Choral music refers to music which is written for and sung by a choir.

Each different part in a piece of choral music is sung by two or more voices. Since the size of a choir
can vary, the structure of a choral composition also will vary. A piece can be written for as few as a
dozen singers or for a group large enough to sing Gustav Mahler's Symphony No. 8 in E-Flat Major
also known as "Symphony of a Thousand."

Choral Music in Medieval Times

In medieval times, the rondeau was often performed as part of a choral piece. In this form, the lead
singer sings the verses while a small choir sings the refrain. During the 14th century, choral music
evolved from the monophonic style of group singing, such as Gregorian chants, to polyphonic
arrangements involving multiple singers and different melodies.

By the 15th century, there was strong support for choral music, mostly for religious and worship
services, and it was in such high demand that composers wrote many vocal works. Many of these
works were intended to be a capella, meaning they were written for voices unaccompanied by musical
instruments.

The Renaissance and Choral Music

In Europe, composers wrote music meant to be sung by four different yet equally important voices;
the soprano, alto, tenor, and bass.

The Latin Mass became one of the most important musical forms of the Renaissance. Hundreds of
liturgical pieces of music were written by composers during this time.

In addition to a capella pieces, other structures of Renaissance choral music included the
anthem, cantata, motet, and oratorio.

Anthems in Choral Music

Modern music listeners may associate anthems with patriotic songs, but during the Renaissance,
an anthem was typically written in a call-and-response style between a soloist and a larger group.
Most anthems were short and dealt with sacred religious themes. They were especially popular in the
Anglican Church. 

Choral Music and the Cantata

A cantata (from the Italian word "to sing") is a short piece with a solo vocalist, a choir, and musical
accompaniment. One composer closely associated with the cantata is Johann Sebastian Bach
(although his works would have been written slightly outside of the Renaissance period).

Difference Between Oratorio and Opera

An oratorio is a more fully-fleshed out musical piece, with multiple singers, a choir and musical
accompaniment and a plot with characters. Although it shares similarities with an opera, an oratorio
always has a religious subject matter.

Motet from Medieval to Renaissance

The motet form of choral singing evolved from Gregorian chant style compositions during the
medieval period, to more sophisticated and elaborate arrangments during the Renaissance. The term
motet generally refers to a piece of music that is mostly sung, with or without musical
accompaniment.

Post-Renaissance and Romantic Choral Music

In the 18th and 19th centuries, choral music enjoyed something of a revival, with orchestras more
fully established in large cities. Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart composed several choral pieces, among
them his famed Requiem in D minor. Ludwig van Beethoven and Joseph Haydn were other
composers of this period who wrote choral pieces, although neither wrote exclusively in this format. 

Conducting

Conducting is the art of directing a musical performance, such as an orchestral or choral concert. It has been
defined as "the art of directing the simultaneous performance of several players or singers by the use of
gesture." Wikipedia

Conducting is the act of directing a musical performance by way of visible

gestures. Orchestras, choirs, concert bands, and other musical ensembles often have conductors.
Beyond the gestural aspect of the art form, other significant aspects of conducting include
scholarship, score reading ability, and having a trained musical ear. A strong foundation in
composing, music theory, and orchestration is particularly important. The conductor's task is, simply
put, to bring a sense of unity to a given piece of music.
In the conductor-orchestra relationship, the conductor stands in the position of musical authority.
Through the use of gestures (baton technique) the conductor provides the tempo (tactus) and a
beat (ictus) that allow the members of the ensemble to establish the proper timing to present a given
composition.
 Contents
 [hide] 

 1 Nomenclature
 2 History of
conducting
 3 Wagner's Theories
 4 Gestures
 5 Technique
 6 Beat and tempo
 7 Dynamics
 8 Cueing
 9 Other musical
elements
 10 See also
 11 References
 12 External links
 13 Credits

The conductor is also the final arbiter of issues such as phrasing, dynamics (loud or soft), and
articulation—components that contribute to creating a unified realization of the music being
performed.

Nomenclature

A conductor's score and batons

The principal conductor of an orchestra or opera company is sometimes referred to as a music

director or chief conductor, or by the German word, Kapellmeister. Conductors of choirsare
sometimes referred to as choral director, chorus master, or choirmaster, particularly for choirs
associated with an orchestra. Conductors of military bands and other bands may hold the title
of bandmaster. Respected senior conductors are sometimes referred to by the Italian
word, maestro ("master").
History of conducting

A modern wooden conducting baton

An early form of conducting is cheironomy, the use of hand gestures to indicate melodic shape. This
has been practiced at least as far back as the Middle Ages. In the Christian church, the person giving
these symbols held a staff to signify his role, and it seems that as music became
more rhythmically involved, the staff was moved up and down to indicate the beat, acting as an early
form of baton.
In the seventeenth century, other devices to indicate the passing of time came into use. Rolled up
sheets of paper, smaller sticks, and unadorned hands are all shown in pictures from this period. The
large staff was reportedly responsible for the death of Jean-Baptiste Lully (1632-1687), who stabbed
his foot with one while conducting a Te Deum for King Louis XIV's recovery from illness. Lully died
from a resulting infection.
In instrumental music of the Baroque era, a member of the ensemble usually acted as the conductor
by providing a discernible beat. This was sometimes the principal violinist, who could use his bow as
a baton, or a lutenist who would move the neck of his instrument in time with the beat. It was common
to conduct from the harpsichord in pieces that had a basso continuo part. In opera performances,
there were sometimes two conductors: the keyboard player was in charge of the singers, and the
principal violinist was in charge of the orchestra.
By the early nineteenth century, it became the norm to have a dedicated conductor, who did not also
play an instrument during the performance. The size of the usual orchestra expanded during this
period, and the use of a baton became more common, as it was easier to see than bare hands or
rolled-up paper. This practice provided a silent way to indicate tempo (tactus) and beat (ictus).

Kurt Masur conducting the San Francisco Symphony

The first conductors to utilize a baton can be traced back as early as 1794, when a Belgian
composer, Guilliame-Alexis Paris (1740-1850) used a baton while conducting opera in Hamburg,
Germany.
Among the earliest notable conductors were Louis Spohr (1784-1859), Carl Maria von Weber (1786-
1826), Louis Antoine Jullien (1812-1860), and Felix Mendelssohn (1809-1847), all of whom were also
composers. Spohr is also credited with introducing rehearsal letters or bar numbers into scores and
parts as a way to facilitate more efficient rehearsal time.
Among prominent conductors who did not or do not use a baton are Leopold Stokowski, Pierre
Boulez, Dimitri Mitropoulos, and Kurt Masur. Hans von Bülow is commonly considered the first
professional musician whose principal career was as a conductor.
Composers Hector Berlioz (1803-1869) and Richard Wagner (1813-1883) were also conductors, and
they wrote two of the earliest essays dedicated to the subject. Berlioz is considered the first virtuoso
conductor. Wagner was largely responsible for shaping the conductor's role as one who imposes his
own view of a piece onto the performance (interpretation) rather than one who is simply responsible
for ensuring entries are made at the right time and that there is a unified beat.

Wagner's Theories

Richard Wagner

Richard Wagner wrote extensively about the art of conducting and perhaps more than any musical
figure of the nineteenth century was responsible for developing the attitude that the conductor was a
supreme figure whose wisdom and musical prowess were unquestioned. Wagner's influence,
especially with regard to the interpretive aspect of conducting, can still be observed in modern times.
For Wagner, the modification of tempo as it relates to phrasing, was of supreme importance. Prior to
Wagner, the conductor's task was primarily to beat and adhere strictly to the metronomic designations
in a given score. This produced a conducting style that lacked flexibility or a more nuanced
expressiveness.
Wagner emphasized the idea of melos (or song), in which tempos could be adjusted, faster or slower,
to give a different contour to a particular phrase in the same fashion that singers might
use rubato (from the Italian for "stealing time") for expressive effect. For Wagner, tempo modification
was nothing less than "a positive life principle in all our music." This was akin to Beethoven's idea of
"elastic tempo" whereby the liberal use of rubato was used as an expressive device.
This perspective influenced many important conductors including Arhtur Nickish (1855-1922), Willem
Mengleberg (1871-1951), and Wilhelm Furtwangler (1886-1954.) Contemporary conductors who are
considered in the same tradition include Lorin Maazel (b. 1930) and Daniel Barenboim (b. 1942)
Conductors who eschewed the Wagner influence as it pertained to tempo gradation and modification,
and took a more literal approach, include Arturo Toscanini (1867-1957), George Szell (1897-1970)
and Roger Norrington (b. 1934). Norrington is an especially noted advocate of strict adherence to the
metronomic designations.

Lorin Maazel conducting

Gestures
In the late twentieth century, a New York composer Walter Thompson created a live composing sign
language known as soundpainting to be used in the medium of structured improvisation. At present
the language includes over 750 gestures used as communication tools by the composer/conductor to
indicate the type of improvisation desired of the performers. In addition, a system called conduction,
developed by Lawrence D. "Butch" Morris, is another prominent movement in the field. The latter is
considered more effective to dictate relationships and transformations, giving the improvisers more
control over the content they contribute.

Technique

Ton Koopman of the AmsterdamBaroque Orchestra & Choir

Conducting is a means of communicating artistic directions to performers during a performance.

There are no absolute rules on how to conduct correctly, and a wide variety of different conducting
styles exist. The primary responsibilities of the conductor are to set the tempo, execute clear
preparations and beats, and to listen critically and shape the sound of the ensemble.
An understanding of the basic elements of musical expression (tempo, dynamics, articulation) and the
ability to communicate them effectively to an ensemble is necessary in order to conduct. The ability to
communicate nuances of phrasing and expression through gesture is also beneficial. Conducting
gestures may be choreographed beforehand by the conductor while studying the score, or may be
spontaneous.
Hungarian conductor George Szell once remarked, "People often refer to the sound of a particular
orchestra. But how many people, even the educated layman, refer to phrasing and articulation, these
being the key elements in realizing the proper understanding of the music being performed?"
A distinction is sometimes made between orchestral conducting and choral
conducting. Stereotypically, orchestral conductors use a baton more often than choral conductors
(though not always: this is up to the conductor's personal preference), and favor the use of beat
patterns over gestural conducting, which concentrates more on musical expression and shape.
The grip of the baton varies from conductor to conductor. Despite a wide variety of styles, a number
of standard conventions have developed.

Beat and tempo

2/4, 2/2, or fast 6/8 time

3/4 or 3/8 time

4/4 time

slow 6/8 time

The beat of the music is typically indicated with the conductor's right hand, with or without a baton.
The hand traces a shape in the air in every bar (measure) depending on the time signature, indicating
each beat with a change from downward to upward motion. The images to the right show the most
common beat patterns, as seen from the conductor's point of view.
Changes to the tempo are indicated by changing the speed of the beat. To carry out and to control a
rallentando, a conductor may introduce beat subdivisions.
The downbeat indicates the first beat of the bar, and the upbeat indicates the last beat of the bar. The
instant at which the beat occurs is called the ictus (plural: ictus or ictuses), and is usually indicated by
a sudden (though not necessarily large) click of the wrist or change in baton direction. In some
instances, "ictus" is also used to refer to a horizontal plane in which all the ictuses are physically
located, such as the top of a music stand where a baton is tapped at each ictus. The gesture leading
up to the ictus is called the "preparation," and the continuous flow of steady beats is called the "takt."
If the tempo is slow or slowing, or if the time signature is compound, a conductor will sometimes
indicate "subdivisions" of the beats. The conductor can do this by adding a smaller movement in the
same direction as the movement for the beat to which it belongs.
Some conductors use both hands to indicate the beat, with the left hand mirroring the right, though
others view this as redundant and therefore to be avoided. This is also seen as improper practice by
many. The second hand may be used for cueing the entrances of individual players or sections, and
to aid indications of dynamics, phrasing, expression, and other elements.

Dynamics
Dynamics are indicated in various ways. The dynamic may be communicated by the size of the
conducting movements, larger shapes representing louder sounds. Changes in dynamic may be
signaled with the hand that is not being used to indicate the beat: an upward motion (usually palm-up)
indicates a crescendo; a downward motion (usually palm-down) indicates a diminuendo. Changing
the size of conducting movements may result in unintended tempo changes because larger
movements require the beat to traverse more space in the same amount of time.
Dynamics can be fine-tuned using various gestures: showing one's palm to the performers or leaning
away from them may demonstrate a decrease in volume. In order to adjust the overall balance of the
various instruments or voices, these signals can be combined or directed towards a particular section
or performer.
Cueing
The indication of entries, when a performer or section should begin playing (perhaps after a long
period of silence), is called "cueing." A cue must forecast with certainty the exact moment of the
coming ictus, so that all the players or singers affected by the cue can begin playing simultaneously.
Cueing is achieved by engaging the players before their entry and executing a clear preparation,
often directed towards the specific players.
Mere eye contact or a look in the general direction of the players may be sufficient in many instances,
as when more than one section of the ensemble enters at the same time. Larger musical events may
warrant the use of a larger or more emphatic cue designed to encourage emotion and energy. An
inhalation, which may or may not be a semi-audible "sniff" from the conductor, is a common element
in the cueing technique of many conductors.

Other musical elements

Articulation may be indicated by the character of the ictus, ranging from short and sharp for staccato,
to long and fluid for legato. Many conductors change the tension of the hands: strained muscles and
rigid movements may correspond to marcato, while relaxed hands and soft movements may
correspond to legato or espressivo.
Phrasing may be indicated by wide overhead arcs or by a smooth hand motion either forwards or
side-to-side. A held note is often indicated by a hand held flat with palm up. The end of a note, called
a "cutoff" or "release," may be indicated by a circular motion, the closing of the palm, or the pinching
of finger and thumb. A release is usually preceded by a preparation and concluded with a complete
stillness.

David Eaton of the New York City Symphony conducts a young violinist and orchestra

Conductors aim to maintain eye contact with the ensemble as much as possible, encouraging eye
contact in return and thus increasing the dialog between players/singers and conductor. Facial
expressions may also be important to demonstrate the character of the music or to encourage the
players.
With the emergence of the modern conductor in the twentieth century, there were a number of
important conductors who established long-term relationships with ensembles and in so doing
brought a distinctive sound and style to their orchestras. Among the most prominent of these
conductor/orchestra relationships were Herbert von Karajan (1908-1990) with the Berlin
Philharmonic, Eugene Mravinsky (1903-1988) with the Leningrad Symphony Orchestra, George
Szell (1897-1970) with the Cleveland Orchestra, Eugene Ormandy (1899-1985) and Leopold
Stokowski (1882-1977) with the Philadelphia Orchestra, Fritz Reiner (1888-1963), and Georg
Solti (1912-1997) with the Chicago Symphony Orchestra.
The dynamic of the symphonic tradition as it pertains to the relationship between the modern
conductor and orchestra, has been articulated in a most poetic fashion by long-time program
annotator of the Cleveland Orchestra, Klaus George Roy, when he wrote: "What more miraculous
creation of mankind is there than the symphony orchestra—a hundred musicians collaborating
flawlessly in the creation of a single sonority from moment to moment, under the guidance of a single
and singular mind who conveys the sound image of another's tonal imagination, and carrying with it a
single listener as it carries a thousand or two thousand? We tend to take for granted the skill and
sensitivity of such a performing organism, and we should take time to marvel afresh that such a joint
effort is possible for human beings, so rich in communication, beauty and meaning."