244 I. Manarikkal et al.

We write Eqs. (7)–(9) in matrix form

M Θ̈ + C Θ̇ + KΘ = F, (10)

where Θ and F are vectors

⎞
⎛ ⎛ ⎞
θs TD
⎜ θp,1 ⎟ ⎜ 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
Θ=⎜ θ
⎜ p,2 ⎟
⎟ , F = ⎜ 0 ⎟.
⎜ ⎟ (11)
⎝ θp,2 ⎠ ⎝ 0 ⎠
θc −TL

Matrices M, C, K are
⎛ ⎞
Js 0 0 00
⎜0 Jp,1 0 00 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
M =⎜
⎜0 0 Jp,2 00 ⎟,
⎟ (12)
⎝0 0 0 Jp,3 0 ⎠
0 0 0 0 3mp rc + Jc
2

⎛ ⎞
3cd rs2 −cd rp rs −cd rp rs −cd rp rs −3 cos(α)cd rc rs
⎜ −cd rp rs 2cd rp2 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜
C=⎜ −cd rp rs 0 2cd rp
2
0 0 ⎟ , (13)
⎟
⎝ −cd rp rs 0 0 2cd rp
2
0 ⎠
−3 cos(α)cd rc rs 0 0 0 6 cos (α)cd rc
2 2

⎛ ⎞
3ks rs2 −ks rp rs −ks rp rs −ks rp rs −3 cos(α)ks rk rs
⎜ −ks rp rs 2ks rp2 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜
K=⎜ −ks rp rs 0 2ks rp
2
0 0 ⎟ . (14)
⎟
⎝ −ks rp rs 0 0 2ks rp
2
0 ⎠
−3 cos(α)ks rk rs 0 0 0 6 cos (α)ks rk
2 2

3 Modal Space Analysis and Frequency Response

Function
Equation (10) are the system of coupled linear equations in derivatives. The
first step of the solution is changing of coordinates to make matrices K and C
diagonal matrices. We consider the case when K and C can be made diagonal by
the same coordinates transformation. We must solve an equation for eigenvalues
and eigenvectors.
K ∗ V = λM ∗ V. (15)
In our case we have five degree of freedom. So we find five eigenvalues λi and
five eigenvectors Vi which give modal matrix Φ. Nonzero eigenvalues λi give
frequencies ω0i for undamped oscillations. Zero eigenvalues correspond to non-
oscillating motion. We denote γi damping coefficients on diagonal of the damping
 Dynamic Modelling of Planetary Gearboxes 245

matrix C in modal space. With these notations undamped frequencies and real
frequencies are calculated by formulae
 
ω0i = λ1 , ωi = ω0i 2 − γ2.
1 (16)

For oscillation motion each of modal coordinates yi represents an damped

oscillation
yi = ai e−γi t cos(ωi t + ϕi ). (17)
Coordinates of sun, carrier and planets are calculated by multiplication of vector
of modal coordinates Y = {yi } by modal matrix Φ:

Θ = ΦY. (18)

Gearbox is exposed to external forces. The forces can make resonance with
modal frequency and destroy the gears. To investigate resonance properties we
need frequencies response functions. In modal space response functions are
1
F RF (yi ) = 2 . (19)
−ω 2 + 2ıωγ1 + ω0i

The response functions in gears coordinates Θ are calculated with modal

matrix Φ:
F RF (Θ) = ΦF RF (Y ). (20)

4 Equations with Backslash

When we take account backlash and errors functions instead of linear equations
(10) we have nonlinear equations which can be written in matrix form

M Θ̈ + C Θ̇ + Ψ (Θ) = F, (21)

Equation (21) are nonlinear equations which can be solved only numerically.
Nonlinear terms in Eq. (21) can be treated as perturbations. They can make
resonance with modal frequencies. Modal analysis of oscillation is useful in this
case.

5 Case Study

The following parameters of planetary gearbox is used for simulation in MAT-

LAB to obtain the responses. We get damping coefficient c = 10 for all vibrations.
For modal analysis of free vibrations we take amplitude of modes equal to 1 and
initial phase of mode equal to 0. Numeric calculations were made in MATLAB.
The system has five degree of freedom and we have five eigenvalues

λi = {0, 0.9037, 0.9037, 1.1069, 2.4653} × 106 . (22)

246 I. Manarikkal et al.

Table 1. Parameters for numeric calculations

Sun gear Planetary gears Carrier Ring gear

Number of teeth 27 35 - 99
Module - 3 - -
Pitch radius 40.5 52.5 92.5 148
Mass 0.40 0.66 2.35 5.43
Pressure angle - 24.6 - -
Inertia 0.39 0.61 3.00 6.29

The first eigenvalue equals to zero gives linear rigid body motion. The last
four eigenvalues give modal frequencies
ωi = {0.9506, 0.9506, 1.0521, 1.5701} × 103 . (23)
Two of them are equal. Plot of modal vibrations are shown in Fig. 3. After cal-
culations angles θs , θp and θc we plot angular vibrations. Vibrations of all com-
ponents of planet gear system are shown in Fig. 4. Frequency response functions
have three peaks for three modal frequencies of planet gear system. Frequencies
response functions for one planet is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 3. Angular modal frequencies of Fig. 4. Vibrations of all components of

planet gear system a planet gear system.

With backlash the equations of oscillation become non-linear and can be

solved only numerically. Numerical simulation was made with parameters from
Table 1 and backlash bsp = brp = 0.1 mm. Introduction of backlash changes
phase portrait of equation solution and gives noise in oscillation registration. To
solve equations with backlash we use function f (x, b) from [6]
1
f (x, b) = x + (tan(σ(x − b)) − tanh(σ(x + b))) −
2
b
(tan(σ(x − b)) + tanh(σ(x + b))) . (24)
2
 Dynamic Modelling of Planetary Gearboxes 247

Fig. 5. Frequency response function for Fig. 6. Frequency response functions

one planet. for planet for stiffnesses 10−8 , 8 × 10−7 .

Here we consider the same backlash for sun-planet contact and ring-planet con-
tact. Backlash changes phase portrait of solution as shown in Figs. 7 and 8.

Fig. 7. Phase portrait of planet-sun Fig. 8. Phase portrait of planet-sun

vibrations without backlash. vibrations with backlash and stiffness
equal to 0.8 × 108 .

After teeth cracks of components of planet gear system the stiffness decreases.
We calculated modal frequencies and frequency response function for two
decreased stiffnesses. The initial (healthy) stiffness, stiffness with crack and cor-
responding frequencies are provided in Table 2.
Graphs of frequency response functions for different stifnesses are shown in
Fig. 6.

Table 2. Modal frequencies for stiffness changes due to crack.

Healthy gear Unhealthy gear

Stiffness (K) 10−8 8 × 10−7
ω1 950.6 850.2
ω3 1052.1 941
248 I. Manarikkal et al.

6 Conclusion
The results presented in this study show that the crack on gear tooth signifi-
cantly changes the damping characteristic of the system. The lumped differential
equations of motion was solved using Eigenvalue and Eigenvectors analysis. The
backlash was also considered in this study, to find the dynamic response and
behaviour of planetary gearbox. The above presented results show that increase
of planets number does not increase the number of modal frequencies in the
same proportion due to the multiple of modal frequencies. Modal frequencies
were found through eigen values and eigen vector analysis in initial angular coor-
dinates. Backlash and stiffness changing can be introduced as perturbations of
linear equations used for modal analysis. The perturbations can make resonance
with modal frequencies which can make nuisance to gear box. The unhealthy
gear tooth case shows more damping than normal (healthy) case. These results
clearly indicate that the vibration will be higher if there is a crack present on
tooth or if there is any localized defect in the planetary gearbox cracks of the
tooth decrease modal frequencies. Study of frequency response functions show
that frequency report amplitude is bigger for smaller modal frequencies. The
frequency report amplitude increases with crack. So after appearance of cracks
probability of gear destruction due to resonance rises. These results clearly indi-
cate that the vibration will be higher if there is a crack present on tooth or if
there is any localized defect in planetary gearbox. Hence, the study of vibration
response can help to determine the faults in gearboxes. This makes it possible to
perform full analysis of gear system in linear approximation and can simplify the
study of gear systems with backlash. The vibration signatures will be validated
with the numerical dynamic modelling results in future to develop a Diagnostic
and Prognostic model to estimate the remaining life and health of Planetary
gearbox. The experimental research with numerical dynamic modelling results
will be together validated in future work. The torsional stiffness with higher
degree of freedom will be also studied in future work.

References
1. Feng Z, Zuo M (2013) Fault diagnosis of planetary gearboxes via torsional vibration
signal analysis. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 36(2):401–421
2. Bartelmus W, Zimroz R (2009) A new feature for monitoring the condition of
gearboxes in non-stationary operating conditions. Mech. Syst. Signal Process.
23(5):1528–1534
3. Bartelmus W (2001) Mathematical modelling and computer simulations as an aid
to gearbox diagnostics. Mech. Syst. Signal Process. 15(5):855–871
4. Jia S, Howard I, Wang J (2003) The dynamic modeling of multiple pairs of spur
gears in mesh, including friction. J. Rotating Mach. 9(6):437–442
5. Aski FS, Mirparizi M, Samani FS, Hajabasi MA (2014) Vibration behavior opti-
mization of planetary gear sets. Propul. Power Res. 3(4):196–206
6. He S, Jia Q, Chen G, Sun H (2015) Modeling and dynamic analysis of planetary
gear transmission joints with backlash. Int. J. Control Autom. 8(2):153–162
 Dynamic Modelling of Planetary Gearboxes 249

7. Liang X, Zuo MJ, Hoseini MR (2014) Understanding vibration properties of a plan-

etary gear set for fault detection. In: International conference on prognostics and
health management, Cheney, WA, USA, pp 1–6
8. Inalpolat M, Kahraman A (2008) Dynamic modelling of planetary gears
of automatic transmissions. Journals.sagepub.com. https://doi.org/10.1243/
14644193JMBD138. Accessed 15 Dec 2017
9. Sawalhi N, Randall R (2006) Simulation of the vibrations produced by extended
bearing faults in gearboxes. In: First australasian acoustical societies conference,
Christchurch, New Zealand
 The Model of Soil Compaction Process
and Concept of Smart Compactor

Tomasz Mirosław(&), Arkadiusz Kwaśniewski, Paweł Ciężkowski,

and Jan Maciejewski

Faculty of Automotive and Construction Machinery Engineering,

Institute of Construction Machinery Engineering,
Warsaw University of Technology, Warsaw, Poland
{Tomasz.Miroslaw,akwasniewski,pawel.ciezkowski,
jmaciejewski}@simr.pw.edu.pl

Abstract. The soil compaction is very important process during building and
road construction. There are many various machineries used for improve the soil
load baring capacities like rollers or vibrating plates. We can compact not only
the soil but the concrete or very popular composite as asphalt - bituminous
composition as well. Sometimes these procedures are implemented close to
buildings or other sensitive to vibration construction. Currently we have some
application of compaction level monitoring. But sometimes we need to create
the model of ground behavior for future prognoses. In paper the problem of soil
compaction and 3D cellular model of ground which describes process of ground
flow, displacement and compaction will be presented. This model is made in
MATLAB/SIMULINK software and describes dynamically changing soil fea-
ture. For better presentation model was simplified to 2D version. Basing on
simulation results the concept of smart compactor was created and described.

Keywords: Soil compaction computer model
Smart compaction process

Soil compaction

1 Introduction

Most of building or infrastructure construction works needs solid background or

basement. One of the cheapest and very effective ways of basement preparation is the
compacting of natural ground or specially brought and bestead aggregates. We can
compact the ground with some machinery like various kind of rollers (static, vibrating
or oscillating rollers) or smaller plate compactors. We are looking for the best method
for ground compaction which gives the biggest ground load bearing capacity and needs
smallest energy, in shortest time. The problem of ground, bitumen (mixture of
aggregates with asphalt) is quite important problem, especially when we a thinking
about work close to existing building or other constructions.
The vibrating roller or compactor used close to the wall can cause some damages
on one hand, but on the other hand, the interaction of this wall and it reaction –
reflecting the seismic wave, can complete change the compaction process. We can very

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2019

A. Fernandez Del Rincon et al. (Eds.): CMMNO 2018, ACM 15, pp. 250–259, 2019.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-11220-2_26
 The Model of Soil Compaction Process and Concept of Smart Compactor 251

often see the results of bad ground preparation close to curb of pavement, where some
holes or unconcentrated ground appears (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. The rising loose ground close to the curb during compaction process.

If the soil or asphalt (Xu et al. 2013) is compacted too long or it hit with wrong
frequency and force the structure can change in no expected way. Sometimes the work
has to be done once again form the beginning, but the worse is that we have to remove
the wrong base layer. This process is quite costly, but if we neglect it, the road or
basement will not work properly for long time (Briaud 2013).
Currently the success of basement preparation depends on operator skills and
experience. May companies like Ammann, HAMM, Bomag, Sakai or Caterpillar, are
introducing sensors of soil compaction to their sophisticated machineries. They use
intelligent systems (Scherocman et al. 2007), embedded into their machines, which
enables (directly on the machine) logging and monitoring the degree of soil compaction
(FHWA 2011). This is done by the analysis of the ground signal for the given extortion
(Anderegg and Kaufmann 2004). There are two ways to regulate density of hub. The
first one refers to the delivery of the signal to the harmonic components, while the next
refers to the drawing of the hysteresis loop (forces as a function of displacement). So
we can assume analyses of signals from the sensors gives as the information about
compaction level, but what we can do and how we should adjust compactor to reach the
right compaction in short time, with low energy consumption with minimal risk or the
damage infrastructure and over compaction which means the destroying the
compaction.
In this paper authors present the analyses of compaction problem in heterogeneous
environment, which was done basing on soil compaction model and present the con-
cept of smart compactor, which equipped with acoustic sensor identifies the ground and
adjust the compaction way. The most important part in this paper is the model of
ground, which changes its parameters dynamically.
252 T. Mirosław et al.

2 Ground Compaction Modelling Problem

The ground compaction process is very interesting, because when we push the ground
we have few phases of this process.
First is the Elastic 3D Deformation. When we press the ground it is deformed in 3 axes
dimension. When the force is not big enough, after releasing the load, the ground comes
back to its previous shape and dimensions. The difficulty in description of this process is
relation between all 3 axes changes under one forces acting in various dimension.
Next phase is the plastic deformation, when the soil changes its shape against acting
force. Some part of soil is flows to other place, but the ground does not change its
volume and density.
And the most important phase it the compaction, when the volume of ground and
its density is changing. When the density is changing the parameters of ground are also
change.
The Assumption for Model is that it Should Reflect Process of Deformation and
Soil Compacting
The Fig. 2 presents the characteristic of ground behavior which is modeled. Under
increasing pressure the ground is deformed. For small pressure which does not over-
come the solid bearing capacity, the ground comes back to previous shape after load
releasing. If the pressure is bigger than critical load, the process of condensation is
started and the density of ground is increasing. So after the load releasing ground come
back to the other shape. The condensation of ground needs the time and runs with inertia
(it is modeled as the inertia process with “time constant”) so some short pressure impulse
case different changes to longer one. The critical bearing of ground and the constant time
of condensation inertia depends on density which is changing under load. In Fig. 2a load
F is increasing from 0 to Fkp1. If the F does not reach Fkp1 and it is realized, the qk
density come back to the initial value q0 on curve 1 if F overcome the Fkp1 the density
come back to value q1 on curve 2. And so on. The process of compaction is running in
time as it is presented in Fig. 2b. Of course in normal ground there are not so quantized
critical value of force and time. It is marked only for concept presentation.

Fig. 2. The ground characteristic (a) density in relation to pressure (b) density in time for
constant pressure on ground.
 The Model of Soil Compaction Process and Concept of Smart Compactor 253

3 Model of Ground Compaction

The ground was modeled as the net of cells with 3D elasticity and damping features
with hysteresis. The idea of 3D model is presented in Fig. 3a. It is a system of spring
and damping of variable parameters. For better clarification the simplified 2D model is
used in this paper (Fig. 3b.)

Fig. 3. (a) The 3D cellular model of ground (b) The 2D cellular model of ground.

The 2D model of cell is presented in Fig. 4. In this model the inputs are the speed
of deformation VIx I VIy (caused by compactor or others cells), and FIx and FIy are the
forces of movement or deformation resistance caused by pushed neighbor cell. As the
output are VOx, VOy, speed of deformation (pushing) of next cell and FOx, FOy witch
are the force of resistance caused by internal forces in cell.
When the cell is compressed the deformation appears and causes the internal
pressure which is balanced by force of springs, in all dimensions. If not, the cell is
shrinking in direction of bigger force and expanding in other direction. Because of
heterogeneous process the deformation in both axes are not equal. If deformation
overcomes the limits of elastic deformation, the plastic deformation appears and ground
flows in cell changing its basic dimension. When the internal pressure overcomes limits
of compaction, the compaction process stars are changing cell dimension and density
with cell properties. As the properties we have: the coefficient elasticity, the coefficient
of internal friction of and directional dampers kvx, kvy, limits of elastic deformation,
constant times, limits of compaction and others which can be different for each axe in
relation to cell density.
The limits can be set in this way that deformation and compaction process run
simultaneously with different speeds. For some case the plastic deformation is
negligible.
The function coefficients value is stored in matrix or written as the function.
Normally with the rising pressure the density is increasing, but if it overcomes the limit
value the ground can be broken (crashed). According to above concept the computer
model with Matlab/Simulink software was build and investigated.