A Koto by Any Other Name - Exploring Japanese Systems of Musical Instrument Classification - Johnson

A "Koto" by Any Other Name: Exploring Japanese Systems of Musical Instrument
Classification
Author(s): Henry M. Johnson
Source: Asian Music, Vol. 28, No. 1 (Autumn, 1996 - Winter, 1997), pp. 43-59
Published by: University of Texas Press
Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/834505
Accessed: 03-06-2019 15:04 UTC
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms
University of Texas Press is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access
to Asian Music
This content downloaded from 143.106.200.111 on Mon, 03 Jun 2019 15:04:33 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
Volume XXVIII, number 1 ASIAN MUSIC Fall/Winter 1996/97
A KOTO BY ANY OTHER NAME: EXPLORING JAPANESE

SYSTEMS OF MUSICAL INSTRUMENT CLASSIFICATION
by
Henry M. Johnson
Introduction
Through an examination of the classifications and names used at v

times in different contexts for the Japanese koto, this article shows that
particular instrument is a signifier of unique meanings in
environments. The instrument is discussed in terms of showi
importance of understanding its labels and the reasons for giving i
labels in the first place. The objective of this discussion is to introdu
many levels of meaning associated with the koto in order to show ho
instrument is understood in the Japanese context, an understan
which contributes to the general comprehension of classifications and
in Japanese culture in general.
The distinction between the terms 'classification' and 'name' in the

present analysis is one of convenience that differentiates between a class o
instruments to which the koto belongs (i.e., the instrument's classification
in relation to other instruments in general) and the type of koto that wil
belong to a class (i.e., the instrument's name in relation to koto types). Th
differentiation in this discussion shows that the instrument is given a grou
name on a general level and a type name on a more specific level.
The koto is considered by the Japanese to be one of their most importan

national and traditional instruments. The instrument is also found in
Japanese and non-Japanese communities outside Japan, but it is still
considered a purely Japanese instrument, even though it was originally
transmitted to Japan over twelve hundred years ago and has retained its
basic structure ever since. Using organological terminology, the koto is a
thirteen-stringed, heterochord, half-tube, plucked, long zither, with two
fixed, and thirteen movable, bridges.
The scope of this article ranges from the general to the specific in order
to show as many of the classifications and names of the koto as possible so
that the instrument can be better understood in direct relation to Japanese
culture in general. The main emphasis to begin with is on the general
classifications of the instrument, where the koto is grouped into classes of
instrument types. Later, the emphasis is on specific instrument types that
range from earlier historical versions to variations according to manufacture
and aesthetic ideals (including variations in decoration and price). While
several international classifications and names of the instrument are needed
for comparative purposes, the main part of the study focuses on data that are
44 Asian Music: Fall/Winter 1996/1997
considered uniquely Japanese (see Johnson 1996a for a survey of Japanese

classifications of musical instruments).
International Classifications
Organology has a long history in Japan and is pursued at grea

today; scholars use either adapted English words (usually written
phonetic syllabary called katakana) or translations of intern
organological terms. By using such terminology and ideas, the ko
immediately be compared to related instruments. Indeed, the con
between the koto and other East Asian long zithers has freque
observed (cf Adriaansz 1984; Mitani 1980; Read 1975; Tanabe 1
Tran 1985). As Adriaansz (1984:465) has commented, "[the koto
most important Japanese member of the family of East Asian long
the best-known members of which are the zheng and the se in C
kayagi~m and koMmun'go in Korea, the din tranh in Vietnam and t
and the koto in Japan. All of these instruments probably originate
with the possible exception of the wagon."
The fourfold Hornbostel-Sachs (1961 [1914]) system of

instrument classification (hereafter referred to as H-S), where th
mentioned terms concerning the morphology of the koto are main
is used widely in Japan either in its original form or in a slightl
one.1 Here, the koto is classified as a chordophone (genmeigak
general level that contrasts it with idiophones, membranoph
aerophones. In this context, the koto is further classified accordi
H-S system either by using Japanese translations of English or
words, or by directly adapting the non-Japanese words to the
language by using the katakana syllabary. Examples of kataka
include zither (chita or tsitd) (or simple chordophone: tanjun-genm
long zither (cho-d6-chita-), and heterochord half-tube zither
(toritsukegenshiki-fukanzentsutsugata-chita); sometimes it is classified as a
true board zither (honraiteki-heiban-chita) -- see Yamaguchi and Emmert
(1977:190).
The numerical entry for the koto according to the H-S system is
represented by the numbers 312.22 (Hornbostel and Sachs 1961:22) and
means: 3 (chordophone: strings are the means of sound production), 12
(tube zither: the instrument is hollow and tube-like), .2 (half-tube zither: the
soundboard is a half tube), and 2 (heterochord half-tube zither: the strings
are attached to the body). However, suffixes should be added in order to
indicate playing technique: 312.22-65, showing that the koto is played with
plectra and bare fingers, although the latter is rare in everyday performance
(other objects are occasionally used to strike the strings as well). Further
divisions in any classification system, such as 'plucked (instrument/zither)',
Johnson: A Koto By Any Other Name 45
tend to show structural features or playing techniques rather than a name by

which the instrument may be known. While these terms are mainly used
during academic discourse, the classification of 'zither' is found in everyday
Japanese and would often be used to describe the class of instrument to
which the koto belongs as a general term.
Other Japanese Classifications
The koto is classified under various Japanese labels that are used to
describe groups of instruments or instrument types. These labels describe
instruments that range from general or contextual associations to specific
groups that divide musical instruments based on either structural or playing
principles. The following two subsections look first at general labels used
in Japanese that are comparable to the English word 'musical instrument',
and then at groups of instruments (i.e., Japanese classification systems
comparable either to the H-S system or, for example, the Western
classification of strings, wind and percussion).
Musical Instruments
The widest classification group describes musical instruments (or
objects) in general. While historically several terms such as asobi-n
('play/music objects'), gaku-no-mono ('music objects'), mon
('sound of an object'), and nari-mono ('sounding object') were
describe objects that are today generally translated into English as
instruments', the most common word that is used to describe such
today is gakki ('musical instrument'). These general terms re
instruments collectively, although single instruments may also be re
by using such terms. For example, the koto is a gakki ('m
instrument'), just as it was, historically, labeled with the above term
On a more specific level, however, a common way of different

between instruments is by classifying them according to whether or no
are Japanese. Any instrument used in Japan by a Japanese person c
considered a Japanese musical instrument, but the distinction
'inside' (uchi) and 'outside' (soto) is important in revealing fund
concepts often used to classify not only objects of material culture,
social groups on every level. 'Inside' instruments are considered un
Japanese and are called either wagakki ('Japanese musical instrume
hogakki ('Japanese musical instruments'), even though many of th
actually transmitted from the Asian mainland and have a recognized
of being imported into Japan. The 'outside' instruments are
considered Western musical instruments (yjgakki: 'Western m
instruments').
Groups of Instruments
There are several terms that are used to describe specific types of
instruments, all of which may be used to refer to the koto on a general leve
While several of these terms, for example, minzokugakki ('folk music
instruments'), gagakki ('gagaku musical instruments'), and kogakki ('ol
musical instruments') describe instruments according to genre2 or
contextual association, two other terms are used to describe kinds of
instruments (i.e., classifications according to instrument structure or the
ways they are sounded): gengakki ('stringed musical instruments') and
hikimono ('plucked objects'). While the first set of classifications are
usually technical terms used in special circumstances, gengakki and
hikimono are the two most common terms for classifying the koto in
indigenous ways.
The gengakki group of instruments belongs to the threefold system of

classification that is roughly analogous to the English language groups of
strings, wind and percussion: gengakki ('stringed musical instruments'),
kangakki ('wind [piped] musical instruments'), and dagakki ('percussion
musical instruments'). The term 'plucked objects' also belongs to a
threefold system of instrument classification, although in this instance the
ways in which the instruments are classified varies slightly: hikimono
('plucked objects'), fukimono ('blown objects') and uchimono ('struck
objects'). Although the latter classification was used in Japan from at least
the Heian era (794-1185), and the former one is used as a modern
counterpart, the older version is being increasingly used today (cf. Kikkawa
1992).3
However, another group of instruments is also given a unique

classification in Japan and should be considered here before looking at the
koto's specific names. Asian zithers in general are referred to under the
label kinso, where the word divides into two parts: kin (zithers without
movable bridges) and so (zithers with movable bridges). Here, the koto is
a recognized member of the kinso group of East Asian zithers.
Current Names
While the name of the instrument being discussed in this article is c

koto during everyday discourse, several other names are also used. Th
names are not as common as the word koto, but, nevertheless, giv
instrument further specification so that different meaning may be signifie
different contexts.
Koto
Historically, mainly in the Nara and Heian periods (710-11
Japanese word koto described several types of stringed instrume
spoke of the kin-no-koto (shichigenkin or kin, the Chinese ch 'in [qin]), for
example; the so-no-koto (so or koto); of the hitsu-no-koto (hitsu, Chinese
se); of the biwa-no-koto (biwa); of the Yamato-goto (wagon);4 of the
kudara-goto (the harp, kugo); and of the Shiragi-goto (the modem Korean
kayakeum [kayagam])." (Adriaansz 1973:22) Later, however, only the so-
no-koto retained the word koto, a term which then became the most
common one used to describe it. Other instruments were called only by the
prefix: for example, biwa, hitsu, and kin.
The term koto has two Chinese characters as well as two kana (two
phonetic syllabaries are used in Japan) and romaji (Romanized) words.5 On
a general level, the kana words are usually used when it is uncertain what
the exact type of instrument being discussed really is. For example, the
instrument to which the word koto (using kana) refers may have movable
bridges or it may not, in which case a different kanji should be used for
each label
although ( [characters
these - is a modem-day alternative]
are often confused. and respectively),
The instrument being discussed in this paper often uses the character
However, the same character is also pronounced kin,6 where, theoretically,
it should refer to zithers that do not have movable bridges (cf. the Chinese
seven-stringed qin, or, in Japanese, kin), although sometimes the term kin
is used to describe the koto (for example, in the works Kinkyoku shifu
1772, printed in 1780, Kinkyoku-sho 1695, and even a stand which is used
to raise the head7 of the koto is called kindai).8 While the phonetic sound
koto with the character has historically been used, it has caused much
confusion regarding which instrument it actually refers to. The character
that is considered academically correct for the koto is * , even though it
is not known by most Japanese. This character (discussed next) was left
out of lists of characters that were recommended for education, preferring
the written symbol for the koto that originally described stringed
instruments in general. Even today, the character ? is used in everyday
Japanese, while the character * is mainly used by academics or
specialists to refer to the same instrument. Consequently, entries in major
dictionaries and encyclopedias usually provide a preamble to explain the
difference between these characters.
The honorific name o-koto is often used to indicate during conversation

that one is speaking about a musical instrument rather that just a 'thing' (the
sound symbol koto also means an abstract thing). The honorific prefix o is
usually placed in front of Japanese words, while the honorific prefix go is
usually placed in front of word with a Chinese origin. Other honorifics are
also used (i.e., mi, omi, imi, or on), but the two mentioned above are
predominant. A literary example of a koto (i.e., a zither in general) having
honorifics in front of its name is found in the eighth-century Kojiki (an
historical/mythological account of Japan) concerning the death of Empero

ChUai (Philippi 1969:257-58; Ogihara and Konosu 1973:235-37). In th
original Chinese version, as well as its Japanese versions (see Ogihara and
Konosu 1973:235-37), the terms mi-koto and Jmi-koto are used in
connection with Emperor Choai and his playing of the instrument. In
Philippi's (1969:257-58) translation of this passage, he has rightly used the
term 'cither' (zither) in order to show that a type of zither was used (as the
Chinese version itself indicates) without indicating the exact type (i.e., with
movable bridges or without movable bridges) nor showing the honorific
prefixes used for the instrument. (See also Philippi 1969:408-9 concerning
the terms 'cither' and koto.)
So-
The term for the musical instrument called so has one kanji: S ( S
is a modem-day alternative and simplified version). Although the character
that is pronounced so is not common in everyday Japanese (it is left out of
the list recommended in general education), it is, historically, the correct
character for the koto (the Sokyoku Taii-shi [1799]9 used this character in
its title), and, likewise, it should also be pronounced koto instead of so
when referring to the instrument under discussion. However, the term so is
also used to describe Asian zithers with movable bridges and, therefore, can
be used for the koto as well, although only on a general level of
classification. Nevertheless, some specialists will still refer to the koto as
so in order to specifically label the instrument vis-a-vis other zithers,
Chinese characters, and spoken words.
So6-no-koto
As already noted above, the term so-no-koto is the historical full nam
for the koto. The term is used today, but usually only when differentiat
between the koto and other zithers.
Juisangen
The term jisangen means 'thirteen strings' and is occasionally used to
refer to the koto, especially when the instrument is being compared to other
zithers. The term jusangen is also used when an instrument looks almost
identical to the koto, but has been altered or modified (for example, by
adding tuning devices, extending the length of the vibrating strings in order
to extend the instrument's range, or by making the instrument an electric
koto - i.e., using pick-ups on a modified instrument rather than
microphones on a standard instrument). The term jasangen is understood in
direct relation to several other Japanese zithers. For example, the terms
ichigenkin ('one-stringed zither'), nigenkin ('two-stringed zither'),
shichigenkin ('seven-stringed zither'; abbreviated to kin), jushichigen
('seventeen-strings'), and so on are names indicating specific numbers of
strings (the nijagen is often an exception, as is discussed later).10
Likewise, the idea of naming instruments after the numbers of their strings
is also found with the spiked lute called sangen (an alternative name for the
shamisen, a three-stringed, spiked lute), which means 'three strings'.
Historical Instrument Types
Although, as Adriaansz (1973:23) notes, "there is no essential

difference between the oldest Japanese representative of the family, the
gakuso, and the youngest, the Yamada koto," there are several structural
details that do differ and allow the instruments to be classified separately on
one level of analysis and collectively on another (see Johnson 1993:39-81).
Gakuso'
The term gakusi refers to the type of koto used in gagaku
music). The form of this instrument differs from the present-day
koto in that it usually has decoration in the form of, for instance,
ivory (bone and plastic are often used as cheaper substitut
tortoiseshell applied to its long sides, head, and tail. The term gaku
used for any type of koto outside of gagaku, although more genera
such as koto, so and so-no-koto are also used to describe the instrum
gagaku.
Chikuso~
The chikus& (also called tsukushigoto was used in the Tsukushigo
(the tradition of Tsukushi, an old province in the north of the island of K
sho), which was founded by the priest Kenjun in the sixteenth century. Th
main difference between this historical and extinct instrument and the
gakusi is the way that it is conceptualized. There are differences in t
musical structure, tunings, and plectra used by the player, although the main
form of the instrument is basically the same as its predecessor. The chiku
, therefore, is classified as a unique instrument because of its use in the
Tsukushigoto, and not because the actual structure of the instrument differs.
Zokuso'
Today, the zokusa type of koto is used in everyday performance

vis the gakuso),"I although historically it divides into several type
Yatsuhashi Kengyo (1614-85) revolutionized the world of koto
performance in the seventeenth century by introducing the use of the in
scale, he was also considered the innovator of the zokusy, even though
there were no major departures from the chikus6 and the gakuso.
However, Piggott (1893:51) has commented that Yatsuhashi insisted that
the wood be kiri (paulownia) and that it be thoroughly seasoned. The type
of instrument that Yatsuhashi used was known as the zokus& ('common so
[koto]') because of its use in zokugaku ('common music'). The major
difference with the zokusa, as with the Tsukushisi, is that it was the
instrument of a new genre and, subsequently, was given its own unique
identity and name.
The first major division of the zokuso was with the Ikuta-goto (or Ikuta-
koto). The new tradition of koto performance, Ikuta-rya ('Ikuta
tradition/school'), also used a slightly different version of the koto. The
Ikuta-rya was founded by Ikuta Kengyo (1656-1715), who was a student
of Kitajima Kengyo (d. 1690), one of Yatsuhashi's disciples. Piggott's
(1893:138-39) late nineteenth-century description of this type of koto
illustrates some of its unique characteristics: "The Ikuta-koto is used now
almost exclusively in the west of Japan, though occasionally in the east by
ladies. Its sides and extremities are covered with elaborate lacquer designs
and inlay of tortoise-shell, ivory, and silver." The physical differences
between this type of koto, the chikusc and the gakusa are minimal, apart
from, for example, plectra, playing position, movable bridges, scales, and
tunings. Likewise, this type of instrument, together with the chikusd and
gakusd, is sometimes referred to as naga-iso-honjitate-(no)-koto ('long-
sided properly made koto'), often abbreviated to honjitate-goto ('properly
made koto'), or generally as iso-goto ('beach koto' - referring to the two
long sides that symbolize the beach), kazari-goto ('decorated koto') or
makie-goto ('sprinkled picture koto'; i.e., with an abundance of decorative
lacquer work), the latter two terms referring specifically to the amount of
applied decoration (for example, makie, tortoiseshell, ivory and inlay). The
Ikuta-goto itself is sometimes called Ikuta-no-honken-goto ('standard size
Ikuta-goto'), or a variation; various permutations and abbreviations of these
names can be used.
The Yamada-goto (or Yamada-koto) was developed by Yamada Kengyo

(1757-1817) when he established the tradition of koto performance know
as Yamada-rya ('Yamada tradition/school'). "Yamada-Kengyo eliminate
most of the ornamentation on the koto, such as wood, deer bone or ivor
inlay at the head and tail of the koto and braided cord used in tying the en
of the strings," (Read 1975:69), and "in this instrument the eye is gratifie
only by the beautiful graining of the natural wood, a thing delighted in b
the purest Japanese taste" (Piggott 1893:51-52). Piggott also provides
suitable description of this instrument, at a time when it began to gain in
popularity over the Ikuta-goto:
In the Yamada-koto, used by all the profession in the east of Japan,

superfluous ornament is discarded, the whole art of the maker bein
devoted to the preparation of the finest wood for the body; only on ver
costly instruments is a little gold lacquer ornament of the most severe kin
introduced.... On the whole the instrument is more substantial and more
workmanlike than the delicately-built Ikuta-koto, and gives a much clearer

and more resonant tone (Piggott 1893:139).
The Yamada-goto is today the main type of zokusJ and even the Ikuta-
rya no longer use their unique Ikuta-goto,12 instead preferring the Yamada
instrument. The Yamada-goto is sometimes known as sugoto-jitate
('simply-made koto' ), or Yamada-ryii sugoto-jitate ('simply made koto of
the Yamada tradition'), although these terms are not general ones and are
usually restricted to instrument makers and academics who wish to
differentiate between instrument types. (Again, various permutations and
abbreviations of these names are used.)
Tagens6-
Tagenso include koto with all the twentieth-century innovative designs,
ones which retain the basic shape of the koto but differ in body size and
numbers of strings. Tagens6 include, for example, jishichigen
('seventeen-stringed [koto]'),13 nijl*gen ('twenty-stringed [koto]'; it actually
has twenty-one or more strings), sanjagen ('thirty-stringed [koto]'), and
hachijagen ('eighty-stringed [koto]').14 Several other types of koto also
exist, but like the koto they too have thirteen strings: tansi (also called
tangoto -- 'small koto'), and suporano-goto ('soprano koto').
Names During Manufacture
While several distinct categories of koto are made according to aesthetic

principles, the present subsection identifies the names and classifications
that are specific to the manufacturing process (see also Johnson 1996b).
The initial names for the koto during its manufacturing process include such
terms that describe the material used, kirizai ('paulownia material') or kiri-
no-genboku ('paulownia raw material'), or for the main part of the
instrument's body (i.e., the soundboard), sdzai ('the body's material') or s5
('body').15 Other names for the basic structure of the body include kora
('shell') and arako ('rough shell'). At this stage, the koto is regarded as
two main pieces of wood: the body (so) and the backboard (ura-ita).
The soundboard is then further classified according to the type of grain

pattern that is used, which is determined by the way the wood is cut from
the log. Two main grain patterns are used; the term mokume (or itame)
describes a floral, circular pattern of the upper surface of the koto's
soundboard, with straight lines running along the long sides; and the term
masame describes straight lines along the length of the upper surface of the
soundboard, with swirling patterns along the sides. While these two
designs are most often differentiated (mokume is by far the more common),
a further and unusual pattern known as tamamoku is sometimes used. This
rare pattern is a finer, more expensive version of the mokume design and
highly regarded.
Several grades of soundboard are used in the mokume type of grai

pattern, depending on where they are taken. For example, as Kishibe
(1982:1364) notes: uwakko ('top [quality] board' from the outer edge
the log); nibanko ('second board' -- second layer); sanbanko ('third board'
-- third layer); several grades may follow depending on the size of the log
and ikakko ('squid board' -- the central part of the log not usually used fo
koto construction).
During the manufacturing process, two further divisions are often mad
according to the ways in which the backboard is fixed to the soundboard
The first of these classifications divides the koto into two specific types:
betazuke, where the backboard is visible from the two long sides and tai
end, and 2) tomezuke, where the backboard is not visible from either th
two long sides or tail end. The latter has a backboard that is bevelled int
the soundboard, while the other type is labelled according to whether the t
of the soundboard is scooped out or not. If the tail is scooped out, namikO
then a betazuke backboard is attached. If the tail is not scooped out, kurikJ
then a tomezuke backboard is attached. A namikJ type of soundboar
requires less craftsmanship than a kuriko soundboard and, therefore, the
latter is considered more superior type of construction than the former (
terms of aesthetics and cost).
Decoration
While many of the classifications outlined in the previous sectio

based on aesthetic principles concerning the basic structure of the instr
and how it is made, the present subsection examines some of the d
that is applied to the outer body of the koto in order to give it a
aesthetic and financial character.
Once the basic structure is completed, the instrument has decoration

applied to its body in various ways. Many of the additional parts of the
instrument (i.e., fixed bridges and their immediate surroundings, leaf-
shaped decoration, front legs, rear legs, rims of the sound holes, and
'mouth' extremity at the player's end) are either made from a choice of
several types of materials, or have extra decoration applied to them in order
to further their aesthetic qualities. AndO (1986:17), for example, classifies
six main ranks of koto (from cheap to expensive):
1. beta ('plain'): this type of koto would be made using the betazuke method
of construction (as would all the following except the last). The instrument
usually has only one ivory part, the functional makurazuno (the top part of
the fixed bridge at the head of the koto on which the strings rest). No other
decoration is applied to the body.
2. kakumaki ('wrapped horns'): the horns of the koto are the two fixed
bridges (named after the instrument's dragon symbolism). In addition to
the functional makurazuno, ivory edging is usually added ('wrapped'), for
example, to the inside edge (towards the center of the soundboard) of each
of the fixed bridges.
3. han-uwa ('half horns' -- also called han-uwazuno: 'half on the horns'):

this koto usually has the decoration of previous grades plus ivory edging,
for example, on both sides of the bases (shiburoku) of each fixed bridges.
The term 'half refers to the amount of decoration (i.e., half the amount of
the next grade of instrument).
4. uwazuno ('on the horns'): this type of koto usually has the decoration of
previous instruments, plus ivory edging placed, for example, on the outer
edge of the oak leaf decoration on the surface of the tail and the lips of the
mouth, together with makie on the tongue (inside the head extremity).
5. kinkuchi ('gold mouth'): this type of koto usually has the decoration of
previous types, plus strips, for example, around the mouth, together with a
thin decorative strip of gold lacquer (makie).
6. kuriki ('scooped out shell'): this type of koto would normally be made
using the tomezuke method of construction. The decoration is usually the
same as the previous type, with the addition of, for example, double ivory
lines, and such lines on the legs and sound holes.
Chiijo and Hotta (1985:54-58) also list several main grades (the actual
number and name will vary according to the manufacturer, but the ones
shown here are representative), although they are slightly different from
Ando: beta, kakumaki, han-uwazuno (also called han-uwa), uwazuno, sj
zuno ('all the horns' -- on this koto, ivory edging would normally be added,
for example, to the fixed bridges), zige-tsutsumi ('ivory wrapped'; i.e.,
most additional parts are made of ivory), and kinkuchi. (See also Johnson
1993 and 1996b.)
Given Names
While most of the above discussion has been concerned with nam
are given to the koto in connection with either the way the instr
classified together with other instruments in general, or concerning th
of the koto and its various classifications, a further type of nam
used. The koto, just like many other objects in many cultures, is so
given an individual and unique name by, for example, its owner or maker,
in order to add extra individuality to the instrument. Even the new
instruments constructed by Yatsuhashi Kengyo were, as Piggott (1893:51)
notes, "christened "Akikiri Koto" - "Autumn-mist" Koto; and "Matsu-nami"
- the "Murmuring of the Pines" Koto." Several centuries later, another icon
of the world of koto music, Miyagi Michio, named his favorite koto
'Etenraku', after the name of a famous piece of gagaku music. Such names
are rare classifications of the instrument and are restricted in their
universality because they are personal labels with personal meaning. The
comparison of instruments with such names is limited to an understanding
of the significance of the names themselves in relation to Japanese culture in
general, and not an understanding of different koto types.
Conclusion
The koto, therefore, just like many other musical instrum

objects of material culture, is conceptualized on many differ
giving the instrument unique meaning for different people
contexts. The general and everyday name koto is the term most o
but many other names and classifications are found in various par
Japanese socio-cultural environment that bestow meaning an
instrument its own symbolic identity in relation to its other classifica
Many aspects of Japanese culture can be understood thro

analysis of terms. For example, examining the use of 'insider' (u
'outsider' (soto) concepts concerning the ways Japanese o
classified (as with the use of international classification systems a
of the katakana syllabary for non-Japanese words) reveals m
priorities and about the search for international credibility vs. th
retain a sense of national identity. Furthermore, the study of ter
can highlight the importance given to the concept of 'tradition' in
that objects are transmitted and the lineage of people, the ways o
categorized according to quality and then given a unique nam
ways objects are decorated according to an aesthetically und
hierarchy. An examination of the unique classifications and nam
koto, therefore, can be used as a means of understanding as
Japanese culture in general.
University of Otago
Notes
1 Since the H-S system is used in Japan, it should be considered as m

Japanese system of musical instrument classification as an internation
although its intended use as an international system designates it
discussed separately. See Musashino Academia Musicae (1969),
College of Music (1984), Yamaguchi and Emmert (1977), and Sak
(1982) for several examples of the H-S system or variations of it bein
in Japan.
2 The koto's name is also found in the genre sdkyoku ('koto music'),
although the instrument itself would never be called by this name.
3 One of the oldest known system of classifying musical instruments in

East Asia was the Chinese Confucian system based on sounding materials,
pa yin ('eight sounds'). In Japan, this system was known under the names
hachion, hachiin, hatchin, and hatsuon: metal (kin), stone (seki), earth (do),
skin (kaku), silk (shi), wood (boku), gourd (ha), and bamboo (chiku).
4 A 'g' sound is often used instead of a 'k' when words are joined.
5 The koto is called kuta in Okinawa.
6 Unlike the term koto (referring to the musical instrument -- the vocal
sound also has other meanings with other kanji), the term kin has only one
character.
7 The 'head' is the upper surface near the player. Likewise, the 'tail' is the
upper surface away from the player. These terms are used because the
instrument has a nomenclature that symbolizes the rya (also called tatsu or
doragon), terms that are usually translated into the English word 'dragon'
for convenience.
8 Hornbostel and Sachs (1961) note that the koto and the kin are identical
(both classified as 312.22), although this classification is limited to the main
structural features of each instrument's body.
9 This work, which was complied by Yamada Shokoku (the teacher of

Yamada Kengyo, who founded the Yamada-rya [the Yamada tradition of
performance]), is considered an important historical source concerning the
koto and its music.
10 While some names add the suffix kin (i.e., a koto type), others do not
primarily because the terms have been abbreviated during everyda
Japanese. Historically, however, such instruments as the jashichigen wer
sometimes known as jashichigen-kin or even jashichigen-so.
11 While the gakusi is the instrument of court music (gagaku) and th

zokus6 the instrument of everyday (secular) performance, the latt
instrument is sometimes used during shrine kagura (sacred songs and danc
with instrumental accompaniment). However, the former instrument is
never used in secular performances.
12 While the actual main structure of the koto used in the Ikuta-rya and th
Yamada-rya are identical, such features as plectra, sitting position,
repertoire, tunings, interpretation, and sometimes the patterns formed where
the strings run over the tail (usually equidistant in the Yamada-rya and
grouped in the Ikuta-rya) differ, thus giving the instruments themselves
unique character.
13 When Miyagi Michio (1894-1956) first invented this type of koto, he

divided it into two types: sh&-jashichigen ('small seventeen-stringe
[koto]') and dai-jashichigen ('large seventeen-stringed [koto]').
14 The hachijagen was an experimental instrument of Miyagi Michio and i

today only a museum exhibit at Miyagi Michio Ki-nenkan (Miyagi Michio
Memorial Museum).
15 The term so in this instance uses a different Chinese character than th

same term mentioned earlier, thus giving it a different meaning.
References
Adriaansz, Willem
1973 The Kumiuta and Danmono Traditions of Japanese Koto Mu
Berkeley: University of California Press.
1984 "Koto," The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instrumen

Stanley Sadie, 2:465-71. London: Macmillan Press.
Ando, Masateru
1986 Ikuta-ryano Sokyoku [Ikuta Tradition Koto Music]. Ed.
Kikkawa Eishi. Tokyo: Kodan-sha. [In Japanese]
Chajo, Nobuyuki and Hotta Toshiko

1985 Ikuta-rya Sikyoku to Jiuta Sangen [Ikuta Tradition Koto an
Shamisen Music]. Tokyo: Naka Shuppan Purodakushon. [
Japanese]
Hendry, Joy
1993 Wrapping Culture: Politeness, Presentation and Power in Japan
and Other Societies. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Hornbostel, Erich M. von and Curt Sachs

1961 "Classification of Musical Instruments," trans. Anthony Baines
and Klaus P. Wachsmann, The Galpin Society Journal 14:3-29.
Johnson, Henry M.
1993 The Symbolism of the Koto: an Ethnomusicology of the Form
and Function of a Traditional Japanese Musical Instrument.
DPhil thesis, University of Oxford.
1996a "A Survey of Present-Day Japanese Concepts and

Classifications of Musical Instruments," Musicology Australia
19:16-39.
1996b "Koto Manufacture: The Instrument, Construction Process, and

Aesthetic Considerations", The Galpin Society Journal. 49:38-
64.
Kikkawa, Eishi, editorial supervisor

1992 Zusetsu Nihon no Gakki [Japanese Musical Instruments
Illustrated]. Ed. Kojima Tomiko, Fujii Tomoaki and Miyazaki
Mayumi. Tokyo: TokyoShoseki. [In Japanese]
Kishibe, Shigeo
1982 "Seisaku [Manufacture]," Ongaku Daijiten [Dictionary of
Music], ed. Shimonaka Kunihiko, 3:1364-65, s.v. 'So'. TO
kyO: Heibon-sha.
Mitani, Yoko
1980 Higashi Ajia Kin-So no Kenkya [A Study of East Asian
Zithers]. Tokyo: Zen-on Gakufu Shuppan- sha. [In Japanese
with English Summary]
Musashino Academia Musicae, Museum of Musical Instruments

1969 Catalogue: Museum of Musical Instruments, Musashino
Academia Musicae 1. Catalogued by Kikuchi Shun'ichi and
Yamaguchi Osamu. Tokyo: Musashino Academia Musicae. [In
Japanese and English]
Ogihara, Asao and Konosu Hayao, Commentary and Trans.

1973 Kojiki Jodaikayo. Nihon Koten Bungaku Zensha 1. TOkyo:
Shogakukan.
Osaka College of Music, Museum of Musical Instruments, ed.

1984 Catalogue: Museum of Musical Instruments, Osaka College of
Music. Osaka: Osaka College of Music. [In Japanese and
English]
Philippi, Donald L.
1969 Trans., Kojiki. With an Introduction and Notes. Princeton:
Princeton University Press.
Piggott, F. T.
1893 The Music and Musical Instruments of Japan. With notes by T.
L. Southgate. London: B. T. Batsford.
Read, Cathleen B.
1975 A Study of Yamada-rya Sokyoku and its Repertoire. Ph.D.
dissertation, Wesleyan University.
Sakurai, Tetsuo
1982 "The Classification of Musical Instruments Reconsidered,"
Bulletin of the National Museum of Ethnology 6/4.
Tanabe, Hisao
1964 Nihon no Gakki [Japanese Musical Instruments]. Chiba:
Kashiwa Shuppan. [In Japanese]
Tran, Van Khe

1985 "Chinese Music and Musical Traditions of Eastern Asia," The
World of Music 27/1:78-87.
Yamaguchi, Osamu and Richard Emmert

1977 "Descriptions of Musical Instruments: APTA 1976." In Asian
Musics in an Asian Perspective: Report of Asian Traditional
Performing Arts 1976, ed. Koizumi Fumio, Tokumaru
Yoshihiko, and Yamaguchi Osamu; assistant ed. Richard
Emmert, 140-252. Tokyo: Heibonsha.

A Koto by Any Other Name - Exploring Japanese Systems of Musical Instrument Classification - Johnson

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

A Koto by Any Other Name - Exploring Japanese Systems of Musical Instrument Classification - Johnson

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

A "Koto" by Any Other Name: Exploring Japanese Systems of Musical Instrument

A KOTO BY ANY OTHER NAME: EXPLORING JAPANESE

Through an examination of the classifications and names used at v

The distinction between the terms 'classification' and 'name' in the

The koto is considered by the Japanese to be one of their most importan

considered uniquely Japanese (see Johnson 1996a for a survey of Japanese

Organology has a long history in Japan and is pursued at grea

The fourfold Hornbostel-Sachs (1961 [1914]) system of

tend to show structural features or playing techniques rather than a name by

Other Japanese Classifications

On a more specific level, however, a common way of different

The gengakki group of instruments belongs to the threefold system of

However, another group of instruments is also given a unique

While the name of the instrument being discussed in this article is c

The honorific name o-koto is often used to indicate during conversation

historical/mythological account of Japan) concerning the death of Empero

Historical Instrument Types

Although, as Adriaansz (1973:23) notes, "there is no essential

Today, the zokusa type of koto is used in everyday performance

The Yamada-goto (or Yamada-koto) was developed by Yamada Kengyo

In the Yamada-koto, used by all the profession in the east of Japan,

workmanlike than the delicately-built Ikuta-koto, and gives a much clearer

Names During Manufacture

While several distinct categories of koto are made according to aesthetic

The soundboard is then further classified according to the type of grain

Several grades of soundboard are used in the mokume type of grai

While many of the classifications outlined in the previous sectio

Once the basic structure is completed, the instrument has decoration

3. han-uwa ('half horns' -- also called han-uwazuno: 'half on the horns'):

The koto, therefore, just like many other musical instrum

Many aspects of Japanese culture can be understood thro

1 Since the H-S system is used in Japan, it should be considered as m

3 One of the oldest known system of classifying musical instruments in

5 The koto is called kuta in Okinawa.

9 This work, which was complied by Yamada Shokoku (the teacher of

11 While the gakusi is the instrument of court music (gagaku) and th

13 When Miyagi Michio (1894-1956) first invented this type of koto, he

14 The hachijagen was an experimental instrument of Miyagi Michio and i

15 The term so in this instance uses a different Chinese character than th

1984 "Koto," The New Grove Dictionary of Musical Instrumen

Chajo, Nobuyuki and Hotta Toshiko

Hornbostel, Erich M. von and Curt Sachs

1996a "A Survey of Present-Day Japanese Concepts and

1996b "Koto Manufacture: The Instrument, Construction Process, and

Kikkawa, Eishi, editorial supervisor

Musashino Academia Musicae, Museum of Musical Instruments

Ogihara, Asao and Konosu Hayao, Commentary and Trans.

Osaka College of Music, Museum of Musical Instruments, ed.

Tran, Van Khe

Yamaguchi, Osamu and Richard Emmert

S-ar putea să vă placă și