Newton’s laws, Energy and Gravity

Reading: Chapter 4

Newton’s laws, Energy and Gravity

Questions
• How do we describe motion ?
• What are Newton’s laws ?
• How is mass different from weight ?
• What are conservation laws ?
• How did Newton explain Kepler’s laws ?

Describing Motion: Position and Time

Position and time specify where and when a particle is.

Time is measured by reading a clock with ‘0’ being the beginning.

Positive times signify later instants of time. Negative times signify

earlier instants of time.

Position is measured relative to a coordinate system.

A coordinate system is an artificial grid that has an origin (starting

point) and an orientation.

Position is expressed as coordinate values in the coordinate system.

Example: Latitude and Longitude coordinates determine a position of
a place on Earth relative to the centre of the Earth (origin).

1
 Describing Motion: Change in Position
Distance is the magnitude of the separation between two
positions.
!x = x f " xi

!x is independent of the origin of the coordinate system for

two different observers.

Example:
John in Hamilton uses a coordinate system with the origin in
Hamilton
Maya in London uses a coordinate system with the origin in
Hamilton
Both John in Hamilton and Maya in London measure the
distance between Toronto and Waterloo to be 105 km

Describing Motion: Change in Time

A time interval is the time between two events.
It is the time taken for a particle to move from an initial to
a final position.
!t = t f " t i
Example:
Jon’s clock: ti = 5PM (Eastern), t f = 7PM (Eastern)
!t = t f " ti = 2hrs

Maya’s clock: ti = 2PM (Pacific), t f = 4PM (Pacific)

!t = t f " ti = 2hrs

!t is independent of the origin of the clock for two different

observers.

Describing Motion: speed and velocity

• Speed: Rate at which an object moves (changes position)

speed = distance = !x
time !t

Standard International (SI) units are m/s

example: speed of 10 m/s

Use SI units unless otherwise asked

• Velocity: Speed and direction

example: 10 m/s, due east

2
 Example
Car A moves 60 km east in 2 hours. Car B moves 60 km
south in 2 hours. Find their speeds and velocities in km/hr

1. Distance:
Car A: !x = 60 km
N
Car B: !x = 60 km

2. Direction:
Car A: east
Car B: south !
vA
3. Time Interval: !
vB
Car A: !t = 2hrs
Car B: !t = 2hrs

Example
Car A moves 60 km east in 1 hour. Car B moves 60 km
south in 1 hour.

4. Speed:
Car A = Car B:
N
!x 60km
= = 30km / hr
!t 2hrs

5. Velocity: !
Car A: 30 km/hr east vA
Car B: 30 km/hr south !
vB

Describing Motion: Acceleration

Velocity can change if:
1. The speed changes
2. The direction changes
3. Both speed and direction changes
Acceleration is the rate of change of velocity with time.
acceleration = change of velocity/time interval
!
! !v
a=
!t

m/s m
SI units: = 2
s s
Since velocity has a direction,
acceleration also has a direction

3
 Describing Motion: Acceleration
Examples: Motion diagrams show a series of snapshots of a
moving particle after equal time intervals.
Arrows show velocity direction. Size of arrow shows speed.
. . . . .
(a)
. . . . .
No change in speed or direction

(b)

( c)
. . . . .
Increase in speed, no change in direction

Decrease in speed, no change in direction

(d) . . No change in speed, change in

direction
. .

Describing Motion: Acceleration

(a)
. . . . . !
0
!
0
!
0

(b)

. . . . .
( c)

. . . . .
Red arrows show acceleration vectors.
Note that the direction of acceleration can be opposite to direction of
velocity.

The Acceleration of Gravity

• All falling objects have

constant acceleration
downwards (not
counting friction of air
resistance).
• On Earth, acceleration
of gravity, g ! 10 m/s2 :
speed increases 10 m/s
with each second of
falling.
g = 9.81m / s 2

4
 The Acceleration of Gravity (g)

• Galileo showed that g is

the same for all falling
objects, regardless of
their mass.

• The motion of an object

solely under the
influence of gravity is
called free fall.
(Objects dropped or
thrown up vertically, Apollo 15 demonstration
projectile motion,
Check out
orbiting satellites) http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/
planetary/lunar/apollo_15_feather_drop.html

The Acceleration of Gravity

Example: Maya tosses a ball vertically up in the air with an initial
speed of 30 m/s. How long will it take for the ball to reach its
highest point ?

Acceleration of gravity acts downwards, causing the ball to slow

down and finally stop before it falls downwards.
!
v
Initial velocity: 30 m/s (upwards)
Final velocity (at highest point): 0 m/s
Acceleration a = g = !9.81m / s (downwards)
2
!
a
! !
! !v !v (0 # 30)m / s
a= " !t = ! = = 3.06s
!t a #9.81m / s 2

Describing Motion: Momentum

Momentum = mass x velocity

Units of momentum: units of mass x unit of velocity

SI (Standard International) unit of mass: kg

SI units of velocity: m/s

Hence SI unit of momentum: kg m/s

Since velocity has direction, momentum has direction.

Newton discovered a relationship between force and

momentum….

5
 Newton’s Laws of Motion

How did Newton change our view of the universe?

• Realized the same physical laws
that operate on Earth also
operate in the heavens
" one universe
• Discovered laws of motion and
gravity
• Much more: Experiments with
light; first reflecting telescope,
calculus…

Sir Isaac Newton

(1642-1727)

Forces
A force is a push or a pull that acts on an object.

A force is exerted on an object. (An object cannot push or pull on

itself).

A force on an object is exerted by an agent. (The object can apply

a force back on the agent).

A force can be either

a) A contact force (the agent touches the object)
b) A long range force (agent does not physically touch the
object). (Example : gravity, magnetism).

Forces
Forces have size and direction

A force on a particle is represented by an arrow with the tail of

the arrow on the particle. The size of the arrow shows the size
of the force

Both a push force and a pull force are depicted as arrows

pointing ‘out’ from the point particle.

Pull Push

! !
F F

6
 Types of Forces
Weight: Force of gravity.

Agent: Massive objects such as planets pulling on an object.

Example: Earth

Direction: vertically downwards.

The magnitude of the weight force is constant everywhere on

earth (recall that acceleration due to gravity is also constant
implying a relationship between force and acceleration).

Massive objects are ‘heavier’, i.e. have more weight implying a

relationship between force and mass.

The weight force is a long-range force. It is always ‘on’.

Types of Forces
Spring Force

Agent: springs pushing or pulling on an object.

A compressed spring pushes an object.

A stretched spring pulls on an object

The size of spring force depends on the ‘stiffness’ of the

spring (spring constant).

Spring force is a contact force.

Types of Forces
Tension Force

Agent: A rope or a string that pulls an object

Direction: Parallel to the direction of the rope.

Tension force is a contact force.

!
T
!
T

7
 Types of Forces
Normal Force

Agent: Any surface that touches the object.

A surface can be thought of as a stiff spring, which pushes on

the object when it is compressed.

Direction: Perpendicular to the surface and outwards from the

surface. !
! n
n

Types of Forces
Resistive Forces

Friction: ‘Sticky’ force due to a rough surface. Two types:

a) Kinetic friction: Acts parallel to a rough surface and opposite
the direction of motion.
b) Static friction: Acts parallel to the surface and in a direction
that prevents the object from moving.

Drag: Resistive force due to motion in a fluid (liquid or gas)

Example: Air resistance

Friction and Drag are contact forces.

Types of Forces
Thrust
Force on an object such as a rocket or an aircraft due to gas
being expelled at high speed.

Agent: Exhaust gas

Direction: Opposite to the direction in the which the gas is

expelled.

!
w

!
T

8
 Types of Forces

Electric and Magnetic Forces

Forces at the microscopic (atomic and molecular) level.

Long range forces.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

What are Newton’s three laws of motion?

Newton’s first law of motion:

An object remains at rest or at
constant velocity unless a net
force acts to change its speed
or direction.

Note: If an object is at rest or moving at constant velocity this does

NOT mean that there are no forces acting on it. It means that the
SUM of all the forces in all directions is 0.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion
Force = rate of change of momentum with time
! !p! !mv!
F= =
!t !t

If the mass of an object remains constant,

! !p! !
!v !
F= =m = ma
!t !t

Force = mass # acceleration

9
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s second law of motion
! !
Fnet = ma
!
! F
a = net
m
An object of constant mass m subject to a net force undergoes
an acceleration which is equal to the net force divided by the
mass.

The acceleration is in the same direction as the net force.

The (inertial) mass is the proportionality constant or ratio of

net force and acceleration.

Newton’s Laws of Motion

We can figure out the units of force from the 2nd law:
! !
Fnet = ma
!
! F
a = net
m
The SI (Standard International) unit of force is a Newton. It is a
derived unit from the units for mass and length and time.
m
1N = 1kg ! 1
s2
English units:
1pound = 1lb = 4.45N

Newton’s Laws of Motion

Newton’s 2nd law
Example: When you press on the brake in your car, a force is
exerted that slows down your car. What force is exerted if your car
of mass 1500 kg traveling at 50 km/hr comes to a stop in 1 minute?
! !
Fnet = ma

km 1000m 1hr
Change in speed: 50 ! ! = 13.9m / s
hr km 3600s

Time interval: 1min = 60s

10
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s 2nd law
Example: When you press on the brake in your car, a force is
exerted that slows down your car. What force is exerted if your car
of mass 1500 kg traveling at 50 km/hr comes to a stop in 1 minute?
! !
Fnet = ma

!v 13.9m / s
Acceleration: = = 2.31 " 10 #1 m / s 2
!t 60s
! !
Force: Fnet = ma = 1500kg ! 2.31 ! 10 "1 m / s 2 = 347N
Direction of force: opposite to motion of car

Thought Question:
Is there a net force? Y/N
1. A car coming to a stop.
2. A bus speeding up.
3. An elevator moving up at constant speed.
4. A bicycle going around a curve.
5. A moon orbiting Jupiter.

Thought Question:
Is there a net force? Y/N
1. A car coming to a stop. Y
2. A bus speeding up. Y
3. An elevator moving at constant speed. N
4. A bicycle going around a curve. Y
5. A moon orbiting Jupiter. Y

11
 Newton’s Laws of Motion
Newton’s third law of motion:
For every force, there is always an equal and opposite reaction
force.

Thought Question:

Is the force the Earth exerts on you larger, smaller,

or the same as the force you exert on it?

A. Earth exerts a larger force on you.

B. I exert a larger force on Earth.
C. Earth and I exert equal and opposite forces on
each other.

Thought Question:

Is the force the Earth exerts on you larger, smaller,

or the same as the force you exert on it?

A. Earth exerts a larger force on you.

B. I exert a larger force on Earth.
C. Earth and I exert equal and opposite forces
on each other.

12
 Inertial Frames
Newton’s laws are only valid in inertial reference frames.

An inertial reference frame is a non-accelerating coordinate

system (net acceleration is zero).

It can be a frame at rest or a frame moving with constant

velocity.

We will treat the earth as an inertial reference frame.

Using non-inertial reference frames can result in apparent

forces.
Example: The push forward you feel in a braking car or feeling
heavier/lighter in an accelerating elevator.

Mass versus weight

In physics mass and weight are related but are NOT the same
thing.
Mass is the amount of matter in an object.
Mass is an intrinsic property of an object.
Mass is the same no matter what forces are acting on an object.
Weight is the force of gravity exerted on an object.
Weight is directly proportional to the mass.
! !
W = ma,
!
a : acceleration due to gravity
Example: Doubling your mass doubles your weight.
Weight varies from planet to planet since the acceleration due to
gravity varies.

Thought Question
On the Moon:

A. My weight is the same, my mass is less.

B. My weight is less, my mass is the same.
C. My weight is more, my mass is the same.
D. My weight is more, my mass is less.

13
 Thought Question
On the Moon:

A. My weight is the same, my mass is less.

B. My weight is less, my mass is the same.
C. My weight is more, my mass is the same.
D. My weight is more, my mass is less.

Apparent weight
The sensation of weight is due to
contact forces acting on you.
Example: normal force, tension

Apparent weight is the size of the

contact forces that
support an object.

In equilibrium (no acceleration),

apparent weight is equal to true
weight.

If the you are in an accelerating You are weightless in

frame, your apparent weight is free-fall!
different from your true weight.

Apparent weight

14
 Apparent weight

Apparent weight
Why are astronauts weightless in space?

• There is gravity in
space
• Weightlessness is
due to a constant
state of free-fall
around the earth

Summary
• How do we describe motion ?
– Speed = distance / time
– Speed & direction => velocity
– Change in velocity/time => acceleration
– Momentum = mass x velocity
– Force causes change in momentum, producing
acceleration

15
 Summary
• What are Newton’s Laws of Motion ?
– 1. Object remains at rest or at constant velocity
if no net force is acting.
– 2. Force = rate of change of momentum
If the mass is constant,
Force = mass # acceleration
– 3. For every force there is an equal and opposite
reaction force

Summary
• How is mass different from weight ?
– Mass = quantity of matter
– Weight = force acting on mass
– Objects are weightless in free-fall

16