April 2020

US CEMENT
STANDARDS:
ACCELERATING
THE GREEN
TRANSITION
BY ROBERT SHENK,
GENERAL MANAGER, FLSMIDTH
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 CONTENTS
03 Comment
05 News
REGIONAL REPORT: SUB-SAHARAN AFRICA
10 A Sub-Saharan Scenario
Commissioning Editor, Paul Maxwell-Cook, presents an
overview of selected countries in Sub-Saharan Africa.
18 Connecting A Continent
Yasmine Ghozzi, GlobalData, discusses how the development of
transport corridors in Africa will spur economic growth.
COVER STORY
26 US Cement Standards: Accelerating The Green Transition
In the battle to limit the temperature rise to 1.5˚C by 2100
everything counts. Globally, including in the US, this issue is
gaining increasing attention – Robert Shenk, FLSmidth, explains
how the cement industry is part of the solution.
MATERIALS HANDLING & LOGISITICS
31 Up For Rent
Matt Piedmonte, Aerzen, outlines how to avoid the most
common errors made when renting equipment to replace
permanently installed blowers or low-pressure compressors.
65 The Benefit Of Retrofit
IGS discusses the advantages of retrofitting air cannons over
replacing the equipment entirely.
GEARS, DRIVES & LUBRICATION
69 Squeaky Clean
Pierre-Marie Maurice, Total Lubrifiants, explains how downtime
and production loss can be avoided when cleaning open-gears
in cement plants.
WASTE HEAT RECOVERY
73 Waste Not, Want Not
Gilles David, Enertime SA, and Evgueni Touliankine Occora,
SAS, explain why ORC-based waste heat recovery technology
is seeing a surge in demand.
77 Beating The Heat
Sabrina Santarossa, Turboden, explains how ORC technology
works as an efficient waste heat recovery method and how it
could help contribute to a greener cement production process.
8 On The Road To Recovery
M. Rovetta, CTP Team, highlights the benefits of waste heat
recovery systems and discusses a range of applications.

37 Case Enclosed 85 Taking The Temperature

Brandon Fultz, Sweet Manufacturing Company, outlines how the
use of enclosed belt conveyors could help to minimise dust and
reduce product loss in high capacity concrete facilities.
41 Time To Get Online
Mondi Paper Bags explains how digital platforms can make
the ordering process work more efficiently and transparently,
resulting in improved information sharing, convenience and
productivity.
46 Testing The Water
Ricardo Gonzalez, GlobBulk, discusses the logistics of efficient
cement plant capacity expansion using waterways.
Christopher Leonard, AMETEK Land, looks at the importance of
temperature measurement in cement manufacturing.
GENERAL INTEREST
91 Rewriting The Rules On Cement
Tony Sheridan, DB Group, discusses the benefits of low-carbon
cement alternatives and why they may be the answer to
improving the strength and durability of the material.
96 Set For Success
Nohman Mahmud explains the process of cement hydration and
how to optimise CONCRETE setting time, workability and water
demand.

53 Paper Versus Plastic

Catherine Kerninon, EUROSAC, and Kennert Johansson, CEPI
Eurokraft, discuss the results of a recent study by Sintef which
investigated the shelf life of paper and plastic cement sacks.
April 2020

SILO CLEAN-OUT & AIR CANNONS

59 A Helping Hand
Laurent Moret, Standard Industrie, outlines the benefits of
equipment designed to improve efficiency, production and safety
in bulk handling.
US CEMENT
STANDARDS:

ON THE COVER ACCELERATING

US cement plants typically follow standards limiting use of limestone as an additive to 5%.
THE GREEN
If finished cement had an average clinker factor of 75% the CO2 emission savings would
TRANSITION
BY ROBERT SHENK,

be the equivalent of taking over 3 million cars off the road. Moving the market mindset GENERAL MANAGER, FLSMIDTH

to a performance based cement standard offers the US an opportunity to accelerate the

green transition. To read the feature article on US cement standards by Robert Shenk,
General Manager, FLSmidth, see page 26.
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 COMMENT
Managing Editor: James Little
james.little@palladianpublications.com
Editor: David Bizley
david.bizley@palladianpublications.com
Editorial Assistant: Emily Thomas
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Contributing Editor: Paul Maxwell-Cook
Production: Gabriella Bond
gabriella.bond@palladianpublications.com
Sales Director: Rod Hardy
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Sales Manager: Ian Lewis
ian.lewis@palladianpublications.com
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April 2020 World Cement
DAVID BIZLEY, EDITOR
W
ith the World Health
Organisation (WHO) recently
declaring that COVID-19 or
the ‘coronavirus’ has officially
become a global pandemic, there’s no longer
any avoiding the fact that this disease will, over
time, have an impact upon every sector of society,
including industry. Although most people who catch
the virus will suffer only relatively mild flu-like symptoms, the danger posed to
those in high-risk groups (the elderly, people with certain pre-existing medical
conditions, etc.) is significant. As a consequence, many countries around
the world are imposing increasingly stringent controls on their populations:
restricting freedom of movement, limiting contact between individuals and,
consequently, slowing down economic activity.
Global markets have taken a sustained hammering as uncertainty continues to
undermine investor confidence, with some estimates pointing to an impact equal
to, or greater than, the 2008 financial crisis. Big infrastructure spending, such
as the £640 billion of investment for roads, railways, communications, schools,
hospitals and power distribution announced in the recent UK Government
budget, will likely be delayed for the most part. This, in turn, will likely dampen
the demand for cement production – throwing off many predictions which had
2020 being something of a turnaround year for the industry.
There is, however, a silver lining to this cloud. Or at least, the references
to 2008 should be taken with a pinch of salt. The main reason for this is
that the financial crisis and subsequent recession was caused by long-term,
fundamental flaws in the global financial system. Gus Fincher, Chief Economist
of PNC Financial Services Group, commented on the impact to the US
economy: “A recession is not inevitable. If we do get a recession, it is likely to
be brief and much less severe than the Great Recession. What we’re seeing
is caused by something external to the economy.” Kathy Bostjancic, Director
of U.S. Macro Investors, agrees, arguing that the impact will be closer in form
to the kind felt after a natural disaster. Though painful, job losses are likely to
be lower, and economic recovery is likely to take significantly less time than the
18 month downturn caused by the financial crisis. Additionally, this time around
many governments are offering financial support to companies and employees
impacted by the pandemic as they follow government advice to ensure ‘social
distancing’ and ‘self-isolate’ if needed.
Another key difference between 2008 and today is, of course, the human
cost. Although the financial crisis was painful to endure, the current pandemic
poses a serious risk to people’s lives. Please make sure to follow local
government and WHO advice whenever possible and remember to spare a
thought for elderly or vulnerable neighbours who may need help.
If you’re currently working from home, go ahead and add our website
(www.worldcement.com) to your bookmarks and follow us on social media, so
you can keep up-to-date with the latest industry news. You can even
make use of the World Cement app to ensure that you continue to
receive the magazine, wherever you are (more details on p. 58)!
The team at World Cement wish you all the best.
3
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 NEWS
HeidelbergCement reveals 2019 results
In 2019, group revenue rose by 4.3% in
comparison with the previous year to €18.9
(previous year: 18.1) billion (like-for-like
+2.1%).
The result from current operations before
depreciation and amortisation increased by
15.5% to € 3 580 (previous year: 3 100) million
(like-for-like +2.5%). The result from current
operations rose by 8.8% to € 2 186 (previous
year: 2 010) million (like-for-like +4.7%).
Overall, the profit for the financial year amounted
to € 1242 million (previous year: 1 286).
The profit relating to non-controlling interests
rose by € 8 million to € 151 million (previous
year: 143). The Group share of profit therefore
amounted to € 1091 million (previous year:
1143). Earnings per share before non-recurring
effects increased by 23% to € 6.40 (previous
year: 5.21).
ROIC (Return on Invested Capital) of the
company was 6.9% for 2019 (previous year:
6.9%) and remained once more above the
weighted average cost of capital (WACC) that
are relevant for evaluating capital efficiency.
WACC amounted to 6.6% in 2019 (previous
year: 6.3). In 2019, HeidelbergCement earned
once again a premium on its cost of capital.
Strong cash flow – net debt significantly
reduced
In the 2019 business year, cash inflow from
operating activities of continuing operations
increased significantly by €695 million to
€ 2664 million (previous year: 1969).
“We have mainly used the generated liquidity
to reduce net debt,” said Dr. Lorenz Näger,
Chief Financial Officer of HeidelbergCement.
Before accounting of lease liabilities amounting
to around €1.3 billion, net debt declined
by approximately €1.2 billion to €7.1 billion
compared to the previous year. Dynamic
gearing ratio declined to 2.3 x.
“At year-end, we had cash and cash
equivalents as well as long-term approved
credit lines of €6.5 billion. Even in times of
crises, this ensures that we have a comfortable
liquidity position, also after the repayment of
bonds and credits maturing in 2020 in the
amount of €2.2 billion,” said Dr. Lorenz Näger.
April 2020 World Cement
Increase in dividend to €2.20 per share
proposed
In view of the positive development of the
business and the growth of profit for the financial
year before non-recurring effects, the Managing
Board and Supervisory Board will propose to
the Annual General Meeting an increase in the
dividend from €2.10 per share to €2.20 per share.
This corresponds to a rise of around 5%, i.e. a
payout ratio of 40.0% of the Group share of profit.
With the tenth consecutive dividend increase, the
company continues its progressive dividend policy.
Climate protection and sustainability
In 2019 the company drove forward
the implementation of its Sustainability
Commitments 2030. The efforts focused on
climate protection. By 2030, specific net CO2
emissions per t of cement shall be reduced
by 30% compared with 1990. The reduction
achieved in comparison with 1990 was around
20% in 2018 and was already around 22% in
2019. HeidelbergCement’s vision is to offer a
CO2-neutral concrete by 2050 at the latest.
Outlook 2020
HeidelbergCement is globally well positioned
for sustainable and profitable growth. However,
there is significant uncertainty regarding the
actual extent of the economic development. At
the beginning of the year, the company expected
a further rise in construction activity in 2020.
The global development of sales volumes was
positive in the first two months of the year. On
this basis, the Group expected a slight increase
in revenue and result from current operations in
comparison with the previous year. Meanwhile,
frame conditions have changed rapidly due to
the fast spread of the coronavirus.
PCA congratulates cement plants on
receiving energy performance awards
The Portland Cement Association (PCA)
congratulates the 13 cement plants awarded
US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)
ENERGY STAR® certification for their superior
energy performance in 2019.
“America’s cement manufacturers’
commitment to research and technology has led
to overall energy efficiencies and the increased
5
 NEWS
DIARY
World Cement
Online Conference:
Sustainability 2020
07 April 2020
https://bit.ly/2MOTF9V
SOLIDS & RECYCLING-
TECHNIK Dortmund 2020
24 – 25 June 2020
Dortmund, Germany
www.solids-dortmund.de
12th Africa Cementrade
Summit
16 – 17 September 2020
Abidjan, Cote D’Ivoire
www.cmtevents.com/
aboutevent
ILA General Assembly
and Symposium 2020
14 – 16 October 2020
Paris, France
www.internationallime.org
AUCBM AICCE25
01 – 03 December 2020
Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
www.aucbm.net
interpack
23 February – 03 March 2021
Düsseldorf, Germany
www.interpack.com
6 World Cement April 2020
use of alternative fuels.” said Mike Ireland, PCA President and
CEO. “The ENERGY STAR designation across numerous cement
plants is another great example of the industry’s continued
reduction of its carbon footprint in a responsible and sustainable
manner.”
These cement facilities join an elite group of only 95
manufacturing plants across 20 manufacturing sectors to receive
the certification. Only plants in the top 25% of energy performance
nationwide can earn the ENERGY STAR certification.
“The magnitude of these plants’ savings indicates that
manufacturers in the United States have a lot to gain by investing in
energy efficiency,” said Anne Idsal, EPA Principal Deputy Assistant
Administrator for Air and Radiation.
“Energy management is a win/win: saving money for
manufacturers and protecting our environment.”
Korea Cement Association Joins WCA as an Affiliate
Member
The World Cement Association has announced that it is welcoming
Korea Cement Association (KCA) as an Affiliate Member of its
international network.
“KCA has a long history supporting the advancement of the
cement and concrete industries locally, and we look forward to
working with them in a global context,” explains Ian Riley, CEO at
WCA. “It’s important for us to have a diverse membership that is
not just made up of cement producers, and so we’re very keen to
welcome other Associations that share our goals and values.”
Korea’s cement industry employs more than 4800 people and
produces around 51 million tpy, and KCA counts nine of the
leading players among its membership.
Since its establishment in 1963, KCA has embraced a range of
responsibilities, from making government policy recommendations
to producing information and statistics on the cement and
construction industries. The association’s mission is to advance
the effective uses of cement, concrete and related products, to
meet the economic, technological and environmental need of the
construction industry.
In 2018 KCA was recognised for its work to improve recycling
of waste materials in the cement industry, and was awarded the
grand prize in the category of Resource Circulation at the Korea
Environment Awards. The same year, the association organised an
international seminar in Seoul, which analysed the durability criteria
and the certification system related to cement concrete, calling on
the cement industry to improve the durability of construction.
“We share, at a local level, WCA’s global mission of representing
and promoting the cement industry, so there is a great deal of
scope for collaboration between our two organisations,” explains
Hyun Joon Lee, President of KCA. “Through WCA, we look
forward to connecting with international peers to stay informed
on best practice and the latest industry developments, as well as
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 NEWS
sharing insights that we have gathered through
our own work”.
Affiliate Membership is designed for regional or
national cement associations and other partner
groups, which are not-for-profitorganisations
working in areas related to the objectives of the
WCA. Through this membership, WCA invites
companies to be part of its network and together
improve industry standards worldwide.
GlobalData: New infrastructure projects
to be launched in Dubai, despite real
estate slowdown
The Dubai Municipality is set to launch tenders
in the first quarter of 2020 for major tunnelling
contracts to build deep tunnel sewer networks
serving the old areas of Deira and Bur Dubai.
If that happens and contracts are awarded
promptly, then despite other projects in Dubai
slowing down, there will be a major project
speeding up, says GlobalData, a leading data
and analytics company.
Colin Foreman, Deputy Editor at GlobalData,
comments: “Contractors in Dubai learned in
2008 and 2009 that construction in the emirate
was a binary market – it was either on or off. The
market is far more difficult to read in 2020. While
there are projects that have obviously stalled
or been shelved, work on other projects, both
existing and planned, continues.”
The pace of construction on real estate
schemes has noticeably slowed amid a backdrop
of falling property prices. At the same time, work
on projects either at or connected to the Expo
2020 site are being pushed to be completed
quickly ahead of the event’s 20 October opening
date.
Foreman continued: “For future projects,
publicly acknowledged government concerns
about the oversupply of real estate have resulted
in less building work being tendered. As the
building market slows, the hope is that planned
infrastructure projects will take up the slack.
“The largest future scheme by far is the
US$32 billion expansion of Al-Maktoum
International airport, but there are other major
planned schemes such as Dubai Municipality’s
deep tunnel sewer network serving the old areas
of Deira and Bur Dubai.”
8 World Cement April 2020
CEMEX aligns with women’s
empowerment principles
CEMEX announced its commitment to gender
equality by becoming a signatory to the UN
Women and UN Global Compact’s Women’s
Empowerment Principles (“WEPs”). The
WEPs, along with the company’s existing
diversity and inclusion guidelines, serve as
further guidance for CEMEX to promote
equality in the workplace, marketplace, and
community. CEMEX works globally with different
institutions on implementing several initiatives
with the common goal of promoting education,
encouraging social entrepreneurship, and
providing tools for empowering women in the
cities and communities in which it operates.
“At CEMEX, we value diversity in our
workforce; the integration of people with
different backgrounds, perspectives, and life
experiences makes CEMEX stronger,” said
Fernando A. González, CEO of CEMEX.
“Diversity is what makes us more competitive
and resilient and enables us to adapt to an
ever-changing global environment. We are
satisfied that our efforts to promote gender
equality and women’s empowerment are aligned
with the WEPs.”
The seven WEPs are: High-Level Corporate
Leadership; Treat all Women and Men Fairly
at Work without Discrimination; Employee
Health, Well-Being and Safety; Education
and training for gender equality; Enterprise
development, supply chain and marketing
practices; Community initiatives and advocacy;
and Measurement and Reporting.
CEMEX embraces and integrates the WEPs
into its community initiatives and advocacy by
leveraging its partnerships with OAS, promoting
women’s leadership and community consultation
initiatives, as well as by providing grants to
support community business initiatives. In
addition to the company’s commitment to the
WEPs, CEMEX has not only been a signatory
member of the UN Global Compact (UNGC)
since 2004, but also recently reinforced its
engagement as a participant, through which the
company embraces, supports, and complies
with its principles and values, while currently
leading the UNGC Network in Mexico.
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 A Sub-Saharan
Scenario
Commissioning Editor,
Paul Maxwell-Cook,
presents an overview
of selected countries in
Sub-Saharan Africa.

10
G
rowth figures for Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA)
often vary from month to month. The World
Bank and others seem to have settled
on 2.9% for this year. Six West African
countries will hold elections in 2020. These
could increase tensions between different
parties and between ethnic groups. They
certainly will test political stability in that part
of the region. For example, elections in Côte
d’Ivoire and Guinea could act as catalysts for
social unrest. This is not surprising when one
notes that Cote d’Ivoire’s citizens enjoy a high
level of income compared with neighbouring
countries, especially Guinea which, while rich in
mineral resources, is the poorest in West Africa.
Fitch Solutions suggests that infrastructure
limitations and security challenges will continue
to constrain trade.
11
 The East Africa Monitor at the beginning of
this year reporting on research by The Institute
of Chartered Accountants in England and
Wales (ICAEW), said East Africa’s economic
growth was expected to remain robust this year
and then ease from 6.3% to 6.1% in 2021. The
region will continue to be the biggest growth
prospect for African economic development.
The following is a brief selection of
Sub-Saharan countries, some of which are
experiencing mixed fortunes.
Nigeria
A regional superpower it may be, but Nigeria
continues to deal with many monetary and
fiscal challenges this year and these could
stretch further ahead. At the beginning of
2020 Nigeria’s debt was over US$80 billion
with inflation at about 12% and rising. The
economist and corporate finance expert,
Tilewa Adebato, in a TV interview with Arise
News, confirmed the debt was being serviced
by about 55% of the country’s revenue.
Adebato suggested that with the population
increasing at 3% pa, growth should be running
at 5 – 6% to lift 100 million people out of
poverty, not at last year’s rate of 2.5%. Amid
these thoughts, there are some positive signs.
Steve Johnson, in a recent article for the
Financial Times, wrote: “Despite global prices,
the oil sector had made modest progress.
Production is up thanks to the Egina oilfield
coming online and fewer acts of sabotage in
the Niger Delta.” The planned Train-7 project,
part of the expansion at the Bonny LG plant
is scheduled to start up in 2024. This will
increase Nigeria’s LNG output by 35% to
over 30 million tpy, to provide much needed
revenue.
Cement update
In September 2019 Aliko Dangote announced
that the Dangote Group was looking to expand
its cement production in Africa by 29% to
62 million t. Dangote plans to add 6 million
t in Nigeria thereby raising the home market
to 35 million t. Earlier in 2019, Dangote
spoke of exporting clinker to Cameroon
and West Africa. The rest of the expansion
programme will be in West Africa, including
Niger and Côte d’Ivoire. Two months later
came the news via Reuters and local press
agencies that Dangote had signed two major
deals with Togo. One involved the investment
of US$2 billion in the country’s phosphate
industry and the other, an investment of
US$60 million in the cement industry to build a
new 1.5 million tpy plant, utilising Togolese and
Nigerian clinker. When completed, Togo will
12
have four cement producers. The other three
are HeidelbergCement (CIMTOGO), WACEM
and Diamond Cement.
In October 2019, GE and Dangote signed an
agreement to deploy GE’s Asset Performance
Management (APM) digital solution to reduce
unplanned downtime and enhance performance
at the Obajana and Ibese cement plants. The
project includes extending the current service
agreement for an additional 50 000 operating
hours for the seven aeroderivative gas turbines
installed at the sites.
Nigeria’s other billionaire with major
interests in the cement industry through his
control of BUA Group, Abdulsamad Rabiu,
announced the merging of the privately owned
Obu Cement with the publicly traded Cement
Company of Northern Nigeria (CCNN). In
reporting this, Forbes confirmed that the
move will create the country’s second largest
cement producer. Rabiu had previously
merged Kalambaina Cement with CCNN
at the beginning of 2019. Meanwhile, work
is progressing on the construction of the
3 million tpy Sokoto Kalambaina II plant which
is expected to be completed in the second half
of this year. Once that plant is up and running,
BUA Cement’s total installed capacity will be
11 million tpy. BUA signed an EPC contract
with China’s CBMI in January 2019 for the
construction of the Sokoto plant. Analysts
speak of the cement market growing by 6 – 7%
this year based on trends reported in 2019.
South Africa
If the reader feels sorry for Nigeria’s problems,
then spare a thought for the ongoing woes
of South Africa, also regarded as a regional
superpower. By the end of 2019, economic
growth in the country had flat-lined, with
the IMF confirming that the economy would
experience “sluggish growth” this year – below
population growth for the sixth consecutive
year. There was talk of a ratings downgrade
from Moody’s, risks to the rand and the
ongoing challenges presented by state-owned
enterprises. As professor Raymond Parsons
of NWU Business School wrote in Business
Report at the beginning of 2020, “South
Africa’s domestic outlook remains a tough
and sombre one, with poor growth prospects.
The contours of the economic and financial
landscape dictate that this is a pivotal year, if
economic recovery is to be fostered, more jobs
must be created, public finances brought under
control and business confidence lifted.”
Last year the country’s ailing economy was
severely affected by load shredding. Even
as the president, Cyril Ramaphosa, spoke of
World Cement April 2020
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tackling the crisis at Eskom, the utility that
generates 95% of electricity in the country,
power cuts returned at the beginning of
this year. On a more positive note, Reuters,
as reported by Moneyweb, said that the
president’s drive to raise US$100 billion
worth of investments into South Africa will
be keenly watched by South African market
participants and businesses. At an African
Investment Forum last November, 56 deals
worth US$67.6 billion made it into boardroom
discussions at the forum, an increase of
44% since 2018. As Moneyweb notes, “For
these investments to be sustainable, there
needs to be a change in approach from the
government.”
Cement update
It was back in August 2019 that Bryan Perrie,
MD of The Concrete Institute (TCI) acting
on behalf of Africam, Dangote Cement SA,
Lafarge Industries South Africa, Natal Portland
Cement Company and PPC, announced that
TCI had applied to the International Trade
Administration Commission (ITAC) of South
Africa to investigate the surge of imports
of low-priced cement. The industry has also
approached the Department of Trade and
Industry (DTI) to apply for special designation
status, without which, it says, it will not
be able to benefit from the government’s
ambitious infrastructure plan. Xolisa Phillip
writing in The Africa Report pointed out the
industry has capacity to produce 20 million
tpy but is currently producing 13 million t. It is
grappling with a tough operating environment
and cheap imports from Vietnam and China
as financially-squeezed consumers are driving
up demand for cheap blended alternatives to
regular cement. The industry is hoping that
the ITAC will impose a tariff of at least 45% to
curb imports.
The other major talking point from the
industry is whether PPC will be successful
in its third attempt to merge with Africam. In
his article published in Business Maverick
in November 2019, Ray Mahlaka reminded
readers that since 2014 both companies had
twice attempted to combine their operations,
the last one collapsing at the end of 2017.
He suggests that PPC still has not ruled out
prospects of reviving the merger talks. Mahlaka
suggests, arguably, it could be opportunistic
for PPC to launch the bid even though there is
a distressed business environment which can
be good for acquisition opportunities.
In November PPC reported that headline
earnings per share had dropped by 65 – 85%.
The company attributed the deterioration in
its interim financial results to the impact of its
14
Zimbabwe operations due to hyperinflation in
the country, a difficult trading environment in
South Africa and one-off restructuring costs.
Ethiopia
The World Economic Forum regards the country
as Africa’s new growth engine, with a rate
running at about 7.5%. There are, as ever, many
challenges for the population of 100 million.
These include: a low per-capita GDP of less
than US$800, rising external debt (especially to
China) and ethnic tensions, particularly in the
build-up to next month’s general election. On the
positive side, the construction industry has been
experiencing a boom. For example, in 2017 – 18
it accounted for 18% of the country’s GDP
with millions of US dollars pouring into social
housing. This proved to be a windfall for foreign
and local contractors. Many will want to see what
the newly elected government has in store for
Ethiopia.
Cement update
Last September, Ethiopian newspapers and
agencies reported that the Abay Industrial
Development SC had secured a 20-year licence
from the Ministry of Mines & Petroleum to source
raw materials for its new 5000 tpd cement plant
currently under construction in Eastern Gojam
Zone, Dejen Wereda, Amhara Regional State.
The civil works are being undertaken by the
Chinese Hengyuan Group while FLSmidth will
supply engineering, design and full equipment.
Completion is scheduled for 2022.
Ghana
At this time last year, the World Economic Forum
reminded us that three decades ago Ghana
was in crisis and on the verge of collapse. Fast
forward to 2019 and the Forum predicted the
country would be the world’s fastest growing
economy. The World Bank, on the other hand
says the same but also adds in three other fastest
growing economies: Côte d’Ivoire, Ethiopia and
Rwanda. Whatever the argument, Ghana has
made gigantic strides to be where it is today. Its
economy is expected to expand 6.2% this year
and 5.4% in 2021.
As part of a memorandum signed between
China and Ghana in 2018, Beijing will finance
US$2 billion worth of rail, road and bridge
networks, and in exchange, China will be granted
access to 5% of Ghana’s bauxite reserves. The
first US$649 million has been released by the
Sinohydro Group.
Cement update
Dangote Cement operates a 1.5 million tpy bulk
cement terminal at Tema. It has been investing
US$100 million in a new clinker grinding plant at
World Cement April 2020
Takoradi which was scheduled to begin operating
at the end of 2019.
Kenya
The country remains East Africa’s largest
economy, but growth has stalled in recent
years as some of its neighbours demonstrate
significantly faster growth rates. Growth is
expected to rise from 5.6% in 2019 to 5.9%
this year. The World Bank has said that inflation
is expected to remain within the government’s
target range while the current account deficit is
projected to remain manageable.
In August 2019, the country joined the ranks of
Africa’s petroleum-exporting countries. Charles
Wachira writing in Global Finance reported
that 250 000 barrels had been shipped to
ChemChina in a US$12 million deal. While the
Turkana oil fields are said to contain 560 million
barrels of oil, achieving full production potential
of an estimated 100 000 bpd by 2024 will require
much investment in infrastructure, including
drilling and pipelines.
Cement update
The big news last year was of course the
acquisition of Athi River Mining (ARM) Cement
by National Cement Company, a subsidiary of the
Devki Group whose owner is Narendra Raval,
the country’s most successful entrepreneur.
National Cement will now have a capacity of
3 million tpy making it one of the largest cement
manufacturers in East Africa.
Kenya News reported in July 2019 that
Savannah Cement’s new 1.2 million tpy grinding
plant in Kitengela, which was supplied by
FLSmidth, was scheduled to begin operating
at the end of the year. The Managing Director,
Ronald Ndegwa, stated that the company
wanted to ensure maximum penetration in the
East African market.
In November, Evwind News gave details
of Mombasa Cement’s new 36 MW wind
farm which will help it to overcome power
inefficiencies that have undermined the cement
producer’s profitability. A steady flow of power
from the main supply in Kaloleni is ensured via a
132 kV transmission line.
The IA Cement Report 2020 predicts that
after a fall in cement demand over the past
three years, it expects a demand growth of 2%
this year following improvements in credit and
government spending.
Rwanda
Analysts report that Rwanda has achieved
rapid growth in the past decade. This is
down to implementation of effective economic
development and poverty reduction programmes.
It is said that the country is one of East Africa’s
16
fastest growing economies. Its top exports
are gold, tea and petroleum with Kenya and
the Democratic Republic of Congo being the
biggest export destinations, followed by China
and Malaysia. Against this, energy shortages
and instability in neighbouring countries continue
to hamper private sector growth. The African
Development Bank predicted 8% growth this
year supported by export growth and public
investment.
Cement update
In December 2019 Rwanda’s KT Express
reported that the country’s leading cement
producer Cimerwa, after making losses in
previous years, had posted a net profit. The
company’s Rusizi plant is now producing
480 000 tpy having gone from below 70%
capacity to 80% against the plant’s full output.
Cimerwa plans to produce 600 000 tpy from
2021 after an upgrade this year. Prime Cement,
a subsidiary of the Angola-based Milbridge
Holding Group is currently constructing a plant
in Musanze, Western Rwanda. Three years ago,
FLSmidth won the contract to supply a full-scale
grinding facility for the plant. The first phase
was scheduled for completion in August 2019,
with phase two predicted to start in August
of this year. When this plant is completed the
country’s total installed cement production is
predicted to be 1.3 million tpy. The industry has
been struggling to meet demand created by the
government’s drive on big infrastructure projects
and affordable housing schemes.
The IA Cement Report 2020 predicts that
after a fall in cement demand over the past
three years, it expects a demand growth of 2%
this year following improvements in credit and
government spending.
Cement updates: other countries
Cameroon
The country’s cement industry is rapidly
expanding. It is even predicted by
The Africa Report that Cameroon could become
a sizeable exporter within the next two years.
All four main producers have plans to increase
their respective capacities. In October 2019,
Cimenterie Industrielle de Kribi (Cmikri) Sari and
China’s CNBM/Afcham signed a MoU for the
construction of a new 0.5 million tpy distribution
facility in the Kribi industrial port complex
comprising the installation of an 18 000 t clinker
silo and a 4000 t cement silo. The Dangote
Group is said to be planning a second plant of
1.5 million t to increase the group’s total capacity
to 3 million t. Earlier in 2019, Cimenteries du
Cameroun (Cimencam), inaugurated a new 0.5
million t plant in Nomayos. In the middle of 2019,
World Cement April 2020
there were reports that Ciments de l’Afrique
(CIMAF) had plans to triple its production
capacity.
Angola
The Kwanza Sul Cement factory will increase
production to 70% of its installed capacity of
1.5 million t this year. This was the statement
given by Joaquim Manuel, the company’s Director
of HR and Administration, to the Angop news
agency at the 4th Expoindustria in Luanda/Bengo
Special Economic Zone (ZEE) in October
2019. The Director said that the continued drop
in production was due to the reduction and
shutdown of several construction projects in the
country as a result of the economic crisis that the
country had been experiencing since 2014. The
country’s five cement plants have an aggregate
capacity of 8 million t.
Niger
In the summer of 2019, Dangote Cement
announced a US$322 million project for the
construction of a 4500 tpd cement plant
including a gas-fired power plant. Completion
has been scheduled for 2021.
Mozambique
Last year the daily newspaper Correio da Manha
reported that Chinese investors will spend
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US$700 million to build a 0.5 million tpy plant
in Muxúngue, Chibabava district in the south of
the central province of Sofala. Operations are
scheduled to begin in 2021.
Conclusion
There could be significant developments in SSA
this year following elections in six West African
countries and continuing robust growth in East
Africa. The two so-called regional superpowers,
South Africa and Nigeria, are trying to deal with
their respective monetary and fiscal problems. It
is important to note that although countries such
as Ethiopia, Ghana and Kenya have between
them lifted over 27 million people out of poverty,
there are still millions living below the poverty line
in so many parts of the region, as well as across
Africa. The World Bank has said “SSA is home
to the world’s largest free trade area and with a
1.2 billion-person market, it is poised to create
an entirely new development path harnessing
the potential of its resources and people.” As we
move through 2020 and look to the years ahead
the hope must be that this idea can be sustained,
poverty reduced and employment and education
increased across the whole SSA region.
Sources
News agencies, company news, World Bank,
Focus Economics, Local press reports.
 Yasmine Ghozzi, GlobalData, discusses how the
development of transport corridors in Africa will spur
economic growth.

T
he relatively slow growth in 2019 was
mainly due to the modest expansion
of the continent’s ‘big five’ – Algeria,
Egypt, Morocco, Nigeria, and
South Africa – whose joint growth was an
average rate of 3.1%, compared with the
average of 4.0% for the rest of the continent.
Africa’s economic growth stabilised in 2019
at 3.4% and is on track to pick up to 3.9% in
2020 and 4.1% in 2021 as revealed by the
African Development Bank (AfDB)’s 2020
African Outlook. Overall, Africa’s growth
fundamentals have improved, driven by a
steady shift toward investments and net
exports and away from private consumption.
Over the longer term, Africa has huge
potential for growth, as the average annual
growth rate for 53 African countries will be
6.2% between 2010 and 2040, with 37 of
these countries expected to grow by more
than 5% as predicted by the Programme for
Infrastructure Development in Africa (PIDA).

18
19
The drivers of this growth are expected to be
rapid urbanisation and economic diversification
beyond resource-based activities. Achieving this
growth potential will require investment in new
infrastructure and African governments are focusing
on the development of regional economic corridors,
interlinking highways, railways and ports in the
region. This will provide connectivity between
international, national and rural networks. The lack
of infrastructure is a serious obstacle to growth
and development, and results in a low level of
intra-African trade and trade with other regions.
The continent accounts for 12% of the world
population, but generates a mere 1% of global
GDP and only 2% of world trade. Studies such as
those by the Infrastructure Consortium of Africa
(ICA) have shown that poor road, rail and port
infrastructure adds 30 – 40% to the costs of goods
traded among African countries.
is the most ambitious road network on the
continent. It comprises nine interlinked highways
with a total length of 56 683 km. 16 corridors
also have railway lines of around 20 000 km, and
some corridors, such as the Central Corridor and
the Beira/Shire/Zambezi Corridor, include lake or
river transport. All of these corridors finish at ports
and/or link to ports. Major transport corridors
such as the Northern Multimodal Corridor, which
will facilitate the travel of people and goods
across the borders between Kenya, Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi and the Democratic Republic of
the Congo (DRC), with a spur to South Sudan;
the North South Multimodal Corridor between
South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia,
Malawi and the DRC; and the Central Corridor
between Tanzania, Uganda, Rwanda, Burundi
and the DRC, all three will transform logistics in
Sub Saharan Africa (SSA).

Expanding regional transport Overhaul cost of East Africa’s prime

infrastructure transport corridors
Africa has 40 key transport corridors that cover Cross-border corridors are key to linking
about 63 000 km out of the total road network markets – particularly important for landlocked
in Africa, carrying 90% of trade for landlocked countries – and enhancing intra-African trade.
countries and 40% of international trade by The East Africa Community (EAC) has identified five
African countries. The Trans-Africa Highway (TAH) main road transport corridors (with a total length of
about 12 000 km) that
Table 1. Tracked roads and railways projects linked to the major corridors in the pipeline. constitute a strategic
priority and require
Transport
Corridor
Roads (US$ million) Railways (US$ million) Total (US$ million) Total (km) rehabilitation and
upgrading. These
Northern
comprise Mombasa
Multimodal 6280 21 539 27 819 4933
Transport Corridor
– Malaba – Kigali
– Bujumbura;
Central Multimodal
1058 18 300 19 358 3840 Dar es Salaam
Transport Corridor
– Rusumo with
Trans-Kalahari
15 000 15 000 1500 branches to Kigali,
Railway
Bujumbura and Masaka;
Djibouti – Addis 10 701 10 701 5060 Biharamulo – Sirari
North-South – Lodwar – Lokichogio;
Multimodal 8700 1438 10 138 6667 Nyakanazi –
Transport Corridor Kasulu – Tunduma
Abidjan – Lagos with a branch to
3404 3404 1100
Coastal Bujumbura; and
Dakar – Bamako – Tunduma – Dodoma
Niamey Multimodal 2200 2200 1286 – Namanga – Isiolo
Transport Corridor – Moyale. The
Douala – Northern Corridor
Ndjamena – 2001 2001 1735 from Mombasa to
Bangui Bujumbura is part of the
Beira – Nacala Trans-African Highway
Multimodal
1200 400 1600 1458 (Mombasa – Lagos)
Transport
while the Tunduma
Corridors
– Moyale road is part
Mombasa – of the Cape to Cairo
Nairobi – Addis
900 900 699 Highway. The EAC,
Ababa Road
Corridor
in collaboration with
member countries,
Total 23 543 69 578 93 121 28 278
has synchronised

20 World Cement April 2020

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assistance in order to mobilise funds for the
development of these corridors. The two main
transit corridors in East Africa that facilitate import
and export activities in the region are the Northern
Corridor (2038 km long) commencing from the
port of Mombasa, which serves Kenya, Uganda,
Rwanda, Burundi and Eastern DRC, and the
Central Corridor (1300 km long) that begins at
the port of Dar es Salaam, and serves Tanzania,
Zambia, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Eastern
DRC, requiring nearly US$20 billion to revamp
them.
Supporting transport corridor
infrastructure in West Africa
The Bamako – San Pedro corridor between Mali
and Côte d’Ivoire provides an alternative route to
open up access from landlocked countries in the
vicinity to the Gulf of Guinea and its international
ports. The project will connect Mali and the
northern part of Guinea to San Pedro, an important
international port in Côte d’Ivoire. The project
comprises improvement and maintenance work
on 140 km of the corridor in Mali and 135 km in
Côte d’Ivoire. The works are expected to reduce
travel times by 70% and significantly lower the
cost of transportation between Mali and the
port of San Pedro. This will result in increased
opportunities for economic development and
trade, both between Mali and Côte d’Ivoire and for
communities living along the route. With large areas
of land unused due to a lack of access to efficient
transport links, the project will also help the region
develop its untapped economic potential.
The Abidjan – Lagos Corridor is an essential
link in the Dakar – Lagos Corridor, which is
part of the TAH of the Economic Community
of West African States (ECOWAS) region,
whose development is one of the 16 priority
continental infrastructure projects identified
on the continent’s scale. The plan to build a
6259 km highway between Mombasa port and
Lagos in Nigeria is one of the most ambitious
infrastructure projects in the pipeline, and part
of the TAH network. The road is planned to pass
through six countries: 737 km in Nigeria, 1044 km
in Cameroon, 1319 km in the Central African
Republic, 1561 km in the DRC, 740 km in Uganda
and 1100 km in Kenya. Only Nigeria, Cameroon,
Uganda and Kenya have completed their roads,
but there are missing links in the Central African
Republic and the DRC. One of them is identified
as the Mbarara – Kisangani project, a 940 km
road project of which 108 km is in Uganda
and 760 km is in the DRC. Some bottlenecks
hampering the project include difficult terrain and
climate conditions, inadequate funding for road
maintenance and upgrades, as well as insecurity
due to civil conflicts that have also damaged roads
that now require reconstruction.
22
Transport corridor infrastructure in the
pipeline
GlobalData is tracking nine major corridors with
26 roads and railways that are being proposed
or are underway with a combined value of
US$93.1 billion. At the heart of each corridor
is a road or railroad or a combination of both,
sometimes accompanied by a power line. The
projects have a variety of proponents, including
national governments, donors and private lenders.
In East Africa, for example, the Northern and
Central transport corridors serve nine countries
(Tanzania, Kenya, Rwanda, Burundi, Ethiopia,
the DRC, South Sudan, Sudan and Djibouti).
They cover approximately 5000 km of trunk roads
of various grades, 4500 km of railway lines,
17 major border crossings and two major seaports
(Mombasa and Dar es Salaam). Only 34% of
the Northern Corridor’s network of roads can be
considered to be in good condition.
In total, 53.9% of the corridor project pipeline
by value is being funded by various joint financing
arrangements between the public and private
sector. While 22.8% of these projects by
value are solely publicly funded, only 23.3%
of these projects by value are privately funded.
Building roads and railways remains a priority
for China in Africa, where Chinese contractors
such as China Railway Construction, China
Communication Construction, Power Construction
Corporation of China and others are involved
in projects connected with these corridors
worth US$25.8 billion. The rest of the contracts
(in projects worth US$79.3 billion) have been
awarded to various contractors headquarted in
Turkey, Brazil, South Korea, the US, the UK and
others. When completed in their entirety, the
tracked projects identified under these corridors
will total over 28 200 km in length (for roads
11 490 km and 16 788 km for railways), of which
18 459 km will be newly constructed, 7258 km will
be upgraded and 2561 km will have an element of
both construction and upgrade. Some individual
corridors in the pipeline are over 4000 km long.
To support the development and maintenance
of Africa’s ‘hard’ transport infrastructure (such
as roads and railways), ‘soft’ infrastructure – the
financial, regulatory and governance systems,
and institutions to manage the transport systems
to their full aptitude – needs to be developed
simultaneously. A key cause of lengthy transit
times through Africa, hindering intra-regional trade,
has been the often long procedures involved in
passing through two sets of identical controls on
each side of the border. As well as causing delays,
lengthy transit times increase the cost of trade,
and make African businesses less competitive.
Given that 16 African countries out of 54 are
land-locked, the adverse impact of inefficient
border controls on the economy is substantial.
World Cement April 2020
It is estimated that transport inefficiencies cost
African economies US$170 billion annually, with
the poorer landlocked countries being hardest
hit. Currently, more than 80 one stop border
posts (OSBPs) have been planned or are being
implemented in various parts of Africa as a means
of reducing the time and costs of delays at border
posts along major transport corridors.
Key corridor development projects
Standard Gauge Railway Project
The Governments of Kenya, Uganda, Rwanda
and South Sudan together are developing
a high capacity, cost-effective, 3300 km
railway transport system within the Northern
Multimodal Transport Corridor. This inter-country
project includes construction of the proposed
Standard Gauge Railway connecting Mombasa
(Kenya) to Malaba (Uganda, with a branch line
to Kisumu) onward to Kampala, Kigali (Rwanda,
with a branch line to Kasese) and Juba (South
Sudan, with a branch line to Pakwach). The
project is in its execution stage and is valued at
US$21 500 million.
Dar Es Salaam – Isaka – Kigali/Keza –
Musongati Railway Line
The Governments of the United Republic
of Tanzania, the Republic of Rwanda and the
Republic of Burundi have agreed to a 2561 km
common railway line within the Central Multimodal
Transport Corridor, connecting Dar es Salaam –
Isaka – Kigali/Keza – Musongati. This East African
Rail Corridor project is likely to have profound
positive effects on the economies and communities
of the three countries involved. For the project,
Rwanda is leading the coordination with Rwanda
Transport Development Agency representing
the transport ministries of Rwanda, Burundi and
Tanzania. The project is valued at US$16 000 million
and is in the execution stage of construction.
Trans-Kalahari Railway Line
The 1500 km Trans-Kalahari Railway project is
proposed to connect the Mmamabula Coal Field in
Botswana and Port of Walvis Bay in Namibia. The
railway is in the planning stage of construction,
and is valued at US$15 000 million. The project
will meet the growing needs of coal transpiration,
reduce the time for transport and enhance
economic development in the region. The Ministry
of Transport and Communications, Botswana,
is planning to extend the rail line to the Zambian
border to facilitate exports of Zambian minerals via
Walvis Bay, including copper.
Railway Network Development
The 5060 km project is being constructed
within the Djibouti – Addis Transport Corridor,
April 2020 World Cement
Ethiopia, and aims to greatly reduce the travelling
time between various regions of the country.
The project is valued at US$10 701 million,
and forms part of the government’s strategy to
develop a railway network from the capital city
to various places of the country and thus to ease
transportation to the capital city. It is part of the
One Belt One Road (OBOR) Initiative by the
Chinese Government and is in the execution stage
of construction.
North-South Corridor Maputo Port – Gauteng –
Kolwezi Highway
The project involves the upgrade and
construction of 4000 km of roads within the
North-South Multimodal Transport Corridor.
The corridor passes through seven countries,
including Maputo port in Mozambique, Gauteng
and Durban in South Africa and Kolwezi in
the DRC. It also passes by countries such as
Zambia, Zimbabwe and Botswana to provide
better trade between these countries. The project
is valued at US$7000 and is in the execution
stage of construction.
Dakar to Bamako Railway Line Upgrade
The aim of the US$2200 million project is to
improve connectivity between the Dakar port,
Senegal, and landlocked Bamako, Mali, for
increased trade and regional integration. The
project is currently in the planning stage and
involves the upgrade of a 1286 km rail line
within the Dakar – Bamako – Niamey Multimodal
Transport Corridor, which will convert the
1000 mm gauge line to a standard gauge, as
well as the installation of rolling stock, signalling,
electrification and modern equipment.
Brazzaville – N’Djamena Corridor 13
The project aims to develop the new 1200 km
highway within the Douala – Ndjamena – Bangui
Transport Corridor. The project will cross
between four African countries, from Brazzaville
in the Republic of Congo to Chad via Kinshasa
and Bangui of Central African Region. It will
strengthen the free movement of goods and
people between these countries. The project is
valued at US$1423 million and is in the planning
stage of construction.
Nacala Road Corridor Rehabilitation
The US$1200 million project aims to provide
Zambia, Malawi and Mozambique with better
road transport infrastructure to the deep-sea port
of Nacala. The project is at the execution stage
and will upgrade and improve the 1141 km road
network within the Beira – Nacala Multimodal
Transport Corridors. It will also enhance export
volumes, as well as reduce the cost of transport
to the international markets.
23
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26
27
28 World Cement April 2020
International Lime Association
Association Internationale de la Chaux
Internationaler Kalkverband
 Up For
Rent

Matt Piedmonte, Aerzen, outlines how to avoid the most

common errors made when renting equipment to replace
permanently installed blowers or low-pressure compressors.

C
ement Plants use many critical pneumatic
conveying processes that rely on
specialised equipment, such as blowers
and low-pressure compressors, to move
raw material and finished cement through their
plants. This equipment is typically designed
to operate efficiently in a pressure range
from 5 to 60 PSIG. Most plants simply cannot
afford an interruption in these processes.
If one of the permanently installed blowers
or low-pressure compressors is not able to
provide the necessary flow to sustain the
plant’s operations, temporary equipment
may need to be rented and installed. Proper
selection and installation of this rental
equipment is critical to ensure the project cost
is minimised while the need is fulfilled. This is
relevant to any cement plant that has utilised
temporary compressed air equipment for
pneumatic conveying processes in their facility.

31
 Before exploring the details of common
mistakes made when renting equipment to
replace permanently installed blowers or
low-pressure compressors, the first question
to address is: ‘In what situations would a
rental blower or low-pressure compressor be
required?’ Several scenarios arise where the
permanently installed equipment is unable to
sustain plant operations:
f Unplanned outage = Rotating equipment is
prone to many modes of failure and while
most plants place a strong emphasis on
predictive maintenance, failures do occur.
In some instances, the timeline to repair the
failed blower or low-pressure compressor
is longer than the plant can tolerate, and a
temporary solution is needed.
f Planned outage = While most blower
or low-pressure compressor system
upgrades are completed during planned
turnarounds, there are scenarios where
this is not always possible and upgrade
projects need to be completed during
a time when the plant is operating. This
could be a complete machine replacement,
component replacement, electrical supply
power upgrade, or a piping upgrade. In
these instances, a temporary blower or
low-pressure compressor solution may be
needed.
f Proof of concept = Some plants want
to prove that their processes can be
improved or sustained with more or less
flow. In these cases, a rental blower or
Table 1. Comparison of energy consumption and cost for a need of 3200 cfm @ 35 PSIG.
Technology
Typical permanently 3200 cfm single stage
installed equipment low-pressure oil free rotary screw
performance compressor.
1600 cfm two stage electric
drive oil free rental ‘plant air’
compressor – (2 needed).
1600 cfm two stage diesel
Examples of various rental
drive oil free rental ‘plant air’
equipment options
compressor – (2 needed)
1600 cfm rental single stage
low-pressure oil free rotary screw
compressor – (2 needed)
Notes:
1. Assumed cost of electricity is US$0.11/kWh
2. Assumed cost of diesel fuel is US$4/gal.
32
low-pressure compressor operating on
a VFD can be utilised to try out these
theories prior to taking on a costly and
complex capital project.
Common mistake #1: renting more
machines than needed
Identifying the true flow and actual operating
pressure needed to replace a permanently
installed machine can have a significant
impact on the cost and complexity of the
temporary solution. Some plants will take the
name plate ratings from the existing blower
or low-pressure compressor that needs to
be replaced and use those to specify the
temporary system needed. This approach is
certainly the most conservative approach.
Permanently installed equipment is typically
specified for the ‘worst case scenario’ and
few, if any, cement plants need that full flow
and full pressure all the time. Many plants can
operate with less flow and a machine capable
of delivering a lower operating pressure for a
temporary project. Only the plant operators
can specify how much less. Certainly,
specifying rental blowers or low-pressure
compressors off the name plate of the machine
being replaced maximises the rental project
spend and complexity. This critical step
should not be overlooked. A best practice for
any cement plant is to have these minimum
required flows and actual system operating
pressures prepared in advance of an emergent
need.
Estimated Energy
Consumed for Estimated Energy Cost for 1
1 Week of 24/7 Week of 24/7 Operation
Operation
52 000 kWh US$5720
100 000 kWh US$11 000
6400 gal. of diesel
US$25 600
fuel
52 000 kWh US$5720
World Cement April 2020
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Common mistake #2: renting the wrong
type of machine
Historically, operators have relied on the
local general rental industry to provide
‘plant air’ compressors that are readily
available locally and easily installed. These
plant air rental compressors are designed
to support manufacturing operations that
utilise compressed air in the range of
90 – 150 PSIG. What is often overlooked is
how inefficient these compressors are when
supplying air to cement plant pneumatic
conveying processes, where the need is
typically between 5 – 60 PSIG. When running
these plant air rental compressors in the
5 – 60 PSIG range required for most cement
plant pneumatic conveying applications, there
is considerable energy wasted as the machine
utilises energy to compress the air up to a
pressure far higher than is needed, before
expanding to the lower pressure required.
2500 cfm at 25 PSIG provided by
Aerzen Rental USA with a rental single-stage
low-pressure oil-free rotary screw compressor.
3600 cfm at 40 PSIG provided by
Aerzen Rental France with two rental
single-stage low-pressure oil-free rotary screw
compressors.
34
The impact of compressing to a higher
pressure than needed is further compounded
in that it takes a larger motor to create the
same flow as the permanently installed
machine. In most instances, there is
inadequate electric service available for the
larger, electric drive plant air rental unit. This
forces the plant to rent a diesel drive plant
air compressor which carries a much higher
rental rate, higher operating cost, and poorer
reliability (any diesel driven equipment is going
to have more downtime than a comparable
electric drive unit – both planned and
unplanned).
There is yet another risk associated with
obtaining plant air compressors from general
rental companies – many of the units do not
deliver oil-free air. Oil flooded electric and
diesel drive units are readily available in
most markets and carry the additional risks
associated with oil carryover into the product
or process equipment. What makes these oil
flooded machines enticing is the lower price
point and availability relative to oil free units.
To demonstrate how the difference in
machine selection impacts energy cost for
a typical cement plant pneumatic conveying
application, see Table 1.
As Table 1 depicts, some of the equipment
that can be selected for a pneumatic
conveying rental project in a cement plant
carries energy costs of ~1.9 – 4.4 times that
of the permanently installed equipment. For
a multi-week or multi-month project, those
costs can be significant. Furthermore, the
environmental impact of running a diesel drive
compressor is significant and can be avoided.
Common mistake #3: not considering
the total cost of rental
When evaluating the appropriate solution to a
temporary blower or low-pressure compressor
need, a plant operator needs to consider the
total cost of rental. Case studies from cement
and other industries have shown that selecting
the wrong rental solution can lead to a total
cost of rental that is 3 to 10 times greater than
more appropriate solutions. Focusing on rental
rates alone is rarely the best strategy when
developing a rental project. Mapping out the
entire project from beginning to end will help
ensure the best approach is taken.
The total cost of a rental project includes all
of the following:
f Cost of downtime while implementing the
solution.
f Rental rates for the duration of the project.
f Cost of energy consumed whether it is
from plant supplied electricity, temporary
World Cement April 2020
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 diesel driven generators, or diesel driven
compressors.
f Ancillary electrical equipment needed to
complete the solution like generators,
transformers, electrical cable, and
distribution panels.
f Round trip freight.
f Installation, commissioning, and
decommissioning costs (cranes,
electricians, mechanical contractors, etc.).
f Shift charges for diesel driven equipment
running double or triple shift (quoted rates
on diesel driven equipment are typically for
single shift which allows up to 40 run hours
in a 7-day timeframe).
f Environmental fees associated with diesel
driven equipment
f Preventative Maintenance during
the project to keep the equipment
operating reliably (diesel engines will
typically need to be taken out of service
every 150 – 250 operating hours for
maintenance).
f Diesel fuel drop charges.
f Diesel fuel pump out charges for an
external tank at the end of a project.
f Risks and costs associated with diesel fuel
spills.
In the case of an emergent need, cement plants
may find it easy and sometimes necessary to
move forward with the most readily available
solution – which in many cases is utilising
multiple, general rental ‘two stage electric drive
oil-free plant air’ machines. It is important to
consider the total cost of this option. Can a
less readily available ‘single stage low-pressure
oil-free rotary screw rental compressor’ be
delivered in an acceptable time frame, or could
the general rental plant air solution be utilised
as an interim solution while the more efficient
low-pressure machine is delivered?
Case study: Failure of a low-pressure
compressor that moves cement from
the mill to the silo
A cement plant in the US had a mechanical
failure of its permanently installed low-pressure
oil free compressor that moves cement from
the mill to the silo. The permanently installed
machine was rated to deliver 2750 cfm at
50 PSIG. The plant identified that they could
operate with reduced flow (~1500 cfm) and
that the normal system operating pressure
was only ~35 PSIG, and quickly sourced
a 1500 cfm diesel drive two stage oil-free
plant air compressor to sustain operations.
Over a period of a few weeks the plant grew
36
frustrated with the cost and hassle of refuelling
the machine every day and experienced
numerous reliability issues with the diesel
drive machine. It was also felt that the solution
was not environmentally conscientious, so
a better solution was required. Ultimately,
Aerzen Rental USA was able to offer an
electric drive single stage low-pressure
oil-free rotary screw rental compressor
that is frequently and efficiently applied to
pneumatic conveying applications in cement
plants. This rental machine was capable of
delivering 1850 cfm and could operate at peak
efficiency at the desired pressure of 35 PSIG.
In addition, this machine was outfitted with a
variable frequency drive that could be turned
down to minimise energy consumption. The
new rental machine was installed utilising the
available electric power from the plant and
an array of temporary piping and fittings kept
in inventory to be rapidly deployed by Aerzen
Rental USA. The total cost of rental for the
newly installed rental machine was lower than
just the energy cost to operate the previous
compressor. Ignoring energy costs, rental rates
on a diesel drive two stage oil-free plant air
compressor running triple shift are typically
1.5 – 2.5 times more expensive than the rental
rate on a single stage low-pressure oil-free
rotary screw compressor. The plant also
experienced improved reliability and a sense
of satisfaction that they moved to a solution
that was better for the environment. At the
conclusion of the project, the plant committed
to being a reference for other plants within
their network who find themselves in a similar
situation.
Conclusion
Cement plants cannot sustain operations
without the ability to move product through
their plants with blowers or low-pressure
compressors and sometimes require rental
equipment. Avoiding the common pitfalls
associated with rental projects will ensure that
the temporary solution implemented is the most
cost-effective, most environmentally friendly,
and most effective to support the needs of the
plant.
About the author
Matt Piedmonte is the Director of Aerzen Rental
USA, LLC. He is responsible for the start-up,
development, and sustained growth of Aerzen’s
standalone rental business in the USA. Matt is
a 1998 graduate of Purdue University with a BS
in Mechanical Engineering and earned his MBA
from Indiana University in 2012.
World Cement April 2020
Brandon Fultz, Sweet Manufacturing
Company, outlines how the use
of enclosed belt conveyors could
help to minimise dust and reduce
product loss in high capacity
concrete facilities.
hen it comes to concrete and fly ash

W material handling systems, a common

question is, “How can we maintain the
capacity of the facility while keeping
dust to a minimum?” Able to handle large volumes while
increasing both worker safety and product quality, an
enclosed belt conveyor is an ideal piece of equipment
for minimising dust and debris in the cement industry.

37
 As is well known, the inhalation of cement
dust has been linked to silicosis, a serious
and sometimes deadly lung disease.1 This is in
addition to a number of other illnesses attributed
to dust inhalation. The cleaner the facility’s
environment, the more the health of employees
can be protected. With an outdoor facility,
being able to cut down on dust emissions can
decrease the negative health effects experienced
by neighbouring residents. It can also decrease
the common complaints from locals about soot
and residue blanketing their homes. Furthermore,
the importance of complying with the
Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s
silica standard should not be forgotton.2
Keeping silica within permissible exposure
limits will help cement companies avoid hefty
fines. Having fewer particles in the air also
works to prevent fire and dust explosions.
Overhead view of the Sweet® enclosed belt
conveyor.
Sweet® enclosed belt conveyor installed at
Gunter Peanut Co. in Binger, OK.
This enclosed belt conveyor spans 100 ft
between two bins.
38
The National Fire Protection Association has its
own set of standards for combustible dust.3
The issue of dust containment is particularly
significant to commercial, high-capacity
construction and transloading facilities.
High-volume conveying of any material can create
a situation where dust emissions are a concern.
Current open types of belt conveyors generate
excessive dust or material spillage during the
loading or discharge process.
Enclosed belt conveyors
Enclosed belt conveyors help to minimise
this effect by containing the product within
an enclosed load skirt system, and capturing
much of the material in the discharge area to
avoid pileups in the equipment below. This
also prevents loss of product, along with
belt scrapers in the head that reduce carryover
towards the tail. Enclosed belt conveyors also
typically include self-cleaning tails and wing
pulleys with reclaim flaps for better clean-out in
the tail. Most enclosed belt conveyors feature
external rather than internal bearings, which
help to contain product on the inside and extend
the life of the bearings as well as certain wear
parts. In addition, enclosed belt conveyors have
the ability to move large volumes of material
while simultaneously minimising product
movement points, preventing unwanted aeration.
Configuring the accompanying elevator for a
continuous (gravity) discharge will also help
ensure that the product is not aerated at the time
of discharge.
Preventing product loss
Many in the concrete industry have the same
concerns about product escaping from elevator
legs as they do with conveyors. Unfortunately, it
is not possible to have a piece of machinery that
is 100% air-tight while still being able to access
its parts for maintenance and repair. However,
there are features that can be included on
bucket elevators that can assist with containment
of materials. One would be lip or cinch seals
that protect the bearings and prevent product
from leaking from the boot and head. This is
particularly useful when handling finer materials.
It is also recommended that elevator heads
and boots are designed and fabricated with
continuous welding to avoid material gaps that
could allow fine materials to escape. Gasketing
between connection points and between loading
and discharging chutes will prevent product loss.
Lastly, shovel hoppers can help operators reclaim
material and put it back into the system.
Advantages of enclosed systems
Even beyond dust control and material retention,
enclosed belt conveyors have myriad advantages
World Cement April 2020
Global
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over other belt conveyors. The construction of
an enclosed belt conveyor lends itself to more
adaptable system designs, as it can be horizontal
or inclined and can have multiple discharge and
loading points. Most enclosed belt conveyors
feature CEMA C6 idlers, allowing users to
move a wider range of products from the light
(concrete and ready-mix) to the extremely heavy
(sand and gravel mixtures). In addition, CEMA
C6 idlers are a standard off-the-shelf part,
available from a multitude of suppliers. Enclosed
belt conveyors also generate much less noise
than other belt conveyors. EBCs do not have
exposed parts like open conveyors, and shafts
that are exposed have the necessary guards to
prevent catching points.
A solution
Sweet Manufacturing Company’s
enclosed belt conveyor is well-suited for the
commercial and high-capacity industrial sectors,
as maintenance can be performed with minimal
use of tools and without entry. This solution was
designed with plant maintenance and operation
personnel in mind. Maintenance parts are on the
outside of the company’s enclosed belt conveyor.
The design allows users to repair and replace
the CEMA C6 troughing idlers and return rollers
without having to remove the top or bottom panels
and unsplice the belt. This greatly decreases
the number of tools required and the amount of
downtime in the unfortunate event of a breakdown.
More importantly, it increases safety as the repairs
can be done while maintenance personnel are
standing on a platform or catwalk rather than
climbing inside the machine. It is similarly easy to
access the bearings for lubrication, removal, or
replacement from the outside of the enclosed belt
conveyor without dismantling the belt.
Holding up to harsh conditions
Built with 10-gauge steel, the Sweet® enclosed
belt conveyor is a particularly heavy-duty piece
of commercial-grade equipment. The conveyor
utilises a design of US prime G140 galvanised
steel construction, not only to hold up to harsh
plant conditions, but also to allow for outdoor
installations. The G140 steel will withstand rough
working environments; it may be particularly
advantageous to any facilities near ports, salt,
and rough weather. The hip roof serves to further
protect the conveyor from rain and snow. Inside
the conveyor, loading and discharge points that
are lined with polyurethane, AR, ceramic chip, or
ceramic tile, allow for added equipment longevity.
The EBC design also includes a heavy-duty
horizontal pulley on the troughing or carrying
side of the conveyor. A heavy duty pulley will
allow a belt to carry the heaviest loads while the
40
thick-gauge material is more durable and thus
long-lasting.
Hazard monitoring
The company’s enclosed belt conveyor features
built-in sensor ports that can be paired with
a number of optional sensors, either selected
separately, or integrated together with the
4B Watchdog™ Super Elite Hazard Monitoring
System. This system incorporates shaft speed,
bearing temperature, plug chute, and belt
misalignment sensors. The ability to monitor
equipment condition and performance is critical
to ensuring timely repair of certain parts that may
deteriorate over time. Sweet® elevators have
similar hazard monitoring available. The company
has several different elevator models; pairing an
enclosed belt conveyor with the right infeed and
takeaway equipment will allow for smoother and
safer operation.
Conclusions
In summary, the major advantages of an enclosed
belt conveyor over a standard belt conveyor are
three-fold:
f Dust emissions are minimised, providing
greater health and safety.
f Product is better contained, with less chance
for unwanted aeration or leakage.
f Enclosed belt conveyors are more
substantial, heavy-duty machines with longer
life spans.
High-capacity concrete facilities could therefore
benefit from incorporating enclosed belt
conveyors into their systems.
References
1. ‘Silicosis Symptoms, Causes, and Risk Factors’,
American Lung Association, Chicago, Illinois –
www.lung.org/lung-health-and-diseases/lung-disease-
lookup/silicosis/silicosis-symptoms-causes-risk.html
2. ‘Standards: 1926.1153 - Respirable Crystalline
Silica’, US Occupational Safety and Health
Administration (OSHA), Department of Labor,
Washington D.C. – https://www.osha.gov/laws-regs/
regulations/standardnumber/1926/1926.1153
3. ‘Codes & Standards: NFPA 654- Standard for
the Prevention of Fire and Dust Explosions from
the Manufacturing, Processing, and Handling of
Combustible Particulate Solids’, National Fire Protection
Agency (NFPA), Quincy, Massachusetts – https://
www.nfpa.org/codes-and-standards/all-codes-and-
standards/list-of-codes-and-standards/detail?code=654
About the author
Brandon Fultz is the Business Development
Specialist at Sweet Manufacturing Company.
He has 10 years of OEM experience in industrial
applications.
World Cement April 2020
TIME TO GET
ONLINE

Mondi Paper Bags explains how digital platforms can

make the ordering process work more efficiently
and transparently, resulting in improved information
sharing, convenience and productivity.

D igital platforms can speed up

communication and provide
customers with full access
to their data. Without a
digitalisation sales platform, a simple
delivery request can look like this:
E-mail: “What’s the status on my
delivery of paper sacks?”
Due to the time difference, three
hours later the procurement officer
receives a response from his Account
Manager, letting him know that the
order was finalised and left the plant
this morning.
E-mail: “Thanks. When will it
arrive?”

41
 Another two hours may go by while the
Account Manager checks with customer
service and production, and waits for a
response before he is able to provide a delivery
confirmation to the customer.
New digitalisation tools can make the
customer ordering process work more
efficiently and transparently, turning this
five-hour exchange into a five-minute session.
The many benefits of digitalisation initiatives
such as an online customer platform,
include streamlining communication and
Fictional example of an everyday business conversation.
myMondi is available on a range of devices.
42
information sharing. Time zones, different
public holidays and information gathering from
various departments can pose a challenge for
even the best customer service team. A digital
sales tool can provide customers immediate
access to their data, while also increasing
transparency, and maintaining strong customer
relationships through improved quality,
convenience and productivity.
The digital way of working has arrived
A new digital way of working is here. Not
just for millennials, who are driving this
change, but the entire workforce has
different expectations about how to
order their products. A Gartner study1
estimates that 75% of B2B procurement
spending will happen via an online
marketplace until 2025. A salesforce.
com study found that 82% of B2B
buyers want their business purchasing
experiences to be similar to personal
shopping, which means, digital, flexible
and available at all times.2 Mondi, a
leading global paper and packaging
group, also conducted a customer
satisfaction survey in 2019 with almost
3000 customers, which found that more
than half (57%) answered that they
would find digital ordering and tracking
useful.
Load your ‘forklift’
Mondi is advancing the digitalisation
of many of its services. The company
established a new all-in-one digital
customer platform, myMondi, which took
almost a year to research and develop
before launching in April 2019. This new
digital customer experience goes beyond
the scope of a typical webshop, making
the overall experience more efficient.
Based on SAP Hybris, an e-commerce
product platform, myMondi is the only
all-in-one digital solution for managing
paper sack orders in the cement
industry. It uses a browser responsive
user interface (UI), serving over 1000
customers in 14 languages.
A client can now log in to check their
order status at any time of day or night,
without waiting for a response from their
account manager or customer service
team. This offering gives the customer
full access to their own information,
allowing them to focus on when their
order is ready, where it is stored, and
when it will be delivered, instead of
waiting for e-mails and follow-up phone
calls.
World Cement April 2020
How it works
Instead of filling a shopping cart, the customer
loads their online ‘forklift’, receiving an
immediate calculation of how many pallets
of bags will be delivered once the new order
is confirmed personally by their Account
Manager. This means the sales teams are able
to offer a more personal touch with customers.
The online platform complements this work by
offering transparent communication with full
access to information at any point in time.
Claudio Fedalto, Chief Operating Officer
of Mondi Paper Bags, suggests that working
in a digital way with cement producers is
something that everyone has come to expect
in their personal and professional lives for
managing services and orders. The online
customer platform was developed in order to
serve customers who do not have an already
integrated SAP infrastructure, to provide
transparency about the business between
Mondi and its customers.
myMondi’s dashboard example.
myMondi’s ordering function.
44
Once logged in
The customer can manage their orders,
products with various SKUs, access information
about ageing bags and make a direct call-off
from their already produced paper sacks stored
at a Mondi site.
This way, the customer can manage several
sizes of bags and a large number of orders,
check current artwork and designs, and reorder
any size or model as necessary. In the case of
myMondi, orders for new items are still placed
directly with customer services to ensure
that capacity and deliverables are confirmed
personally.
Once the order is in the system, the client can
manage and reorder any batch of previously
produced bags themselves. Customers can
even download bag details, such as artwork and
construction, valve type, the plant certifications
for any upcoming audits, and save documents
like delivery notes and invoices from their web
browser on their PC, tablet or mobile phone.
Gathering valuable information
that may often have been a
lengthy process, can now be an
accessible short task.
Plant Manager at Natural
Granen, Rudy Nouws, has been
using the system to manage the
company’s bag orders to check
stock and order history at any
time, and has experienced the
benefits of sending call-offs
easily, and receiving confirmation
immediately.
The most commonly used
features on the system are
stock reporting, the re-ordering
of products, and call-offs from
stock.
Peter Van Den Langenbergh,
Production Manager at Beduco,
says that although customer
service is only a phone call away,
having direct access saves time.
He also praises the system for
being very user friendly. The
user experience is a priority
for the company, as managing
data in a clear manner mitigates
frustration, making it easier for
the customer to make decisions,
and manage their orders, bills
and deliveries.
Direct feedback
Sometimes customers need to
make a claim. myMondi offers
users the ability to make claims
World Cement April 2020
so that issues can be resolved efficiently.

E L E VAT E .
The customer can upload images and
explanations directly, and can track the
status of the claim. This provides customer
service with all the correct information
customer service colleagues need, so
issues can be processed swiftly.

Who’s who?

.
D O N ’T C L IM B
Using the system, the company sales team
can assign roles within the customer’s
team or organisation to streamline
processes. For example, finance can
access the invoices and payables, while
procurement can focus on products, stock
and certifications for the bags ordered.
Each relevant team member can access
the information they need, maintaining
confidentiality where necessary. For
globally operated cement producers with
complex structures, this makes it possible
to maintain oversight and clarity.

Conclusions
Just as customers are used to performing
transactions digitally in their everyday life,
new B2B developments are the logical
step for digitalising the cement industry,
allowing full transparency and access to
information, which improves the quality
and speed of decision-making.
The future is here, just a simple ‘log in’
away.

References
1. Gartner Research 2018 – https://www. ARE YOU PAYING SKILLED STAFF TO CLIMB STAIRS
supplychaindive.com/news/gartner-trends-2018- OR TO PRODUCE CEMENT?
AI-b2b-marketplaces-chatbot/514389/

DON’T CLIMB.
2. Salesforce.com/State of the Connected
Customer 2018 – https://c1.sfdcstatic.com/
content/dam/web/en_us/www/documents/e-

ELEVATE.
books/state-of-the-connected-customer-report-
second-edition2018.pdf

About the author

Mondi Paper Bags, a business segment
of Mondi Group, is a leading producer
of industrial paper bags, selling more
than 5 billion bags per year. Thanks to
its broad range of bag specifications,
Mondi Paper Bags serves major industries
including cement and building materials,
chemicals, food, feed and seed. The
business segment operates a dense sales
and service network, the specialised filling
equipment department Natro Tech, as
 
Cement plants all over the world rely on Alimak rack and
pinion elevators to provide reliable, efficient vertical access
for maintenance and inspection. Designed to operate in
demanding industrial environments, outdoors and indoors,
Alimak elevators require no expensive shafts or machine
rooms, and they can easily be installed on new and exist-
ing structures. Standard capacities range from 300 kg to
7,000 kg, with up to 24-ton capacity available upon request.


 


well as its Bag Application Centre, where
researchers develop and test packaging
solutions.

 
46
 Testing
the W ater
Water
Ricardo Gonzalez, GlobBULK, discusses the logistics of
efficient cement plant capacity expansion using waterways.
E
xpanding production capacity is less and
less an exercise of mere duplication.
Twin lines have the obvious advantage of
scale with a shared pool of resources,
from the construction team to the operations
management. But the cement business is not
about producing a grey powder anymore; many
additional layers are relevant nowadays and
need to be considered.
This article presents some considerations
regarding waterways logistics, interweaved
with a capacity expansion project in Vietnam
for which the logistics have recently been
assessed. These ‘additional layers’ may also
have relevance elsewhere.
The European Green Deal
In December 2019 the EU presented
‘The European Green Deal’, a response to the
climate and environmental related challenges.1
It includes a strategic roadmap in which the
target is achieving a ‘climate neutral and
circular economy’, with special focus on
resource-intensive sectors and an overall target
for carbon neutrality by 2050. It requires the
further reduction in GHG (greenhouse gas)
emissions and a revision of the ETS (Emissions
Trading Scheme).
How this will affect the cement industry, in
Europe and elsewhere, remains to be seen, but
clearly the playing board will be modified.
One obvious lever for change is logistics,
whose related costs in a cement plant are
often a substantial fraction of the delivered
price, typically in the range of 10 – 15% but
sometimes reaching up to 30%.
Figure 1 presents the average efficiencies
of different transport modes as measured by
CO2 emissions per ton-km. From this point
of view, the conventional 250 km distribution
radius around a factory, by truck, may become
a 5000 km circle by ship.
There are more factors affecting a logistics
setup, but half of the world’s population lives
within 100 km of the coast or inland waterways
and the share will likely increase (Figure 2),
CO2 efficiency in transportation has come
to stay, and the IMO (International Maritime
Organisation) is pushing for further and more
aggressive GHG emission reductions in the
fleet of vessels that are expected to maintain
the relative efficiencies presented in Figure 1.
47
Inland waterways transport materialised as there is scarcity of large units in
The EU is also favouring IWT (Inland Waterways Vietnam and elsewhere. Additionally, in Bangladesh,
Transport) solutions. In addition to environmental there is an effective cartel on the ship supply side
externalities (Figure 3) there is also a threat of road which precludes the introduction of economic
congestion which could be alleviated by a larger incentives linked to performance. Some parts of the
share of IWT. Overall, so far, the actual success of Vietnamese waterways network are congested, and
the European initiatives has been limited,2 but IWT a rationalisation might be required together with a
is important in certain countries and regions such as long-term investment plan to maintain and increase
Vietnam, Bangladesh or the US southeast around their transport capacity (Figure 5).
the Mississippi river, just to name three. The capacity expansion of GloBULK’s Vietnamese
Vietnam carries approximately 40% of its freight client was designed so that most of the clinker (~4
(50% of the cement) by internal and coastal Mt/y) would be manufactured near the quarries and
waterways, along the Red River and the Mekong transported by barge to a grinding station located in
deltas, with numerous riverine ports and over the area surrounding Ho Chi Minh City, in a trip of
40 000 km of navigable channels, of which 4500 km almost 400 km.
of major routes extend across borders. Designing a new facility for today’s barges may
The evolution of the IWT Vietnamese system is prove to be an expensive decision in 10 years’ time,
accelerated, as presented in Figure 4, but is still when the fleet structure will likely be quite different
far from the average barge size of 2.4 kDWT in again; a ‘no-regrets’ forecast is needed here to
the Netherlands and Germany, or the usual 15 estimate the future barge fleet, together with a
barge trains in the Mississippi carrying 22.5 kt. flexible design that can be adapted to the varying
Bigger barges have clear operational advantages realities.
for cement producers which cannot always be
Sea level rise
The financial return periods requested from




-
)%

new investments are becoming shorter;

.
)%

30 years ago, planning with a time frame


!" of 20 years was not unheard of, but today


!
" it is only quarry reserves that are normally


!
,
"
checked to exceed these durations. Still,


!&% (*
 "
civil structures are typically designed


!(* +%
 "




!&,
"
for longer periods, often even by legal

















requirements – only temporary or minor

'  
infrastructures and buildings are designed
for a lifetime of less than 50 years.
Figure 1. Transport efficiency.
Climate change is also here to stay.
There are many associated impacts of
climate change, but it can be assumed
that the sea-level rise will have a large and
deep effect on numerous coastal areas.
For Vietnam, there are recent (extreme
case) estimates suggesting that the land
home to one third of Vietnamese people
may fall below the high-tide line by 2050.3
There is much uncertainty regarding the
amount of this level rise, but the industry
Figure 2. Percentage of the country’s population within a is uncertain, not fully blind (Figure 6).
100 km coastal strip. The industry’s shore facilities need to
be designed to at least maintain their
  operational levels under a scenario of
   sea-level change. A formula proposed by
 


  the US Army Corps of Engineers is:


 E(t)=0.0017 * t + b * t2

E(t) is the eustatic sea level change, in


metres, t is the year difference from 1992,
and b is a constant whose value for the
     
high-rise scenario is 1.13E-4. It should be


 
used carefully as regional variations may
Figure 3. External transport costs. be important. 4

48 World Cement April 2020

 Martin® Air Cannons

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email info@martin-eng.com

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 Ordinary water level variations
 GlobBULK’s Vietnamese grinding
station receives all its inbound products
by waterways, in all sizes of vessels,

such as barges from 500 to 1500 t, and



ocean-going ships from 25 to 50 kDWT.
 


 Barges are unloaded with shore-based




mobile cranes, and ships discharge the

         product with their own gear on eco-
 



 hoppers installed on the jetty – a quite
usual practice (Figure 7).
Figure 4. Evolution of carrying capacity of Barge Fleet, That tides exist is a known fact, but
Vietnam. some related aspects are eventually
missed by designers and traders. Figure 8
presents the frequency distribution of
water levels at the Vung Tau port in
Vietnam. It is a semi diurnal tide (2 cycles
per day), with a range that exceeds 4 m.
It is important is to realise that low water
levels may have a large range: in this case
more than 3.0 m (for 80% of the most
frequent tidal cycles the difference is 2.5
m).
Figure 9 presents the relative position
of two typical geared bulk carriers and
the reach of their cranes at full load.
Depending on the particularities of the
ship, the quay elevation and the position
in the cycle tide, the cranes may not reach
the receiving hoppers. The problem will
Figure 5. Congestion along the Cho Gao canal, near Hoh often just last a few hours, until the high
Chi Minh City. tide is back, but eventually reduced low
water can be associated with a reduced
high-water level and the ship may have to
wait for several tide cycles.
There are projects where the hoppers
could not be used because of this
mismatch, although not in Vietnam to
GlobBULK’s knowledge.

Multi-product handling
One main lever to CO2 emissions
reduction in the cement industry is
clinker substitution. The last two decades
have seen a surge in the utilisation of
supplementary cementitious materials
(SCMs: from slag, fly-ash and pozzolan
Figure 6. Port Managers’ top concerns on climate change. to limestone filler). The utilisation of these
products will continue, although it can be
argued that their additional role in clinker
substitution is limited because of their
relative scarcity. 5
GlobBULK’s Vietnamese grinding station
receives all these SCMs, plus clinker and
gypsum/anhydrite, through its waterfront.
Most of the equipment is shared for
all the products (with the exception of
pulverised fly-ash). This requires special
attention in the material handling design:
Figure 7. Eco-hoppers in Vietnam. GGFBS is finer than the rest (excluding

50 World Cement April 2020

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Global Presence,
Local Service.

www.redecam.com

ITALY - MILAN (HQ) UNITED STATES - CHARLOTTE BRASIL - CURITIBA INDIA - NOIDA EGYPT - CAIRO
+39 02 243491 +1 704 969 8811 +55 41 3025 7971 +91 120 408 5900 +20 225166013
redecam@redecam.com redecam.usa@redecam.com redecam.brasil@redecam.com redecam.india@isgecredecam.in redecam.egypt@redecam.com
 PFA), gypsum can be quite sticky, clinker is often engineers. The toolkit does however need to be
very dusty and most of them are very abrasive – their sensibly used with accumulated experience.
densities are different.
A routine design of the associated materials Capacity increase through ship arrivals
handling equipment for all these products will likely Doubling the manufacturing capacity of a cement
fail: needle gates that work with clinker will let the plant can be achieved by doubling the inbound
slag pass uncontrolled, chutes and deviators that are receiving facilities or capacities. It is a safe solution,
suited for clinker will get blocked with gypsum, and but typically expensive and often not viable because
discharge operations that go smooth with slag will be of space constraints. From a logistics perspective,
stopped because of clinker dust clouds. the question to be answered for a capacity
Some problems are trickier than others, but expansion is: What are the minimum changes
the solutions are within the toolkit of mechanical needed to reach the expected results?
Finding an efficient solution to this
question requires the analysis of the
customer-server model of the operations, a
queuing or networking problem which can
be tackled through computer simulation.
In the case of the Vietnamese factory
it involved, among other aspects, the
probabilistic analysis of the ship and barge
arrivals, which yielded detailed information
(of probabilistic nature) on relevant
operational aspects on ship handling
performance (eg. estimates for the waiting
times or demurrages for the vessels), or
the design of the minimum storage capacity
for the different products (derived from the
modelled ship arrivals and the expected
consumption – Figure 10).
Figure 8. Frequency distribution of water levels (Vung Tau
Port, Vietnam).
References
22.00 24.00
1. https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/
priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal_en
2. https://www.eca.europa.eu/Lists/
ECADocuments/SR15_01/SR15_01_EN.pdf
11.98

7.08

3. https://coastal.climatecentral.org/, based on
30.00

the latest IPCC report.

25.10

27.00 25.47 4. Incorporating Sea Level Change in Civil Works

10.00

9.97

Programs, 2013
MV SEA HORSE 29 kDWT MV PANTELIS 25 kDWT
5. https://www.lc3.ch/wp-content/
uploads/2017/03/2016-UNEP-Report-
Figure 9. Crane reach of bulk carriers. Complete6.pdf
6. Figure 1: With data from: Second IMO GHG



 Study 2009




 

7. Figure 2: With data from: Gridded Population
 
 of the World, GPW4, 2017.

8. Figure 3: With data from: Economical and
 Ecological Comparison of Transport Modes: Road,


 

Railways, Inland Waterways, 2007


9. Figure 4: With data from: Facilitating Trade
 Through Competitive, Low Carbon Transport, 2014
10. Figure 5: Author: David A. Biggs

11. Figure 6: Source: Climate Change Impacts

and Adaptations: A Challenge for Global Ports,
2011

          

   About the author
Ricardo Gonzalez is Senior Consultant at
Figure 10. Storage requirements as affected by discharge GlobBULK, with 20 years of experience in
scenarios SC1 and SC3 (Vietnamese factory). the cement industry.

52 World Cement April 2020

 PAPER
VERSUS
PLASTIC
Catherine Kerninon, EUROSAC, and
Kennert Johansson, CEPI Eurokraft, discuss the
results of a recent study by Sintef which investigated
the shelf life of paper and plastic cement sacks.
he European cement industry industry’s packaging criteria. From

T has set itself ambitious goals

by announcing its intention
to strive for carbon neutrality
along the cement value chain by
2050. Consequently, measures to
reduce emissions and environmental
aspects are becoming increasingly
important throughout all areas of the
supply chain. This also affects the
the two sack solutions that are used
most widely on the European market
– cement paper sacks and cement
plastic sacks – the paper sack is
clearly the favourable option in terms
of environmental impact. Its carbon
footprint is 2.5 times lower than
that of polyethylene cement sacks
(World Cement, January 2019).

53
But of course, fillers do not want to compromise
on the performance of their packaging in
favour of a sustainable solution. They must also
respond to their customer’s high expectations
and requirements and, at the same time, tap
economic advantages. Whether filling speed,
product protection, pack cost, cleanliness or
shelf life – all these aspects must be considered
when choosing the perfect packaging. A
comprehensive study among fillers and retailers
of cement and other building materials by RISE
(formerly Innventia) has revealed that fillers
especially profit from lower packing costs and
higher filling speeds when using paper sacks
(World Cement, April 2016). When it comes to
shelf life, stakeholders have claimed that plastic
bags provide a better shelf life than paper bags.
However, there is no reliable data available. To
ensure that the paper sack industry meets the
Paper sacks protect the product quality and performance
for at least 18 months in storage. Image storage depot:
Sika Deutschland, Rosendahl, Germany.
The sacks were stored in an outside store house in Norway.
Copyright: EUROSAC/CEPI Eurokraft.
54
requirements of cement producers also in terms
of shelf life, CEPI Eurokraft and EUROSAC
requested the independent Norwegian research
organisation Sintef to investigate the shelf life
of cement paper sacks and form-fill-seal (FFS)
polyethylene cement sacks. The outcome
shows: paper sacks perfectly preserve cement,
even when stored for 1 ½ years. They provided
equivalent protection for cement to plastic
sacks when stored under the same adequate
conditions. Whether total weight, level of
hydration, mortar strength, initial flow behaviour
or 28-day compressive strength – the quality
and performance of the cement from both types
of sacks was well within the requirements for
the cement industry. This article will explain the
design of the study and present the results in
detail.
About the study
For the investigation, a standard 25 kg
European cement paper valve sack
made of two paper layers of 80 g and
70 g with a 12 μm perforated high
density polyethylene (HDPE) free film
barrier and a standard plastic sack
made of three layers of COEX PE film
(LDPE, HDPE and LLDPE) with a total
thickness of 120 µm were used. All
sacks were filled with Portland cement
CEM I 52.5 R according to European
standard EN 197-1 cement. Due to
their smaller capacity, two plastic
sacks were employed for each batch
of 25 kg cement.
Although the typical storage time for
bagged cement in Europe is estimated
to be no longer than 2 to 3 months,
the study set out to determine how
the sacks perform throughout longer
storage periods of up to 18 months.
Storage conditions
Stored in an outside storage house
in Norway, a total of three sacks per
type were tested. Representing the
typical secondary packaging, the
sacks were stored on a wooden pallet
and covered by a plastic stretch film.
The sacks were exposed to changing
climatic conditions. Temperatures
varied between –17.9˚C and 32.1˚C
and the relative moisture ranged from
28% to 96% (sampling of humidity on
a random basis).
Sampling and homogenisation
After 9, 12 and more than 18
months of storage, cement
samples from both sack types were
World Cement April 2020
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collected and analysed. The sampling and
homogenisation of the cement were conducted
as follows: In the first step, the cement was
divided into four equal parts. Secondly, two
diagonally opposed quarters were recombined
and manually homogenised (mixed). Step 1
and 2 were repeated three times, resulting in
sampling approximately 3 kg of cement from
each sack which was sent for analysis.
Test methods to evaluate cement properties
The samples were subjected to three different
test methods to determine the water content in
the cement and the performance of the cement
after each storage period.
Thermogravimetric analysis
In a thermogravimetric analysis, the total
amount of physically and chemically bound
After 9, 12 and more than 18 months of storage, cement
samples from two diagonally opposed quarters were
taken and recombined. Copyright: EUROSAC/CEPI
Eurokraft.
The cement samples were manually mixed before being
sent to analysis. Copyright: EUROSAC/CEPI Eurokraft.
56
water in the cement was measured by
registering the weight of the sample as it
was heated from 30˚C to 950˚C. A weight
loss (loss on ignition) would indicate the
formation of a hydrate product due to the
release of H2O (decomposition of hydrates)
or CO2 (decomposition of carbonates). The
temperature region 50 – 350˚C corresponds
to the decomposition (loss of water from
hydrates) of gypsum and cement hydration
phases such as calcium silicate hydrate gel,
ettringite or calcium monosulfoaluminate
hydrate. Mass loss in the range of 400 – 500˚C
corresponds mainly to the decomposition
of calcium hydroxide, while the range
600 – 950˚C corresponds to the decomposition
of calcite, vaterite and aragonite, as well as
complex carbonate phases like calcium hemi-
and mono-carboaluminate hydrates.
Calorimetric analysis
Secondly, a calorimetric analysis
was conducted on the cement paste
mixed externally from the samples to
measure the amount and rate of heat
which evolved during cement hydration.
Measurements were performed up to
24 hours from the point of first contact
between dry powder and water against a
calibrated reference of similar mass and
heat capacity. As the hydration reactions
proceed, heat is released. The heat
production rate, which is proportional
to the hydration rate of the cement, is
recorded in the isothermal calorimeter.
Mortar casting
The third analysis was mortar testing,
which measured the initial flow and 28
day compressive strength according to
DIN EN 196. This test method indicates
if the performance of cement varies or
remains constant over the defined period.
Paper and plastic sacks provide
equivalent shelf life
The results of the research give evidence:
paper sacks and FFS polyethylene sacks
grant equivalent protection to cement
when stored under the same conditions
for 18 months.
Total weight loss less than 0.55%
According to the thermogravimetric
analysis, with increasing storage time
the total weight loss (loss on ignition)
for paper sacks increased slightly more
than for plastic sacks. It was 3.17% for
plastic sacks and 3.61% for paper sacks.
World Cement April 2020
The higher weight loss mainly occurred
in the 50 – 350˚C temperature interval,
indicating formation of hydration products.
However, this latter result is an increase of
only 0.55% compared to the fresh cement
and is still within the requirement of ≤5.0%
loss on ignition for cements according to
DIN EN 197-1.

Consistent level of hydration

The calorimetric tests showed that the levels
of hydration within 24 hours were essentially
unchanged. The cumulative heat of hydration
after 24 hours, which correlates to the
mortar strength at 24 hours, was within the
standard repeatability (5 – 7 J/g) for all the
tested cement samples.

Unchanged mortar strength and flow

behaviour
The results of the mortar cast testing indicate
a roughly 10% lower compressive strength
for mortar cast of the cement samples taken
from the FFS polyethylene sack after more
than 18 months of storage. Since the cement
in question did not show significant signs
of pre-hydration by the thermogravimetric Grind down your
or calorimetric analysis, this observation
cannot be due to pre-hydration. The lower
compressive strength is due to a greater
maintenance costs
volume percentage (vol%) of entrained
air. As a rule, the compressive strength is
reduced by 5% for each vol% of entrained
air. The weight of the cast prisms was
lower for this sample, corresponding to
about 2 vol% more entrained air, which
explains the 10% reduction in compressive
Köppern roller presses have been proven successful
strength. Having corrected these variations
throughout the world in plants for the cost saving
in entrained air, the flow and the 28 day
high pressure grinding of cement clinker, blast furnace
compressive strength for mortar cast with
slag, limestone and other cement raw materials.
the cements did not change significantly
after storage in both tested sacks. Adding
to that, the mortar strength at 24 hours was Our patented Hexadur® tires feature an extremely
within the standard repeatability for all the wear-resistant surface that provides enhanced roller
tested cement samples. protection and maintenance-free operation.

Conclusion Köppern – Quality made in Germany.

The outcome of the study revealed that
paper sacks provide very good shelf life » State of the art technology
performance, even over a period of at least » Process technology know-how
18 months. They perfectly protect the quality » High plant availability
and properties of the product. Cement » Low operating cost
fillers who opt for paper sacks can have the
whole package: an environmentally friendly
packaging that reduces CO2e emissions
along their value chain as well as a high For further information please contact
performer in terms of shelf life. Finally, they sales@koeppern.de
profit from economic advantages due to high
filling speeds and low packing costs.

www.koeppern.de
Global Cement
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 Laurent Moret, Standard Industrie,
outlines the benefits of equipment
designed to improve efficiency,
production and safety in bulk
handling.

here are a number of issues conveyor belts with hoods. It comes

surrounding materials handling
in cement plants. This article
introduces newly designed and
improved equipment, that is aimed at
resolving some of these issues.
Conveyer belt sealing
Firstly, Standard Industrie’s LIFTUBE®
is a product designed to cover
as a replacement to stations equipped
with three rollers on the conventional
conveyors. The seal proof system
enables tilting of the glide boards and the
central roller for minimal maintenance.
Furthermore, its pinch point protections
help the product to improve the working
conditions of operators and reduce dust
emissions during material conveying.
59
 In a cement plant, LIFTUBE reduces material
loss and cleaning requirements during the
transport of products such as limestone, marl,
clay, iron ore, bauxite, gypsum, slag, pozzolan,
ash, silica, sand, aggregates, lime, clinker,
cement, flour and coal, etc.
Usually, the LIFTUBE is installed on
product infeed conveyors from the crushers,
on conveyors for feeding of flour into the
preheating tower, on conveyor belts for
transporting alternative fuel, or on conveyors for
shipping the product by train and boat.
The following are examples showing the
product’s applications.

LIFTUBE installed on crusher conveyer belt.
Pre-homogenisation
In the mixer and before being sent to the
kiln, raw cement is mixed with additives.
In the case of one customer, additives had
to be transported from outside through a
conveyor belt located 44 yd high. During the
transportation of product, some of it can fall,
causing emanation at the chute level. Moreover,
when the conveyor is outside, this can often
lead to product flying away in the wind. This
loss of product (especially ash) causes many
belt stoppages linked to rollers getting dirty,
belts shifting, and product accumulating
between the belt and the structure.
In this case, the customer’s requirements
were to:
f Optimise productivity by stopping dust
emissions.
f Avoid degradation of equipment due to
accumulation of product.
f Lessen the cleaning cost of the belt
(1 to 2 times a month).
f Stop the contamination of the environment
due to flying product.

The chosen solution was to install 27 yd

of LIFTUBE in 30 in. width to fit the existing
LIFTUBE on a conveyer. conveyor.
To ensure a complete sealing, lateral curtains
and covers were also recommended and
installed. Using this method, 95% of emissions
were removed; the other 5% were not removed
due to loading and unloading points.

Cement mill
At the mill area where the products are mixed
with additives to produce cement, significant
material losses were occurring for one
customer (more than 110 lb per day) on a
conveyor belt.
It was causing loss of product as well as
significant cleaning costs.
The customer’s requirements were to:
f Decrease waste of product and reduce
AIRCHOC on a cooler. costs related to cleaning operations.

60 World Cement April 2020

Cement Industry
Reliability and cost savings

Total Lubrifiants is an expert in the cement industry. Many years of field experience and R&D developments
allow us to provide a full range of products, services and tools. Tailor-made solutions to optimize lubrication
and operational costs in general maintenance and special applications. Thanks to our partnership
with LUBRILOG, Total offers to its clients the latest technologies for open gear lubrication and cleaning.
lubricants.total.com ms.industry.lub@total.com Total Lubricants - Industry
 f Guarantee the sealing of the conveyor
and improve its environmental
footprint.
The answer was to install 14 yd of
LIFTUBE in 30 in. width around the chute
and the product drop point – places
where a lot of material is usually lost.
The customer now has a contained
installation and the costs linked to
cleaning operations around this area have
been reduced by half.
The customer has also planned to
assign a second LIFTUBE project in one
other area.

Air cannons to avoid material

accumulations
The AIRCHOC® air cannon releases
a volume of compressed air between
4 and 400 litres, through an adapted outlet
port (from 25 to 300 mm) to achieve a
deflagration. The product acts directly
on the material, avoiding damage to the
structure. 93% of instances of clogging
or build-up in silos and hoppers cause a
complete stoppage of production; the air
cannon system has been seen to prevent
numerous manual intervention accidents
on clogging problems in storage units.
Silo cleaning.
Safe cleaning
The development of wireless air cannons
and silo cleaning solutions that can be
used without manual intervention at
the location where issues occur, has
improved safety as well as reduced
operational costs. Moreover, preventive
action with such tools enables efficient
material flow throughout the cement
plant, thereby reducing, or sometimes
altogether eliminating, costly shutdowns
of key equipment and improving plant
productivity.
The air cannon system can be installed
on crushers, feed hopper chutes, storage
silos or hoppers (raw meal, flour), tunnel
POWERNET diagram. reclaimers, crushers, dust collector filters,
preheating towers (cyclones, flour chute,
smoke box, gas duct, kiln inlet, by-pass,
tertiary duct), fan blades, kiln burners,
and coolers (clinker fall).
Standard Industrie helped a customer
in another country with a high cement
demand, which required high levels
of production from the cement plant
to match the deliveries of concrete. In
this context, the plant needed a reliable
supplier for its air canons to guarantee
the smooth operation and running of
GIRONET diagram. the process without any stoppage due

62 World Cement April 2020

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to build ups. The high temperature AIRCHOC
system has now been installed on the preheater
and cooler for the new lines and helps the
cement plant to run with full capacity.
Installation and efficiency
Each installation of air cannons is different, as
a range of accessories are available, such as:
f Deflectors: These direct the air flow (straight,
inclined or 90°) towards the sensitive
clogging points.
f Stainless steel bevelling pistons: These
increase service life and help resist
aggressive atmospheres (chemistry,
incineration, cement works.)
f Blowpipes: These allow air to be channelled
during firing, and are available in steel,
stainless steel, refractory stainless steel,
ceramic etc.
f Isolators: These secure maintenance
operations from high temperature, aggressive
product, or risk of material return.
Blowpipe (top) and deflector (bottom.)
Isolator (left) and piston (right.)
64
Regular compressed air blasting from the
AIRCHOC into the different points of the
cement plant allow the material to remain in
motion and maintain its flow in the production
process. This is a preventive solution, however,
curative solutions that result in the cleaning and
unclogging of storage units are available.
Silo and hopper cleaning services
After a complete analysis of the clogged
storage area, breakdown teams will place
their equipment outside, respecting safety
standards.
The POWERNET® deep drilling equipment
offers a solution for bridging problems. Its
properties are as follows:
f Diameter for piercing storage units from the
top or bottom: 65 to 300 mm.
f Intervention depth: up to 45 m.
f Controlled from outside.
f Cleaning without pollution of the product.
f To be used before GIRONET®.
The GIRONET has a 360° rotating hinged
arm, which is a solution for blockage and dead
stocks. It has an intervention depth of up to
45 m and can be controlled from outside.
These two products, available in a pneumatic
version (friable products) or in a hydraulic
version (hard products) and in an ATEX version
for the GIRONET®, are potential solutions
for many types of blockages, products or
storage units. They can be used without
stopping production, and exclude any human
interventions inside the silos and hoppers.
In addition, by using compressed air and
aluminium housing around the engine, risk of
explosion is avoided. Therefore, the customer
can quickly recover its full storage capacity
while ensuring safety for its operators.
Conclusion
Inefficient flow of bulk materials causes product
loss, avoidable dust emissions and higher
cleaning expenditure as well as equipment
deterioration and more frequent stoppages,
which result in loss of productivity. Solutions
that remove build-ups or help to create cleaner
and safer bulk handling practices positively
impact the cement plant’s smooth operation.
About the author
Laurent Moret, Technical Director at Standard
Industrie International, is a graduate of an
Engineering school. Laurent joined Standard
Industrie International in 2017, with the aim
of developing expertise around customers’
activities as well as associated businesses and
services. He manages the R&D, manufacturing,
supply-chain and after-sales departments.
World Cement April 2020
THE BENEFIT

OF
RETROFIT
IGS discusses the
advantages of retrofitting air
cannons over replacing the
equipment entirely.

R
oanoke Cement, like many cement
plants, was faced with an unexpected
operational problem. The manufacturer
of the air cannons that they depended
upon for many years to help prevent process
blockage and improve efficiency, stopped the
supply of replacement spare parts. Instead of
purchasing inexpensive replacement parts, the
new recommendation was to completely replace
the plant’s air cannons.
65
Air cannon life cycle
The lifetime of an air cannon varies greatly and is
mainly determined by the location and environment
where it is mounted. Air cannons installed close
to the extreme heat and possible contamination
from the cement process will not fare as well as
those mounted in ambient temperatures with a low
firing frequency. Yet even air cannons installed in
the worst locations in most cases do not require
complete replacement, but just a replacement
of the internals. Instead of spending money to
replace the air cannon, the plant would receive a
greater return on investment by investing a small
IGS has also made improvements to the internals
of traditional air cannons. First, the manufacture
Figure 1. IGS air cannon retrofit solution.
Figure 2. Retrofit installation at Roanoke.
Figure 3. Original damaged parts: clinker filled air cannons.
66
amount of money to replace the internals with a
new design, and addressing the installation issues
which cause the maintenance problems.
Is replacement necessary?
Many air cannons that have been successful at
solving buildup problems only ever require the
replacement of a few spare parts. However,
recently, several cannon suppliers made the
decision to no longer supply spare parts for their
high-performance air cannons. This has led to the
only (expensive) alternative left for the plant – to
replace their old cannons with new models.
This move has not been particularly well
received by many cement plants, as many of the
originally installed cannons are still performing
well. The need to completely replace air cannons
has caused plants to spend money, perhaps
unnecessarily, in order to ensure they continue to
have air cannons operating in their plant.
Retrofit solution
One supplier of air cannons and their components
has chosen to supply the necessary retrofit
solutions, which do not require a full replacement.
Integrated Global Services (IGS) has developed a
retrofit kit that replaces the internal components,
allowing plants to keep their existing air cannons
operating. The cost of a retrofit is also significantly
lower than the cost of installing a new air cannon.
Improvements to the internals
of construction was upgraded from
aluminium to coated carbon steel.
Air cannon experts found that
aluminium in this application is too
soft to withstand the pounding
(requires a spring cushion) and does
not resist corrosion well and that the
elimination of the spring should be
set to reduce air cannon failures.
Traditional air cannons have an
aluminium piston, a spring, and
aluminium casting with a press in
bearing. The bearing frequently
becomes scarred or dirty, causing
malfunctions. The new solution uses
standard hard chrome tubing, which
is part of the back plate. The back
plate can be unbolted and removed.
This chrome tubing is used in a
number of air cylinders each year
and provides a smooth surface,
which facilitates a more reliable
operation.
IGS also offers air cannons
that include the addition of an air
cylinder, which provides better
World Cement April 2020
textile packaging l recycling l
Let our experience work for you!

Figure 4. IGS Retrofit 6 months in operation.
control of the pounding action of the air cannon,
and can extend maintenance-free periods. In
addition, the air cylinder does not necessitate the
storage of air in the air tank between firing, and
can reduce air consumption by around 50%.
Retrofit installation procedure
Installation of a retrofit kit can be performed
quickly and inexpensively while the plant is on-line.
This is accomplished by utilising the existing air
cannon essentials, assuming they are in proper
working condition. The solenoid valve, air lines,
air receiver tank, air pressure gauges and relief
valves, valve body, and firing programming
currently in place for the air cannons is utilised
with the retrofit. The installation procedure is as
follows:
f Remove the bolts and back plate from the
existing air cannon valve body.
f Remove the internal components from the
valve body consisting of the aluminium piston
and spring.
f Insert the retrofit kit. All of the components
are pre-assembled to the back plate and are
installed as one piece.
f Replace the bolts to fasten the plate to the
valve body.
f The air cannon is ready to be placed in normal
operation mode.
Roanoke Cement
Case study: Roanoke cement
In 2018, Roanoke Cement was searching for
an answer to replacing all of its air cannons
with new cannons. The plant became interested
in IGS cannons when it learned that all of the
components, except the piston, are off-the-shelf
parts. Spare parts that are needed can be
purchased from any supplier on-line. This prevents
the plant from being at the mercy of the supplier
for spare parts.
68
The plant installed 1 IGS air cannon on top of
an existing cannon’s valve body for a trial period to
determine that the design and components were
as effective and robust as promised. After one and
half years in service, Roanoke Cement decided
to purchase 12 IGS retrofit kits and 14 new
air cannons in 2019. The kits were installed on
existing air cannons within the plant. Some of the
cannons were still firing while others had not been
operational for quite some time.
Installation of new components
The original components were removed from the
air cannon valve bodies while the cannons were
still mounted in place, and the IGS components
were installed. Existing solenoid valves, air lines,
and programming were used, making installation
simple.
An air cannon expert found that the plant was
in full production and not in an outage at the time
of the changeover. On average it took 20 minutes
per air cannon if the removal of the old internals
was straightforward. In cases where old cannons
were not operational and cement became lodged
within, the time required to remove the old
internals was closer to an hour per cannon.
Some of the cannons were not operational
because of broken components, predominantly
the springs. These cannons had become full
of clinker dust with the internal components
virtually cemented in place. A special tool
had to be designed to remove the spring and
piston. In addition, the bearing surface inside
the valve body was in such poor condition that
original spare parts, even if they were available,
would not have been able to make the cannons
operational again.
The IGS retrofit kit does not utilise the old
air cannon’s bearing surface, therefore even
in cases of buildup and damage to the original
internals, once the new kit is put in place, the
cannon operates as if it is new.
Repair not replace
After 6 months, Roanoke Cement reported that
the retrofitted cannons were still firing the same as
when originally installed, and that there has been
no required maintenance or problems. The 14 new
IGS cannons were installed during the February
outage.
Conclusions
The industry is continuing to move in the
direction of efficiency and preservation, cutting
out unnecessary costs and time associated with
maintenance. Vendors who recognise the need to
help plant operators meet their environmental and
efficiency targets will continue performing well in
this climate.
World Cement April 2020
 Squeaky
Clean
Pierre-Marie Maurice,
Total Lubrifiants, explains
how downtime and
production loss can be
avoided when cleaning
open-gears in cement
plants.
T
oday, cleaning open-gear drives
is a huge time consumer for
cement plants and a significant
cost in terms of production
loss. In order to help the cement
industry improve equipment reliability
and reduce production loss, Total
Lubrifiants and partner Lubrilog,
have proposed a cleaning solution
for open-gears without stopping
production.
Challenge
Cleaning open-gears with large
girth-gear diameters that drive ball
mills or rotary kilns is usually a very
dirty and time-consuming process,
especially when people are using
‘black grease or oil’ (aluminium
complex greases with graphite or
asphaltic product).
69

Figure 1. Effects of abrasive wear.
Figure 2. Kiln open-gear drive before cleaning.
Figure 3. At the halfway point of the cleaning
process.
70
Open gears generally need to be cleaned for
three reasons:
f When a maintenance shutdown is due to
take place, in order for an inspection to be
performed.
f To prevent abrasive wear by removing
contamination. Efficient lubrication must
be performed on clean and unpolluted
surfaces. Abrasive wear may cause the loss
of material on the gear drives due to the
presence of hard particles suspended in the
lubricant. This may cause serious damage
to the gears working flanks (Figure 1).
f When switching from a ‘black product’ to
a high-viscous transparent or white fluid,
which are becoming the most common
service lubricants in the field.
A mill can easily be stopped, however it takes
an average of 48 hours to clean the open-gear
using traditional solvent. Moreover, using a
traditional solvent product when the mill is
running, before shutdown, would damage the
gear.
The kiln runs at extremely high operating
temperatures of between 1400˚C and 1500˚C,
therefore it cannot just be stopped. Instead,
there must be a gradual running down
process, and only following this would it
usually be safe to start the cleaning process,
with operators scrubbing each of the girth gear
teeth manually, taking 48 hours. Beginning
the cleaning process with traditional solvent
products before the end of the cool-down
period would damage the gear.
Solution
Total Lubrifiants, with help from Lubrilog, has
proposed a solution to cleaning these gears
without stopping the production.
LUBRICLEAN EP enables gears to be
cleaned while they are in operation, without
the need to shut down equipment, therefore
saving production time.
The solution features extreme pressure
properties, meaning cleaning can start during
the equipment cool-down period for a kiln or
during operation for a mill, rather than waiting
for it to be stopped. It offers cost-effective
cleaning and protection of the gears’ working
flanks.
Health and safety are of paramount
importance across the cement industry,
therefore the product is non-toxic, protecting
both employees and the environment from
chlorine and volatile organic compounds
(VOCs).
Meticulous planning for any type of
maintenance activity in an operation of this scale
World Cement April 2020
 The reliable brand!

50 YEARS OF
RELIABILITY
Come see us and celebrate our
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is essential for it to be successful. Preparatory
meetings with representatives from the company
and personnel from across cement plant
engineering and maintenance teams must take
place before the operation. Every aspect, from
timings to safety, must be thoroughly planned to
ensure the most successful outcome.
Cleaning methodology
Cleaning during operation can be performed
on any type of lubrication system (permanent or
intermittent). The job begins with the preparation
of the operation by installing waste product
collection tanks.
After having stopped the spraying system
or draining the lubricant in case of splash or
circulation lubrication, the Lubriclean EP will be
sprayed by an operator using a high-pressure
pump through the inspection door of the Out
(lifting) pinion and In (pressing) pinion if double
drive. It will be sprayed from one side to another
of the gear as well as on the edges. This operation
will take around 1 hr using three or four drums of
Lubriclean EP to fully clean the gear and casing.
Figure 4. Kiln open-gear drive after one hour cleaning.
Figure 5. Lubriclean EP cleaning kit.
72
After the cleaning, the teeth are covered
with an extreme pressure protection film. The
equipment can either be stopped for maintenance
or inspection or can continue in operation, using
the lubrication spraying system continuously for
a few hours or refilling the tank in case of splash
lubrication.
Total Lubrifiants is able to supply a cleaning kit
including PPE, High Pressure Pump, and drums of
Lubriclean EP for one operation (Figure 5).
Case study
Recently a cement plant found that
using LUBRICLEAN EP saved them
48 hours of downtime. In that time, kilns can
produce 5600 t of clinker, therefore the ability to
keep production running while the cleaning took
place benefitted the plant.
The plant also found that using the product
allowed dirt and grease to be removed from the
girth of the gear in less than two hours, allowing
them to begin the cleaning process while the kiln
was still cooling, and restart the kiln soon after the
cleaning intervention.
The solution was seen to be an efficient
method of cleaning gears in this type of
industrial setting. The plant found that
their bottom line was not affected as no
loss of production was experienced, and
using the product allowed the plant to
implement a more proactive preventative
maintenance schedule. As the plant was a
key site for the group and the kiln usually
had a very high uptime, it was important
that it remained in peak condition and ran
reliably and efficiently.
The average cost of clinker is
approximately US$30/t; the company
saved 5600 t of lost production which is
an approximate saving of US$168 000.
Conclusion
Lubriclean EP has been used in more than
100 cement (and mining) plants, and has
cleaned more than 200 mills and kilns,
saving end users shutdown hours.
About the author
Pierre-Marie Maurice completed
his Master’s degree in Mechanical
Engineering in 2008. He has been
working for 12 years at Total in
development and technical assistance
for lubricants. For 6 years, he has been
working in industrial lubricants as Field
and Application Engineer dedicated to
Mining and Cement for Total Lubricants
HQ in Paris, and is in charge of the global
technical assistance with expertise in
open gear applications.
World Cement April 2020
 WASTE NOT,
WANT NOT

Gilles David, Enertime SA, and Evgueni Touliankine Occora,

SAS, explain why ORC-based waste heat recovery technology
is seeing a surge in demand.

C
ement production accounts for around
5% of global greenhouse gases
emissions. As a result, emissions
reduction and reduced energy
consumption have become key objectives
for cement producers.
Energy consumption reduction
solutions are well understood by cement
manufacturers and include: energy efficiency
improvements, switching to lower-carbon
fuels, reducing the clinker-to-cement ratio
and innovative processes and technology.

73
 On the theme of energy efficiency,
recovering wasted heat from the production
process is one of the single-most impactful
long-term investments that can be made
in terms of energy savings and economic
benefits for the cement plants.
A 2 MW Enertime ORC module in Colombelle incinerator
(Caen, France).
A 3 MW Enertime ORC module installed in a sintering plant of
Baosteel steel mill in Baoshang (Shanghai, China).
A typical schematic for an Enertime high temperature ORC module installed in a cement plant.
74
In dry process cement plants, exhaust kiln
heat is used primarily for raw material and coal
drying and heating. Remaining waste heat both
from the kiln exhaust and clinker cooler can be
recovered for power generation or for thermal
energy direct use including district heating
networks, process uses or district
cooling with absorption chillers.
Cement plant power generation
can provide recovered heat from
two main sources:
f Kiln exhaust gas heat, ranging
from 320 – 450˚C that is
ideally recovered before
being used for raw material
drying, by cooling it down to
approximately 250˚C. Heat
recovery can also use a part
of the gas flow, cooling it to
200°C while the remaining part
is used for drying purposes.
f Clinker cooler hot air, ranging
from 280 – 420˚C, cooled to
approximately 150˚C.
The ABC of ORC
In Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC)
projects, the recovered heat is
transferred to a thermal oil loop
at 315°C in heat exchangers
equipped with automatic
cleaning systems, ensuring a
continuous dedusting, safe and
efficient operation. Thermal oil
makes it possible to reach high
temperatures while maintaining
low pressures, generally below
10 bar throughout the circuit. The
absence of evaporation, no water
use, and the low pressures offer
significant advantages for industrial
waste heat recovery.
The recovered heat is then
transferred to an ORC machine
World Cement April 2020
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and converted to electrical power with net
efficiencies of between 20% and 25%.
High pressure organic fluid is preheated,
evaporated and expanded in the ORC turbine,
driving a generator. The low-pressure organic
vapour is de-superheated in the regenerator
by preheating the high-pressure organic liquid,
significantly improving the efficiency. After
condensing in an air-cooled condenser, the
fluid is pumped at high pressure and sent to
the regenerator, preheater and evaporator.
Advantages of ORC
An ORC system can cover up to 30% of
a plant’s power requirements, significantly
increasing the operating profits. A cement
plant with 3000 tpd of clinker production can
generate 1.5 – 3.0 MWe with an ORC machine.
Prior to the appreciation of, and demand for,
ORC systems, Steam Rankine Cycle (SRC)
systems had been the preferred waste heat
recovery technology. The main reasons for
dissatisfaction with SCR are:
f Lower and variable exhaust temperature
at modern preheater and clinker cooler
make it difficult to reach safe operational
temperature for SRC or require Mid Tap
Exhaust heat recovery with a loss of
potential.
f Higher operation and maintenance cost
especially in higher income countries.
f Higher installation cost per MW for
standard capacity at €3 million/MW typical
in OECD countries for a 2 – 3 MW plant.
f Efficiency of around 18 – 22%.
f Industrial water costs.
ORC-based systems with high density fluids
are specifically designed and adapted for
power generation from 1 – 10 MW, especially
with variable heat sources and heat recovery
projects. The systems are fully automated,
low-maintenance, modular, easy to install and
do not consume water, therefore they are well
suited to meet the heat recovery needs of
cement industry.
ORC heat recovery systems in cement plants
are cost-effective in OECD countries with
stable electrical grids and typical grid electricity
costs of €50/MWh or above (with energy
efficiency projects incentives) or €80/MWh
without incentives. They also offer important
fuel savings for off-grid remote locations.
In addition to the direct economic benefit
given by such investment, the average CO2
emissions for plants in OECD countries will
represent 3000 t per installed MW per year. At
€50/t of CO2, the net present value for 15 years
could amount to the investment value.
76
Economics & financing
Because the ROI for an ORC project is usually
longer than what is acceptable for the cement
industry, and because ORC technology
remains non-core for cement producers, the
future of ORC deployment falls under the
ESCO model where third-party investors
finance, build and run the ORC facility and
provide energy efficiency services to the
industry. This model, which is highly popular
in Asia, is beginning to see deployment in
Europe and America – it will likely become the
standard for energy efficiency projects in the
industry.
Technologies
Enertime is one of the few suppliers able
to offer high-temperature large-scale
ORC systems to the cement industry, with
unit sizes of up to 10 MW. The company is
based in Courbevoie, France, adjacent to
Paris la Défense Central Business District with
ORC references also in China, Thailand and
Ukraine in Waste Heat Recovery and Biomass
applications.
The key component in a large ORC is
the turbine. Enertime has specialist turbine
technologies that offer:
f Optimised load distribution on journal
bearings.
f Low vibration and low maintenance cost.
f Easy maintenance on mechanical seals.
f No risk of blade loss.
Strategy
In the Waste Heat Recovery market, the
company has developed a differentiated
strategy, depending on geography, for the
supply of its ORC technology:
f In France and Western Europe, the
company offers turn-key projects
including waste heat recovery system
supplied by partners and whenever
required, third-party financing with
investors partners on the ESCO model
f In Eastern Europe, Eurasia and South Asia
the company works with turn-key contractor
partners and provide them with ORC basic
engineering, ORC turbine and generator
and critical components
f In China, the company supplies basic
ORC engineering and turbines.
This approach can lower the cost of
ORC system installation, without jeopardising
quality and performance. It has been found to
be successful in China, for example, where the
company has a good track record and repeat
orders.
World Cement April 2020
 Beating
The Heat
Sabrina Santarossa,
Turboden, explains
how ORC technology
works as an efficient
waste heat recovery
method and how it
could help contribute
to a greener cement
production process.

T
he topic of climate
change and the actions
to mitigate it is becoming
more prominent in daily
discussions. Recently, the European
Union announced a green deal to
invest in a climate-neutral and circular
economy in the next 30 years.
The target is ambitious and
challenging, however many green
technologies are already available
and are installed worldwide, even
in some cement plants.
Besides increasing cement
production process efficiency,
focusing on carbon capture and
industry 4.0, waste heat recovery
(WHR) could have an important role
to play in moving towards a greener
clinker product.
77
Increasing the efficiency of cement
production
The efficiency of the cement production process
has been improving in the last few decades but,
despite this trend, the temperature of the exhaust
gas is high enough to install a WHR plant that
converts the recoverable heat into electricity.
The Organic Rankine Cycle (ORC) technology,
with which Turboden has 40 years of experience,
is recognised as a competitive alternative to
steam technology, especially in sizes between
5 –15 MWe. This is due to several advantages,
such as: no water consumption, low operation and
maintenance, and no need for supervision. The
increase of efficiency leads to a decrease in exhaust
gas temperature, so in future, it is expected that
lower temperatures will need to be dealt with. This
trend benefits ORC technology as it can exploit low
temperature sources better than steam technology
and with a high electrical efficiency.
Waste heat in cement plants
Waste heat, in the form of exhaust gas, is
available at two points: the pre-heater tower (PH)
and the clinker cooler (CC). In cement plants,
depending on the preheater stage number, the
gas temperature at the outlet of the PH tower
varies between 250 and 400˚C and at the outlet
of the CC, it varies between 250 and 350˚C.
Çimko Turkey (top) and Holcim Slovensko,
Slovakia (bottom) – electric power production from
waste heat in the cement production process.
78
Normally, two separate heat recovery exchangers
are installed in by-pass to the main gas duct.
Following the different characteristics of the exhaust
gas (sticky gas from the pre-heater and abrasive
dust from the clinker cooler), the technical features
of the heat exchangers are different and are
optimised case by case.
The heat contained in the exhaust gases is
typically transferred indirectly by an intermediate
loop (thermal oil or pressurised water circuit)
to the ORC plant, which produces electric
power. The amount of electric power accounts
for 10 – 30% of the cement plant’s electricity
consumption, leading to a consequent reduction of
the monthly electric bill.
Besides the lower cost for electricity, in most
of the cases studied there are other benefits.
In fact, in many cement plants, the gas from
both the pre-heater and clinker cooler has to be
cooled down before entering the filtration system.
Nowadays, the cooling of the gas is done using
quenching towers in the PH side and air-to-air
heat exchangers in the CC gas. Cooling the gas
temperature in the heat exchangers instead of in
these systems helps to further reduce the electric
consumption of air-to-air exchanger fans and save
a significant amount of water that can be very
valuable in arid countries, by not spraying it in the
quenching tower. Cement plants with their own
power plants based on engines or gas turbines
can consider recovering heat from the power plant
and from the cement production, feeding a single
ORC unit. In this way power plant fuel consumption
reduces, leading to a reduction of CO2 emissions
as well as lower costs of self-produced electricity.
Advantages of ORC
Turboden was founded in 1980 in Italy and it
is now part of Japanese company, Mitsubishi
Heavy Industries group. Today, there are currently
about 400 Turboden ORC plants, and 34 out of
those 400 are used in WHR plants. The average
availability of the operating fleet exceeds 98% and
more than 15 000 000 operating hours have been
reached.
Clients using the ORC system recognise several
advantages. Firstly, the system can operate in
fully automatic mode without risk, and there is
no requirement for supervision personnel, thus
reducing operational cost. In addition, the ORC has
flexible operation in a wide range of thermal power
loads. In fact, it can be operated very quickly and
automatically at partial loads, following the cement
plant production programme without interruption
of the electricity production, thus increasing the
power plant reliability. On this point, an important
feature is the high efficiency even at partial load.
The ORC needs minimal maintenance. In particular,
no partial condensation occurs at the level of the
turbine. The blades are not exposed to wear or
World Cement April 2020
corrosion due to the properties of the working
fluid, and this is a key factor in lowering long-term
operation and maintenance costs. Finally, the
possible configuration with no water consumption
and consequently no need of water treatment,
means that the ORC is a beneficial technology in
countries with scarce water supplies.

Case studies
With regards to heat recovery from the cement
production process, there are several references
from successful projects deployed in the last
10 years. The first plant was for Italcementi,
now Heidelberg group, in Morocco. A 2 MWe
Turboden ORC unit was installed to recover
the heat from the PH. After this, Holcim group
developed two projects – one in Alesd, Romania,
with a 4 MWe ORC started up in 2012, and
a second one in Rohoznik, Slovakia, now part
of CRH group, in 2014. In Slovakia, the ORC
installed has a capacity of 5 MWe. A second
4 MWe plant in Romania was installed in 2015
in Carpat Cement (Heidelberg group). Also in
Switzerland, there are 2 WHR plants based on
Turboden ORCs. In both cases, the heat source is
hot water at a temperature lower than 200°C. The
size is smaller; 2.3 MWe in Wildegg, Jura cement, Energy-efficient
and 1.4 MWe in Holcim Eclepens. The last WHR
projects with ORC have been awarded in Turkey separation, flexible
where there are several WHR systems based on
steam turbines. Cimko, part of Sanko group, and and compact
Sonmez selected ORC because of its reliability,
high performance, lack of water consumption and With the new optimized high-performance
no need for additional personnel. Since 2019, the separators of the third generation, Intercem
ORC working in Cimko has been producing more has the appropriate product for each specific
than 6.5 MWe while the ORC under construction application.
for Sonmez will produce 7 MWe later in 2020.
A low bypass-rate ensures the highest possible
Conclusions separation grade. Robust construction, minimal
ORC technology is a proven technology in the maintenance, easy accessibility to bearings
field of cement WHR, helping to increase the and wear parts and extremely wear resistant
sustainability of cement production, thanks to its materials result in the highest wear protection
ability to recover heat even at low temperatures and are state-of-the-art.
and with good efficiency. Considering the trend
We can either exchange old separators in
towards a greener industry, adopting a broader
vision that accounts for the environmental existing plants or integrate our high-efficiency
benefits of reducing wasted energy and global separators into
CO2 emissions, and the benefits of decreasing completely new
electrical energy consumption, is a smart plants. References
decision. all over the world
prove this.
About the author
Sabrina Santarossa is Sales Manager for
And all that: Fast
ast Fair Fle
Flexible
exible 
e
Industrial Heat Recovery at Turboden with
focus on projects in the cement, glass and steel
production process. Sabrina helps potential
customers to find an optimised solution for each Intercem Engineering GmbH
project. She holds a Masters degree in Chemical Intercem Installation GmbH
Engineering and has worked at Turboden since Carl-Zeiss-Straße 10 | 59302 Oelde
2008. She enjoys reading, sport, and travelling. Germany | Tel.: +49 2522 92058-0
E-Mail: info@intercem.de | www.intercem.de
On The Road
M. Rovetta, CTP Team, highlights
the benefits of waste heat recovery
systems and discusses a range of
applications.

A
modern cement kiln is already optimised to
ensure the maximum thermal efficiency and keep
specific consumptions under control; this target
is reached by reusing as much high temperature
exhaust gas from the kiln as possible, for drying raw
materials, grinding or for use in the coal mill. Sometimes
hot air is also taken from the clinker cooler (mid-air).
Despite this, the thermal energy produced in the kiln
is not completely reused; according to the specific
characteristics of the process, as well as raw materials
80
To Recovery
and fuel, part of the heat exceeds the internal needs or is
not suitable for a profitable reuse in the internal processes
(e.g. cement additives drying).
Exhaust gases and air can be released into the
atmosphere only after specific treatments through
suitable equipment in order to eliminate dust particles and
other pollutants. Nowadays, the technologies available,
especially for dust filtration, can provide cost-effective
solutions, but normally they are only applicable in
temperatures ranging between 120˚C and 230˚C, which
is lower than the temperature of exhaust gases.
Therefore, gas cooling systems must be installed before
filters; such cooling systems are also used in different
phases of cement production, such as burning and raw
grinding. In such cases, the temperature of the exhaust
gases, coming from the kiln preheater, must be reduced
at suitable values requested by the mill.
81
Spending energy to waste energy
The most efficient and suitable gas cooling
technologies for cement processing are based
on water evaporation technology (sensible heat
to latent heat) or dissipation technology (air-to-air
heat exchanger). In general, the first method is
most suitable for kiln gas (cooling tower), whereas
the second fits clinker cooler waste air.
Electrical energy is used in the conditioning
tower for pumping water and in the compressed
air for the spraying system. Instead, in the air-to-air
heat exchanger, electrical power is consumed
in the cooling air fans motors. Therefore, even
if these systems are well optimised, they all
consume energy, resulting in the spending of
energy, only to waste it.
Table 1 shows an estimation of the electrical
power required in one year for a gas cooling
system in a 5000 tpd cement factory. The
same table also reports the expected water
consumption.
Combined waste heat recovery systems
and secondary applications
The boiler technology developed by CTP can
be applied on the exhausted gas stream of the
cement kiln and allows the dust build-up to be
controlled, together with the possible abrasion
phenomena and other factors that could affect
heat exchange efficiency and operation reliability.
As shown in Figure 1, the boilers can be
easily installed on the PH down comer and the
AQC exhaust air duct in order to work together
in synergy (Combined Waste Heat Recovery
System), transferring the available heat from the
waste gas to a transfer media, such as thermal oil;
if an alkali by-pass spillage system is also present,
Table 1. Yearly energy and water consumption
estimation for gas cooling (5400 tpd.)
Cooling tower
Clinker cooler
air-to-air HE Water pumps Comp. air Water
0.6 MWh 0.0675 MWh 0.58 MWh 165 tph
Figure 1. Flow diagram of combined WHR.
82
heat could also be recovered from this source by a
boiler installed after the air quench.
The conversion of such heat into electrical
power is the main reason that justifies the
investment in a WHR system. The most
suitable and reliable equipment is based on the
ORC (Organic Rankine Cycle) technologies.
Compared with steam turbine systems, they
have a simpler design and lower operating costs,
also considering the indirect costs related to the
consumption of natural resources such as water
not used in ORC based systems.
However, once the heat has been transferred to
the thermal oil system, it becomes easily available
to be distributed to all possible internal and
external cement factory utilities.
For example, the production of sanitary water,
heating factory buildings and district heating,
are all secondary utilities which can be easily
inserted in the thermal oil loop for useful energy
optimisation without relevant additional cost for
the customer, especially in locations with severe
environmental conditions during the winter season.
Brownfield and greenfield projects
WHR systems, like those previously mentioned,
are suitable for both brown and green field
projects; the former are in general, the most
common in the cement industry and in this case
the boilers are installed in parallel to existing gas
cooling equipment (air-to-air heat exchanger or
cooling towers). These devices, during the normal
operation of the WHR system are by-passed and
all the hot gas streams pass through the boiler(s).
Considering the brownfield, in addition to the
savings mentioned, the AQC boiler could also
offer possible additional benefits for dust collection
efficiency in cases where one ESP is installed on
AQC waste air; in fact, due to the reduction of
the gas volume, existing electrostatic precipitators
could even work in better conditions.
A combined WHR system could be a very
challenging solution in greenfield projects; in this
case, the new cement plant would be redesigned,
including the whole electricity production system,
starting from the very beginning and avoiding the
installation of gas cooling devices.
This solution can also be evaluated for
brown field projects, in cases where existing
cooling systems need to be replaced or
refurbished due to their poor condition.
Where gas cooling systems are not installed, the
final gas temperature is controlled by dissipating
the heat through air coolers installed along the
thermal oil circuit (Figure 3).
Additional opportunities
CTP WHR systems provide opportunities to
develop innovative applications for existing
World Cement April 2020
technology to be used for emissions control, such
as DeNOx, with the use of catalysts (SCR).
According to the type of catalyst selected, the
DeNOx technology must be used in a suitable
temperature window (in the range of 300°C)
in order to activate the chemical reaction for
the decomposition of the NOx with the injection
of aqueous ammonia solution. SCR DeNOx
technology can be used in combination with
SNCR, when very low NOx emissions level are
requested (e.g ≤ 200 mg/Nm3 10% O2).
SCR DeNOx technology on a PH kiln cement
can be applied by installing the catalysts at
the PH outlet. This position is binding for the
Figure 2. The heat from the thermal oil system is
easily made available at the factory utilities.
Figure 3. Air coolers installed along the termal oil
circuit control the final gas temperature.
Figure 4. Application of combined WHR-ORC
based in a SCR DeNOx system.
84
gas temperature. The high dust content in the
gas is the main issue to be kept under control,
as the installation of catalysts downstream the
filter of the kiln is not possible for the lower gas
temperature and the precipitation of ABS salts
(ammonium bi-sulfate).
DeNOx SCR catalyst systems at kiln PH outlet
must unavoidably deal with erosion and other
issues such as dust built up, which must be kept
under control for acceptable abatement efficiency
and reliability during time. Catalyst cleaning
is normally based on systems using heated
compressed air with a considerable impact on the
operating costs.
Figure 4 shows a possible solution that could
be provided, in principle, through a combined
WHR and thermal oil system used for heating
up gas to be sent to a SCR DeNOx system
applied after the kiln bag filter; in such cases,
the SCR catalyst will be in the most favourable
working conditions, as a suitable delta between
the gas temperature and the ABS dew point is
maintained.
In such a system, an oil-to-gas heat exchanger
is installed before the SCR (fed with thermal oil
coming from the WHR system). The dedusted
exhaust gases from SCR pass through
a gas-to-gas heat exchanger and are then released
into the atmosphere.
New applications
The WHR system opens up technological
applications and opportunities in many
industrial processes, such as cement;
the recent commissioned installation in
Cimko Narli Cement (Turkey), with an average
monthly production in the range of 3300 MW, and
the new WHR project acquired in Sonmez Cement,
demonstate the reliability of CTP technology.
The integration and combination of such
systems in the cement process could provide
additional tools for cement producers to improve
the environmental sustainability of their process,
reducing the use of natural resources and limit
emissions of greenhouse gas.
In any case, the explored new potential
possibilities provided by WHR systems, open new
horizons to possible new configurations of the
cement process, where the achievement of global
environment protection targets are given the same
weight as production targets.
About the author
Marco Rovetta is a Mechanical Engineer with
over 30 years of experience in the cement
industry, especially in emissions control systems.
He has worked as an R&D Manager within the
CTP Team since 2018, leading the search for new
technologies with the highest performance and
best available techniques.
World Cement April 2020
 TAKING THE
TEMPERATURE
Christopher Leonard,
AMETEK Land, looks at the
importance of temperature
measurement in cement
manufacturing.
ccurate temperature monitoring

A across the cement manufacturing

process is essential to achieving
efficiency and producing good
product quality. It can also help to prolong
the life of the kiln through early detection of
refractory issues or insufficiently quenched
clinker, which could lead to production
stoppages if left unchecked. Effective
monitoring also enhances safety and
emissions control.
While valuable, obtaining accurate
temperature measurements from a rotating
cement kiln is a very challenging task due
to the high temperatures, smoke and dust
present. This requires careful attention to
the raw mix feed rate, the fuel/air ratio and
the temperature distribution throughout
the kiln to ensure efficient and consistent
production of high-quality cement with the
lowest environmental impact.

85
Monitoring the rotary kiln
The rotary kiln is the most important asset in
the cement manufacturing process, and can
lead to expensive downtime if it is not effectively
monitored.
As the kiln rotates, the clinker works its way
down towards the burning zone, heating up
as it does so. This arrangement means that
temperatures may vary considerably through the
kiln, making monitoring more difficult.
It is advisable that measurements are taken in
the following areas: the burning zone, the kiln
shell, and the clinker cooler. Kiln rotation, high
temperatures and movement of the sintering
material along the kiln make thermocouples and
other contact temperature sensors impractical.
There are four main influences on the
temperature within kiln shells, as follows:
f Increased use of alternative fuels, such as
waste derived fuels and agricultural biomass,
can lead to higher wear on the refractories.
f Uneven coatings.
f Use of inappropriate refractories.
f Larger kilns with higher mechanical tension,
which leads to higher kiln ovality and damage
to the refractory lining.
The challenges to temperature measurement
vary from plant to plant, however, the possible
impact is the same everywhere – with rises in
Near infrared borescope thermal imager for
cement kilns.
Critical measurements in cement manufacture.
86
kiln shell temperature leading to hot spots – and
often the need to stop the kiln. This can lead to
expensive downtime for a week or more, resulting
in a severe drop in production.
Monitoring the kiln shell
Monitoring the exterior kiln shell temperature
is critical. The steel kiln shell is protected from
the extremely high process temperature by one
or two layers of refractory brickwork. If this
brickwork fails, either by erosion or physical
loss of bricks, the metal shell can be severely
damaged, putting the kiln into expensive
downtime.
Detecting hot spots indicative of refractory
damage helps to avoid costly maintenance or
unplanned shutdowns. Continuous monitoring
along the length of the kiln provides early detection
of problems, allowing for repairs to be made
before serious damage occurs.
Traditionally, thermocouples have been used to
take temperature measurements along the moving
kiln, however, these give poor coverage and are
unreliable.
A more effective technique is to use a
linescanner to map the temperature of the outer
shell resulting in a high-resolution thermal image.
Linescanners use a single detector with
a scanning mirror to repeatedly scan along
the length of the kiln, giving the equivalent of
1000 pixels along the kiln. Rotation of the kiln
allows the scanner to build up an image of
the kiln shell. Using a single sensor allows for
excellent consistency of measurement when
compared to a thermal imager. Even the best
image sensors exhibit considerable pixel-to-pixel
variability, whereas the scanner uses the same
sensor for every point in the measurement. It is
important to limit the scan angle to 90° or less.
A wider angle allows the scanner to be mounted
closer to the kiln, but the surface emissivity of
the kiln decreases rapidly at high angles, and the
imaged spots become very elliptical, leading to
degraded spatial resolution. If required for longer
kilns, image processing software
can stitch the output of multiple
scanners to provide a single
display. This approach also allows
enhanced spatial resolution as it
effectively doubles the number of
pixels in each scan.
AMETEK Land’s solution for
this application is the LSP-HD 62,
a compact, highly homogenous
line scanner designed to produce
high-accuracy thermal images of
moving processes.
Installed to view the rotating kiln
with an 80˚ scan angle, it samples
1000 points along a single line,
World Cement April 2020
up to industry-leading scan speeds of 150 Hz.
This helps build up a picture of the complete shell
temperature, identifying any aberrations.
Monitoring the burning zone
The inside of a cement kiln is an extremely
challenging environment for making any kind of
temperature measurement.
Radiation thermometers, also known as
pyrometers, allow for non-contact temperature
measurement but their effectiveness is limited
by the high levels of dust, especially within the
burning zone.
As kiln temperatures are very high, particularly
at the burning zone where they typically reach
1300 – 1450˚C (2372 – 2642˚F), the detection
of damage is key to ensuring its lifespan can be
extended. Accurate temperature measurements
are critical in this area for product quality and
environmental reasons. It also allows proactive
maintenance to be scheduled to minimise
downtime and interference to cement production
operations.
Nevertheless, the temperature at the burning
zone, the hottest part of the process, is an
important measurement, because it shows
whether or not there has been a complete
transformation from dicalcium silicate (C2S) to
tricalcium silicate (C3S), a process which occurs
at around 1300 – 1450˚C (2372 – 2642˚F).
Ratio pyrometers are often used to measure
temperatures in the burning zone, as they are
much less susceptible to errors caused by
obscuration and dust because they use the
ratio between the radiation intensity at two
wavelengths instead of the absolute intensity at a
single wavelength. Combined with a peak-picker
algorithm, a ratio thermometer can give an
accurate temperature measurement even when
there is 95% obscuration in the field of view.
Thermal image of the inside of a cement kiln.
88
This provides an effective measurement for
general monitoring but does not supply much
information about the kiln operation. Only a single
measurement value from a small part of the kiln is
provided and so the readings can be deceptive if
the target area is not optimised.
A viewing port within the firing hood located
below and to the side of the burner allows the
best measurement of clinker temperature. This is
a very aggressive environment, so a pyrometer
installed in this location typically requires a
water-cooled jacket to prevent damage to the
electronics and an air purge to protect the
delicate optical surfaces from hot and dusty
process gases.
To obtain more detailed process information
about the kiln, short-wavelength thermal imagers
are increasingly being used, with a near-infrared
sensor and borescope lens, they provide much
more detailed information about conditions within
the burning zone.
Borescopes have been used for many years
for inspection and diagnostic purposes, but in
recent years infrared versions, such as AMETEK
Land’s NIR-Borescopes have been developed
for thermal imaging applications. An infrared
thermal imager, such as the NIR-B, offers a
clear, real-time view of the kiln refractory surface,
enabling any deterioration to be identified and
located easily. Compared with conventional
video cameras, this view is far less likely to be
adversely affected by the high dust levels in the
kiln.
As with ratio pyrometers, the borescope
requires air purge and water cooling to protect
it from aggressive environmental and process
conditions.
The NIR-Borescope models are only 61 mm
(2.4 in.) in diameter, including the water-cooled
jacket, so it can be inserted through a small
viewing port without any major
disruption to the process.
Because the kiln rotates
continuously, the clinker collects on
one side. This allows the borescope
to be installed under the burner
towards the opposite side, providing
sighting onto the clinker and flame.
To minimise exposure to process
conditions, the tip of the borescope is
usually slightly recessed into the wall.
This does not affect its function and
the large 95˚ x 71˚ (NIR-B-2K) field of
view enables it to form an image of all
the relevant parts of the process.
The NIR-B produces a detailed,
live radiometric image, with accurate
temperature information that allows
the operator to measure any subset
of over 300 000 data points at
World Cement April 2020
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 30 frames per second with the NIR-B or nearly
3 million live data points with the NIR-B-2K.
The thermal image provides important data
about kiln condition and qualitative information,
such as flame propagation and formation of ash
rings, within the kiln.
By using Near Infrared (NIR) wavelengths,
the resultant thermal image suffers less from the
scattering effect, caused by high energy particles
within the field of view than a conventional
video camera or borescope operating at visible
wavelengths. This makes it particularly valuable, as
it can accurately measure temperature and provide
high-quality process imaging simultaneously.
An automatic retraction system provides
protection for the borescope, withdrawing the
entire instrument from the process if a purge air or
cooling water failure is detected.
Although the borescope is a powerful tool
for measurements in the firing zone, it cannot
measure temperatures further along the
kiln in the heating and calcining zones. An
elegant non-contact method for temperature
measurements in these areas is to mount a
thermowell through the refractory and view it
with a pyrometer mounted close to the kiln. This
method allows accurate measurements without
the drawbacks associated with mounting a
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thermocouple inside the kiln. The pyrometer can
easily be accessed for calibration or adjustment
even while the kiln is in operation.
Summary
Accuracy in temperature measurement is critical
throughout the cement manufacturing process, to
ensure consistent cement quality and to prolong
the lifespan of the equipment.
Monitoring is focused on the rotary kiln
and there are a number of measurement
techniques that are applicable. While single-spot
measurements from a ratio thermometer are
effective, the most comprehensive information
is obtained from thermal imaging. This provides
an overall picture of kiln activity at the burner
end, allowing the operator to see a live view of
operations in the firing zone and beyond.
A linescanner can help safeguard the kiln
shell against damage by detecting compromised
refractory brickwork at an early stage. In addition,
there are many other points where analysis
is effective, including hot spot detection and
emissions monitoring.
Cement plants should be looking for accuracy,
consistency, reliability in their temperature
measurements that reduce maintenance time and
enable faster process adjustments.
 Tony Sheridan, DB Group, discusses the
benefits of low-carbon cement alternatives and
why they may be the answer to improving the
strength, durability, and hygiene of the material.

A
ll environments weaken
concrete surfaces over time,
especially harsh ones, but
a recent study shows that
low-carbon cement could provide an
answer to improving strength and
durability. Concrete made using an
ultra-low carbon cement (in this case,
Cemfree) could be a more sensible
alternative to conventional concrete
– and help save the planet. Concrete
is one of the most commonly used
materials used in construction – for good
reason. It is economical, sets at ambient
temperature, is easy to use and it can be
cast into almost any shape.

91

Figure 1. Cemfree was chosen due to its
weather, chemical and road salt resistant
properties for the M25 Woodford Viaduct
hardstanding recently.
Figure 2. Effect of acid on Cemfree strength gain.
But in nearly every case, concrete is routinely
exposed to highly demanding environments
– whether it be through traffic or weathering,
or through contact with acidic and alkaline
chemicals – man-made or environmental – all of which
take a heavy toll on concrete surfaces.
Structures made using a conventional
cement-based concrete mix are very likely to
deteriorate prematurely. But just how prematurely?
The DB Group technical team investigated this,
and the results proved to be more surprising than
anticipated.
Concrete is made using a mix of water, fine sand
and coarse aggregates which are held together using
a binder. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the
binder commonly used in concrete. However, OPC
is susceptible to acids commonly found in harsh
environments which react with it, causing premature
failure. To help improve its durability, some concrete
suppliers replace up to 70% of the OPC with ground
granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS).
Cemfree is an alternative to OPC. It is a proprietary
alkali-activated cementitious material (AACM) that
activates waste materials such as Ground Granulated
Blast-furnace Slag (GGBS) and Pulverised Fly
Ash (PFA) to create a binder. Its different chemical
composition means that it has a naturally higher
resistance to acids found in chemically
aggressive environments.
To find out how the durability
of concrete made using Cemfree
compared with a conventional concrete
mix, DB Group recently commissioned
a 26-week laboratory-based accelerated
degradation test.
To enable the comparison, two sets
of concrete samples were prepared.
One set was based on the most
durable version of OPC used in harsh
environments – a mix of 70% GGBS,
30% OPC. The other set was made
using Cemfree low carbon cement.
Laboratory tests involved fully and
partially submerging the samples for a

Table 1. Results of the of the compressive strength test.

Percentage
Compressive Acid in which Compressive
increase/
Mix strength after 28 sample was strength after 26
decrease in
days [MPa] submerged weeks [MPa]
strength

OPC70/30 68.1 Lactic and acetic 51.7 -24.1

OPC70/30 68.1 Sulfuric 32.0 -53.1

CMF 31.8 Lactic and acetic 36.3 14.2

CMF 31.8 Sulfuric 38.9 22.3

92 World Cement April 2020

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climate you can’t afford not to.

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Figure 3. OPC after sulphuric acid test showing
deterioration.
Figure 4. Cemfree low-carbon cement after sulphuric
acid test, showing a lot less deterioration.
Figure 5. Formwork being stripped on Cemfree wall
prior to use on A14 major roadway in Cambridgeshire
later this year.
94
total of 26 weeks in three different acids: lactic, acetic
and sulfuric. The results made for interesting reading
(Figure 2 and Table 1).
Loss of strength
The most notable difference to emerge from
the tests concerned changes in the samples’
compressive strength. Compressive strength is
a measure of the ability of the concrete to carry
loads without cracking or failing. The tests showed
that the OPC sample submerged in sulfuric acid
exhibited a 53% decrease in strength after 26
weeks, while the OPC sample submerged in lactic
and acetic acid showed a decrease in strength of
over 24% in the same time period.
By comparison, the Cemfree samples submerged
in the same acids showed an increase in
compressive strength of up to 22% over the same
test period.
Table 1 shows the results of the compressive
strength test in detail.
Loss of mass
The tests also showed that both the samples
submerged in sulfuric acid showed signs that
material had been dissolved. However, there was
a significant difference in the amount of material
dissolved: the Cemfree sample suffered a minor
loss of 14 g of material, while the OPC sample
exhibited a much greater loss of 225 g of material.
Change in appearance
After 26 weeks, the appearance of both samples
had been affected by their submersion. However,
discolouration was worse on the OPC samples
and, significantly, mould growth was present.
These results show that the type of binder used
has an impact on the material resistance and
durability of concrete. In particular, the low carbon
cement mix showed an improved resistance
to organic acids, even gaining strength in this
environment. The tests demonstrate that concrete
made with Cemfree can provide a durable
alternative to OPC concrete.
Environmental benefits
In addition to its durability benefits, there are
major environmental benefits to using low carbon
cement such as Cemfree. Structures built using
Cemfree will have less embodied CO2 compared
to one constructed using OPC-based concrete.
That is because the production of 1 t of OPC
releases almost 1 t of CO2 into the atmosphere.
By comparison, low carbon cement is made from
waste materials and its carbon footprint is ultra-
low.
If concrete made with Cemfree was poured
in place of OPC concrete, in addition to being
durable, Cemfree concrete would have up to 80%
less embodied CO2, which would be beneficial
World Cement April 2020
 for both the longevity of surfaces, as well as the
environment.
The OPC alternative is also batched, delivered and
placed in the same way as an OPC concrete.

Conclusions
Low carbon cement is becoming a viable choice for
demanding environments such as high vehicle and
foot traffic areas, tidal defenses, major roadways and
peripherals, runways, agricultural precast and other
rural applications, and industrial environments.
Cemfree has been used in various applications, Figure 6. Durability of Cemfree was key to
from Harwich’s tidal sea defense for the Environment being used for tidal sea defence in Woodbridge,
Agency to developments such as the Thames Suffolk.
Tideway project, eco-home builds in environmentally
sensitive areas, and, for the first time in this
application, Cemfree is being commercially used
on the A14 major road development by Highways
England (Figure 5).

About the author

Tony Sheridan (B.Sc. Civ Eng. MBA), Group
Commercial Manager, DB Group, has nearly
20 years of construction industry experience. A civil
engineering graduate of University College Dublin,
he worked as a structural design engineer before
completing his MBA and going on to work in several
UK commercial and general management roles in the
ready-mix concrete industry. Figure 7. Cemfree kerbing.

14TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE AND

EXHIBITION ON EMISSIONS MONITORING

2020 Conference Topics:

1.
2.
Dust measurement at low concentrations
Emission regulation and future monitoring challenges
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 SET FOR
SUCCESS
Nohman Mahmud explains the
process of cement hydration and
how to optimise concrete setting
time, workability and water demand.

T he process of ‘cement hydration’ is the

reaction of cement constituents with water,
which results in hydrates that ultimately
give concrete properties, such as: strength,
setting time, water demand, shrinkage/expansion etc.
Portland cement, when mixed with water for
preparation of mortar and concrete, should create
a fluid mix, set in a reasonable time, develop good
mechanical strength and retain dimensional stability
for a long time.

96
97
Macroscopic and microscopic views
of cement hydration:
Macroscopic view
When cement/aggregates/water/any admixture
is mixed together, a fluid mix is obtained. After
casting in frameworks, it gradually increases in
viscosity and gains mechanical strength until
the framework can be removed. It continues
to harden quickly during the first 28 days after
mixing. During its whole life service, several
reactions happen, depending both on
interactions between internal cement/concrete
compounds and on interactions with external
factors (eg. carbonation, degradation).
Microscopic view
When cement, aggregates and water are
mixed together, the chemical compounds
present in cement dissolve and release
ions that combine in different chemical
compounds (hydration products). The
cement/aggregates/water mix is progressively
converted to a mix of solid substances that
bind the aggregates together.
The chemistry of cement hydration
In hydration, the first step is phase dissolution
(like C3S, C2S, C3A, Gypsum, C4AF)
and this dissolution results in ions. Once
the ions are in water, the reaction starts
and precipitation of different hydrates like
aluminate hydrates, calcium silicate hydrates
(CSH – also known as tobermorite gel),
and calcium hydroxide (CH) (also known as
portlandite) results in hardening and strength
gain along with an increase in viscosity.
Hydrated Portland cement contains 15 – 25%
calcium hydroxide (CH) and about 50%
calcium silicate hydrates (CSH) by mass. The
strength and other properties of hydrated
Figure 1. Heat evolution as a function of time for cement paste.
Stage 1 is heat of wetting or initial hydrolysis. Stage 2 is a
dormant period also known as an induction period. Stage 3 is a
slow, steady hydration.
98
cement are primarily due to calcium silicate
hydrates.
Because Portland cement is a relatively
complex mixture, many studies, having the
aim of elucidating its hydration chemistry,
have been conducted on its constituent
phases. For a given particle size distribution
and w/s ratio, tricalcium silicate or alite sets
and hardens in a manner similar to that of
a typical Portland cement. Using XRD and
other methods, it may be shown that about
70% of the C3S typically reacts in 28 days
and virtually all of it reacts within 1 year. The
products are calcium hydroxide (CH) and a
nearly amorphous calcium silicate hydrate with
the properties of a rigid gel. C2S behaves
similarly, but much less CH is formed and the
reaction is slower, with about 30% typically
reacting in 28 days and 90% in 1 year. In both
cases, reaction rates depend on particle size
distribution and other factors. Development of
compressive strength runs roughly parallel to
the course of the chemical reactions, and the
strengths at 1 year are comparable to those of
Portland cements of the same w/s ratio, cured
under the same conditions.
This precipitation and growth of hydrates
follows the dissolution of phases; the two
processes are strictly linked, from both
thermodynamic (which types of phase
dissolve and which types are produced) and
kinetic (how quickly this happens) points
of view. According to recent theories, the
driving force for dissolution and precipitation
is always related to ions in solution and
super/undersaturation conditions. When there
is undersaturation, the dissolution rate will be
faster and precipitation rate will be low. When
there is super saturation, the dissolution rate
will be slow and the precipitation rate will be
higher. The most common hydrated phases are
CSH (calcium silicate hydrates),
CAH (calcium aluminate
hydrates), calcium hydroxide
(CH) and ettrignite (tricalcium
sulfo aluminate hydrate), etc.
The dissolution of phases
to give ions is the plastic mix
stage, whereas precipitation
of hydrates (CSH, CH, CAH,
ettrignite) is the hardened mix
stage.
For complete hydration
of Portland cement, only
about 40% water by mass
(a water-to-cement ratio of 0.40)
is needed. If a water-to-cement
ratio greater than about 0.40
is used, the excess water not
needed for cement hydration
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remains in the capillary pores or evaporates.
If a water-to-cement ratio less than about
0.40 is used, some cement will remain
unhydrated. The amount of water added to the
mixture controls the strength and durability as
well. The space initially taken by water in a
cementitious mixture is partially or completely
replaced over the period of time as the
hydration reaction proceeds.
In order to make the fresh concrete
sufficiently workable for proper placing and
compaction, slightly more water than is
required for complete hydration of the cement
may be used in the concrete mix. However,
too large an excess must be avoided since
ultimate strength is inversely related to the
overall water/cement ratio. An external supply
of water must remain available to the cement
after setting and during the initial hardening
period if the full potential of the cement is to
be realised, since the hydration reaction stops
when relative humidities fall below about 95%.
As the water-to-cement ratio increases, the
capillary porosity increases and the strength
decreases. Transport properties such as
permeability and diffusivity are also increased,
allowing detrimental chemicals to more readily
attack the concrete or reinforcing steel.
Studying cement hydration behaviour
Cement hydration behaviour can also be
studied using ‘heat of hydration’ testing.
Cements do not generate heat at a constant
rate. The heat output during hydration of a
typical type I Portland cement is illustrated
in Figure 1. The first peak shown in the
heat profile is due to heat given off by the
initial hydration reactions of cement phases
such as tricalcium aluminate. Sometimes
called the ‘heat of wetting’, this first heat
peak is followed by a period of slow activity
known as the induction period. After several
hours, a broad second heat peak attributed
to tricalcium silicate hydration emerges,
signalling the onset of the paste hardening
process. Finally, there is the third peak due to
the renewed activity of tricalcium aluminate. Its
intensity and location is normally dependent on
the amount of tricalcium aluminate and sulfate
in the cement.
In calorimetry testing, the first heat
measurements are obtained a few minutes
after mixing the paste. As a result, only the
downward slope of the first peak is observed
(Figure 1). The second peak (C3S peak)
often occurs between 6 and 12 hours.
The third peak (renewed C3A peak on
conversion of ettringite to monosulfate) occurs
between 12 and 90 hours. This information
can be helpful when trying to control
100
temperature rise in mass concrete. When heat
generation must be minimised in concrete,
designers should choose a lower heat
cement, such as a type II Portland cement,
with the optional moderate heat of hydration
requirements.
It may be noted that initial setting time is
observed approximately, together with the end
of the induction period on the heat evolution
curve and the final set takes place in the
middle of the acceleration period.
Workability of concrete/consistency of
cement
‘Workability’ can be defined as the ease
by which fresh concrete can be mixed,
transported, placed, compacted and used
without segregation of its components.
Cement ‘consistency’ refers to the relative
mobility of freshly mixed cement paste or
mortar. The water demand of a cement
is the amount of water required to form a
paste of standard consistence. The fluidity
of a cement paste may be measured; the
smaller the water demand, the greater the
fluidity for a given water/cement ratio. During
cement testing, pastes are mixed to normal
consistency as defined by penetration with
a Vicat Needle. Mortars are mixed to obtain
either a fixed water to cement ratio (Vicat
apparatus) or yield a flow within a prescribed
range (flow table). Both the normal consistency
method and flow table method are used to
regulate and check the optimum required water
contents of pastes and mortars. Whereas the
tests most commonly used for determining
the workability of concrete, known as a
‘slump cone test’, ‘compaction factor tests’ and
‘VEE – BEE consistometer tests’, are also used
to determine concrete workability.
Different factors affect the water demand or
standard consistency of cement; in short, the
higher the reactivity of clinker/cement, the more
water required to form a paste of standard
consistency.
Setting time
The object of setting time is to determine,
firstly, the time that elapses from the moment
water is added until the paste ceases to be
fluid and plastic (initial setting), and secondly,
the time required for the paste to acquire a
certain degree of hardness (final setting).
Initial setting must not occur too early and
final setting must not occur too late. The
rationale for this is that the initial setting time
should be sufficient to provide appropriate
time for the preparation, mixing, transportation,
and placing of concrete mix. The final setting
time should not occur too late, as the concrete
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must develop the appropriate strength within a
reasonable time period to allow the framework
to be removed.
The setting time indicates that a paste
is or is not undergoing normal hydration
reactions. Sulfate (from gypsum or other
sources) regulates setting time, but setting
time is also affected by other parameters,
primarily cement fineness, water cement ratio,
clinker/cement reactivity and any admixture
that may be used.
The setting time of concrete does not
correlate directly with the setting time of
cement paste due to water loss to air or
substrate, presence of aggregates, as well as
temperature differences in the field compared
to the controlled temp in the lab.
The setting time is measured using the
Vicat Apparatus or Gillmore needle method.
The Vicat test governs if no test method is
specified by the customer.
Cement setting behaviours
There are primarily three types of cement
setting behaviours:
f Flash setting
f False setting
f Normal setting
Flash setting
If pure clinker is ground and mixed with
water, it will immediately set and not allow
for casting, processing and use. This is due
to the fast reaction of tricalcium aluminate
(C3A) with water to form calcium aluminate
hydrates (CAH) which immediately precipitate
out and harden the mix (flash set). Flash
set/quick set is evidenced by a rapid and early
loss of workability; it is usually accompanied
by considerable heat, resulting primarily from
the rapid reaction of aluminates. If the proper
amount or form of gypsum (calcium sulfate) is
not available to control the calcium aluminate
hydration, flash setting occurs. Flash setting
cannot be halted, nor can the plasticity
be regained by further mixing without the
addition of water. The (CAH) also covers the
C3S slowing down the water diffusion and
the subsequent hydration of C3S/strength
development.
The causes of flash setting can be
summarised as: reactive cement/slow
dissolving gypsum or sulfate = flash setting/
poor strength.
False setting
The most common cause of false setting is
the presence of too much calcium sulfate in
the form of hemihydrate, which is rehydrated
to give gypsum (called ‘secondary’ gypsum).
102
The setting is attributable to the interlocking
of the gypsum crystals, which are tabular and
can be 5 – 10 µm in the longest dimension.
Additional mixing without added water breaks
up these crystals to restore workability.
Dehydration of gypsum to hemihydrate can
occur during milling; hemihydrate may also
be added deliberately, if a more reactive form
of calcium sulfate is required. With cements
high in K20, syngenite can be precipitated
– this also can cause false setting. Ettrignite
precipitation can additionally contribute to
false set.
From a placing and handling standpoint,
false set tendencies in cement will cause
no difficulty if the concrete is mixed for a
longer time than usual or if it is remixed
without additional water before being
transported or placed. False set final
penetration should be a minimum of 50%
for ASTM C 150 Type – I (general purpose
cement) as measured using ASTM C 451.
In short, false setting can be summarised
as: less reactive cement/fast dissolving
gypsum = false setting/not much heat
evolution, indicated by a significant loss of
plasticity.
Normal stiffening/normal setting
Normal setting occurs with the proper balance
of sulfate ions (gypsum) and clinker/cement
reactivity (which impacts the hydration reaction
as well as dissolution rates).
When gypsum is added in addition with
calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH), some C3A
is consumed to form ettrignite (tricalcium
sulfo aluminate hydrate); this ettrignite, due
to different morphology, does not reduce
the water diffusion and the subsequent
hydration of C3S, promoting a normal strength
development.
The equilibrium between CAH/ettrignite is
strictly related to the availability and
dissolution kinetics of sulfate ions, hence to
calcium sulfate percentage and the forms in
which it exists.
As per ASTM C 150, standard initial setting
time should not be less than 45 minutes
and final setting time should be no more
than 375 minutes for type I cement (i.e.
general-purpose cement) as per Vicat Method
(ASTM C 191), whereas as per the Gillmore
test (ASTM C 266), initial setting time should
not be less than 60 minutes and final setting
time no more than 600 minutes for type I
cement (i.e. general-purpose cement).
Whereas as per EN 197 Standard, for
32.5 strength grade, initial setting time should
be equal to or greater than 75 minutes, for
42.5 strength grade initial setting time should
World Cement April 2020
 METPUMP
®

be equal to or greater than 60 minutes

and for 52.5 strength grade initial setting
time should be equal to or greater than
45 minutes; there is no limit for final
setting time as per EN 197.
There can be two scenarios as far as
normal setting is concerned:
f Reactive cement/fast
dissolving gypsum or
sulfate = normal setting behaviour.
f Less reactive cement/slow dissolving
gypsum or sulfate = normal setting
behaviour.

Properties of reactive
clinker/cement
Reactive clinker/cement can be
summarised as having following
properties:
f High blaine, less residues
(90/45 Micron, etc.)
f High C3A
f Orthorhombic C3A – due to
incorporation of alkalis
f High C3S
f Less sulfate
f Different forms of gypsum with regard 223 W. Interstate Road, Addison, IL 60101 USA
to setting behaviour are as under: www.Magneco-Metrel.com
» Natural di-hydrate gypsum –
normal release of sulfate ions.
» Hemihydrate (plaster of paris) and
soluble anhydrite – quick release
of sulfate ions.
» Natural anhydrite gypsum – very
Keep Updated
slow release of sulfate ions.

Conclusion
Normal hydration reactions are required
to ensure that cement/concrete properties
remain within the acceptable limits as far
as workability, setting time, water demand
and strength development/hardening are
concerned. A thorough understanding
of clinker/cement properties is required
to avoid excessive water demand, false
setting and flash setting, and to have
normal setting, strength development and
workability characteristics.

About the author

Nohman Mahmud has a Masters degree Keep up to date with
in Analytical Chemistry, and for the last us to hear the latest
16 years has worked in QC/QA and
Process Optimisation in the Cement news from the
sector of Pakistan.
cement industry
He is currently working at the biggest
cement manufacturing group of Africa,
•– 
Dangote Group, at the Dangote Cement
Obajana Plant as Manager QA.
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