unit rating is connected to the system. The system after
small transients attains a new steady state operating point. At t=2.5s a small 0.127 per unit (38
kW) induction motor load (ML1) is connected to the load bus while running at synchronous
speed with zero load at its shaft. A second capacitor bank of 1.5µF is connected to the PCC (at
13.8kV) at 3.75s while another static load (SL2) rated at 0.28 per unit (with a power factor of
0.81 lagging) is connected at 4.5s. At 5.5s full load torque is applied to the motor load ML1. At
t=6.0s the dc current injection is increased to 1.0 per unit. At t=7.0s another induction motor load
(ML2) is connected to the system while running at synchronous speed with zero load torque. The
motor load ML2 is rated at 0.273 per unit (82 kW). The load torque (TLM2) is then increased to
1.0 per unit at t=8.0s. At t=8.5s the dc reference signal is changed from 1.0 per unit to 1.03 per
unit and back to 1.0 per unit at t=9.5s. At t=10.5s the reference rms voltage signal is changed
from 1.0 per unit to 0.98 per unit and back to 1.0 per unit at t=11.5s. The active and reactive
components of the load current from the nonlinear model in MATLAB/SIMULINK and the
system model in PSCAD/EMTDC of the VSC-Utility Grid system are shown in Figure D-8.
Figure D-7 through Figure D-9 shows that the system response to load and reference step-
changes for the nonlinear MATLAB/SIMULINK model given by equations D-1 to D-34 closely
matches the response of the detailed system model in PSCAD/EMTDC. Also, the rms voltage of
the load bus remains within the performance bounds of the ‘no interruption in function’ region
specified by the ITI curve. It should be noted that the PSCAD/EMTDC based nonlinear model of
the module also takes into account switching phenomena of the power converters.
202
Figure D- 7: Response comparison of the VSC-Utility Grid system from the nonlinear model in MATLAB/SIMULINK and the system model in
PSCAD/EMTDC
203
Figure D- 8: DC bus voltage and rms voltage at the load bus obtained from nonlinear system responses in MATLAB/SIMULINK and
PSCAD/EMTDC for step changes in load
204
Figure D- 9: Load current components in the synchronous reference frame obtained from nonlinear system responses in MATLAB/SIMULINK and
PSCAD/EMTDC for step changes in load
205
D.2.1 Response Comparison
In the following section a comparison of the simulation results in MATLAB/SIMULINK from

the nonlinear and the linear system models is presented. The linear system has been obtained at
the following steady state operating point:
I d = 0.5 p.u ., I qt = 0.1495 , I dt = −0 .13

SL1 = 0 .357 p.u., power factor = 0 .81 lagging , V Lrms = 1.0 p.u ., V dc = 1.0 p.u .
T Lm 1 = 0 .5 p.u., T Lm 2 = 0.5 p.u ., C pf = 1 .5 µ F , C L = 1 .5 µ F
Figure D-10 shows the nonlinear and the linearized system responses. The two responses are
more or less identical which validates the linear analysis reported in this thesis.
Figure D- 10: Response comparison of the linear and nonlinear models of system module ‘VSC-Utility
grid’ in MATLAB/SIMULINK
APPENDIX E
SELECTION AND MODELING OF BATTERY STORAGE

AND DC-DC CONVERTER
E.1.1 PREAMBLE
In the following sections general characteristics of a Battery Energy Storage (BES) system have
been described followed by an overview of the various approaches that are in use for modeling
lead-acid batteries. This is followed by a discussion on the selection of battery parameters
suitable for the application in this thesis and the basic thoughts that went into the selection of the
dc-dc converter topology. Modeling of the battery storage and the dc-dc converter has been
described in section E.1.5.
E.1.2 STORAGE BATTERY
Storage batteries have applications in both generating systems as well as transmission and
distribution systems [107]. Based on time duration, two main applications of Battery Energy
Storage (BES) in power systems are [107], [108]:
1. Power Quality Control:

a. Compensation of Voltage Sags/Swells
b. Short Duration Temporary Outages
2. Energy Management:
a. Load Catering
b. Peak Shaving
c. Block Loading/Discharge (Full output power for a specific amount of time)
d. Voltage Regulation
e. Spinning Reserve
Characteristics of the storage batteries are different for each of the above two main applications.
206
207
For a multifunctional application involving both power quality and power management, the BES
needs to possess characteristics common to both applications. In power quality management
(high power application, duration in seconds to minutes), high charge/discharge rate capability
within the voltage limits is desirable while in energy management mode (higher energy
application) the battery is discharged over a longer period of time typically in hours. In the
former case battery capability is specified in kW or MW along with the kWhr or MWhr capacity
(Ampere hour at a specified voltage) that is usually specified in the latter case. A detailed study
about utility applications of battery energy storage is described in [109].
Lead-acid batteries can provide both power and energy requirements of the two broad areas of
application mentioned above by staking individual cells in series and in parallel combinations.
Some basics of lead-acid batteries are provided in [110] while references [111]-[116] provide
utility examples of the application of this storage technology.
In the analysis of systems with lead-acid battery storage, the particular mathematical model
used depends on the type of studies carried out. There are a number of battery models available
as far as the terminal electrical behavior is concerned [116]-[121]. Detailed battery models take
into account the chemistry of the battery cell, state of charge together with environmental effects
such as temperature etc., [122]. Parameter identification of these higher order models is
particularly difficult [123]. The detailed models are suitable for such purposes as battery
management systems for example. For power system analysis two different dynamical models
have been suggested [121], [124]:
• Long-term model
• Short-term model
Both models are represented in terms of the electrical components to emulate battery terminal
behavior, with the long-term model also incorporating non-electrical parameters. The 2nd model
is independent of battery chemistry and is suitable for system studies with short to medium time
applications (high power applications).
Two variations of the short-term model are shown in Figure E-1. In (a) same parameters are
used for both charging and discharging purposes while in (b) [117] the charging and discharging
resistances are different and this fact has been determined from experimental tests. The short-
208
term dynamical model is particularly suitable for control design purposes in isolated power
systems where fast control response is desirable.
Figure E- 1: Short-term battery models
E.1.3 SELECTION OF BATTERY PARAMETERS
A nominal battery voltage of 400 volts has been chosen for the battery bank. The response time
of the battery bank is dependent on its electrical parameters. The nominal voltage can be
obtained by series combination of individual battery cells (200units x 2volts/unit) while the
desired electrical parameters can be obtained by the parallel combination of strings containing a
number of series connected battery cells. Model (a) in Figure E-1 has been used for the research
reported in this thesis. Table E- 1 gives battery parameters for two BES systems reported in the
literature. System 1 parameters are from [121] while those for system 2 are from [125]. For the
voltage levels selected for the dc bus (1000 V) and for the battery storage (400 V), system 2 will
be able to deliver the maximum load for about 10s after which battery terminal voltage will drop
to the extent that the dc-dc converter will not be able to deliver the maximum load at the nominal
dc bus voltage level since the duty ratio will saturate. For system 2, therefore a higher nominal
battery voltage will be required. This system will be suitable for power quality applications
however not for energy management purposes where the battery system will be in operation for
extended periods of time.
Several IEEE standards describe procedures for determining battery capacity for different
applications. Two such documents of interest in cases like the study system are ANSI/IEEE Std.
484 and 485. This subject is however outside the scope of this thesis.
209
Table E- 1: 300 kW Battery Parameters
Parameter System 1 System 2 Study System
Rbs [mΩ] 52 53.847 30
Rbp [mΩ] 80 4.142 25
Cbp [F] 250 0.2414 0.6
τ p [ms] 20,000 1 15
Min. Terminal Voltage

84.9 83 84.00
at Full Load [%]
Figure E-2 shows battery terminal voltages of the three systems tabulated above, for a constant
step current discharge. Time constant associated with system 2 is relatively small while that of
system 1 is too long for the purposes of our study. System 1 response is effectively that of a
constant voltage source behind a series resistance as far as fast system transients are concerned.
A compromise between the two is the system with a time constant equal to about a cycle of the
fundamental frequency as reported in [125]. In this case battery dynamics are adequately
represented and the time constant falls within the range of most dc-dc converters [125].
Figure E- 2: Battery terminal voltage for a step discharge current

210
E.1.4 DC-DC CONVERTER
The dc-dc converter for use in conjunction with the battery storage devices needs to have the
capability of bi-directional current (power) flow between the dc bus and the battery storage.
According to the sign convention adopted in this thesis, the converter operates in the fourth
quadrant of the VI plane during the charging mode of operation. During operation in this mode
the battery storage absorbs the excess energy available at the dc bus to maintain the bus voltage.
In charging the battery, the converter operates in buck mode transferring power to the lower
voltage level. In the discharging mode, power flows from the battery storage to the dc bus. The
converter operation is in the first quadrant in boost mode, transferring power to the high voltage
dc bus side.
There are numerous converter topologies available to achieve dc-dc conversion [126]. The
basic buck and the boost converters have higher efficiency, lowest switch count and lowest
component stresses among the fundamental converters available for the two types of operations
[127]. The converter dynamics are also well understood in both these modes. Figure E-3 shows a
current-bidirectional buck-boost converter [127]. When the two switches are controlled in a
complimentary fashion, the converter is then referred to as a synchronous converter.
Synchronous control of the converter reduces switching losses when the switching devices have
lower ‘on’ resistance than the anti-parallel diodes.
Referring to figure E-3 and assuming that duty ratio D is associated with switch S1 ; under
steady state conditions the following relations hold [127]:
Vi
Boost Mode: Vo T
= T
, (E-1)
D
Buck Mode: Vi T
= (1 − D) Vo T
, (E-2)
where Vi T
and Vo T
are the average values of the input and the output voltages and
D = 1 − D . Each switch is assumed to be composed of an IGBT with an anti-parallel connected

diode.
211
Figure E-3: Two-quadrant Buck-Boost Converter
E.1.5 MODELING OF THE BATTERY STORAGE AND DC-DC CONVERTER
In the sections that follow, modeling of the battery storage and the dc-dc converter is described.
For the duty ratio control of the converter Current Programmed Mode (CPM) control will be
employed. The single line schematic of the battery storage and dc-dc converter is shown in
Figure 3.3-1, which has been reproduced in Figure E-4 for convenience.
E.1.6 AVERAGE VALUE CONVERTER MODEL
Average value model of the converter system shown in Figure E-3 and in Figure E-4 is obtained
using state space averaging method [127]:
During the interval dT switch S1 is closed and S 2 open. During this interval the circuit can be
described by:
d
X = A1 X + B1U , (E-3)
dt
Y = C1 X . (E-4)
During the interval d T = dT → T switch S1 is open and S 2 is closed. The system is then given
by:
d
X = A2 X + B2U , (E-5)
dt
Y = C2 X . (E-6)
212
Figure E-4: Control structure and system schematic for the system module consisting of the battery
storage and dc-dc converter
Where:
 Rbs 1 
− − 0  1 
 Lb Lb   0   1 0 0
 Lb   
 1 1 
A1 =  − 0  , B1 =  0 0  , C1 =  0 1 0  ,
C
 bp
Rbp C bp
  1   0 0 1
 0 0 0 − C 0   
   dc 
 
 Rbs 1 1 
− − −  1 
 Lb Lb Lb   0   1 0 0
 1   Lb   
1
A2 =  − 0  , B2 =  0 0  , C 2 =  0 1 0 ,
 C bp Rbp C bp   1   0 0 1
 1  − C 0   
 0 0   dc 
 C dc 
213
 ib 
  i 
X =  vbp  , U =  o  , Y = X .
v   vb 
 dc 
The low frequency state space average model of the converter is then given as:
d
X T
=A X T
+BU T
, (E-7)
dt
Y T
=C X T
. (E-8)
where X T
is the average value of X over a switching cycle. The state space average model of
the converter in equilibrium is then given by:
0 = AX o + BU o
(E-9)
Yo = CX o
where X 0 , U 0 and Y0 are the state, input and the output vectors corresponding to the
equilibrium operating point. The averaged system matrices are:
 R 1 D 
 − bs − −
 Lb Lb Lb 
 1 1 
A = DA1 + D A2 =  − 0 ,
 Cbp Rbp Cbp 
 D 
 0 0 
 C dc 
 1 
 0   1 0 0
 Lb   
B = DB1 + D B2 =  0 0  , C = DC1 + D C 2 =  0 1 0  ,
 1   0 0 1
− C 0   
 dc 
where D is the duty ratio at the equilibrium operating point.
E.1.7 SMALL SIGNAL CONVERTER MODEL
The small signal system model can be obtained from the state space average model using small
signal perturbations. The linear model can be expressed as:
214
d ~
(x ) = As ~x + B s u~S , (E-10)
dt
~
y =C ~x. (E-11)
s
where
~ ~
 ib  ~  io 
  i   
B s = [Bu + ( A1 − A 2 ) X 0 ]dˆ , ~x =  v~bp  , u =  ~o  , u~S =  v~b  ,
 v~   vb   d~ 
 dc   
 R 1 D 
 − bs − −  1 Vdc 
 Lb Lb Lb   0   1 0 0
 1 1   Lb Lb   
As =  − 0 , B = 0 0 0  , C =  0 1 0 ,
 C bp Rbp C bp  s  1  s
I  0 0 1
 D   − C 0 − b
C dc   
 0 0   dc 
 C dc 
and X 0 represents the system variables at the equilibrium operating point.
E.1.8 CURRENT PROGRAMMED MODE CONTROL
References [128]-[132] provide a detailed treatment of the subject of the large and small signal
modeling of the CPM control. Referring to Figure E-5, under transient conditions ib (0 ) ≠ ib (T ) .
Under these conditions the peak and average values of the inductor current waveform differ by
the average value of the inductor current ripple, which is given by:
d 2T d 2T
ib _ ripple = m1 + m2 . (E-12)
T 2 2
The average inductor current over a switching cycle is then given by the expression:
d 2T d 2T
ib T
= iC T
− ma dT − m1 − m2 , (E-13)
2 2
where for boost mode of operation:
vbt v − vbt
m1 = , m2 = dc ,
Lb Lb
215
Figure E- 5: Current waveforms in CPM Control
and for buck mode of operation:
v dc − vbt v
m1 = , m2 = bt .
Lb Lb
In both the buck and the boost modes of operation the following relations hold true:
vbt = vb − vbp − ib Rbs , (E-14)
m a = m f m2 : 0 < m f ≤ 1 . (E-15)
where m f is a multiplying factor.
For m f = 0 , the CPM buck and/or boost converter has the well-known instability problem
for D ≥ 0.5 [127]. The higher the value of m f the lower the number of switching periods it
takes to attain a new steady state value after a small initial disturbance in the inductor current ib .
The controller is able to correct for the small disturbance in the same cycle when m f = 1.0 . This
is then referred to as the deadbeat control [127], which has been used in this thesis.
Assuming constant slope of the artificial ramp, the linear model of the current controller, in
both boost and buck mode of operation, is given by:
~ 1 ~ ~ D 2T ~ D 2T ~
d = {( ic − ib ) − m1 − m2 } . (E-16)
M aT 2 2
216
Since m̂1 and m̂2 are functions of the converter voltages, the above expression may be written as:
~ ~ ~
d = Fm {( ic − ib ) − Fb v~bt − Fd v~dc } . (E-17)
In terms of state and input variables the duty cycle can be expressed as:
~
 ic 
d = [Fm ( Fb Rbs − 1) Fm Fb − Fm Fd ] ~
x + [Fm − Fm Fb ] ~  ,
~
(E-18)
 vb 
~
 ic 
x + [bo bvd ] ~  ,
~
d = Ad ~  (E-19)
 vb 
where:
Ad = (Fm ( Fb Rbs − 1) Fm Fb − Fm Fd ) , bo = Fm and bvd = − Fm Fb .
E.1.9 VOLTAGE COMPENSATOR
Figure E-6 shows the complete small signal system model of the battery storage and dc-dc
converter module with CPM control (Figure E-4). The state variable associated with the linear PI
compensator for the external voltage regulation loop can be expressed as:
x pidc = [0 − k idc ] ~
d ~
0 x + k idc v~dcref , (E-20)
dt
d ~
x pidc = Ac1 ~
x + k idc v~dcref . (E-21)
dt
The control current is then given by:

~ ~
[
ic = x pidc + 0 0 − k pdc ~ ] ~
x + Gdc io + k pdc v~dcref , (E-22)
~ ~ ~
ic = x pidc + Ac 2 ~
x + Gdc io + k pdc v~dcref . (E-23)
The set of equations E-10, E-11 and E-20, E-21 together with equation E-23 gives the complete
closed loop small signal model of the dc-dc converter and the battery storage with CPM duty
ratio control.
217
Figure E- 6: Linear system model of the dc-dc converter and the battery storage
E.1.10 MODEL VALIDATION
The closed loop small signal model of the the battery storage and dc-dc converter module given
above has been implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK for validation against the system model
in PSCAD/EMTDC. The following should be noted:
1. In PSCAD/EMTDC a converter switching frequency of 3.0 kHz has been used.

2. The control parameters are: K pdc = 10, K idc = 200 .
3. The slope m2 of the artificial ramp ia is held constant at the steady state operating point for
the linear model in MATLAB/SIMULINK but is varied on a cycle to cycle basis for the
nonlinear model in PSCAD/EMTDC.
218
Figure E-7 shows the current waveforms in close-up for CPM control implemented in
PSCAD/EMTDC, in both buck and boost modes of operation: plot a) is for boost mode while
plot b) gives current waveforms in the buck mode of operation whereas plot c) gives the ramp
current in the two operating modes.
Figure E- 7: Waveforms for CPM control in PSCAD/EMTDC environment for buck and boost operating
modes, 1) boost operating mode 2) buck operating mode 3) ramp reference current component
E.1.11 BOOST MODE OF OPERATION
Figure E-8 through Figure E-10 gives a comparison of the linear system response from
MATLAB/SIMULINK with the response from the detailed system model in PSCAD/EMTDC
with the converter operating in boost mode at a constant loading of 0.5 per unit (150A) at the dc
bus. The step change in load is ±0.167 per unit (50A). The difference in the control currents is
due to the averaging used for linear model of the current programmed controller together with
the fact that the slope of the artificial ramp is held constant in MATLAB/SIMULINK model but
is varied on a cycle by cycle basis according to the slope m 2 in PSCAD/EMTDC environment.
219
Figure E-8 gives comparison of the converter control reference current ic and the inductor
current ib for the linear and the nonlinear models in response to step changes in the load
connected to the dc bus. Figure E-9 shows response comparison for the two models for the dc
bus voltage v dc and the battery terminal voltage vbt for the same step changes in the load. Figure
E-10 gives a response comparison of the linear and the nonlinear systems for step changes of
±0.03 per unit (±30V) in the reference dc bus voltage while the dc load current is kept constant at
0.5 per unit.
Figure E- 8: Current Waveforms in Boost Mode of Operation; comparison between linear

MATLAB/SIMULINK based and nonlinear PSCAD/EMTDC based simulations for step changes of
±0.167 per unit (±50A) in dc bus load Io, 1) dc load current 2) reference control current 3) inductor
current
220
Figure E- 9: Voltage Waveforms in Boost Mode of Operation; comparison between linear

±0.167 per unit (±50A) in dc bus load Io, 1) dc load current 2) dc bus voltage 3) battery terminal voltage
Figure E- 10: Voltage Waveforms in Boost Mode of Operation; comparison between linear
MATLAB/SIMULINK based and nonlinear PSCAD/EMTDC based simulations for step changes in dc
bus reference voltage with constant dc bus load of 0.5 per unit (150A), 1) dc bus voltage 2) battery
terminal voltage
221
E.1.12 BUCK MODE OF OPERATION
Figure E-11 and Figure E-12 show a comparison of the linear system response from
MATLAB/SIMULINK with the response from the system model in PSCAD/EMTDC with the
converter operating in buck mode at a constant loading of -0.5 per unit (-150A) at the dc bus.
The step change in load is ±0.167 per unit.
Figure E-11 gives comparison of the converter control reference current ic and the inductor
current ib for the linear and the nonlinear models in response to step changes in the load
connected to the dc bus. Figure E-12 shows responses of the two models for the dc bus voltage
v dc and the battery terminal voltage vbt for the same step changes in load. It can be seen from
Figure E-8 through Figure E-12 that the linear and the nonlinear model responses are in close
agreement with each other and therefore validates the small signal system model.
Figure E- 11: Current Waveforms in Buck Mode of Operation; comparison between linear
±0.167 per unit (±50A) in dc bus load Io, 1) dc load current 2) reference control current 3) inductor
current
222
Figure E- 12: Voltage Waveforms in Buck Mode of Operation; comparison between linear
±0.167 per unit (±50A) in dc bus load Io, 1) dc load current 2) dc bus voltage 3) battery terminal voltage
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SUPERVISORY HYBRID CONTROL OF A WIND ENERGY CONVERSION AND

BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

Muhammad Shahid Khan

A dissertation submitted in conformity with the requirements

© Copyright by Muhammad Shahid Khan, 2008

BATTERY STORAGE SYSTEM

Muhammad Shahid Khan

Graduate Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering

Table 3.1-1: WECU; Steady state operating points .................................................................... 29

Figure 1.3-1: Wind energy conversion and battery storage system.............................................. 6

mode ( I d = 1.0 p.u.) ............................................................................................ 48

current regulators ................................................................................................. 51

K ii of the inner current regulators ....................................................................... 53

• Instantaneous quantities are represented by lower case letters e.g., x

• Space vector quantities are represented with an underscore e.g., v t

WECU: Wind Energy Conversion Unit

VSC: Voltage-Sourced Converter

IGBT: Insulated-Gate Bipolar Transistor

BES: Battery Energy Storage

SPWM: Sinusoidal Pulse-Width Modulation

HSVM: Hysteresis Space Vector Modulation

CPM: Current Programmed Mode

RHP: Right Hand Plane

LHS: Left Hand Side

RHS: Right Hand Side

OLD: Operating Logic Diagram

STD: State Transition Diagram

FHA: Finite Hybrid Automata

FOS: Fault Operating State

SOS: Synchronization Operating State

OCC: Over Current Control

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

1.3 STUDY SYSTEM

Figure 1.3-1: Wind energy conversion and battery storage system

The following are the main limitations of this thesis:

1. Linear integral and proportional-plus integral compensators have been used.

References are provided at the end of the thesis.

OPERATION AND CONTROL

2.1 OPERATION OF THE STUDY SYSTEM

2.1.1 POWER MANAGEMENT

2.1.1.1 Steady State Power Management

The following strategy will be used in the islanded mode of operation:

2.1.1.2 Transient Power Management

2.1.2 LOAD MANAGEMENT

2.2 STATE TRANSITION DIAGRAM

1. Grid Connected Mode

2.3 CONTROL DESIGN

Figure 2.3-1: Supervisory hybrid control structure

2.3.1 MODULAR DESIGN PHILOSOPHY

The wind energy conversion and storage system is a Multiple-Input-Multiple-Output (MIMO)

The VSC will be operated as a current-regulated voltage source during grid-connected

Figure 2.3-3: Schematic diagram of system module ‘VSC-Utility Grid’

2.3.2 SUPERVISORY CONTROL

a. Wind energy conversion unit –Utility grid

b. Wind energy conversion unit–Storage–Utility grid

a. Wind energy conversion unit–Storage

2.4.1 STEADY STATE SPECIFICATIONS

2.4.2 TRANSIENT SPECIFICATIONS

1. No Interruption in Function Region

These regions encompass various line-to-neutral voltage disturbances.

MODELING AND CONTROL OF SYSTEM MODULES

3.1 MODULE: WIND ENERGY CONVERSION UNIT