Buddhist

Social Philosophy

and

Ethics
,

Prof. Sumanapala Galmangoda

B. A. (Hons.), M. A., PhD, Royal Pandit
Professor of Pali and Buddhist Studies,
University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
,
two chapters on the e thics for lay people
include some repetitions and I did not take an
Dedication
attempt to delete them keeping in mind the
contexts in which they occur. This short treatise is kindly dedicated to
all my honest friends (KalyaQamitta) who have
The last two chapters dealing with the shown me through their be haviour the
Bodhisattva ideal and ethics were prepared importance of harmonious social life in an era
closely following " The Bodhisattva Doctrine in of growing interest on the selfish individuality.
Buddhist Sanskrit Literature " by Har Dayal.
And the quotations were given mostly from
the English translations of the original sources
for the convenience of the foreign students.

I should record my sincere gratitude to

Yen. Rambukewela Gnanaseeha Thera . the
religious adviser of Samadhi Buddhist Society.
Singapore.

Finally. it is my duty to mention here the

patience and encouragement of my wife
Chandrika Malkanthi and two c hildren. Nalini
Priyanwada and · Dileepa Mahanama while I
was in abroad.

May all beings be we !! and happy.

Prof. G. D. Sumanapala
B. A. (Hons .). M. A .. PhD . Royal Pandit
Professor of Pali and Buddhist Studies.
University of Kelaniya. Sri Lanka
January 2006

...
Vlll
IX
•
 friendly terms an d harmonious, as milk and
"Uibha vata me, su/addhaf[1 vata me, yo nafTI
evarapehi sabrahmacarrhi saddhim viharamrti. water blend, regarding one another with the
•

Tassa mayhafTI bhante imesu ayasmantesu mettafTI eye of affection " . Yen. Anuruddha's statement
kayakammafTI paccupa!!hitafTI avr ce'va raho ca, indicates the culmination of the friendly and
mettafTI manokammafTI paccupa fthitafTI avr ce'va harmonious life of human be ings in society.
raho ca. Tassa mayhafTI bhante evafTI hoti:
YannunlIhafTI sakafTI cittafTI nikkhipitva imesafTI yeva
ayasmantanafTI cittassa vasena vatteyyanti. So
kho ahafTI bhante sakafTI cittafTI nikkhipitva imesafTI
yeva ayasmantanafTI cittassa vasena vattami. Na
na hi kho no bhante kaya ekefica pana mafifie
. ."

cltfantl.
(Majjhimanikaya, I. PTS. 1888, p. 206)

"Indeed it is a gain for me, indeed it is

well gotten by me, that I am living with such
Brahma -farers. On account of this, Lord, for
these venerable ones friendliness as to acts of
body, whether openly or in private, has risen
up in me, friendliness as to acts of speech,
whether openly or in private, has risen up in
me, friendliness as to acts of thought whether
openly or in private, has risen up in me.
Because of this, Lord, it occurred to me: No w,
suppose that J, ha ving surrendered my o wn
mind, should live only according to the mind of
these venerable ones ? So J, Lord, ha ving
surrendered my o wn mind, am living only
according to the mind of these venerable
ones. Lord, we ha ve divers bodies, but
assuredly only one mind".
(The Middle Length Sayings, I. PTS, 1 954, p. 258)

This is an answer given by Yen.

Anuruddha to the Buddha when questioned
"Whether you are living all together on

x XI
•

,
 Abbrevia tions Contents

Page
A. Ariguttaranikaya
Preface VII - VIII
•• • ••

Buv. Buddhavamsa •

Abbreviations XII
••

D. Dighanikaya

DA. Dighanikaya A\\hakatha Part I - Buddhist Social Philosophy

DAT. Dighanikaya A\\hakatha Tika Chapter 1:
1 - 8
•

The Nature of the World

Dhs A. DhammasarigaQi A\\haka tha

It. Itivuttaka Chapter 2:

The Nature of Human Beings 9 - 16
J. Jatakapali

KhA. Khuddakapa\ha A\\hakatha Chapter 3:

M. Majjhimanikaya
The Nature of the Human Society 17 - 32

PTS Pali Text Society

S. Sarpyuttanikaya Chapter 4:
Common Characteristics of the Ethics
Sn. Suttanipata
of Lay-Life 33 - 51
Vino Vinayapi\akarp
Chapter 5:
Vism. Visuddhimagga
Ethics Related to Lay-life 52 - 66
VvA. Vimanavatthu Allhakatha

Chapter 6:
Ethics Related to Monastic Life 67 - 82

Chapter 7:
The Bodhisattva Ideal 83 - 96

Chapter 8:
Ethics Related to Bodhisattva's Career 97 - 1 13

Bibliography 1 14 - 116

Appendix 1 17 - 1 18

XII XIII
• • • • •
 Chapter 1
The Nature of the World

According to early Buddhism the world was

!
not created by a superhuman being. Also it did not
evolve out of a first cause or element.2 Further it did
not 'come into being on a partic ular day in the
history. 3 It has no beginning or an end on a material
basis. 4 It is subj ect to an ever- changing process of
c

causes and effects both physic al and mental,') An

exhaustive search for its complete be ginning and end
will lead to confusion and madness.6 The one and
only way to make an end to the world is to be free
from all concepts of the world.

The world , as to the Buddha s teaching

should be considered as a world of experience .
Without individuals, there cannot exist a concept of
world. So, everything in the world centre s on the
individual. The individual , in reality, means the six
sense-facultie s , viz. eye , ear, nose , tongue and skin.
What we perceive as the world is · nothing but the
objects of the senses , viz. the visibl e , sounds, sme l l ,
taste and temperature. The rest o f the world is
constructed in mind as a result of the constant contact
between the senses and the sense-obj ects. This
mental construction involves fee lings, perceptions,
dispositions and consciousness. This whole process
of physical and mental interaction is explained under
the analysis of five grasping groups , viz. form,
fe elings, perceptions, dispositions and
7
consciousness.
•

The Buddhas and arhants have developed

their spiritual faculties and they can perceive or
understand what normal beings are unable to
comprehend. So, in the Buddha 's teachings, we find
 ,

1. Sensual sphere or p lane

•

some information which do not be come objects of ..

11. Form sphere or p l ane
untrained mind. Some of this information includes ... 10
111. Formless sphere or p lane
details of the physic al world -systems. As stated
earlier, if the search for the world results in confusion •

Again the world is classified into three in an abstra ct

and madne ss, the que stion arises as to why the
nature :
Buddha explained the world- system s . There are two
1. The world of living b eings
•

main reasons for that. ..

11. The physical universe or world of
One is that the Buddha s c omplete silence on loc ation
The world o f formations 1 1
• • •

lll.
such information may create an idea among the.
normal beings that his knowledge is inc omplete. It
will affect for his leadership as a perfe ct spiritual Acc ording to the former division the sensual sphere
leader of the human society. Therefore , he made consists of the following e leven realms :
some references to the nature of physical world in
acc ordance with the doctrinal and social contexts. 1. The fourfold woeful plane s :
The other reason, involves what we call the i. hell
8
..

philosophy of assimilation. It is a well-known fact 11. the animal kingdom

the sphere of petas (departed)
· . .

lll.
that various concepts of cosmology were already
the host o f asuras (non-gods) 1 2
•

IV.
developed in many religions and philosophical
traditions in India at the time . Total rej ec tion or
2. The human realm
acceptance of such social concepts will not be
successful in introducing a new doc trine to a society.
3. 1 the realm of the Four Great Kings
•

So, the Buddha as well as his disciples assimilated into

•

the realm of the thirty - three Gods

.
11
.

Buddhism or re - introduced such concepts when .

•

lll. the realm of the YBma gods

..

propagating the new doctrine . Thus, we can find the

the Delightful Realm
•

lV.
traditional analyses of world - systems have been
V. the Realm o f the Gods who rejoice in
assimilated to the concept of trances in Buddhist
(their own) Creations
teachings.
the Realm o f the Gods who lord over
•

Vl.
13
the Creations o f others
As to the ideas of the Buddha expressed in
the discourses, the world is a process of evolving and The life-spans o f the six heavens are described as
dissolving. B eings are not confined to the human follows :, .
"
world . There are many worlds in the universe where One cele stial day in the (Realm of the Four
different kinds of beings exist. 9 Ac cording to the Great Kings) equals fifty human years , thirty
more systematic concepts in Buddhism, the world as a such days amount to one cele stial month,
whole comprises of three c ategories: twelve such months constitute one cele stial

3
2
 IV. The Clear- sighted - 8 .000 ae ons
•

year. In the (Realm of the Thirty-three Gods).

one celestial day equals o n e hundred human Realm
l
years. in the (Realm of Yama Gods) . two V. The Highest Realm - 1 6 .000 aeons 6
hundred human years and so on. doubling in
each higher heaven " . 1 4 The formless sphere consists of the following realms:
i. The realm of infinite - 20.000 aeons
The form sphere consists of the following realms : space
11. - 40,000 aeons
. .

Life-span The realm of infinite

1. - one - third of an aeon conscIOusness
•

The Realm o f
•

Brahma s Retinue 111. The realm o f 60,000 aeons

· . .

11
. .

The Realm o f - half an aeon nothingness

Brahma s ministers IV. The realm of - 84.000 aeons l7
•

- l5 neither-perception -
111. The Maha Brahma one aeon
. . .

Realm nor - non-perception

IV. The Realm of Minor two aeons
•
-

The discourses in the c anon include various

•

Lustre
V. The Realm of -
four aeons analyses o f the world and one of them is the analysis
Infinite Lustre of ''loksdhatu'' or solar system. Prof. M. M. J.
VI.
•

The Re alm o f - eight aeons Marssinghe explains it as follow s :

Radiant Lustre
- "Such a loksdhatu (solar system) extends as far as the
V11. sixteen aeons
. .

The Realm of Minor

Aura moon and the sun move in their course and light up
. the quarters with their radiance. Such a unit
V1l1. - thirty-two aeons
. .

The Realm o f
Infinite Aura
(Ioksdhatu) consists of the follo wing: the moon and the
- sixty-four aeons sun; Mount Sineru, the four continents, viz.
The Realm o f
•

IX.

Steady Aura
Jsmbudvips, ApsrsgoyBns. Uttsrskuru and Pubbsvidehs;
- five hundred aeons the four great oceans; the four great Kings; and the
x. The Realm o f Great
se venfold hea venly sphere, viz. Catummsharajiks,
Reward
Tavatirpss. Yams. Tusits. NirmmBnsrsti,
The Realm o f non­ - five hundred aeons
•

XI.
Psrsnimmitsvsssvstti and Brshms/oks. Each thousand of
percipient beings
the abo ve consists of the system of the thousandfold
and the Pure
lessor world system (sshassi ci1snika loksdhatu). A
Abodes
system .which is thousand times the size of this is the
Twice -a - thousand Middling world system (dvisshassi
The Pure Abodes include the following :
majjhimika lokadhatu). A system which is thousand
i. The Durable Realm - 1 ,000 aeons
- 2,000 aeons times the size of the abo ve is the Thrice -a-thousand
ii. The Serene Realm
- 4,000 aeons Mighty world system (tisshsssi-mshasshsssi
iii. The Beautiful Realm
loksdhatu) : 18 '

4 5
 The next division of the world in relation to
the living beings, location and formation should also
be clarified here in brief. The Buddha knows various
natures of beings such as their inherent tendencie s ,
temperaments , bents, good behaviour and b ad
behaviour etc . and this refers to the world of beings.
Further, the Buddha has analysed the world into mind
and matter, feelings , five aggregates , six senses and
•
'It is a sage, a kno wer of the worlds,
Who gets to the world 's end, and it is he
Whose life divine is lived out to its term;
He is at peace who the world's end has
kno wn
And hopes for neither this world nor the
2 1
next ".

their respective obj e c ts , eighteen elements etc . and

this refers to the world of formations. The physical
universe or the :world of location refers to the above­
1
mentioned analyses of the world or world systems. 9

The above descriptions quoted from the

translations of primary source s and the secondary
sources clearly indicate the B uddhist view of the
nature of the world. The central teaching of
B uddhism namely the theory of dependent - c o ­
origination is applic able to everything o f the world
except Nibbana. Therefore , the aim of those
descriptions o f the world or world systems is to
clarify their impermanent and complexed nature . So,
the B uddhist follower understands the world as
impermanent, unsatisfactory and devoid of substance
which c an be taken as mine, I or as my sou1. 20 So, it
would be interesting to end this chapter referring to a
very important statement of Buddha which clarifies
not only the Buddhist view of the world but also the
path on which human attention should be focused in
order to achieve satisfaction out of the world.

'' 'Tis utterly impossible.

To reach by tra vel the world 's end;
But there is no escape from pain .
Until the world 's end has been reached.

6
7
 End Notes
Chapter 2
The Nature of Human Beings
I
D. I. pp. 1 8,235, 244; 2500 Years of Buddhism, ed. P. V. Bapat,
India, 1 956, pp. 9 - 20
2
ibid. M. M. J. Marasingha, Gods in Early Buddhism, Vidyalankara,
Campus, University of Sri Lanka, 1 974, p. 44
3
2500 Years of Buddhism, op. cit., pp. 9 - 20 The human species is similar to the animals in
4 I'b'I d .
5 four aspe cts :
D. 1 11., pp. 80 - 89; Dialogues of the Buddha, Ill, PTS, pp. 77 - 94
6 1. Eating
•

A. Ill., p. 80 ..
7 S. 11., p. 25; G. D. Sumanapala, Early Buddhist Philosophy and I!. Sleeping
..
Social Concepts, Singapore, 200 1 , pp. I 4 111. Getting fear and
.

8
-

. Alicia Matsunaga, The Buddhist Philosophy of Assimilation, Japan,

Sexual activitie s I
•

IV.
1 969, pp. 1 - 40
9
Dialogues of the Buddha, Ill, PTS, pp. 77 - 94
10
D. 11. P. 57; A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidharnma, ed. Bhikkhu The human beings differ from the animals in respect
Bodhi, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1 999, p. 28 of the following matters:
11
Vism., p. 204; Path of Purification, tr. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Buddhist
i. Systematic thinking
Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1 99 1 , pp. 200 - 201
12 ii. Spe aking languages fluently
A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, op. cit., p. 1 89
1
..
3 111. Cultured behaviour
.

op. cit., pp. 1 90 - 1 9 1

14 op. cit., pp. 1 96. 1 97 Possibility of spiritual attainments 2
•

IV.
1
5 op. cit., p. 1 92
16
. I .
'Ib'd
17 op. cit., p. 1 93 In comparison of the human figure s with those of the
18
Marasingha, M. M. 1., op. cit., p. 44 other animals in their original form without
19
Path of Purification, op. cit., pp. 200 - 202 decorations, the most unnatural and unp le asant forms
2.0
.

J. I., p. 48, Vism., p. 649, 669

21 seem to possess by human beings . The so-called
Path of Purification, op. cit., p. 200; S. I., p. 62
be auty of human figure s are mostly artificial. The
human figure has no natural way of hiding its ugly
scenes unle ss covering with clothing. Most of the
animals are born with necessary shapes of their
figures so as to enable them to hide unnecessary and
ugly parts without an attempt. And animals mostly
behave in accordance with the natural require ments.
They are not motivated by artificial concepts. They
behave in different moods in acc ordance with their
natural requirements. The human beings are mo stly
guided b y artificial concepts but not by actual needs
and· facts. They behave mostly to satisfy their
'Psychological needs rather than the physical or
biological needs. This difference of the human
8
character is easily understood through the Buddhist objec ts as memories or perception s.
analysis of human personality. In the discourses of Perceptions form the third aggre gate. The
the Pm; canon, the person including his environment is perceptions stored up in the memory beco me
analysed into five aggregates or more correctly five the objec ts of cons cious ness time to time and
grasping groups. They are given as follows: as a result of reflection over them the
sens ation s are created conti nuou sly.
1. Matter = six senses the eye, the ear, the
==

nose, the tongue, the skin - internal. The v. The perceptions confirmed in the memory as a
six sense-objects = the visible sounds, smell, result of constant reflec tion over them
taste, temperature = the world of experience become volitional formations (dispositions =

- external. karmic forces) which provide a good

2. The sensations or feelings arise as a result of
the contact between the senses and sense­
objects. In the process of creating sensations ,
the consciousness is also essentially involved.
The awareness of the senses regarding their
respective objects in contact
consciousness and it is the fifth group in the
analysis of five aggregates.
foundation for the survival of consciousness.
These dispositions or Karmic forces can be
introduced as concepts.
The con cep ts play a very imp orta nt role in
determining the type of hum an behaviour.
is called Although we are the builders of con cep ts,
onc e they are buil t, we are always guided by
tho se con cepts. The hum an behaviour in
regard to the visible; sounds, smell, taste and
•

3. The sensations play an important role as a temperature, in brief. with regard to the entire
mental food which is required every moment environment is determined by the concepts
of life for its survival. Edible food, sen,s built by themselves. In that sense, human
volitional formations and consciousness beings are not independent b ut slaves of the
strengthened by volitional formations concepts. The concepts are not real and they
(surviving consciousness = rebirth = linking are constructed depending on the sense-data.
consciousness = gandhabba) are the essential The ability of perceiving things of the senses
foods for the survival of beings. Three kinds are extremely limited and therefore the
of food out of the above four are mental or sensations, memories and dispositions created
spiritual. So,
the sensations that arise in on sense-data are always partial and' biased.
connection with the sense-objects should be So, the human behaviour unlike that of the
continued all the time. Due to the animals is always artificial but not natural.3
. impermanent nature of the things (objects) the •

sense-objects cannot generate desired It was mentioned that the human beings can
sensations all the time. Therefore , the human develop their spiritual aspects up to the highest level
beings are given an ability to keep those which cannot be achieved by any o ther species in the

10 il
 universe. The highest achievement a human be ing 11. Concentration -
can attain is the enlightenment through which one can Calmne ss of mental functions is expected by
eliminate all defilements and make an end to the mass concentration . People belong to different
of suffering arising from birth, decay and death. This personality types according to their
is considered as the final solution to the problem of fundamental nature of mind. Greed, hatred
unsatisfactoriness. So, becoming a human b e ing is a and de lusion in the developed form and likes,
4
h
rare ac ·levement. dislikes and confusion in normal level are
common in all type s of mentality of people . A
Although the life of human b e ings is h ighly particular type of personal ity is determined
estimated, it does not become fruitful without human according to the predominant mental aspe ct of
effort. 5 Human be ings are superior than the other all the above -mentioned three kinds of
animals or be ings due to the ir ability to cultivate mentality .
. spiritual facultie s . They are not created by any other
supreme be ings and they are not governed by such a If greed is more developed in a personality, it
persons. They possess independent faculties or is called greed - character. Similarly there are
mental aspects: greed, hate and de lusion characters. As the
1. Ability to start the ir own functions p ositive aspects of those three kir.ds of
2. Ability to continue those functions mentality, we get another three characters:
3. Ability to overcome challenges against i. Faith characters
(j
t helr
· en d eavour ii. Intellect characters and
. .
•

111. Reflective characters

.

Further, they possess free-wi1l7 to determine

what is good and what is bad. It is their intellect that These three types are cons idered as po sitive aspect s
should be used to determine what i s profitab le and of greed , hate and de lusion respec tive ly. It is
what is not. For that purpose one should develop becau se of the predom inant aspect of the above six,
wisdom. It should be done b y following a gradual one ' s mind is always agitate d or distorted . So, in
path. The gradual p ath recommended in Buddhism order to calm down or restra in one ' s mind, first of all
comprises of three aspects: that predom inant aspect should be subdue d. For this.
i. Morality - purpo se, Budd hism recom mend s the subje cts of
Moral behaviour by observing precepts is concent ration meditation which are forty in numbe r.
aimed at calming down or restraining the For instance , the follow ing can be pointe d out in brief:
physical and verbal behaviour of person. The 1 . Greed - reflection on foulness of
necessity of moral training is confirmed by the characters body
fact that unless the restrainment o � external 2. Hate characters - developing compassionate
behaviour (physical and verbal) of person, the thoughts
mental re strainment cannot be achieved . H

12 13
3. Delusion reflection on in-and- out 3. The knowledge of - Ability to read
characters breathing o ther's minds others' minds
4. Faith characters - reflection on the Buddha's 4. The recollection of - Ability to know one's
qualities past lives past lives in detail
5. Intellect - reflection on the formation 5. The divine eye - Ability to see
characters of mental and physical various things and to
aspects of beings ego four know how people
great elements are being born in
6. Reflective - reflection on in-and-out various existences
characters breathing according to their
kamma 10
It is to be noted that the compassion meditation and
reflection on in - and-out breathing are recommended Due to the above factors, the human beings
for all types of characters. By practicing the relevant are superior than the other beings in the world. It is
subjects of meditation one can restrain or calm down said that even the deities and brahmas should be born
his mental behaviour. The moral restrainment and the as human beings in order to attain those higher
mental calmness
are essential pre-requisites for spiritual states.
developing wisdom.9

iii. Wisdom -

This is not the intellect developed merely

through reasoning. Education itself is not
sufficient for developing wisdom. Intellect
based o n morality c an be approximately stated
as wisdom. Wisdom is able to realize anything
as it is without discrimination. The threefold
training explained above provides the
necessary background for the development of
spiritual faculties of beings. They may vary in
different contexts. Some of them are as
follows:
1. Supernormal powers - Ability to perform
miracles
2. The divine ear - Ability to hear
various sounds

14 15
End Notes
Chapter 3
The Nature of Human Society
I Aharanidrabhayamaithnnaiica Samanyametat
PaS ubhirnaranam
2
KhA, p. 1 23 ; VvA . , pp. 1 8 - 23; S . I. p. 43; A. I1, p. 59; A. V.,
p. 1 46; D. Ill. p. 94
3
S. I. p . 1 1 2; S. Ill. pp. 47, 86, 1 0 1 ; M . Ill, p. 1 6, Vism., p . 1 99; The term " society" in the modern sense i s
Path of Purification, pp. 435 - 482
4
defined as follows:
Dhammapada, tr. Yen. Narada Thera, Malaysia, 1 978, p. 1 64
5
Suttanipata, PTS, 1 9 1 3 , p. 3 3
6 "The totaldy of sodal relationships among
Gradual Sayings, I, prs, 1 932, pp. 87 - 272
7 human beings. A group of human beings
A. I1, p. 1 8; D. Ill, pp. 1 82, 22 1
8
Path of Purification, tr. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Kandy, 1 99 1 , broadly distinguished from other groups by
pp . 5 - 5 1 mutual interest, participation in characteristic
9
op. cit., pp. 85 - 116 relationships, shared institutions, and a
lO
Op. cit., pp. 402 - 425; A Comprehensive Manual of common culture. The institutions and culture
Abhidhamma, op. cit., p. 344
of a distinct self-perpetuating group : 1
'

In any given society. the l imbs or parts are

individuals. Society does not become meaningful
without individuals. So. Buddhism always emphasizes
the importance of individual. 2 The term "sodety "
applies to the relationships among the individual s .
The relationships mean nothing but social norms .
customs. beliefs . rite s . rituals and duties etc. For the
sake of usage we will call all these customs etc.
social norms. Soc ial norms are agreed upon by a
group of people in a given society. Although these
•

norms are agreed upon by a little group or a majority

of people. the agreement itself does not prove their
utility. goodness or b adness. It is the duty o f
wisemen to review those social norms in the l ight of
intuition and intellect so as to lead the society
towards its progre ss. It can be done through both
political leadership and religions leadership.
According to the Aggannasutta. even the origin of
political leaders hip came into b e ing in connection
with the moral behaviour of the society. In order to
understand the B uddhist view on how moral behaviour
16
influences the society, it is extremely important to
pay our attention to the Aggafifiasutta.
3
The Aggafifiasutta in the Dighanikaya is one of
the discourses which has been analysed mo stly or
exaggerated by various scholars. According to my
understanding it is not "A Book of Genesis ".4 It is
neither a discourse on the evolution of society nor an
analysis of the origin of the Universe. If we take the
discourse as a whole, it can be introduced as
"Discourse on the importance of Dhamma among the
people in this life and in the next ". Or simply we can
call it "a discourse on the importance of Dhamma in
the existences ". The main theme of the sermon is
expressed eight times throughout the discourse.
runs as follows:
"The Dhamma is the best among the people
both in this life and in the next ". The PTS translation
of the sentence "(For) a norm, (Vaseffha), is the best
among this folk both in this life and in the next " 5
seems misleading. And the term "dhamma " in the
phrase is rendered as "cosmic la w ".6 This also does
not fit in well with the context. This oft-rec urrent
phrase follows eight specific factors explained in the
discourse which serve· as proofs of the main theme.
Therefore, it is important to clarify first those factors
in order to understand the full meaning of the phrase
or the main theme of the discourse. The following
are those factors:
1. The brahmanical view of superiority and
inferiority of people belonging to the four classes or
castes (khattiya, brBhmalJB, vessa, sudda) cannot be
justified on two grounds.
i. empirical basis
ii. ethical basis
18
According to the empirical evidence the
brahmin ladies are responsible for the birth of brahmins.
So, the supremacy of the brahmins over the other
•
classes of people due to their birth out of the mouth
of the Brahma, the Creator God, becomes invalid. The
ethical basis refers to the bad and good actions such
as killing , stealing, unchaste, lying, slandering, using
rough words, gossiping, greediness , malevolent and
a . holding wrong views and refraining from them
respectively. On this basis all the four classes of
people are seen committing bad actions and good
actions irrespective of their superiority or inferiority
of castes. Therefore, the claims of the brahmins of
It 7
their supremacy become invalid on an ethical basis.
2. The Khattiyas belong to the kingdom of Kosala
governed by the King Pasenadi Kosala. So, the
Khattlyas respect him. Also the King knows that the
Buddha Gotama became an enlightened one from the·
clan of Khattiyas. But the King respects the Buddha
Gotama due to his good qualities or virtues. This
reverence of the King is based on an ethical ground.8
3. The origin of the noble classes of the Great
Elect (mahasammata), khattiyas, and Kings (raja) occurs
in accordance with actual facts. When the bad actions
came into being in the society, the people felt the
need of a leader to judge the actions and punish the
wrong doers. So they elected a leader and he was
called Mahasammata because he was elected by the
majority of people. The Khattiya class came into
being a's the lords of the paddy fields. The term raja
(king) originated in the sense that his main duty was
to please the people by action in accordance with the
Dhamma. Thus the origin of these three noble classes
19
occurred on an ethical basis which is depicted by the experience both suffering and happiness if they do
term Dhamma.
9 both bad and good things. The arhant who has
destroyed all defilements will make an end to the
4. The origin of the circle of brahmins namely mass of suffering forever.
•
He is considered the best
brahmaljc, jhayaka and ajjhayaka also occurs on an among all people on the basis of moral or ethical
ethical basis. Those who were not in agreement of perfection.14
the immoral customs such as stealing, lying and
punishment of the society, determined to put away Now, it should be clear from the above­
evil from them. They were called brahmins. Further, mentioned eight factors that the main theme of the
they built huts in the forest and practised meditation discourse is to clarify how the ethical or moral
leaving behind the social activities. They were called behaviour of people influences the origin of social
Jhayakas, the practitioners of concentration. Those, stratification. The ethical behaviour may be related
who were incapable of enduring this meditation c ame to economical, political, religious or psychological
out of the forest and settled on the outskirts of aspects of the people in society. The ethical standard
villages and started writing books. People called emphasized throughout the discourse by the term
them A jjhayakas, those who are not meditating . 1o "dhamma " is nothing but the Buddhist concept of
morality (sOa). It cannot be a cosmic Law, or a norm
5. Those who adopted the married life, which (not the norm) as suggested in the PTS translation. It
was considered by some as immoral , and engaged in is clearly expressed in the discourse that "Dhamma " in
professions separately from others were called this context means refraining from bad actions such
Vessas. This also occurred on an ethical basis.11 as killing, stealing, unchaste, lying, slandering, using
rough word s , gossiping, greediness, malevolence and
6. Those who engaged in mean activities like holding wrong views. This list of bad actions are
hunting were called Suddas. It also occurred in mostly linked with the ten unwholesome actions
accordance with the
moral behaviour or ethical (dasa-akusala-kamma) accepted in the Thera vada
character of the people.12 Buddhist tradition. 15 The ten wholesome actions
(dasa-kusala-kamma) namely generosity, morality,
7. The company of the recluses came to be meditation , transferring of merits, rejoicing in others'
known on the basis of moral behaviour of some good deeds, rendering service to the worthy- ones ,
people belonging to the aforesaid four classes or honouring the worthy-ones, practicing dhamma,
castes. They renounced the household life hearing dhamma and clearing views might have been
understanding some fault in their own customs related introduced at a later period to the tradition.16 Initially
to their particular classes or castes.13 by the' term "ten wholesome actions " was meant
abstaining from the ten unwholesome actions
17
•

8. The people belonging to all the four classes mentioned in the Aggaiifiasutta. So, we can arrive at
will experience suffering if they do wrong things, will a conclusion that the Aggaiifiasutta presents good and
experience happiness if they do good things and will bad effects of wholesome and unwholesome actions

20 21
on a sociological basis. The attempts of analyzing the
discourse in order to explain the B uddhist theory of Bharadvaja 's opinion:
evolution of the society or the origin of universe or "When one is well-born on bo th the m othe r's
and the
beings create many problems which are very harmful fa ther 's side, and is of pure descent fo
r se ven
to the simple ethical teachings of early Buddhism. generations, uncriticised and irreproachabl
e with
reference to birth, to such an exte nt one be
comes a
The Oneness of the human specie s brahman".
As to the above - mentioned Aggafifiasutta, the
status of human species should be determined in Vaseffha's opinion:
accordance with their behaviour but not due to other "When one possesses virtu ou s conduct
and is
religious or metaphysical theories which are out of endo wed with (go od) vo ws, to such an exte
nt one
our experience. and against the law of causation. becomes a brahman ". 2 0
Anyway, it is not denied that there are higher and
lower classes in the society. The Buddhist idea is As a response to these two opinions, the
that the status of a human being should be based on Buddha explains the status of beings as a whole and
his ethical behaviour. And it should be emphasized particularly of human beings on an ethical basis.
here that the profession or vocation also is a factor Here it should be emphasized that the discourse
that determines the social rank but in the Buddhist explains the oneness of human beings not on an
context it is only the ethical behaviour of human ethical basis but on their physical formation.
beings that accounts for a higher status. The famous According to the discourse the following things and
statement in the Vasalasutta that "a person becomes a animals belong to different species by birth and by
brahmin or a Vasala (outcaste) not by birth but by formations of their figures:
18
one 's actions ,, does not deny the status of beings as 1. Grass' and trees
brahmin or outcaste in the society but suggests that Beetles, moths, ants, termites
such division of upper and lower classes should be Quadrupeds
based on the ethical behaviour of people. And it also Snakes
suggests indirectly that the social status based on Fish
ethical behaviour promotes the moral aspect of Birds
society and never becomes a cause for injustice and
downfall. 2. The human beings do not possess such
distinguishing marks from each other in regard to
Even the oft-quoted Vasefthasutta of the following limbs and functions:
19
Suttanipata does not deny the status of beings based
on ethical behaviour. In the discourse a c onversation Hair, head, ears, eyes, mouth, nose, lips,
occurs between two brahmins called Bharadvaja and eyebrows, neck, shoulders, belly, back, buttocks,
Vaseffha regarding how one becomes a brahmin by chest, male and female organs, testicles, hands,
birth or by action (kamma). feet, fingers, nails, calves, thighs, colour, voice21

22 23
 Now it is important to turn our attention to the
Further, the discourse mentions that there is contemporary social background in India in order to
no difference among human beings in regard to their understand how the Buddha put the above- mentioned
own bodies but their difference is spoken of as a social concepts into action. The Indian society at the
matter of designation. 22 Then the discourse lists time of the Buddha was mostly dominated by the
some of those designations based on their behaviour. Brahmanic tradition. Hinduism, Vedic tradition or
Brahmanism had developed various social concepts on
Designation a religious basis at the time. The kingship was under
1. The one who make farmer the leadership of the Brahmin priests and therefore, it
-

living by keeping cows

was easier to put those concepts into action in the
2. Living by means of craftsman society. The SramalJ8 movements such as Jainism,
-

various crafts
Buddhism and Ajivikism were the only rival groups for
3. Living by trade merchant their activities. The brahmins on the basis of their
-

4. Living by means of servant Holy - scriptures like Vedic texts, Manusm{ti and
-

serving others
Bhagvadgita had· introduced a caste system according
5. Living by taking what is thief
to which the society was classified into four classes.
-

not given
And those classes of people had different duties to be
6. Living by archery - fighting man
performed under the command of the creator God
Brahma. The Manusm{ti The Laws of Manu explains
7. Living by means of the - sacrificer
-

the fact as follows:

priesthood
8. Who enJoys villages k'mg 23
•

"But to protect
this· whole creation, the
and kingdom
lustrous one made separate innate· activities for those
born of his mouth, arms, thighs· and feet. For priests,
After listin g those desig natio ns, the disco urse
he ordained teaching and learning, sacrificing for
mentions a large numbe r of qualities which are
themselves and sacrificing for others, giving and
applic able to a true brahmin who is the arhant in this
receivmg.
• •

context. He has eradicated all defilements and

developed wisdo m and has made an end to the mass
Protecting his subjects, giving, having
of suffering. 24 Now, it shoul d be clear that Budd hism
sacrifices performed, studying and remammg
• •

accep ts differences among human beings not by other

unaddicted to the sensory objects are, m summary,
•

factor s but by their ethica l behav iour. The ethica l

for a ruler.
behaviour is judge d as good or bad accor ding to the
Buddh ist conce pt of moral ity (sI7a) which is the basis
Protecting his livestock, giving, having
for the development of conce ntrati on and wisdo m
sacrifices performed, studying, trading, lending
leading to the realization of Nibbana. .
.money and farming the land are for a commoner. The
. .

24
25
Lord assigned only one activity to a m"., ·,t: servmg
• •

his o wn class for a king (k$Btriya); and these three and

these (other) classes without resentment".
one of his o wn class for a priest (brShmalJB). Not a
single story mentions a servant woman (sOdra) as the
Not only the creation of four classes and their
wife of a priest (brShmalJB) or a ruler (k$Btr;ya), even in
duties but also other social activities are . ,,29
an extremIty .
recommended for them in the texts. Some of them
are as follows:
The Buddhist view of marriage is based on the
moral behaviour of the wife and husband irrespective
The Religious Rites:
of caste and class. The best and virtuous life of
As to the rites of Hinduism the Manusmf1; states:
husband and wife is compared with the union of a god
l'Not a single rite is e ver performed here on earth by
and a goddess. The immoral life of them is compared
a man without desire; for each and e verything tha t he
with the union of two dead bodies.3o
does is motivated by the desire for precisely that
thing. The man who is properly occupied in these
The Sacrifice
(desires) goes to the world of the immortals, and here
The sacrifice plays a very important role in the
on earth he achie ves all the desires for which he has
. . religious life of brahm;ns and the householders. For
conceIVed on mten tIon' ". 26
this purpose they are given permission not only to kill
animals for sacrifices but also to eat them.
In comparing with the B uddhist norms of
virtue, concentration and wisdom, the above concept. "Wild animals and birds that are permitted (to be
is totally mundane whereas Buddhism emphasizes the
ea ten) may be kille i by priests for sacrifices and for
importance of the destruction of craving or desire
the livelihood of dependents ",31
(dukkhasamudaya-nirodha). 27 But it should be
emphasized that the restrainment of the sen�es and
There are very interesting statements regarding
sense- desire is appreciated a s a better way than
killing animals and eating their meat.
gratification of them.28

IISomeone who eats meat, after honouring the gods

The Marriage:
and ancestors, when he has bought it, or killed it.
Recommendations for marriage are based on the class
himself, or has been given it by someone else does
system: "
nothing bad,
1:4 woman of the same class is recommended to
twice -born men (brBhmalJB) for the first marriage; but , e verything mo ving and stationary is the food of
11 .

for men who are driven by desire, these are the

.

the breath of life ".

women, in progressively descending order: according
to tradition, only a servant woman can be the wife of
a servant (iDdra),' she and one of his o wn class can be
the wife of a commoner (vaisya),' these two and one of
26
IIBut when a man who is properly engaged in ritual
does not eat meat, after his death he will become a
,
sacrificial animal during twenty-one reb·lrths , .32
27
 householders, town and country dwellers,
It is very clear that Buddhism criticizes the religious world, beasts and birds
brahmanic sacrificial system because of the violent 2. Giving wealth to the poor
actions explained above. Non-violence, kindness, 38
3. Getting advice from worthy people
compassion, not killing and not hurting are
emphasized in Buddhist moral precepts and it is Further, Buddhism recommends the virtues for a king
pointed out that early Brahmins did not kill animals for to be qualified for his post.
sacrificial purposes. Instead
they used only the
inanimate things for such purpo ses.33 Giving to the worthy people, virtue, glVlOg to
• •

the other people, uprightness, softness,

Political Leadership concentration, non-anger, non-violence,
g
According to Manusm{ti, "when this world was without patience, impartialit/
a king and people ran about in all directions out of
,,
fear, the Lord 34 (Brahma) created a king "taking The Status of Women
lasting elements from " the gods '1ndra, the Wind Some of the laws attributed to women in Manusm{ti
(Marut), Yama, the . Sun, Fire,' Varu!JB, the Moon, reveal the Hindu concept of women which also was
Kubera ". 35 The Kingship according to Brahmism is a criticized by the Buddha. "Men must make their
divine creation and so no one is able to overcome his women dependent day and night. and keep under their
powers. As explained in the Aggannasutta and other o wn control those who are attached to sensory
discourses like Cakka vattisihanadasutta , the kingship objects. Her father guards her in childhood. her
depends on two factors: husband guards her in youth, and her sons' guard her
•

i. Should be elected by the consent of the in old age. A woman is not fit for independence ".40
majority of people
..
11. Should please or charm the people by his "The bed and the seat, je wellery. lust. anger.
own virtuous life
and by acting in crookedness, a malicious nature and bad conduct are
. ,,41
accordance with justice3 6 Ai
What ,v,anu asslgne d to women .

It is neither a creation by a god nor a supreme "There is no ritual with Vedic verses for women". 42
power without the consent of the people. According
to Cakka vattisihanadasutta , the kingshipa· is not According to the Buddha s teachings there is no
heritage of the family that goes from father to son. 37 inferiority or superiority among men and women by
And it further explains the duties of King by which birth. They become worthy of everything equally on
one becomes worthy of kingship and some of them different contexts. 4 3 Even the kings, arhants and
are as follows: Buddhas, as human beings were produced and brought
up mainly by women. As to the Sig8lo vadasutta both
•

1. Providing right protection for the people. husband and wife have equal duties to each other in
the army, the nobles, vassals, brahmins. the family-life.

28 29
 End Notes

Duties of husband : respect, courtesy, faithfulness,

I
Reader's Digest Universal Dictionary, The Reader's Digest
handing over authority to her, providing her with
Association Limited, London, 1 987
adornment. . 2
Dhammapada, op. cit., p. 1 44
3
D. Ill, pp. 82 - 98, Dialogues of the Buddha, Vol. Ill, pp. 77 - 94
4
Duties of wife: performing duties well, hospitality to The term "Aggaiifiasutta" - is translated into English as "A Book of
Genesis", Dialogues of the Buddha, III, PTS, pp. 77 - 94
the relations of both, faithfulnes s , watching over the
Dialogues of the Buddha, Ill, PTS, pp. 80, 8 1 , 89, 90, 9 1 , 92, 93
goods the husbandbrings, skill and industry in : op. cit., p. 80 (footnote)
44 7
discharging all her business. op. cit., pp. 78 - 80
8
op. cit., pp. 80 - 8 1
9
op. cit., p. 88
lO Op. cit., pp. 89 - 90
11
op. Clt., p. 9 1
•

12
I'b'Id .
13 .
op. Clt., p. 92
14
op. cit., pp. 92 - 93
15
D. Ill., p. 269; M. I. p. 287, Vism. P. 684
16
DhsA, p. 1 5 7
17
D. III., p. 269; M. I., p. 28
18
Suttanipata, PTS, 1 9 1 3, p. 24; The Group of Discourses, vol. 1 , PTS,
1 984, p. 22
19
Suttanipata, op. cit., pp. 1 1 5 - 1 23
20
The Group of Discourses, vol. 1 , PTS, p. 1 03
21
op. cit., p. 1 04
22
ibid.
23
op. cit., p. 1 05
24
op. cit., pp. 1 05 - 1 08
25
Laws of Manu, Penguin Books, England, 1 99 1 , pp. 1 2 - 1 3; The
creation of human beings by the God Brahma is explained in
Sanskrit as follows:
1. Brahmanas •
- born of the Brahma's mouth
2. K�atriyas - born of the Brahma's arms
3. Vaisyas - born of the Brahma's thighs
,

4. SOdras - born of the Brahma's feet

These four classes of people are explained in the English
Translation of the Laws of Manu by the terms Priests, Ruler,
Commoner and Servant respectively,�gveda, 1 0.90, The Laws of
Manu, op. cit., pp. 6 - 7
26
op. cit., p. 1 7
21
The Group.of Discourses, op. cit., p. 1 0 5
28
op. Clt., p. 27
•

29
op. cit., p. 44
30
A: n, p. 54
31
The Laws of Manu, op. cit., p. 1 0 1

30 31
 Chapter 4
32
Op. cit., p. 1 02
33 Common Characteristics of the Ethics of Lay- Life
The Group of Discourses, op. cit., p. 50
34
The Laws of Manu, op. cit., p. 1 28
35
I'b'I d .
36
Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. Ill, p. 88
37
op. Clt., p. 6 1
.

38 Ethics in Buddhism in general can be divided

op. Clt., p. 62
•

39
Jatakapali, V, p. 378 into three main sections depending on their specific
40
The Laws of Manu, op. cit., p. 1 97 features:
41
op. cit., p. 1 98
42 i. ethics related to lay- life
ibid.
43 ii. ethics related to the life of the Sarigha
S. part 1 , PTS, 1 884, p. 86
44
Dialogues of the Buddha, vol. Ill, pp. 1 8 1 - 1 82 iii. ethics related to the career of Bodhisattvas

Here, our aim is to clarify the common

characteristics of ethical teachings related to the lay­
life both individual and social. As already pointed out
in the previous chapter, the individual life is more
important than the social life as far as its efficacy is
concerned. The success of social life depends on the
success of individual life because society is merely a
concept superimposed on the relationship among the
individual people.

As far as the individual ethics of lay people

are concerned. abstaining from the unwholesome
actions, as mentioned in the Aggaiifiasutta 1 occupies
an important place. The ten unwholesome actions are
mentioned in the sutta as follows:
1. Killing living beings
2. Stealing others' things
Physical
3. Unlawful engagement in
sensual pleasures
4. Lying
5. Slandering Verbal
•

6 . Using rough words

7. Gossiping

32
 8. Greediness concern the goodness or badness of the actions. So,

9. Malevolence Mental the individual in society should restrain himself first

10. Holding wrong views in regard to those unwholesome actions because they
creq.te problems in maintaining social harmony. On

These ten deeds are related to the physic al, the other hand, those actions are related to the social

verbal and mental behaviour of people. Among these aspects like economy,' health and family life. If we

the physical and verbal actions, before their arising or take one by one , killing means depriving oneself from

manifestation, are originated in consciousness. The his or her right of living. Every being has a right to

three mental aspects or actions can be generally live on earth. Security of life is one of the

considered as the basis of the physical and verbal fundamental requirements of beings. 2 Stealing

actions. connects with properties that belong to the people in

society. Property is the first requirement of life.

Greediness is a developed form of likeness Refraining from stealing confirms the sec urity of

and malevolence is a developed form of dislike. The personal property. Adultery or unlawful engagement

likes and dislikes are human reactions to the things or in sensual pleasures not only creates problems in

actions of the world. These twofold reactions are family life but also it causes the decline of economy.

extremely important and useful for their survival. We The success of lay-life mainly depends on good

take food because we like it. We reject poison relationship among the family members as husband

because we don't like it. Due to the unlimited and wife, and parents and children. Adultery is

development of mentality and misunderstanding of the extremely harmful for this unity in family life. The

nature of life, the likes and dislikes increase day by beings cannot live alone. So, unity becomes an

day unknowingly up to the higher levels which are essential requirement in life. 3 The starting point· of

considered in Buddhism as unwholesome. The unity in a society lies in the relationship between

greediness and malevolence are increased or husband and wife. Further, for a successful life one

developed form of likes and dislikes respectively. needs to earn a good name and develop
The human actions both physical and verbal directed trustworthiness in society. Refraining from lying and
towards the saturation of such unwholesome mental developing truthfulness is the best way to earn fame
concepts such as greediness and malevolence are and trustworthiness. 4 There is no any factor other
extremely harmful to the individual as well as to the than slandering which destroys the mutual harmony in
society. In regard to the individual, such mental society. 5 Similarly using harsh words and gossiping
aspects create dissatisfaction , depression and stress. also create problems for the peaceful existence of
Further, in brief. the totality of such mental aspects is human beings. It is said that there is no any crime

termed as confusion, ignorance, misunderstanding and that caJ\not be committed by a liar. 6 Now it is clear

wrong view. In regard to the social behaviour, those that abstaining from ten evil deeds becomes an
essential requirement for a person as a member of
•

people tend to engage in the activities such as killing ,

stealing and lying in order to satisfy their mental any society.
requirements. Due to their ignorance, they do not

34 35
 In this context, it should be emphasized that a lo ver of peace, impassioned for peace,
the ten unwholesome actions are given not only to a speaker of words that make for peace.
abstain from them but also to develop positive
aspects against them. The following are some of 6. Putting a way rudeness of speech, (he)
those positive aspects mentioned in the discourses: holds himself aloof from harsh language.
1. "PuttJ'ng a way the kJlling of living things, Whatsoe ver word is blameless, pleasant
(he) holds aloof from the destruction of to the ear, lo vely, reaching to the heart,
life. He has laid the cudgel and the urbane, pleasing to the people, beloved
sword aside, and ashamed o! roughness, of the people - such are words he
and full of mercy, he dwells speaks.
compassionate and kind to all creatures
that ha ve life. 7. Putting a way frivolous talk, (he) holds
himself aloof from vain con versa tion. In
2. Putting a way the taking of what has not season he speaks, in accordance with
been given, living aloof from grasping
•
the facts, words full of meaning. He
what is not his o wn, (he) passes his life speaks, and at the right time, words
in honesty and purity of heart. worthy to be paid up in one 's heart, fitly
Jllustrated and clearly divided to the
. ,, 7
3. Putting a way ' unchastity, (he) holds pomt .
himself aloof, far off, from the vulgar
practice, from the sexual act. The above- mentioned disciplinary rules with
their negativ e and positiv e aspect s can build up a
4. Putting a way lying words, (he) holds wholes ome and useful person ality or charact er for
himself aloof from falsehood. He speaks any society in the world. Espec ially their positiv e
truth, from the truth he ne ver swerves; aspect s are beneficial in creatin g harmon y and
faithful and trustworthy, he breaks not peaceful environment in society. The negati ve
his word to the world. aspects are mostly influent ial to the persona l
character. Anyway, these moral rules are extremely
5. Putting a way slander, (he) holds himself person al in the sense that the respon sibility of
aloof from calumny. What he hears here observing them properly depends on the person
he repeats not else where to raise a himself.
Quarrel against the people here; what he
hears else where he repeats not here to Now, we can turn to the ethical teachings
raise a Quarrel against the people there. related to the social life of lay people. The human
Thus does he live as a binder together society is more complexed than the community of
•

of those who are divided, an encourager Sallgha. So, special attention should be foc used on
of those who are friends, a peacemaker, interpretation of the social ethics relevant to the lay

36 37
society. Altho ugh the Thera vada tradition has laid Uddakaramaptta, b ut they had already passed away by
more emph asis on the mona stic life throu ghout the that time. l 1 The father of Yasa was the first to take
history, there is a large numb er of disco urses and refuge in the Buddah. dhamma and sarigha as a lay
12 Yasa 's mother and wife also
facts in the cano n which can be interpreted well in devotee of the Buddha.
order to make a syste matic ethical syste m for the became the first female devotees of the Buddha who
laity. The limited numb er of disco urses such as took refuge in the Triple-gem. The first monastery
Marigala. Vasala. ParSbha va. Sig81o vada. Vyagghapajja. or garden was offered to the Buddha and sarigha by
Aggafifia. Cakka vattisiha vada and Kosalasarpyutta have the King Bimbisara on the Buddha 's visit to Rajagaha.
13
been interpreted and anlay sed repeatedly to clarify AnathapilJClika. VisSkha and a large number of lay
the socia l ethic s for lay society. Even in the people attended the Buddha and sarigha regularly 'and
commentar ial literature, we do not see any definite made a great contribution for the progress of
attempt taken , to form ulate an ethic al syste m Buddhism. The kings such as Pasenadi Kosala.
parti cular ly for lay society. Further, a histo ry of lay Ajatasattu. K81asoka 'and Asoka are recorded in the
people who contributed for the progr ess of Budd hism Buddhist sources with much respect for their
has not been properly reco rded in the sour ces exce pt contribution for the welfare of the order as well as
the Jataka storie s whic h reveal most ly the ethic al the propagation of dhamma.
14 The intervention of lay
impo rtanc e and service rendered by Bodhisatta , the people as critics of the b ad behaviour of the sarigha
Buddha to be, as a laym an. So, it is important here to caused the laying down of a large number of
intro duce first the back grou nd of Budd hism relev ant disciplinary rules in the Vinayapifaka. A preceptor and
to lay life before the discu ssion of socia l ethic s. a teacher for monks were recommended due to the
critic of the people regarding the unsuitable behaviour
Throughout the history of B uddhism in India of monks. 1 5 The rules regarding the observance of
and abroad the lay people have played an important rainy season for monks also came into being as a
•

role in contributing to its progress and propagating response to the critics of lay people. 16 Here it should
the dhamma. '
.
This contribution can be evaluated in . be pointed out that one of the disciplinary actions
large scale in Mahayana tradition which has taken a (punishments) c alled PatisaralJiyakamma was
keen interest in lay people since its beginning at the recommended for the monks who scold faithful lay
second Buddhist council held one hundred years after devotees. After the punishment was given, the g uilty
, . 8
the Buddha s passmg away. monk should visit the lay devotee and beg his
, pardon. 1 7 The above - mentioned examples, selected
The first encounter with the Buddha after his randomly from the Vinayapifaka, are sufficient to
enlightenment was a Brahmin who questioned him understand that the lay society has not been
about the qualities one should pos sess to become a underestimated in the Thera vada tradition. The order
Brahmin. 9 The first two devotees of the Buddha who of sarigha was established in close relationship with
took refuge in the Buddha and dhamma were two the lay people. The monks had to g o on alms round
traders called Tapussa and Bhallika.
lO The Buddha 's from house to house and as an exchange the monks
first sermon was intended to give to AI81ra K81ama and preached dhamma for their success in life. As Mohan

38 39
Wijayaratna in his outstanding work on "Buddhist producing a good personality in a person. Next the
Monastic Life " observes the difference between the education builds up the personality to match with the
lay-life and monastic life is similar to a part- time social requirements and necessary training of
course and a full-time course respectively leading to discipline. A person with a good personality and
1 8
the same degree. education enters the family life with marriage. The
main purpose of family life is not only the enjoyment
The social ethics recommended for lay people
,
of sensual pleasures b ut also producing good children.
should be interpreted in relation to the above­ The successful social life does not end here. He also
mentioned background. The lay person enters the should maintain good relationship with relatives and
Buddhist life by taking refuge in the Buddah, Dhamma friends.Further, he has to pay much attention to his
and Sarigha. His personal obligation regarding his
economic affairs, the success of which · mostly
character may be to five precepts, eight precepts or
depends on servants and workers. Up to here, if he
ten precepts which are closely related to the above­
performs the relevant duties well, his social life can
mentioned ten wholesome deeds to be performed and
be evaluated as a success. But he has to face with
the unwholesome deeds to be refrained from.
natural suffering of life such as old-age, diseases,
Although he observes these precepts as an individual,
decay and death. In such occasions, his contact with
he is closely related to the other members of the
religious leaders become very useful for his
society. The SigBlovadasutta mentions six kinds of
consolation. And lay people naturally tend to engage
such affinities: parents, teachers , wife and children , in extremes regarding sensual pleasures unless they
friends and relatives, servants and workers and the
are not advised properly in time. The religious
recluses and Brahmins. 1 9 These six kinds of social
affinity of the person becomes more useful for this
relationship can . be identified in connection with
purpose too. Thus, the duties recommended for each
several important aspects of lay life. '
and every group of people in the sixfold division , if
properly performed, no doubt fulfils all the necessary
1. Parents - birth and childhood
requirements for a successful social life of an
2. Teachers - education
individual.
3. Wife and children - marriage and family
life
As stated before, the duties of the individual
4. Friends and - social relationship
recommended in the SigBlovadasutta are related to the
relatives
most important and most essential aspects of human
5. Servants and - Business and
society. Among the members of the society, parents,
workers economic life
teachers and priests (recluses and Brahmins) are
6. Recluses and - religious life
responsible for maintaining moral behaviour in a given
Brahmins
society. Their main duties are also related to the
development of restrainment, discipline, good
•

As a social being, one's birth is very important

.personality, skillfulness and patience of people.
and the parents have a great responsibility in
Children, pupils and devotees on the other hand
40
41
should behave in accordance with those qualities in
the society and should show their gratitude to them. The following dialogue between the Brahmin
Wife and children and friends and relatives occupy an Dhaniya and the Buddha clearly indicates how
important place in the social relationship. Once. their Buddhism instructs the lay people to balance their
duties are well-performed, the social life of the knowledge of the difference between concept and
individual becomes very successful. The employer's reality. Concept means the mundane life and reality
duties towards the servants and workers always bring means the real nature of mundane life that is
the economic success in society. As a whole, the impermanence , unsatisfac toriness and soulle ssne ss.
duties of all members of society are presented in the This twofold knowledge becomes very useful to lay
sutta as an exchange of services o f both the parties. people to lead their life successfully in the midst of
One party's duty becomes the other party' s privilege. eight natures of the world viz. gain, loss, fame , ill­
The balance of these duties and privileges is c alled fame, blaming , praise, suffering and happine ss. 2o
the social harmony in Buddhism.
Dhaniya - ''/ ha ve boiled my rice and
The lay-life and the monastic-life are but two done my milking, I dwell
mutually different social institutions which direct their with my family near the bank of
careers towards two direc tions although the final aim the Mahi. My hut is thatched
is the same , the realization of NlbbSna. The lay my fire is heaped up with fuel.
people who are engaged in sensual pleasures and So, rain, the deity of cloud, if
various household activities are mostly ig�orant of you wish.
the nature of the world. Due to their ignorance they •

are always misled; In order to remind them the real The Buddha - I am free from anger, my
nature of the world, Buddhist sarigha provides the mental barrenness has
Hving example. It is a fact that even the lay-life gone. I am staying for one
21
without such a guidanc e tend to go to the extremes night near the bank of Mahi.
which are harmful to both individual and society. My hut is unco vered, my fire is
This is the reason that lay people are advised to quenched. So, rain, the deity of
observe eight or ten precepts on uposatha (full- moon cloud, if you wish.
and half-moon days) days and listen to the dhamma
sermons. The understanding of the real nature of the Dhaniya - No gadflies or mosquitoes
world (impermanence, unsatisfactoriness, are found (here). The co ws
soullessness) and the ethical conduct in regard to pasture in the water-meado w
household activities provides a suitable background where the grass grow lush.
for a balanced and peaceful social life. The Buddhist The cloud tolerate e ven the
guidance in. this direction can be well presented by rain i[ it came. So, rain, If you
quoting such two dialogues from the Buddha s wish.
discourses. •

42 43
The Buddha - 1 ha ve crossed o ver, gone to
the far shore, ha ving
o vercome the flood. There is
no need of a float. So, rain, if
.
you WISh ". 22
After the conversation, it is recorded that the
Brahmin Dhaniya with his family became the followers
of the Buddha s path. His statements are worthy of
mention.

One part of the dialogue of the Dhaniyasutta The gains indeed are not small for us who
has been quoted above in order to show its natural have seen the blessed one. We come to you as a
order and the content of the rest is given below for refuge, one with vision. Be our teacher, great sage.
comparison of the natures of mundane and spiritual
levels of live. "My wIfe and 1 are attentive. Let us practice
the holy lIfe in the presence of the well-farer.
Mundane - Dhaniya Spiritual - the Buddha Gone to the far shore of birth and death, let us
put an end to misery.
1 . Wife is attentive, not 1 . Mind is attentive,
wanton, pleasant, no evil released, developed for a My wife and J, obedient, will practice the
at all, lived for a long long time, well Brahmacariya under the well-farer. We will be
time. controlled, no evil is end-makers of suffering, gone to the other
found. shore of birth and dea th ". 24

2. Self- supported,
children live together in
good health, no evil of
them at all.
3. There are cows,
bullocks, cows in calf,
breeding cows, a ball,
the leader of cows.
4. The stakes are dug - in
unshakable, new halters
are made of mufija grass
of good quality which
2. No-one's hireling,
wonder throughout world
by means of my earnings,
no need of wages.
3. No cows, no bullocks,
no cows in calf. breeding
cows and a bull, the
leader of cows.
4. Bonds are broken like
a bull, like an elephant
tearing a po ti-creeper
asunder, I shall. not come
.
1·le again In a wornb . 2 3
.
In this dialogue we can understand clearly that
there is no discrimination of the expressions of both
the Buddha and Dhaniya, the brahmin regarding their
ways of life. Both the facts related to lay- life and the
spiritual life are real in the sense that they can be
verified in the brahmin s life and the Buddha s character.
The choice depends on the person who understands
the difference. Anyway, there is no even an idea of .
converting the brahmin into Buddhism. It is the idea of
Buddhism that the lay- life though can be maintained
satisfactorily in accordance with the ethical teachings
recommended, it is not a final solution to make an end
to the mass of suffering of humanity viz. birth, decay
and death. So, everyone who wishes such a final
solution, should accept the spiritual way of life some

even cannot be broken day.

by bullocks.

44
,

45
 In comparison with spiritual progre ss of the The creditors from whom I ha ve taken loans
Buddha s life , the household life of the brahmln was come to my door early in the morning and
,,25
very satisfactory as far as the mundane benefits are · me fior not reco venng th em.
comp1am
.

concerned. We get another similar encounter in the

Sarpyuttaniksya which also is worthy to be considered The
Buddha s response to the brahmin s
in this context. It is also a dialogue between the statements was that the Buddha is always happy
Buddha and a brahmin belonging to the clan of because he has no such problems as mentioned by the .
Bharadvsja. The brahmin was in search of fourteen brahmin.
bulls that he lost. Eventually he came to the forest
where the Buddha was seated cro s s - le gged, body set Unlike the former sutta, this explains a poor
upright and with mindfulness. With the view of such a man' s situation in connection with the spiritual
solemn figure of a saint he recalled all his troubles progress. It is very important to note that the
and thought how peaceful and happy is the life of this satisfaction gained through spiritual development is
sage. So, he expre ssed the following things the same and never changed in connection with the
contrasting his own troubles and the happy mood of happy and unhappy levels of the rich and the poor
the Buddha. mentioned in the above two discourses.

"I ha ve lost fourteen bulls o ver the last six
days. This recluse is . happy because he has
no such a problem.
My crops are gone bad, a stalk of sesamum
bears only one or two leaves. . . . . . .
This comparison of two ways of life is not
confined only to the suffering and happine ss of the
poor and the rich but also to the aesthetic aspects of
life. In this regard, the Sakkapafihasutta gives a good
example where Paiicasikha, the musician of deities,

compares the serenity of mundane love with the

happiness of spiritual attainments to which the Buddha
The rats are dancing rampantly around in my has given an evaluative consent. This comparison
empty barn. . . . . . . occurs in a love song sung by Paiicasikha in front of
the Buddha explaining his strong de sire and love to his
My se ven months old siesta -couch is co vered lover Suriya vacchasa, the daughter of Timbaru.
by vermin swarm. . . . ' "

"Lady thy father Timbaru I greet

I ha ve se ven daughters, all wido ws with one (Suriya vacchass)
or two children. . . . . .
,

With honour due, 0 Glory-of-the -Sun!

In that he wrought a thing so nobly fair
My wife ta wny and speckled wakes me up As thou, 0 fount divine of all my joy!
with her feet. . . . . . .
Sweet as the breeze to one foredon with
s weat,

46 47
Sweet as a cooJjng drink to one a thirst,
So dear art thou, 0 presence radiant!
To me, dear as to Arahants the Tru th.
As medicine bringing ease to one that 's sick,
As food to starving man, so, lady, Quench,
As with cool waters, me who am all a -flame.
E'en as an elephant with heat oppressed,
Hies him to some still pool, upon whose face
Petals and pollen of the lotus float,
So would I sink within thy bosom sweet.
E'en as an elephant fretted by hook,
Dashes unheeding curb and goad aside,
So !, crazed by the beauty of thy form,
Kno w not the why and wherefore of my acts.
By thee my heart is held in bonds, and all
Bent out of course; nor can I turn me back,
No more than fish, once he hath ta 'en the bait.
Within thine arm embrace me, lady, me
With thy soft languid eyne embrace and hold,
o nobly fair! Thi I entreat of thee.
Scanty in sooth, 0 maid of wa ving locks,
Was my desire, but now it swelleth aye,
Indefinitely great, e 'en as the gifts
Made by the faithful to the Arahants.
Whate 'er of merit to such holy ones
I've wrough t, be thou, 0 altoge ther fair,
The ripened fruit to fall therefram to me.
•
Whate 'er of other merit I ha ve wrought
In the wide world, 0 altoge ther fair,
48
Be thou the fruit thereby to fall to me.
As the great Sakyan seer, through ecstacy
Rapt and intent and self-possessed, doth
Graod
Seeking ambrasia, e ven so do I
Pursue the Quest of thee, 0 Glory-of-the Sun!
As would that Seer rejoice, were he to win
Ineffable Enlightenment, so I
With thee made one, 0 fairest, were in bliss.
And if perchance a boon were granted me
By Sakka, lord of Three -and- Thirty gods,
'Tis thee I'd ask of him, lady, so strong
My love. And for thy father, wisest maid­
Him as a Sal-tree freshly burgeoning
: 26
I worship for such peerless offspring giv 'n
'
The Buddha after hearing this song with music
sung and played b y Paficasikha, expressed his consent
as follows :
"The sound of your strings, so harmonizes
with that of your song, and the sound of your
voice with that of the strings, that your lyre
does not too much colour your song nor your
song too much colour your play. . Where did
you learn these verses concerning the Buddha,
the Dhamma and the Arahants and 10ve ? "27
Further, Paficasikha told to the Buddha that he
won the heart of Suriya vacchasa because this song
included the glory of the Exalted One, the Buddha .
Her expression after hearing the song on another
occasion before it was sung at the Buddha, runs thus:
49
 'That Blessed One, sir, 1 ha ve not seen face to End Notes
face, and yet 1 heard of him when 1 went to
1
dance at the Sudhamma HaIJ of the Three ­ D. Ill. p. 269
2
A. IV, PTS, p. 28a
and-Thirty gods. Since you so extol the 3
D: Ill, P. 2 1 ; Kh., PTS, p. 2
Blessed One, let there be a meeting between 4
D. Ill, PTS, pp. 1 9 1 - 1 92
28 5
thee and me today .
..

Suttanipata, PTS, 1 9 1 3 , p. 33
6
Dighanikaya, Burma, 1 984, p. 94
7
Dhammapada, ed. Yen. Narada, Malaysia, 1 978, p. 1 59
Now, it will be clear by the above- mentioned 8
Dialogues of the Buddha, vo!. 1 , pp. 3 - 5
three references that how Buddhism regards the 9
Nalinkasa Dutt, Buddhist sects in India, 1 978, pp. 57 - 98
- 10
happine ss and suffering of lay- life and satisfaction of Vinayapitakarp , vo!. 1 , pp. 2 -3
11
spiritual progre ss keeping them side by side without op. Clt., p. 4
•

12
op. Clt., p. 7
discrimination.
•

13
op. cit., pp. 1 6 - 1 7
14 .
op. Clt., p. 39
15
op. cit., vo!. 11, pp. 284 - 308; The Vinayanidana, PTS, 1 962,
pp. 3 3 - 54
16
Vinayapitakarp, vo!. 1 , p. 45, 60
17
op. cit., p. 1 3 7
18
op. Clt., p. 1 8
•

19
Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Monastic Life, Cambridge
University Press, 1 990, p. 1 73
20
Dialogues of the Buddha, vo!. Ill, p. 1 83 ; see for a detailed analysis
of the subject - Alicia Matsunag, The Buddhist Philosophy of
.
Assimilation, Japan, 1 969, pp. 20 - 32
21
A. IV, p. 1 57
22
The Group of Discourses, PTS, 1984, p. 4 - should note that I have
slightly changed and omitted some phrases of the original PTS
translation
23
op. Clt., pp. 4 - 5
•

24
op. cit., pp. 4 - 6
25
•

Sarpyuttanikaya, part I, PTS, 1 884, pp. 1 70 - 1 7 1 ; The Book of the

Kindred Sayings, part I, PTS, 1 9 1 7, pp. 2 1 4 - 2 1 6 - I have closely
followed the above PTS translation for my English rendering of the
sutta
26
Dialogues of the Buddha, part 11, 1 959, pp. 3 0 1 - 304
27
op. cit., p. 302, I have slightly changed the translation in this
paragraph
28
op. cit., p. 304 .

50 1
 Chapter 5 conceptual tendencies are mostly unnatural and they

The Ethics Related to Lay-Life create problems within the individual as well as
society when attempted to satisfy them by any means.
Thi,s is the reason and basis on which Buddhism
presents a code of ethics for human beings in relation
to their mental, physical and verbal behaviour.
The most outstanding and interesting feature
Therefore, ethics becomes an essential part of human
of human beings is the ability of reflection or
life. For easy understanding we can classify the
thinking, Although they possess a material body
ethics related to lay-life into several sections:
1

which is clearly visible, their mental body is larger

than the material one. Among the four kinds of food
Economy, politics and communication are
that they need to maintain their life, three kinds are
some of the aspects of human life which are taken
directly conneded with mental body.
into consideration in Buddhist ethics,

1. KabalirikarBhara - solid food

Economy
2, Phassa - contact, sensation, feelings
Sigiilovsdasutta , includes very useful
3. mental volition
The
ManosaficelanBharB
4. consciousness developed by
advice for the success of economic foundation of a
�

volition2
Viifiisl)S
lay-person, Although we emphasize only the verses
that instruct how to earn and how to spend wealth in
the sutts, it does not fit in well with the context
The feelings, volition and consciousness serve
without reference to other factors mentioned in the
as foods to sustain the mental body of human beings
sutta, In the Buddhist discourses we mostly find that
though mind and body are mutually interdependent.
the followers are advised first to abstain from
So, in regard to many aspects related to human life,
negative aspects of behaviour. The idea is in
the mentality plays a prominent role. Human beings
conformity with the saying "prevention is better than
are mostly guided not by natural stimulations but by
cure ". So, even the SigSJo viidasutta, instructs Sigiifa to
mental requirements which are conceptual to a large
abstain from a set of negative aspects of life before
extent. So we have to distinguish two kinds of mental
proceeding on the path relevant to the success of
features of human beings,
lay-life. Thus we cannot discuss about economy or

Natural Tendency any other field related to lay-life without paying much
Conceptual Tendency
likes attention to those negative aspects described in the
1. 1. desire, craving
dislikes sutts.
11, 11, hate, ill-will

It is a fact that one should establish himself on

The natural tendencies of mind are inherited
a 'firm social basis before doing his duties towards the
by all for their survival. They are not harmful for the
relevant social groups, The Buddha does not explain
individual as well as society as far as fundamental
the duties to Sigiils first but advise him to refrain from
requirements of human beings are concerned, But the
53
a set of evil actions which de stroy one's social
e stablishment in every aspect. They in brief are as
follows:
Four acts of defilements :
Sensual pleasure, anger, fear and misunderstanding
Six practices causing decline of wealth:
i. Indulgence in intoxicants which causes
inebriety and negligence
11. Wondering in stree ts at
• •
other-
social factors.
First of all the means of
acquiring wealth should not be harmful to himself and
others . It should be like a bee gathering honey
without damaging the flowers. 5 And one should
develop wealth not in a hurry (busine ss) but step by
step like an ant builds up an ant - hill. 6 And he has to
maintain a balance between income and expenditure
in order to continue his economic success. The
Sigiilovadasutta gives an advice on how to spend the
income by dividing it into four parts. One p ortion
unseemly should spend for family and social affairs, two

hours portions to run his business and the fourth should be

Frequenting shows and entertainments reserve d for use in e-mergencie s . 7 However, the sutta
• • •

lll.

Addiction to - gambling which c auses does - not pre sent the extent of income
to be
•

IV.

negligence maintained in relation to the expenditure . The sub­

v. Associating with bad companions commentary explains that the income should be four
H abitual idleness 3 times bigger than one ' s expenditure, otherwis e , the
•

Vi.

balance between the two c annot be maintained. 8

The each o f the above s ix factors creates six
evil consequences numbering thereby thirty-six bad Politics
effects refraining from these six factors together with Political leadership is the highest position in
others prepare a good ground for a person to the lay socie ty. According to Buddhist explanations it
e stablish himself in a society as an average person o f is based on two main factors :
good character. l . Consent of the majority of people
2. Moral conduct9
It should be remembered that the Buddhist
view on economy is not profit- oriented . It i s , As stated in regard to e conomic success, p o litical
certainl y, - as i t should b e , based o n the p sycholo gical leadership also becomes succe ssful when motivated
aspect of life. The wealth becomes an important by ethical aspect than the other factors. Acc ording to
4
factor in life up to the extent of happines s it creates .
_ the Buddhist concept of kingship , the political
1 O
But the highest wealth cannot be the happine ss leadership of a country is not a paternal heritage. It
because without wealth no one is able to be happy in should be earned by following an ethical code or a set
mundan e level. S o , happine ss and wealth should be of noble duties. The following are some of them:
maintain ed simultan eously. Here , it should b e i. Taking dhamma (justice , righteousness)
remem bered that one ' s happine s s depend s not. only - as the guide
on wealth but also on other factors . So, acquiri ng 11. Providing protection, shelter and
. -

wealth and enjoyin g it should b e in accord ance with security for his own folk and family,

54 55
 fighting forces, kings and vassals vii . . . non- hatred non-violence
. . .

V11l.
dependent on him, brahmins and 13
ix. patience x. imparitality
househo lders, dwellers of towns and
village s, re cluses and brahmins, and The above lists which provide a wider concept of
even for birds and beasts leadership in
Buddhism include almost all the
Prohibiting every unlawful ac tions in necessary qualities both internal and external for a
. . .

111.
the country perfect leadership in any country or organization. It
lV. Making offerings or gifts to the needy will be more clear when we compare tho se qualities
•

in the country with the traits of leadership listed in the modern

' 14
v. Getting advice from religious teachers · socla I sCiences.
work s In .

who are well-restrained in moral

discipline and spiritually advanc ed Modern Concept B uddhist Concept
11
Vl. Ob serving
' precepts i. energy (de sire) Sakko (active, able)
•

ajja va - uprightness
Further, it is explained that the p o litical - abhiriipo (pleasant)
.

11. .
appearance
leaders should possess some person ality traits in lll.
. . .
sense of co­ -
Getting advice from
order to deserve themselves for the post. It is operativeness suitable persons
important to pay our attention to some of such lists of IV. e nthusiasm Ajja va - uprightne ss,
•

qualities mentioned in the discourses: tapa concentration

-

i. B irth - purity of parents and the v. intelligence Bahussuta - well­

generation versed in sciences
11.. .
Being handsome and pleasant pal)t;ito wise
-

Ill.
. . .
Possessing a great wealth vi. j udgement Skillfulness in
IV. Possessing a well - trained and communication and
•

disciplined army ability to think

v. Being faithful and being generous to all perfe c tly
Vl. Having a good e ducation in various - Skillfulness in various
•

vii. tact and

sCiences
•

diplomacy ways and openness to

Skillfulness in communication
.

V11. .

the public
VUl. . . .
Ability to think o f the present situation Vlll. . . .
moral courage -
Be ing faithful and
l2
in relation to the past and future generous and morality
IX. emotional Patience and
•

The ten qualities of a king: stability impartiality

•
x. knowledge of - Providing prote ction
morality
. .

i. charity 11. human relations and security to all

IV. uprightness
•

lll. giVing people

• • • • •

Vl. concentration
•

v. flexibility

56 57
 15
The Kosalasarpyutta o f Sarpyuttanikaya is a
Finally one factor should be understood well
•

collection o f discourses mostly dialogues between IX.

King Pasenadi and the Buddha. When taken as a whole because this clearly indicates the importance
we can summarise the contents o f that chapter as of moral behaviour in every situation of life.
follows:
i. A king or any other person should understand "The Buddha asked from King Pasenadi who
that a person loves himself mostly, So, one ' s was busy with royal activities, what is your
main duty is to establish himself on a firm response if someone says that huge rocks
ground first. Without this, one cannot lead from the four directions are rolling to wards
others . The leader should be perfect first in you by destroying e verything. The king
order to guide others perfectly. ans wered that there is nothing to do except
". 1 6
performing good and wholesome activities
..
11. He should have a good relationship with
others . He has to select good people to In this context the rocks represent the suffering of
associate with as friends. birth, decay, disease and death. The se are common
to all and because o f this fact the ethical behaviour is
.
lll.
. .

Only the suitable persons should be appointed considered as an e ssential part of every life whether
to the relevant p osts and he should have an it may be a normal person or a king .
excellent ability to identify the characteristics
of various persons. Communication:
•

The ethics related to communication in

•

IV. Tradition should not be followed with blind Buddhism has to be pointed out and emphasized in
belief. It should be analysed with intellect and modern soc iety because a large number of problems
if anything harmful should be rejected. are caused by it. A famous Sanskrit poet called Oal)(in
has mentioned in his KavyadarSa that this whole world
v. The war or punishment should not be will become a dark place if there does not exist what
17
considered as the final and only solution to the we call the light of sounds or language. Language
problems. comes into being as a combination of sounds and
meanings in relation to an established convention.
VI.
•

Should be ready to correct himself at any time The above - mentioned poet further says that the
when understands that he is incorrect. language when properly used brings every profit as
the wish - fulfilling cow in Hinduism and when badly
18
Vll.
. .

Should not be led astray by sensual pleasures . -

used it shows the bull ness (foolishness) of its user.
The Buddha also has paid much attention to the usage
.
Sho uld be a per son wh o goe s from dar kne ss of language from the beginning of his missionary
. .

Vlll.

to ligh t or from ligh t to ligh t but not from ligh t works. The MahavaggapBli records that the Buddha
to dar kne ss or from darkne ss to darkne ss. addressing the first group of sixty monks emphasized

58 59
the importance o f c o mmunic ation by the fo llowing consistent the with
doctrine, Vt'ith
words: reasons, confined within limits and
"Preach the dhamma which is good Clt the n 20
conducive to welfare .
beginning, good in the middle and good at the
end. The message to be communica ted sho uld The se four factors when c onsidered as a
possess both the aspects - sounds and whole explain almost all the good aspects which
.
.• 19
meanJIlgs perlect1y ". should inc l ude in any form of human c ommunication.

Acc ording to the list of ten unwho l e some Further, we find that the skillfulne ss in
deeds, four a c tions are related to c ommunication . communication should be gained through a spec ific
Although they are briefly s tated in the pre c e p t s , training. The Buddhist c oncept of catupa fisambhida
d e tails are available in the discourses regarding them. (four d is criminations) c an in a way be considered as a
S o , it is important to quote here those d e tails related specific knowledge related to c ommunication.
to v e rb al b ehavio ur. i. Knowledge about meaning
i. "abandons all thoughts of telling lies and 11. dhamma
• •

Kno wled ge abou t (ve rbal

abstains from telling-lies, speaking only teaching)
the truth, combining truth with truth, Ill.
•••

Knowledge about enunciation of

remaining steadfas t (in truth), language dealing with meaning and
trustworthy and not deceiving. dhamma
•

21
IV. Knowledge about kinds of knowledge
11. abandons all though ts of slandering and
• •

abstains from slander. Hearing things The se four kinds o f kno wledge can be stated
from these people he does not relate as follows in relation to the skillfuln e s s of
them to those people to sow the seed of c ommunication:
discord among them. Hearing things i. The knowledge o f statements
from those people he does not relate ii. The knowledge of the meanings of
them to these people to so w the seed of those statements
discord among them. He reconciles
• • •

Ill. The knowledge of various me d iums of

those who are at variance. He communication (languages)
encourages those who are in accord. He
•

IV. Knowledge of the c o gnitive pro c e s s in

delights in unity, loves it and rejoices in relation to c o mmunication and
it. He speaks to crea te harmony. understanding.

abandons all thoughts

talking of To acquire this particular knowledge of
• • •

Ill.

frivolo usly and abstains from frivolous c o mmunication there should be the follo wing
talk. His speech is appropriate to the c onditions in the Buddhist c ontext:
occasion, being truthful, beneficial,

60 61
 1. Prior effort - devotion to insight person) who is a liar and who is indifferent to a world
•

4
declared by the Buddhas beyond. 2
11. Gre at learning - skill in some science
. .

and craft There is an important fact to be noted in

Dialectics - skill in the hundred- and­ regard to B uddhist communication that not only verbal
. . .

Ill.

one tongues, particularly in that of communication but also non- verbal aspects are taken
. Magadha into consideration. The term 'muni', a Hindu religious
iv. Scriptures - mastery of the Buddha s term, is connected with the practice of silence
words (mauna vrta). Generally it means a sage who fo l lows
v. Questioning - questioning about the practice of silence. Although Buddhism
defining meaning of the Buddha s words recommends silence as a good practice it is not
VI. Achievement - attaining the higher
•

maintaining mere silence with ignorance. It is called

spiritual stages noble silence (ariyo tu!Jhibhiivo) accompanied with
VII. Waiting on a teacher living with mindfulness and reflection on dhamma.
. .

So, it is
very learned intelligent teachers emphasized that "Not by silence {alone} does he who
Success · in friends - acquisition of is dull and ignorant become a sage; but that wise man
. . .

Vlll.

friends such as that22
There are different ways of gaining this
particular knowledge in relation to Buddhas,
Paccekabuddhas and arhants. Normal disciples get this
knowledge through all the above - mentioned e ightfold
means. But there is no special meditational subi ect in
order to attain this knowledge. 23 It means that even a
non- arhant can attain these four kinds of knowledge
related to perfect communication.
Although it is explained in conformity with
Buddhist path of deliverance, one can use those
aspects even to create a common concept of
communication create in the Buddhist context.
As to the B uddhist path the restrainment of
man's physical, verbal and mental b ehaviour occupies
an important plac e . Among these one should pay
special attention to the verbal behaviour because it is
said that (there is no evil that cannot be done by the
who, as if holding a pair of scales, embraces the best
and shuns e vil, is indeed a sage. For that reason he
is a sage. He who understands, both worlds is,
therefore, called a sage ". 25
It is clear that the Buddha has redefined the
term 'muni-sage ' in two ways as refle ction on the
practice o f silence and ability of measuring what is
good and what is bad. However, noble silence is not
only a practice of concentration b ut also an effective
way of communication in regard to some contexts. It
is recorded in the discourses that the Buddha
maintained noble silence with patience on some
occasions when criticism arose against him. Further,
there is a be lie f that the Zen B uddhist tradition was
originated from a non- verbal sermon given by the
Buddha while concentrating on a flower. The silence
accompanied with mindfulness, c ompassion and
understanding is called a "thundering silence "
because it is a mighty force to break through anything
and go forward.

62 63
 Here it should not be overlooked that the
The Buddha is considered as the greatest basis of verbal behaviour of person is essentially
among the speakers or preachers (pa vadatarp varo). It psychological. Reflection on perceptions (vitakka) and
is due to his c ompetence of communication that a pondering over them (viciira) are the mental activities
2 7
large number of people were attracted to Buddhism. that precede the ver b aI commUnicatIon.
. .

But it should be emphasized here that it was not only

the competence of communication but the highest Thus we can see that the skill in
achievement in spiritual progress connected with it communication can be obtained only by following a
was enabled him to get success. He was always good discipline and gaining a sound knowledge of the
appreciated by others as the one who behaves as he nature of the world. And the communicator has to
speaks and who speaks as he behaves (yathavadi abide by a number of disciplinary rules without which
tathiikiiri yathiikiiritathavadi). There was no difference the hearers may be led astray by his opinions. One
between what he speaks and what he acts. He used does not become a skillful communicator by merely
his incomparable competence of communication to moving his lips (offhapahata-mattena) and by merely
lead the people towards moral behaviour and highest
28
repeating the words of others (lapitalapanamattena).
understanding. His way of communication used to As communication plays an important role in social
lead the normal people is c alled gradual sermon and relationships, the ethics related to verbal behaviour
its culmination the highest sermon. Its order is as becomes extremely useful for a successful social life
follows: of a person.
i. Friendly talk
Benefits of giving
• •

11.

Benefits of moral behaviour

. . .

111.

IV. The rewards of merits that can reap In

• •

heaven
v. Talk on misery, vanity and defilement
born of sensual pleasures
vi. Happiness of renunciation of such
pleasures

After this gradual talk, the Buddha understands

that the hearer' s mind has become worthy, flexible,
devoid of hindrances , upward , happy, active and
stable. Then he explains the highest teaching which
comprises of the nature of suffering, its cause, its
cessation and the path leading to the cessation of
suffering.26

64 65
End Notes Chapter 6
Ethics Related to Monastic Life
I VvA, pp. 1 8, 23
2
Vism. P. 341
3
Dighanikaya, Long Discourses of the Buddha, No. XII, Burma Pitak
Association, Buma, 1 984, pp. 434 - 437
4
Dhammapada, op. cit., p. 1 77
5 The Buddhist monastic life is an outcome of a
Di ghanikaya , op. cit., p. 441
6 1 .
I'b'd gradual process took place in a long history of more
7 1 .
1'b'd than two thousand years from the time of the Buddha
8
DAT., with reference to Sigalovadasuttll
9
in the sixth century B . C . in India. The monastic
Dialogues of the Buddha, vo!. III, p. 88
10 traditions have been established in various countries
Di ghanikaya, II1, 1 9 1 1 , p, 60
11 to which B uddhism was introduced in the remote past
op. cit., pp. 6 1 - 62
12
Dialogues of the Buddha, III, pp. 1 77 - 1 78 and recent past. India, Sri Lanka, B urma, Thailand ,
13
J. V. p. 378
14
Laos and Cambodia can be identified as the countries
Chandan, Management, Theory and Practice
15 where exist the Thera vada form o f monastic traditions.
Sarpyuttanikaya, Part J, 1 884, pp. 68 - 93
16 In Chin a , Taiwan , Korea, Japan and some other
op. cit., pp. 1 00 - 1 0 I
17
countries , the Mahayana form of monastic traditions
•

KvyadarSa of Dan<;l in
18
1 .
1'b'd
19
can be seen. Further, in some western countries, we
Vinayapitakarp, J, 1 879, p. 2 1
20 find a similar tradition called Western B uddhist Order.
Dighanikaya, Burma, 1 984, p. 7
21 There are some groups o f women clad in white or
The Path of Purification, tr. Yen. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Buddhist
Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1 99 1 , pp. 439 - 440 yellow, shaven headed , called Silamatas in some
22
op. cit., p. 442 countries like Sri Lanka and Thailand who also lead a
23
1 .
1'b'd
24 life very similar to that of monasteries. Although
Dhammapada, ed. And tr. Yen. Narada Thera, Malaysia, 1 978,
p. 1 59 there are differences among these various traditions ,
25
op. cit., p. 2 1 7 they are mainly based on the disciplinary rules in
26
Mohan Wijayaratna, Buddhist Monastic Life , op. cit., pp. 1 74 - 1 75 ; B uddhism which are called Vinaya. The B uddhists
Vinayapi takarp , J, 1 879, pp. I S 1 6
27 have preserved Vinaya collections belonging to a
-

D. 11. 277; S. iv, 360

28 number of schools or trad itions.Thera vada,
A. I. 1 65
Mahasanghika, MahTsasaka, Dharmaguptaka, KasyapTya,
SammitTya and Sarvastivada are some of them.
Comparative studies in these Vinaya collections reveal
that they are mostly similar in fundamental aspects
though . include some additions, omissions and
modifications. 1 Further it is confirmed that the
•
e arliest collection of Vinaya rules called Patimokkha
has been the main source of later expansion o f the
subject. 2 S o , a discussion in relation to the rules of
Patimokkha will do j ustice to the common title of this
66
chapter "Ethics related to monastic life Although
n.
the Piitomokkha or Priitimok�a colle ctions of Vinaya
rules are found in different language s and dialects,
here , we will use the Piili terms referring to various
types of disciplinary rules.
First of all it is important to pay our attention
to the early stage of the evolution of the monastic life.
According to the Mahiivagga, the Buddha . addressed
the first group of sixty monks in the following words:
"0 monks, I am freed from all bonds both
human and divine. You are also freed from all bonds
both human and divine. Go forth, 0 monks, on tour,
for the sake of many people, for the happiness of
many people, out of compassion for the worldlings,
for the profit, gain and happiness of deities and men.
Do not go alone, go two of you together. Preach the
dhamma, good at the beginning, good in the middle
and good at the end. Propagate the highest life which
is pure, complete and endo wed with meaning and
sound ". 3
recommended the observanc e of rainy season for the
monks and it caused the making of monaste ries or
huts for them to spend that period of time . 4 And
various rules and regulations were laid down in
regard to the observance s and other necessary
activities. At the beginning the devote es were
admitted to the order by the Buddha himself and later
some rules were laid down in order to carry out the
5
act of ordination in a systematic order. Rules were
introduced to maintain the relationship between
teachers and students. 6 The main precepts grew in
hundreds when the members of the community found
guilty on committing offences. The Buddha had to
introduce a large number of new rules when the order
of nuns was e stablished as a response to the request
made by a group of women headed by his stepmother
Mahiipajiipatlgotaml
In this discussion o f the nature of e thics in
monastic life , three kinds of factors recorded in the
Piiriijikapiili are worthy to be mentioned.

This first statement of the Buddha given to the 1. The orders of some o f the former Buddhas
monks includes in brief the fundamental nature and namely Vipassl, Sikhl and VessabhO, did not last longer
the career of the monks. The fundamental nature of due to the following facts :
the community of monks was not monastic at this time . i. they were tired o f (Kiliisuno) preaching the
S o , they walked from village to village expressing the dhamma in detail to the disciples
dhamma 11. various aspects of their teachings such a
• •

for the sake of many people. They

maintained their life on food collected from house s . It sutta, geyya, veyyiikarafJa, giithii and udiina
was a very simple and meaningful life at the early were very little in number
111. precepts were not laid down for the
• • •

stage. In the course of time , members of the

community grew in large and King Bimbisiira offered disciples
the garden called Ve!uvana to the Buddha and the iv: ceremony of rec onciliation and recitation
8
community for the first time . Eventually, other of Vinaya rules was not held
faithful devotees also followed this example and
began to o ffer not only the gardens but also These were the reasons for disappearing the order of
monasteries and caves. In the meantime the Buddha those three Buddhas very soon. Quite the opposite

68 69
was the reasons for stability o f the orders o f other importance of history or past experiences. The
three Buddhas namely Kakusandha, Konagamana and Buddha had already in mind the causes and conditions
Kassapa. that influenced the quick disappearance o f the former
three Buddhas. The causes may vary in regard to
2. The rules for the order of monks and nuns will different types o f organizations. Here it is concerned
be laid down only when the following factors which only about the Sangha organization. We can apply this
cause problems in the order. The aim of introducing method in organization of other institutes also.
rules is to e l iminate such causes:
i. Very long standing of the order o f Sangha The second four factors refer to the
ii. Wide expansion of the order o f Sangha conditions that cause problems in any given institute .
iii. Excessive gaining o f the order of Sangha Time and multiplic ation of any organization, if not
iv. Exc essive expertise o f e ducation of the controlled, may cause problems. This means that the
order of Sangha
9
organization should ' be reformed time to time by
introducing new rules and regulations. Excessive
3. The obj ectives of laying down the disciplinary profit and excessive expertise also should be
rules are tenfold: controlled because over- satisfaction can create
i. For the excellence o f the Sangha negligence of members regarding their duties .
ii. For the comfort o f the Sangha
iii. For the restrainment o f evil - minded The third ten factors indicate the objectives o f
persons the Sangha organization. In organizing any institute ,
iv. For the comfort of well - behaved monks its obj ectives should be declared clearly at the
v. For the restrainment o f defilements beginning. The members can work together to
'
related to the present life actualize s uch obj ectives if they are known to them
vi. For the destruction o f defilements related clearly. The above ten factors can b e introduced as a
. to future life common conception as follows :
vu . For the satisfaction o f unsatisfied persons
• • •

1.
.
in regard to the order u. Well being of the organization
.

.
For the multiplication o f satisfaction of
. .

Vlll.

those who are already satisfied in regard ..

Discipline and encouragement of the
.

lll.
to the order •

IV. members by introducing rules,

For the long standing o f the dhamma
•

IX. V. punishments and making evaluation

10
X. For the encouragement of the discipline VI.
•

The above-mentioned factors reveal the

Buddhist insight into the methods of org anization
followed at the beginning o f the e stablishment o f the
Sangha society. The first four factors remind us the
70 71
 Aniyata - 02
}
. .

indefinite cases
. . .

Vl1.
Protection and e stablishment o f the lll.

IV. Nissaggiyapscittiya 30
• • •

cases entailing
•

Vlll.
organization -

expiation with
IX.
•

X. } Confirmation of the achievement of

final goal v. Pscittaya - 92
forfeiture
cases entailing
exp iation
Pspdesaniya 04 - cases that must
•

VI.
Together -with the statement of Buddha to the
-

be confessed
first group o f sixty monks, the above - mentioned
vii. Sekhiys - 7 5 - cases of rules of
factors can be cons idered as a good foundation for
conduct
the e stablishment o f the organization of Sarigha
A dhikaranasamatha 07 cases of
. . .

Vlll.
community.
-
•

s ettlement of
litigation 1 2
-

Now, having clarified the basis o f monastic

organization, we can turn to the constitution of Sarigha
The personal nature of these rule s may be
documented in the Pstimokkha as well as in the
understood with reference to some of them. The first
Vinayap1faka. The Vinayapifaka of the Thera vsda
four offences are related to the following facts:
tradition constitutes o f five texts :
Sexual intercourse
•

ParsjikapBli PscittiyapBli 1.

11 . Taking what is not given

. .

Culla vaggapBli MahsvaggapBli

Purposely depriving a human being of life
. . .

11
111.
ParivarapBli
Falsely professing superhuman qualities of
•

IV.

himself13
Among thes e five texts, the first two are -

known as Ubhatovibhariga and include the disciplinary These four acts are considered the most
rules for monks and nuns. According to the nature o f serious and committing them is a defeat (parsjika) in
these rules, they
are mostly applicable to the the order. H e has no right to remain as a monk or
.
individual behaviour of the Sarigha. The rules consist nun in the order once they are c ommitted and proved.
o f the following groups in their descending order in Sexual relationship is the main
of characteristic
accordance with their strength: family life . The monks and nuns enter the order by
Rule s for the monks giving up the household life . Ordination is stated as
Parsjiks - 04 - cases of Defeat
i. ''gojng from home to homelessness ". 1 4 Stealing means
ii. Sarighsdisesa 13 - cases entailing
-

taking · things unlawfully into one ' s possession.

initial and
Buddhist monks (henceforth abbreviated for . both
subsequent
monks and nuns) cannot keep anything personal in
meeting E)f the
addition to the e ssential requisites which are
Sarigha
recommended. Stealing is completely opposite o f
their simple style o f life . Killing a human being by a
72
73
person who has set out on a path out of compassion Unsuitable behaviour in regard to the lay
for all beings is inhuman. The superhuman qualities famil ies and nuns with reference to eating food is
should be developed by the monks according to their connected with the four offences called pafidesaniya. 1 8
main purpose of religious life. If someone fal sely
profe sses such qualitie s, he is not leading an honest The sekhiyas include the minor rules related to
life. So, these four offences de stroy the very the conduct of monks. Some of them are
foundation of the monastic life. recommended to be followed and some not to be
followed.
The Sarighadisesa offences are next to the
parajikas in strength and some of them are given Some of the rule s to be followed:
below: i. Wearing robe s even all round
i. Intentional emission of semen ii. Going well covered with robes in inhabited
ii. Engaging with a woman in bodily c ontact areas
motivated by lust Ill.
. .

Sitting
.

well covered with robe s In

•

Addressing a woman with lewd words

. . .

Ill.
inhabited areas
motivated by lust IV.
•

Going well restrained in inhabited areas

IV. Making a hut without following the
•

V. Going with downcast eyes

relevant rules and conditions
v. Accusing a monk without reason of a case Some of the things not to be followe d :
of defeat motivated by anger i. Not going fidgeting the body
vi. Causing a schism of the order
•

Not going with head covered

. .

H.
vii. Not respecting the rules and the advice of ..
Not sitting lolling
.

Hi.
1
the Sarigha 5 IV.
•

Not eating shaking the hand , scatteriTlg

These offences can be recorrected by making
a request and following the necessary practices with
the recommendation of the Sarigha. Most of the
Nlssaggiyapaclttiya rules are related to preparing and
16
using different kinds of robes.
The Pacittiya rules are concerned of wrong
actions like lying, abusing , slandering , digging the
rice, putting the tongue out, licking the
19
hand, wiping the bowl
The seven cases of settlement of Litigation:
i. Removal (of l itigation) by confrontation
ii. Removal (of litigation) by (establishing a
bhikkhu's) memory (to be reliable) can be
adjudicated
.
Removal (of litigation) by (establishing that
. .

Ill.
earth, damaging plants , driving a monk from the a bhikkhu was influence d by) mental
monastery with anger and exhorting nuns without due derangement
" 17
permIssIon 0 f the ord er. lV.
•

(The litigation) can be dealt with by

recognition (on the part of a bhikkhu who
committed an offence and did not see it)
74 75
 v. By (a j udgement of) habitual bad character XII.
..

The Council of Vesali

against someone ; or by the covering over
with grass 20

An ob servation of the above-mentioned The Mahiivaggapiill�

various kinds of Vinaya rules will reveal the fact that i. The admission of the Order of Bhikkhus
they are c onnected with every aspect of the life of 11. The Uposatha ceremony and the Piitimokkha
. .

monks and nuns. The rules for the nuns also be long 111. Residence during the rainy season (Vassa)
. . .

to the same groups with some additional aspects IV. The pa viiral)B ceremony at the end of the
•

which are mostly related to the specific behaviour of vassa (rainy season)
women-kind. v. Different rules, especially regarding the use of
articles made o f skin
The other two books of the Vinayapifaka, VI. Medicaments
•

.
name ly Culla vaggapiili and Mahiivaggapiili include VIl. The Ka fhina ceremony
.

. •

altogether twenty-two chapters and they consist of VIlI. Dress of Bhikkhus

. .

the duties, rule s and other ceremonial activities ix. Validity and invalidity of ecclesiastical acts
l
related to the social or community life of monks and x. Schisms among the fraternit i
nuns. The chapter titles of the two texts are given as
follows in the PTS edition s : The above -mentioned chapter headings of the
two texts clearly rev,eal that the rule s o f this section
The Culla vaggapiil/� are mostly related to the 'common activities o f the
i. The Principal Disciplinary Proceedings Sarigha. They cannot be performed individually but
ii. Rules for the c onduct o f the Bhikkhus who have need the support and participation of other members
committed a Sarighiidisesa offence o f the community. To have a general knowledge of
111. Rehabilitation o f Bhikkhus who have committed the nature o f the se rules it is important to pay our
. . .

a Sarighiidisesa offence attention to some of them.

IV. Questions to be settled among the fraternity
•

v. Miscel laneous details regarding the daily life The principal disciplinary proceeding s :
of Bhikkhus The Culla vagga includes five such disciplinary
VI. Edifice s , furniture , sleeping places measures to be taken in regard to some o f the
•

Vll. Schisms among the fraternity offenc e s :

. .

.
Regulations for different classes of Bhikkhus Eg. Tajjaniyakamma Gene rally this mea ns glvm g
• •

Vlll.
. .

and different occasions advice strongly. The monks who are guilty of the
Exclusion of guilty Bhikkhus from the actions like the following are liable to this punishment.
•

IX.

Piitimokkha ceremony i. making quarrels within the Sarigha

x. The sisterhood of Bhikkhunis ii. frequent c ontact with householders
The Council of Riijagaha iii. speaking ill o f the Buddha. Dhamma and Sarigha
•

Xl.

76 77

Pabbajaniyakamma - This indicates that the guilty
monk of some offence s should leave the monastery
and should l ive properly in a new monastery. The
offences incl ude defiling the famil ies, bad b ehaviour
22
such as playing, singing and dancing.
It is important to note that these disciplinary
measures should be taken by following the
recommended procedure. For example, the guilty
monk should be warned first and he should accept
that he is guilty of the offence . A competent monk
should express the full dec ision taken by the Sangha
in regard to the guilty monk. The guilty monk should
be present at the time and he should be given an
23
opportunity to defend himse l f. After the punishment
is give n , the guilty monk also loose some privil eges
and they are given in regard to each and every act.
It is inter es tin g tha t the las t tw o ch ap ter s of
Culla vaggapSli de al wi th the proc ee din gs of the tw o
Bu dd his t co un cil s he ld in Ind ia aft er thr ee mo nth s an d
on e hu nd red ye ars of Buddha s pa ssi ng aw ay
•
•
re sp ec tiv ely . Th e tw o co un cil s we re he ld ma inl Y
reg ard ing dis cip lin ary ma tte rs in the ord er. An d the
co un cil s ar e re lat ed to the ac tiv itie s of the Sangha
co mm un ity as a wh ole . S o , the inc lus ion of the
his tor y of or de r in thi s se c tio n mi gh t ha ve co ns ide re d
as a nec ess ity .
Another important factor in regard to
Culla vagga is that it includes the details of
. establishment of the order o f nuns and a large number
of rules and regulations connected to their behaviour
•
together with l iving accounts at the time.
78
The Mahavaggapali also includes the incidents
connected with the origin and e xpansion of the order
of monks. It starts with a short biography of the
Buddha after attaining enlightenment and proc eeds to
explain in detail how the early members of the order
got their ordination and lay devotees l ike Tapassu,
Bhalluka, Yasa 's father and mother and King Bimbisara
j oined with the Buddhist faith. The conversion of
Uruvelakassapa, Nadikassapa and GayBkassapa with
their followers and the ordination of Siiriputta and
Moggallana, the two chief disciples o f the Buddha, are
24
explained in detail.
The chapter on duties of teachers and
students include a large number of duties to be
performed by them on different occasions. The
relationship between the teacher and student is
2
compared to that of father and son. 5
The chapter of medicaments include some
herbal medicines that should be used in regard to
various diseases caused by air, phlegm, bile and
26
environmental factors.
The observance of rainy season was
recommended for the monks in conformity with the
contemporary religious observances of the o ther
religious traditions. This observation and o ther
duties connected with it like making robes has
27
created a new stage of deve l opment of the order.
the
the The uposatha ceremony recommended for the
Sailgha to be held twice a month is of great
importance because of the fol lo wing factors :
It made the opportunity for the Sailgha to
i.
associate with each o ther regularly
79
 11. The Sarigha could hear and remember all the impartiality, j ustice and universal applicability.
• •

vinaya rules twice a month Further, the Buddha has given permission to the
111. New rules were communicated to the monks that they may change the minor rules in the
• • •

members be fore long after their introduction course of time with the consent of the majority of the
IV. Purity of the behaviour of the members could Sarigha. The se are the reasons for the unbroken
•

be confirmed existence of the Buddhist order o f Sarigha for over

v. Mutual friendship could be maintained two thousand years in the midst of a large number of
challenges encountered in the past.
The uposatha ceremony was carried out in a
proper order. It includes some preliminary
performances too.
i. Sweeping the place where the ceremony to be
held. This place had to be recommended by
the consent of the Sarigha. It has spec ific
boundaries marked by the Sarigha and it is
called sims-boundary
11. Lighting a lamp
• •

111. Keeping water in a pot or a vessel

• • •

IV. Preparing the seats

•

These should be done before the arrival of the

Sarigha for the ceremony. After their arrival, the
following things had to be performed :
i. Bringing the consent of the absentees
ii. Purity of the members by way of confe ssion of
their minor o ffences to e ach other so as to
refrain from such acts in the future
Announcement of the season which falls on
. . .

lll.

that particular day of the year

IV. Counting the number of monks who are ·
•

present at the ceremony

v. Giving advice to the nuns if they have
participated in the ceremony28
•

By foregoing short observation of the ethical

system of the Buddhist monastic life, we can
understand its nature, origin, systematic presentation,

80 81
 Chapter 7
The Bodhisattva Ideal

"Ukksdhiiro manussanarp niccarp apacito mayii'l/

End Notes The above statement of Ven. Ananda, the chief

attendant of the Buddha, emphasizes the importance of
I
A survey of Vi naya Literature, ed. Charles S. Prebish, Taipei, 1 994
2
enlightened beings. They are the torch-bearers of
Gunaratne Panabokke, History of the Buddhist Sangha in India and .
Sri Lanka, The Postgraduate Institute of Pali and Buddhist Studies,
mankind. If they do not appear in the world to point
Sri Lanka, 1 993, p. 1 8 out what is good and what is bad, this universe will
3
Vinayapi�aklll]1, Vol. I , PTS, 1 879, pp. 20 - 2 1 remain, forever covered with the darkness of
4
op. eit., p. 1 3 7
5
ignorance generated by evil powers of greed and
op. eit., pp. 65 - 68
6 hatred. Similarly Santide va, the author of
op. eit., pp. 44 - 6 1
7 Bodhicarysvatiira, also points out the fact in the
Vinayapi�aklll]1, Vol. IV, PTS, 1 882, pp. 2 1 1 - 35 1
8
Vinayapi�aklll]1, Vol. Ill, PTS, 1 88 1 , p. 8 following manner:
9
op. eit., pp. 9 - 1 0
10 .
op. elt., p. 2 1
11 ':4 t night in darkness thick with clouds a lightning
Vinayapi�aklll]1, five volumes, PTS
12 flash gives a momen t 's brightness. So, sometime, by
The Patimokkha, tr. Yen. Nanamoli Thera, Bangkok, 1 966
13
The Patimokkha, Yen. Nanamoli Thera, Bangkok, 1 966, pp. 1 8 - 2 1 the po wer of the Buddha, the mind of the world might
14
D. I. 60; S. I. 1 85 ; M . n. 5 5
15
for a moment turn to acts of merit. .
The Patimokkha, op. eit., pp. 22 - 3 1
16
op. cit., pp. 34 - 47
17 This being so, the po wer of good is always weak,
op. cit., pp. 46 - 5 5
18
op. eit., pp. 72, 73 while the power of e vil is vast and terrible. What
19
op. cit., pp. 74, 83 other good could conquer that were there not the
20
op. cit., pp. 82, 83 f2,
21 perfect A wakening Mind?'
The Vinayapi�aklll]1, Vol. n., PTS, 1 880, pp. v - vii; The
.

Vinayapi�aklll]1, Vol. I, PTS, 1 879, pp. v - vii

22
Kanai Lal Hzra, Constitution of the Buddhist Sangha, Delhi, 1 988, So appearing o f a Buddha, a fully enlightened
pp. 1 25 - 1 2 7 being, in the world should he considered as the most
23
op. eit., p. 1 2 5
24 auspicious event that the people could ever encounter
The Vinayapi�aklll]1, Vol. 1 , op. eit., pp. 1 - 1 00
25 in their live s. 3
op. eit., pp. 28 - 3 1
26
op. eit., pp. 1 99 - 252
27
op. eit., pp. 1 3 7 - 1 78
28 ''Hard to find is a man of great wisdom: such a man is
The Patimokkha, op. eit., pp. 6 - 1 1
not born e verywhere. Where such a wise man is born,
that family thrives happily. Happy is the birth of
•

Buddhas. Happy is the teaching of the sublime

82
dhamma. Happy js the undy of Sarigha. Happy js the
djsdpJjne of the unjted ones ". 4
The Bodhisattva 's sole objective is to serve all
be ings to get rid of suffering. So it is the culmination
of the Buddhist concept of compassion. This
compassionate obje ctive cannot be achieved without a
profound knowledge of the true nature of the world.
Therefore , a Bodhisatta fulfils perfections . throughout
the existences.Its c ulmination comes o ut as great
wisdom. The Buddha, therefore is an embodiment of
great compassion and great wisdom (mahBkaruQa.
mahaprajfia). Ven. Buddhaghosa, the Celebrated PBJi
commentator in Sri Lanka, puts the idea into a verse
as follows:
'1 worshIp the well-gone -one, who has no more
bJi-ths, whose heart was cooled wjth compassjon, who
djspelled the darkness of jgnorance wjth the ljght of
wjsdom and who was the re vered teacher of the
world of men and dejtjes ". 5
So, the concept o f Bodhisattva and his specific
career can be considered as the highest e thical
system in Buddhism. It is more important as far as
Buddhist social ethics are concerned because the
•
Bodhisattva 's career is fully devoted to the social
service in the highest sense.
Har Dayal, in his monumental work
(masterpiece) "The Bodhisattva doctrIne jn Buddhjst
Sanskrjt Uterature ", after examining almost all
important works of the scholars, states that the
meaning of the term ''Sodhisattva '' is Bodhi - being,
heroic being, or spiritual warrior. 6 According to him,
the term "Bodhisattva " is a wrongly Sanskritized form
of the original PBJi term ''satta '' which means being. 7
84
Due to that Sanskritization, the term ''sa ttva " has been
interpreted in various ways by many scholars.
The Sakyamuni Buddha was a historical
•
personality who l ived in India in the sixth century B . C .
The human features of his early l i fe are recorded in
the PBJi discourses which represent an earlier period
than the other Buddhist sources. 8 The terms ''Sodhi­
enlightenment" and ''Sodhisatta-the Bodhi-being" is a
frequently used term in the PBJi canon. 9 So, we have
to go through the PBJi discourses first in order to get
an idea of the concepts of Buddha and Bodhisatta
before we turn to the Mahayana sources. Further,
the se two concepts have been developed for the first
time by the early Buddhists or Theravadins. In some
discourses o f the PBJi canon we find the historical and
human nature o f the Buddha. Some references are
given below:
1. The ascetic Siddhartha introduces himself to
King Bimbisara:
o Kjng, a strajght on (jn that dkectjon) there js a
state on the flank of Hjmalaya, belongjng to Kosala
kIngdom, there jn a famjly endo wed wjth wealth and
courage. I came from that famjly of SBkyas, as an
10
ascetjc, not wjShIng the comfort jn sensual pleasure.
2. Reason for renunciation:
"The household IIYe js troublesome, jt js a place for
accumulatjon of defi1ements. The ascetjc Jjfe js lIke
". 1 1
the space. Thjs js the reason for my renundatjon
''All the people In the world, beIng themselves jn the
nature 'Of bJi-th, · decay and death, they search for the
thjngs whkh are also jn the nature of bJi-th, decay and
death. That means the people as well as what they
search for e.g. anImals, houses , wealth etc. are
subjected to bJi-th, decay and death. Thjs search js
85
not noble. So, I should start a noble search. That "The recluse Gotama is Omniscient, sees e verything,
means I should search for some thing which is not declares a complete kno wledge, this kno wledge exists
". 1 2
subjected to birth, decay and dea th all the time whJ7e he is walking, standing, sleeping and
not sleeping ". The wanderer wanted to know
ici at ed th e ho us eh old - lif e? whether this statement is true or not. The Buddha s
3. Ho w he re un
ving tho ught as me nt ion ed ab o ve , at a lat er pe rio d, answer was that if someone says that the Buddha is
"Ha
ing a yo un g ch ild in th e firs t sta ge of life, I omniscient and so and so, he accuses the Buddha with
still be
he ad an d be ard, do ne in ye llo w clo the s lef t false statements. If someone introduces the Buddha in
sha ved my
J7e an exact way he should say that the Buddha is a
home to become a mendicant in homelessness wh
ir
my parents were lamen ting with tears on the
p ossessor of three kinds o f higher knowledge s . They
,, 1 3 are as follows:
!.aces .
1. pubbeniviisanussatinalJ8
•

- know ledge of the

former births·
4. His quest for truth:
1 1. dibbacakkhuniilJ8
. .

H e studied under the ascetics Aliirakiiliima, and knowle dge o f death and
-

Uddakariimaputta and was able to create the trances rebirth of people who pass away and get
called "Skincannayatana " concentration- on rebirth in various stales, low and high,
nothingness and "nevasannanasannayatana " the -
according to their kamma or actions
''neither-perception -nor-non­ asa vakkhayanalJ8
. . .

trance called 111. knowledge of the

14 d estruction of defilements which constitutes
perception ". After these achievements in trances
he understood that they will not support for giving up both freedom through concentration and
the sensual pleasures , non-gree d , cessation of wisdom (cetovimuttl; pannavimuttl) and which
defilements, pacification of de filements and was realized by the Buddha himself in which he
' 1 7
realization of nibbana. Then he entered a beautiful conducts his life.
forest in Uruvela and began to reflect over the
consequences o f birth, decay , disease and death. As 6. Some of the sayings of the Buddha in his final
a result he realized the supreme bliss of nibbana.
15 stage of life and his passing away
He realized the trance called "the cessation of i. '1 ha ve preached the truth witho ut making any
perception and feelings " beyond the trances he had distin ction between exoteric and esoteric
attained under the two teachers. 1
6 doctrin e; for in respec t of the truths, Ananda,
the Tathagata has no such thing as the close d
fist of a teacher, who keeps some things
5. The Buddha s knowledge or wisdom:
back ". 1 8
A certain wanderer c alled Vacchagotta asked a
question about the Buddha s knowle dge. He said that
ii. ''Again, Ananda, when a Tathagata passes
he has heard about the Buddha 's knowle �ge as
entirely a way in that utter passing a way in
follows:
which nothing whate ver is left behind, then

86 87
 this earth quakes and trembles and is shaken
. eighty years of age; and just as a worn -out
vJOlent1y ". 1 9
cart, Ananda, can he kept going only with the
... help of thongs, so, me thinks, the body of the
"But no w, Ananda, ha ve I not formerly
Ill.
Tathagata can only be kept going by bandaging
declared to you that it is in the very mature of
it up. It is only, Ananda, when the Tathagata,
all things, near and dear unto us, that we must
by ceasing to attend to any outward thing,
divide ourselves from them, lea ve them, se ver
' becomes plunged by the cessation of any
ourselves from them ? Ho w, then, Ananda, can
separate sensation in that concentration of
this be possible - whereas anything whate ver
heart which is concerned with no material
born, brought into being, and organized,
object - it is only then that the body of the
contains within itself the inherent necessity of ".22
Tathagata is at ease
desolution - ho w then can this be possible that
such a being should not be dissolved? No •

VI. There are four places which the faithful

such condition can exist! - - - - - The passing
clansman should visit with feelings of
a way of the Tathagata shall take place before
reverence . The place where the Tathagata
long. A t the end of three months from this
, was born, where he attained the enlightenment,
time the Tathagata will die! eo
where he gave the first sermon and where he
passed away. 23
"No w when the Exalted One had eaten the
•

IV.

rice prepared by Cunda, the worker in metals, . .

vu. "Behold n o w, brethren, I exhort you, saying:­
.

there fell upon him a dire sickness, the

disease of dysentery, and sharp pain came
upon him, e ven unto death. But the Exalted
One, mindful and self-possessed, pore it
"2
Wlt' hout comp1am t . 1
.
''Decay is inherent in aJI component things!
Work out your salvation with d11igence! " This
s " 2
wa the last word o f the Tathagata . 4
...
When the Exalted One died the Venerable

Vlll.

Ananda at the moment o f his passing away

v. "On the night, Ananda, on which Tathagata
from existence uttered this stanza:
attains to the supreme and perfect insight and
"Then was there terror!
on the night in which he passes finally a way in
Then stood the hair on end!
the utter passing a way which leaves nothing
When he endo wed with e very grace -
whate ver to remain - on these two occasJOns ,
•

The supreme Buddha - diedl e5

the colour of the skin of the Tathagata
becomes clear and exceedingly bright ".
After the cremation o f the buddha s body a
•

lX.

brahmin c alled Dona, "dividend the remains of

"0 Ananda, I am now gro wn old, and full of
the Exalted One equaJIy into eight parts, with
years, my journey is dra wing to its close, I ".26
fair division
ha ve reached my sum of days, I am turning

88
89
 The Bueeha, acc ording to the above quotations
.:. His tongue is long
and details from the PSli canon, was born as a human
.:. He has regular teeth
being, attained the supreme enlightenment due to his ,,
.:. H is ey es are in te ns el y bl ue 27
great effort and dedication, · lived a simple life , faced
with troubles and illnesses, passed away at Kusinara,
11.
"

l ineage:
his body was cremated and the remains were
Mahapaeanasutta of Dighanikaya pr es en ts the
distributed among the kings and leaders.
time , cl an , fa m ily , le ng th of lif e , the tree un
de r
,

w hi ch be ca m e en lig ht en ed , na m es o f ch ie
After his passing away, the followers f
di sc ip le s, nu m be r of arhants who as se m bl ed
pondered over his personality and his teachings than ,
name of the at te nd an t, fa th er , m ot he r an d bi
before . They wanted to upgrade his personality and rth
pl ac e of se ve n Bueehas na m e ly Vipassi, Sikhi,
doctrine due to contemporary needs and to fill up the
Vessabhii. Kakusandha, Konagamana, Kassapa
gap left in the ir hearts with the passing away of the
an d Gotama. 28
Buddha. So, within the PSli canon itself we find some
facts which seem sometime s contradictory with the " .

Ill. former births:

details given above. His personality has been
The JatakapSli, one of the fifte en te xt s of the
developed in several aspects:
Khuddakanikaya ex pla in s the fo rm er l iv er s or
i. Physical body
bir th s of the Gotama Buddha.
ii. Lineage - past and future
iii. Former births ,

IV. knowledge :
iv. Knowledge •

Al th ou gh th er e are ma ny so ur ce s wh ich
ex pla in the Buddha s kn ow led ge in va rio us
1. The Lakkhal)8sutta of Dighanikaya mentions
,

wa ys , I qu ot e on ly on e ca te go ry of know led ge
thirty-two special marks on the Buddha s body
ca lle d ten p ow er s of the Buddha.
and some of them are as follows:
i. Kn ow led ge of ins ta nc e an d no ins ta nc e
.:. " H e has feet with l evel thread
ii. Kn ow led ge of rip en ing of ac tio n
.:. Beneath on the soles of his feet, wheels
iii. Kn ow led ge of the wa y that lea ds
appear thousand-spoked, with tyre and
people of the world
hub in every way complete and well­ ,

IV. Knowledge of many and different

divided
e lements
.:. He has projecting heels
v. Knowledge of different dispo sitions by
•:. He is long in the fingers and toes
beings
.:. Soft and tender in hands and feet ,

VI. Knowledge of the state o f the faculties

.:. His male organs are concealed in a sheath
of be ings
.:. His taste is supremely acute "
.
Vll. Knowledge of defilement, cleansing
and emergence in the field of spiritual
progress
90
91
 Knowledge of the remembrance of Vetullakas and some others - The
• • •

VI11.
• • •

1.1 1.
former existence Exalted Buddha when born in the
Knowledge of decease and rebirth of heaven of Tusita, dwelt there while
•

IX.

beings visiting this world only in a shape

x. Knowledge of the e. xhaustion of mental specially cre ated. 3 4
. .
mtoxlcants 2 9 Uttarapathakas and others
•

IV.

Passionless Buddha felt no compassion.

Now, according to the forego ing details, it v. Thera vada - The Buddhas differ from
would be clear that the two concepts Buddha and each other only in respect of body, age
Bodhisatta have been developed in the PSli canon itself and radiance on different occasions.
which . represent an earlier period o f the history of There is no difference among them in
Buddhism. regard to other aspects. Like
Andhakas believed that they differ from
.
When we come to the later history of each ather m every aspec t. 35
Andhakas and others - The Bodhisattvas
•

Buddhism, we can notice further developments of

•

VI.
these concepts. It is recorded that after the second take birth in various places and in
Buddhist Council which was held one hundred years different species and expenence
•

after the Buddha s passing away in India, a group of suffering according to . their own
. .
monks called Vajjiputtaka seceded from the Orthodox mtentlon. 36
tradition o f the e lders and formed a separate sect
called Mahasarighika. One of the maj or theories of Further, in order to' downgrade the status of
them was that the B uddha is s upra-mundane arhants, some Buddhist sects have prese nted
(Iokottara). According to them the "Buddha s body is different opinions:
entirely supra -mundane (Iokottara). And his material Pubbaseliyas -
body is unlimited, as a result of his unlimited past Arhants may lack knowledge
merits ,: 30 Arhants are liable to be ignorant
Arhants may have doubts
The Kath6vatthuppakara(lS, one of the seven Arhant is excelled by others
texts of Abhidhammapifaka, also mentions some A layman may be arhant
. 37
opinions of the nature o f the Buddha held by . various •
An arhant accumuI ate s ments
B uddhist schools. Some of them are given below:
i. Andhakas the Buddha s daily usages
-
Mahasarighikas and Andhakas -
-
were supra mundane usages. 3 1
Arhantship is not complete. Arhants still have
Uttarapathakas - One who is gifted with fetters o f ignorance and doubt 38
. .

11.

the Marks is a Bodhisat. 32

Anything given to the Buddha brings By the above- mentioned factors we can
great rewards. 33 understand how the later Buddhist schools have

92 93
attemp ted to develop the concepts of Buddha and
Bodhisattva in different aspects. End Notes

1
As we saw , there is no complete biography of Psalms of the Early Buddhists, PTS, 1 909, p. 3 5 5
2
the Buddha in e arly sources. Ven. Buddhaghosa, in the The Bodhicaryavatara, tr. Kate Crosby and Andrew Skilton,
fifth c entury A.D. has presented the Thera vsda London, 1 995, p . 5
3
A. 1. 22
Biography in his commentary on JstakapSlL Ven. 4
Dhammapada, tr. Ven. Narada, Malaysia, 1 978, pp. 1 70 - 1 7 1
A svaghofIB s "Buddhacaritta " also an attempt to create a 5
DA. I, p. 1
biography in the first century A.D. Lalita vistara, one of 6
Har Dayal, The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit
the early sOtras of Buddhist Sanskrit describes the Literature, Delhi, 1 93 2 , pp. 4 - 9
7 .
Buddha s character in detail. " The Mahsvastu is a op. Clt., p. 7
8 .
collection of practically all the history, quasi-history op. Clt., p. 9
9
and legends (a vadanas) relating to the Buddha that PTS Dictionary - see under Bodhi
10
passed current in the long period during which it was Suttanipata, PTS, 1 9 1 3 , pp. 73 - 74
11 .
compiled". 39 It includes developments of both the
op. Clt., p . 72
12
M. I. PTS, 1 888, pp. 1 60 - 1 63
concepts Buddha and Bodhisattva in the Mahssarighika 13
op. Clt., p . 1 63
•

scho o l , the fore -runners of later Mahsyana tradition. 14

op. C1t., pp. 1 65 - 1 66
•

15
These biographies are mostly different from each op. cit., pp. 1 66 - 1 67
16
other, though all o f them have tried their best to op. Clt., p . 1 7 5
•

17
construc t a full biography of the Buddha with e thical op. cit., pp. 48 1 - 483
18
and doctrinal aspects rel ated to Bodhisattvas and the 19
Dialogues of the Buddha, part 11, 1 959, p. 1 07
.
op. Clt., p. 1 1 7
Buddhas. It would b e a voluminous text, if we try to 20 .
op. Clt., p. 1 26
present all details of the development of the concepts 21
op. cit., p. l 3 8
of Buddha and Bodhisattva. Our main purpose is to · 22 .
op. Clt., pp. 1 07 - 1 08, 1 46
evaluate the ethical system related · to Bodhisattvas. 23
op. Clt., p. 1 53
•

24
The foregoing short observation was done in order to op. Clt., p . 1 73
•

2S
clarify the origin and deve lopment of the concept of op. Clt., p . 1 77
•

26
Bodhisattva as a basis for the evaluation of the ethics op. Clt., p. 1 89
•

27
related to Bodhisattva s c areer. The details of the Dialogues of the Buddha, Ill, 1 92 1 , pp. 1 3 7 - 1 39
28
op. cit., pp. 6 - 7, Buddhavarpsa, one of the fifteen texts of
Buddha were added because we c annot speak about
Khuddakanikaya also explains the lineage of the Buddhas
Bodhisattvas without reference to the concept of the 29
S. 11. 2 7 ; Vin., 1 , 3 8 ; J. I. 84
Buddha. 30
Nalinaksha Dutt, Buddhist Sects in India, Delhi, 1 978,
pp. 1 1 . - 26, 72
31
Points of Controversy, PTS, 1 9 1 5, p. l 34
32
op. Clt., p . 1 68
•

33
op. cit., p . 3 2 1
34
op. Clt., p . 3 2 3
•

94 95
 Chapter 8
35
Op. cit., p . 3 5 4 Ethics Related to Bodhisattva' s Career
36
Op. cit., pp. 3 66 - 367
37
Op. cit., pp. 1 1 5, 1 1 8, 1 1 9, 1 57, 3 1 2
38
Op. cit., pp. 3 5 2 - 3 5 3 , 3 5 8
39
The Mahavastu, Vo!. 1 , PTS, 1 949, pp. ix - xx

Har Dayal describes the Bodhisattva 's care er

under seven main topics :

Gotra family of a Bodhisattva

A dhimukti -

aspiration
Anuttarapiija -

supreme worship
Bodhicittotpada -

production of the
thought of
enlightenment
Praridhana determination
VyBkarafJ8 -

predic tion
l
Carya -

career

The term "gotra " refers to family or c lan. The

normal beings when prepared to b egin the career of a
Bodhisattva belong to a separate group. They are
identified as holding some superiority in the faculties.
This superiority may be due to his deeds in the
former existences or due to the deve lopment of the
roots of merit in the pre sent life. 2

A dhimukti, aspiration is c onsidered as a quality

possessed by a Bodhisattva in the gotra stage. H e
enters the field of Bodhisattva at gotra stage and in
this stage he begins his upward journey with the
aspiration of becoming a Buddha. B ut it is said that
still h e has faults and imperfections and not prepared
to suffer pain for the sake of others. 3

Anuttarapiija - supreme worship includes

several activities as follows:

· 96
 1.
•

vandans and pOjs - worship and Vyiikaral)C1 - prediction is the assurance given
offering to the Buddhas, Bodhisattvas by a Buddha to a Bodhisattva as a confirmation of his
and the Doctrine determination. A Bodhisattva has to dec lare his
11.
••

Saral)C1gamana - taking refuge in the det�rmination in the presence of a l iving Buddha and
Buddha, the Doctrine and the the Buddha then declares his success in the attainment
Bodhisattvas in the future. 7
111. papadesans - confession of sins
. . .

pUfJyiinumodans - rejoicing in the good After completing the above - mentioned

•

IV.

V. adhyel}8ns and yscans - prayer and
supplication - praying and reque sting
the Buddha s to preach dharma and not
to disappear in final nirvsl)C1
parifJsmans - application of one ' s merit
•
requirements, the Bodhisattva is suitable to commence
his specific career. 8
Har Dayal presents two lists of these caryas
as follows :

VI.

to the welfare of others4 1 st List

i. prak{ticarys - the carya o f nature (gotra)
Bodhicittotpsda production of the thought of
- ii. prafJdhiinacarys - the carya of
enlightenment is a very important aspect of the aspiration
BOdhisattva s career because it is the sowing of seed 111. anulomacarys - the carya o f regular
. . .

for the origin of Buddha in the future . According to practice

Mahsyiina, every being possesses the Buddha nature iv. anivartanacarys - the carya of not
or seed of enlightenment. But it is covered with stopping
ignorance and egoism. The Bodhisattva with the 2nd List
arising o f Bodhicitta wishes for his supreme 1. bodhipak�yacarys - practice o f the
•

enlightenment and the service to promote good of all doctrine s related to enlightenment
b eings. It is said that with the arising of Bodhicitta, 11. abhijnscarys - practice of the super­
. .

with its power, all his sins related to past lives will be knowledge
cancelled. 5 piiramitscarys - practice of the
. . .

lll.

perfections
Praridhiina determination is the strong will of sattvaparipiikacarys - practice of
•

•
- IV •

the Bodhisattva to proceed in his career without giving
up his goal. The determination is explained under
three aspects:
i. To have happy rebirths
ii. To do good for all beings
6
iii. To purify the Buddha fields
maturing the living beings by preaching
9
and teaching
The above -mentioned short introduction to
the ethical procedure o f a Bodhisattva indicates that
almost all the good aspects that can be developed in a
human character are included in it. Further, though
there are some different ways of interpretations, the

98 99
early Buddhist path to purity is fully absorbed into the the early stage o f the order of Sangha. And also it is
Bodhisattva 's career. This will be more clear when we the preliminary stage of one's entering into the path
discuss those aspects in comparison with early of emancipation. Even lay devotees embrace
18
Buddhist teachings. Buqdhism by taking refuge in the Triple gems. -
Here, it is little different from the Thera vsda that the
The concept o f ''gotra '', according to Har Dayal, taking refuge in the Sarigha is replaced by
0 It occ urs
has been borrowed from the Hinayanists. 1 Bodhisattvas.
in the PSli canon " as a technical term from the end o f
the Niksya period to de signate one , whether layman or Confession of sins is a regular practice
bhikkhu, who, as converted, was no longer of the recommended for the monks and nuns in the Vinaya.
worldings (puthujjans), but by the Ariyas, having They have to assemble twice a month and confess
11 their faults to each other in order to purify
Nibbs1J8 as his .aim" . It is important that when a
normal person enters into a specific programme, he themselves. After this Vinaya rules (patimokkhadesans)
19
should have an identity in that field. Similarly, a will be recited.
Bodhisattva when he begins his career as a specific
being should be distinguished and identified in his Among the ten . wholesome actions
specific character. recommended in the Thera vsda tradition one is
rejoicing in good actions o f others (pattanumodans)
A dhimutti, or adhimokkha (PSli) in the sense of and another is to transferring of merits for the sake
resolve , intension, disposition and inclination has o f others. The ten wholesome actions are as follows:
12
been used in a number o f PSli discourses. It comes
Giving u. Morality
•

under the fifty - two mental concomitants in the

• •

1.

Thera vsda abhidhamma. 1 3 It is included in the category Meditation Transferring o f

. . . •

111. IV.

of occasional (pakilJ1J8ka) which are ethically variable merits

factors. . lts meaning is " the releasing of the mind v. Rejoicing in o thers Respecting the
•

V1.
14 meritorious deeds
onto the object ". The Thera vsda tradition . .
worthy persons
vu . Rendering a service Preaching dhamma
. . .

introduces a theory o f personality characters and this V1l1 .

Listening to x. Correcting one' s

•

is based on the inclination of people to some aspects IX.

such as greed, hatred , delusion and faith.

15 Dhamma views 20

The activities related to AnuttarapOjs are not
unfamiliar with the Theravsda tradition. The one who
worships gets reverence from others and the one who
16
offers gets things from others. To respect those
17
who are worthy to be respected is a bless�ng.
Taking refuge in the Triple - gems has been used as a
method of giving ordination and higher ordination at
The fifth item prayer and supplication is not
completely relevant to the Thera vsda tradition though
some ptayers like to associate with good people are
practiced in it.
The sixth item was already mentioned above
in relation to the ten wholesome actions.

100 101
 2
perfections. 5 The additional four are considered as
Production of the thought of enlightenment is supplementary piiramitas.
not some thing special because for every action to be
fulfilled one should create a volition related to that The six main piiramitas and supplementary
function. Volition (eetana), according to Thera vada piiramitas in Mahayiina are given below:
abhidhamma, is "the mental factor that is concerned 1.
•

diina glvmg
• •

with the actualization of a goal, that is, the conative or 11. si/a
. .

morality -

2 1
volitional aspect of cognition . A Bodhisattva also
"
111.
• • •

kt}anti -
patience
should create a volition in relation to his goal, the IV.
•

vlrya
-
- courage
attainment of supreme enlightenment. v. dhyiina - trance
V1.
.

praJna
.--
- wisdom
Praridhiina
•
determination is one o f the ten
•
-

Supplementary paramitas
perfections relevant to the BOdhisattva 's career in the ..
upayakaut}B/ya -
•

V11. skillful means

Thera vada tradition. The P8Ii term for this is . . .

V111. praljdhiina - aspiration

adhiffhiina. 22 IX.
•

ba/a - power
.
x. Jnana knowledge 26
--
-

Vyiikaraf)B prediction occurs in the same

-

sense in Jatakap8li and Dhammapada A ffhakatha. 23 The Among the aspects mentioned in the two lists
Gotama Buddha, as the Bodhisatta Sumedha received of piiramitas the following items are similar in both the
prediction first time from the Buddha Diparikara. traditions:
i. Giv ing
. .

11. Morality
According to Thera vada Carya or career of a iii. Wisdom IV
•

• Courage
Bodhisatta mainly includes the perfec tion o f ten
•

v. Patience vi. Aspiration or

piiramitas. They are given as follows : determination
diina - glvmg
• •

si/a
•

morality
-

The perfection of renunciation means to give

nekkhamma -
renunciation up the attachment to everything as impermanent,
panna -
wisdom unsatisfactory and soulless. This c an be done only
vmya courage
• •
-

through a proper understanding o f the real nature of

khanti -
patience the world. So, it needs wisdom as well as knowledge.
saeea - truth Therefore , it can be related to wisdom and knowle dge
adhiffhiina -
determination in Mahayiina tradition. Truth also is an obj e c t of
metta compassIOn
•

The Bodhisattva uses his

-

. . 24 wisdom and knowledge .

upekkha -
equammlty skills to lead the people out o f compassion. So,
compassion can be included in skillful means.
Although Mahayiina tradition accepts only six Equanimity is a mental factor which is developed
perfections, in some texts they also include the ten through trances. The Buddhas possess ten powers
102
1 03
according to Thera viida tradition. They are related to
In the first bhCini, the Bodhisattvas, though still
knowledge. Therefore , the power (ba/a) can be easily
ordinary being s , become worthy of offerings. Their
identified with wisdom.
conduct in this bhCini includes e ight aspects :
i. Liberality ii. Compassion
The above comparison is not a historical or
iii. Indefatigability iv. humility
analytical study of the concepts. It is a general
v. Study of all the vi. Heroism
observation and its aim is to show the similarity of
scriptures
such spiritual co �cepts described in various ways in .. . 3
de 1
• .

Contemp t for
•

V11. the Vlll. fortItu

different Buddhist traditions. As an ethical system
world and
the Bodhisattva 's career both in Thera viida and
Mahiiyiina shows the importance of dedicating one 's
life for rendering a good service to all beings by The main characteristic in the second bhCini is
giving up selfish ideas. Further, it should be the BOdhisattva 's aversion to all forms of existence.
emphasized that the differences of those concepts The dispo sitions of Bodhisattvas in this stage are
appear not in fundamental level but in the the ories given in the following list:
and methods used to interpret them. "They are good, amiable, s weet, keen,
bountiful, charming, profound, wholehearted,
Now, as far as the Bodhisattva 's career is imperturbable, distinguished, lofty, noble,
concerned, it is extremely important to discuss the resolute, sincere, pure, steadfast, independent,
concept of BhCinis in which the Bodhisattva develops contented and intent on the foremost Man and
32
his spiritual qualities until the attainment of the infinite '�
enlightenment. The term ''BhCini'' originally means
earth, sphere or plane is a very familiar term in the The quality of renunciation marks the
Pii/i canon. 27 In the Thera viida abhidhamma, it r,efers to importance of the third bhCini. it is said that the
the four spheres viz. sensual, form, formless and Bodhisattva will even sacrifice his own wife and child
8 33
supra - mundane . 2 As far as the Mahiiyiina sourc es to buy one verse of a wise saying in this stage.
are concerned, there is no unanimous opinion
regarding the details of these bhCinis. 2 9 The practice of virtue plays an important role
in the fourth bhCini because the Bodhisattva in this
The BhCinis and related details are important stage tries his best not to commit the following bad
with reference to the Bodhisattva 's specific career. activities :
1.
•

And this concept clarifies how the Mahiiyiina concepts Corrupting nuns, men and eunuchs
..
11. Causing unnatural disease in others by
of Buddha and Bodhisattva differ from the concept of
arhantship in Thera viida tradition. The de scription of the power of spells
...
30 . . lll. Seducing good men from virtue
bhCinis given in the Mahiivastu IS as f0 II ows·
.

IV. B ecoming shame less and

34
unscrupulous

1 04
1 05
 Further they refrain from doing such
unwholesome actions l ike killing parents and arhants,
creating schism in the order of Sarigha. 3 5
The state of heart of the Bodhisattvas which
links the two bh{inis-fourth and fifth is explained in
the following words:
"They see all existences inflamed by passion,
hatred, and folly, and accordingly the state of
heart that links the two bh{inis and brings them
to the fifth immediately after the fourth is one
full of despair and disgust ". 36
The Bodhisattvas try their best to refrain from
sensual pleasures, developing the concept of self and
fix their perception on meditative subj ects. 37
The sixth bh{ini is marked by listening and
respecting the Buddhas who have attained the
supreme enlightenment. The Mahsvastu presents a
long list of the Buddha fields and the names of the
Buddhas who reside in them. The Bodhisattva should
not envy those who have attained the higher spiritual
development and should listen to them revere �tly and
attentively in this stage. 38 The seventh bh{ini is
marked with the development of great compassion
which is one of the two main spiritual aspects
3 9
(compassion and wisdom) of the Buddha. Under the
e ighth and nineth bh{inis the text presents a long list
o f Buddhas numbering over five hundred. 4 0 In the
tenth bh{ini the Bodhisattvas will be born in the Tusita
heaven and will wait until the suitable occasion arises
4 1
to be born in the human world.
According to Har Dayal the ten bh{inis and" the
main spiritual aspects related to them are as follows:
1 06
l. Pramudits (Joyful) -
The Bodhisattva in this stage feels keen delight
by remembering his future achievement to
become a Buddha or the teachings of the
Buddha and discipline of the Bodhisattvas. In
addition to the other perfections he practices
the perfection of giving (dana) in this stage .
2. Vimals (Pure) -
The concept of ''purity'' in Buddhist context
refers to the eradication of defilements.
Observing precepts and performing the
wholesome deeds bec ome helpful to the
Bodhisattva to purify his physical, verbal and
mental behaviour in th is stage. Practicing of
virtue (sila) occupies an important position in
this stage .
3. PrabhSkari (Light-giving) -
•
The light is a symbol of dispelling the
darkness of ignorance . The Bodhisattva pays
his attention to the Buddha knowledge here
and devotes his time for the study of
teachings of the Buddha in order to gain
perfect knowledge. Spec ial attention is paid
here for the perfection of patience .
4. Arcil)lTlati (Radiant) -
As a · result of developing the qualities of
enlightenment, the Bodhisattva becomes able
to burn up sins and ignorance which are
hindrances to his attainment. The rays
symbolize the act of burning. Perfection of
courage predominates in this stage .
1 07
5. Sudurjays (V ery- difficult-to - c onquer) - not neglect all be ings in the world. He
The difficult task to be done by the Bodhisattva assume s different bodies in order to guide the
in this stage is to mature other beings while people on the real path. The Bodhisattva
guardinG his own mind. He practic es all good especially cultivates the perfection of
virtues l ike mindfulness, fortitude and aspiration in this stage.
discretion. Further, he develops trances and
studies all sciences and arts to develop skillful 9. Ssdhumati (Stage of good thoughts) -
means. Practic ing dharma is also one of his Here the good thoughts refer to the
practices and it is said that he obtains Dhiiraljs understanding of the fourfold analytical
for his protection in this stage. Special knowledge taught in Buddhism. Although it is
attention is paid here for the perfection of explained in various ways briefly it comprises
trance. of the knowledge of cause , effect,
communication and cognition. Due to this
6. Abhimukhi (Turned towards) - achievement, the Bodhisattva becomes a great
The Bodhisattva who practic e s the perfection preacher at this stage. Here , an important
of wisdom at this stage stands face to face place is given to cultivate the perfection of
with both e xistence and nirvsf}B. Here he power.
understands the equality and samene ss of all
things in the world. The Bodhisattva e sp e c ially 1 0. Dharmameghs (Cloud of the Doctrine) -
cultivate s the perfection o f wisdom in this "This stage is so -called because it is
pervaded by the modes of concentration and
•

stage.
magic spells, as space is occupied by clouds ".
7. DiTarigams (Far-going) - He obtains a glorious body in this stage and
This stage is so-called bec ause it l eads to the even the rays emitted from it de stroy the pain
end of the path of enlightenme nt. The and misery of all living be ings. Here
Bodhisattva, now, with great wisdom culminates the perfection of wisdom. 4 2
understands the nature o f all Buddhas. He
completes the disciplines of a Bodhisattva and The above-mentioned short introduction to •

tran scends the lower wisdom of the Hinaysna. the ten bhOmis directly taken from the two sourc es -
Special attention is paid to cultivate the the "Mahsvastu " and "The Bodhisattva Doctrine in
perfection of skillful means. Buddhist Sanskrit Literature " by Har Dayal. This
introduction is not perfe ct and the elements related to
8. Aeals (Immovable) - those stages were randomly sele cted from the
This stage is "so -called because the sources in order to show their main characteristic s .
Bodhisattva cannot be disturbed by the two As far as Mahsyiina concept o f the bhOmis i s
ideas of cause and absence of cause ". He concerned we can assume that it includes the
develops the p erfection of asp iration and does following ethical aspects:

1 08 109
 Generosity - Pramudits - (dsna)
•

1.
Bodhisattva is to serve all beings. The virtues that we
Morality - Vima/s - (si/a)
• •

11.
c ultivate are aimed at doing good to others without
Patience - PrabhSkari - (khanti)
• • •

111.
selfishne ss. On this basis , we c an evaluate the
Energy and - Arei$mati - (viriya)
•

IV.
Bodhisattva ideal as well as the e thical system related
equanimity to it as the highest moral discipline and intellect in
v. Trance - Sudurjays
B uddhism which give the greatest happiness to all
Wisdom - A dhimukti - (panns)
•

VI.
beings in the world.
vu. Skillful - DOrangams
• •

means
Aspiration Aea/s - (adhlffhana)
• • •

V111

IX. Power or Ssdhumati

•

strength
..4 3
X. Knowle dge - Dharmamegha
* The Piili terms given in brackets refer to the perfections accepted
in the Thera vada tradition.

These human qualities as a whole represent

the Buddhist attitude to the goal of human life . The
human beings as well as every other things in the
world are in the nature o f impermanenc e . So, they all
are unsatisfactory and e ssenceless in the ultimate
sense. Therefore, Buddhism presents a way of life
which is profitable for the day-to- day life as well as
to find a final solution to the problem o f birth, decay
and death. Bec ause of ignorance created by greed,
hatred and delusion, people do not see the real nature
of the world. They take unreal as the real and real as
the unreal. To give them an insight into the true
nature of the world, the Buddhas appear in the world
time to time . They as Bodhisattvas cultivate the
above-mentioned good qualities up to their highest
level. So, the c ulmination o f all those qualities is
called the supreme enlightenment. To become a
Buddha is not an easy task. Not only that even "birth
,,44
as a human belng, hearing dhamma are also rare
things in the world. The sole obj ective of a

1 10 111
 .

End Notes
35
op. Clt., p. 80
I 36
Har Dayal, Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit op. Clt., p . 87
•

Literature, Delhi, 1 93 2, pp. 50 - 76 37

op. Clt., p. 94
•

2
op. cit., p . 52 38
op. cit., p. 1 00
3 39
op. cit., p . 54 op. cit., p. 1 08
4
op. cit., pp. 54 - 5 8 40
op. cit., pp. 1 08 - 1 1 2
5 41
op. cit., pp. 5 8 , 6 1 op. Clt., p. 1 1 2
•

6
op. cit., pp. 64 - 65 42
Har Dayal, op . cit ., pp . 28 4 - 29 1
7
op. cit., p. 67 43
ibid
8 44
op. cit., p . 75 D h ammapada, op . cit ., p. 1 64
9
op. cit., pp. 75 - 76
10
Har Dayal, op. cit., p . 5 1
1I
PTS Dictionary, M. Ill. 256, V. IV, 3 73 , V, 23
12
D. I. 1 74 ; a. V. 3 6 ; S . n. 1 54, 1 58 ; It. 70
13
A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, ed. Bhikkhu
Bodhi, Buddhist Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka,
1 999, p. 8 1
14
op. cit., pp. 8 1 - 82
15
The Path of Purification, tr. Bhikkhu Nanamoli, Buddhist
Publication Society, Kandy, Sri Lanka, 1 99 1 , pp. 1 02 - 1 09
16
POjako Labhate POjalT' Vandako Pat ivandanalT' ,
M ittanisamsasutta
17
Suttanipata, PTS, 1 9 1 3 , p. 46
18
•

V inaya, I, PTS, 1 879, pp. 1 5 - 22

19
Vinaya, V, PTS, 1 88 3 , p . 1 42
20
DhsA., PTS, p. 1 57
21
A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, op. cit., p. 80
22
Vism., p. 3 02; J. I . , p . 73
23
J. I. 3 4 ; DhA, IV, 1 20
24
Buv. 6; Vism., 3 02 ; J. I. 73
25
Har Dayal, op. cit., p. 1 67
26
op. cit., p. 1 6 8
27
Vinaya, H, 1 75 ; Su, 4 1 8; Pv, I . 1 0, 1 1 , 1 2
28
A Comprehensive Manual of Abhidhamma, op. cit.,
pp. 3 0 - 3 1
29
see Har Dayal, op. cit., pp. 270 - 273
30
The Mahavastu, Vol. I , PTS, 1 949, pp. 6 1 - 1 24
31
op. Clt., p. 6 1
•
•

32
op. cit., p . 66
33
op. Clt., p. 72
34
op. cit., pp. 86 - 8 7
•

1 12
1 13
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•
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•
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1 17
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• .
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Pattanumodana. 101
Phassa. 52
PraQdhllnacary a. 99
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Prabhakari. 107. 110
Prakrticarya. 99
Pramudita. 107. 110
Pubbaseliyas. 93
Pubba videha. 5
Pubbenivasanussatiiiana. 87
•
PUQyanumodana, 98
Puthujjana. 100
,
SaraQagamana. 98
,
Sramana. 25
•
,
Sudra. 26. 27
Sadhumati. 109. 110
Sakkapaiihasutta. 47
Sammitiya. 69
Sarpyuttanikaya. 46. 58
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Sarvastivada. 67
Sattvaparipakacarya. 99
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K i?a triya. 27 Uttarapathakas. 92. 93
LakkhaQasutta. 90 Uttarakuru. 5
Lapitalapanamattena. 65 Vasettha, 18. 22. 23
"

Lokadhatu. 5 .
V asenhasutta. 22
MahakaruQa. 84 Vaisya. 26
Mahapadanasutta. 91 Vasalasutta. 22
Mahaprajiia. 84 , Vetullakas. 93
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94 '; /','
_. , ' ;'

Vimala. 107. 110

!

Mahasammata, 19
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. ' " " _ -iI

76, 77, 78
"

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' . ,

109 ',_'
. c-'.
• ; • '-'

Mahisi�aka, 67 Vy�karaQa, 97, 99, 102

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Manusmrti, 25..49;'g8'; .29t
-
L ' -' .- " -" 'I"

. ...

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Mettii. 102
Nekkhamma. 102
Nevasaiiiianasannayatana.
86
Nirmmanarati. 5
Nissaggiyapiicittiya. 72.
74
O\1hapahata-maltena. 65
Pacittiyapali. 72

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