APRIL, 2020

IndIAn HIgHwAys
volume : 48 Number : 4 total Pages : 64

Mobile Bridge Inspection Unit

https://www.irc.nic.in
 IndIAn HIgHwAys
Volume : 48 Number : 04 ● APRIL, 2020 ● ISSN 0376-7256
Indian Roads Congress
Founded : On 10th December, 1934

CONteNtS
 From the Editor's Desk 4-5
 Advertisement Tariff/Call of Papers 6
 Advertisements 7 - 9 & 60-62
 IAHE Training Calendar 2020-21 10

technical Papers
 Development of Advanced Traveller Information System for Historical City Using ANT Algorithm 11
By Prof Praveen Kumar & Nidhi Chaudhary
 Performance Evaluation of Inverted Pavement – A Review 23
By Shahbaz Khan, M N Nagabhushana & Devesh Tiwari
 Bicycle Movements in a Class-I City – A Case Study of Roorkee 36
By Dr Rajat Rastogi, Bhargav Ruparthi & Prasham Khadiaya
 Revisiting Design of Gravity Retaining Walls 48
By Rajendra Chalisgaonkar
 Reader’s Comment and Author’s Reply on Published Paper 55
 Circular 57
 Tender Notice 58-59

FeeDBACK
Suggestion/Observation on editorial and technical Papers are welcome and may be sent to IRC Secretariat on
Email-indhighways@gmail.com/dd.irc-morth@gov.in

Publisher & editor: S.K. Nirmal, Secretary General, IRC

E-mail: secygen.irc@gov.in
Headquarter: IRC Bhawan, Kama Koti Marg, Sector-6, R.K. Puram, New Delhi-110 022.
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opinion expressed in the papers and contents published in the Indian Highways do not necessarily represent the views of the Editor or IRC.

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INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 3
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teCHNICAL
tHe eDItOR’S
PAPeRDeSK

MAINTENANCE OF HIGHWAY BRIDGES

Due to massive Highway construction program taken up in the last 20 years, there has been an exponential
growth of bridges across the country. While acknowledging the need for regular inspection of bridges
there is lack of forward planning in the Maintenance of existing as well as new bridges. The decisions are
taken to rehabilitate only in the event of a distress. Although the IRC:SP:35 “Guidelines for Inspection
and Maintenance and of Bridges’ was brought out 30 years ago, not much headway has been made by
State Governments to create a Data base. Now, there is a need to evolve a National Policy for Maintenance
of the Bridges with dedicated staff and department to undertake the Task of Asset Management.
The Maintenance is defined as the work needed to preserve the intended load carrying capacity of the
bridges and ensure the continued safety of the Road users. Maintenance is a critical component of a
Highway Asset Management plan, which includes both Routine and Preventive Maintenance. Routine
Maintenance covers a host of activities, such as Clearing of dust/debris on Carriageway, Expansion joints,
Drainage scuppers and on the top of Sub-structures. Preventive Maintenance is a planned strategy of
cost-effective treatments applied in time to preserve and extend the useful life of a bridge. It includes
clearing of vegetation on Structural elements including RS walls, painting of Steel Components, Repairs
to Wearing coats, Elastomeric seals in Expansion Joints and Railings etc.
It is imperative that an Inspection report is to be prepared first and checked by an Engineer at the end of
each Rainy season. Both Routine inspection and Principal Inspection are to be undertaken by Highway
agencies. However, the inspection of Super and Sub structure elements is given priority to carryout repairs
to cracks, honey combs and spalls, but the other items related to river protection works such as aprons,
guide and marginal bunds, formation of scour holes are given a separate attention due to higher costs
involved in rehabilitation. It is equally applicable to clearing inlets and outlets of all culverts, flooring,
correction of tilting of abutments & wing walls, toe walls, gabions, chute drains in embankments and other
slope protection works. Although, the maintenance of bearings and expansion joints should be given top
priority, inadequate knowledge of their functioning results in costly repairs to the super structure. Special
inspection is needed after occurrence of natural disasters like earthquake, land slides, cyclones, abnormal
flood etc. or man made causes like, movement of heavy loads, impact of barges/ships on sub structures, a
hit on super structure by tall consignment and impact of vehicles on parapets etc. Increase in Heavy Traffic
movement constitutes other aspect to deal with. At times inadequacy of a waterway is to be addressed
which may result in washout of approaches or shore spans. All the above issues are to be addressed for
inter-se priority by Competent experts and Engineers.
The lacunae in Maintenance of Bridges lie in absence of dedicated cadre of Bridge Inspectors or Trained
Personnel. Indian Railways has a separate department for Maintenance of Bridges. Some developed
countries have created a separate unit for Bridge Maintenance. It is envisaged that with sufficient input
data, new features can also be incorporated in Maintenance Management. A better approach is to create
separate departments for Bridge Design & Construction and Bridge Inspection, Testing and Rehabilitation
as in some Countries. Dedicated funds are to be allocated for the purpose and not combined with Highway
Maintenance grants. Being a specialized job, an in-depth and advanced training is needed for Bridge
Inspectors and Engineers with on-site field inspections.
The primary resources for the Maintenance Management are NDT equipment and the Qualified Inspection
staff and provision to have access to different components of a bridge with Mobile Inspection Unit, if
need be. The Bridge Inspectors shall collect data (aided by checklist) from each bridge in a Standard
Proforma which is essential in decision making. Such Formats are developed by NHAI/ MoRTH which
are sometimes modified by each User Department depending on Site requirement.
4 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
 FROM
teCHNICAL
tHe eDItOR’S
PAPeRDeSK
The steps of Maintenance Management are as follows. (1) Bridge inspection team conducts inspection of
bridges and culverts (2) A senior inspector evaluates the condition of each bridge/culvert element. (3) A
Bridge Engineer checks and re-evaluates the elements which are to be prioritized (4) Inspection team provide
inputs of inventory data, inspection results and evaluation report (5) The Inspection / Survey team provides
data of traffic volume of the concerned highway/road (6) The degree of damage, importance and prioritization
of bridges/culverts for repair and the cost of works are estimated (7) Given the yearly budget constraint, lists
of multiple fiscal years to undertake repair or replace a bridge or culvert are prepared. (8) In case that the
remedial works of one bridge/culvert are spread over several fiscal years, the budget of each financial year
has to be allocated manually. Strategic bridges, long bridges and special structures like extradosed or cable
stayed and suspension bridges need a different approach. Further Maintenance of Bridges in Himalayan
region should be customized to include geological, meteorological and environmental aspects.
The Bridge Inspection can also be sub-divided into Inventory Inspection, Annual Condition Inspection,
Confirmatory Inspection and Detailed Inspection for convenience. In addition to following IRC:SP:52
‘Bridge Inspectors Reference Manual’, some personal traits are to be looked into, to qualify as a Bridge
Engineer or Inspector. They include Reliability, Technical skill, Attitude, Inquisitive mind and Fitness.
Since it is a risky job, the Inspector shall keep in mind ‘Safety first’ and instruct his technicians/ assistants
accordingly.
The information on repair and strengthening is to be recorded electronically and by Photographs/video
and updated for the purpose of prediction of deterioration, Prioritization /Optimization of rehabilitation
and strengthening measures, which form the basic data for the Asset Management. Such data shall be kept
in safe custody of a Chief (Bridge) Engineer at the State Headquarters and MoRTH for retrieval as and
when necessary. All the above tasks of Maintenance Management constitute a part of Bridge Management
System (BMS). The Bridge Management is the means by which a bridge stock is cared from conception
to the end of its useful life.
The causes of deterioration and distress in bridges are well documented, but due attention is not paid
to detailing and construction practices, besides lack of understanding of potential damages the human
factors contribute. As in some countries the Technicians handling Plants and Machinery do need a formal
qualification (like ITI certificate or Diploma) with training before being deployed at Construction site. In
absence of this, the Highway Engineers are saddled with increasing number of distressed bridges which
need planned repair and/or rehabilitation process.
As per latest survey, there are 32,800 minor bridges, 3650 major bridges and 1835 extra long bridges on
National Highways across the country. It is estimated that about 5% of these bridges are in various stages
of distress and need urgent attention. The task is gigantic and there are no dedicated funds for the purpose.
Let the Planners and Policy makers ponder over the Maintenance Management of bridges and to start with
bring the recently built bridges under NHDP under ambit.
IRC has recently brought out IRC:SP:40 2019 ‘Guidelines on Repair, Strengthening & Rehabilitation of
Concrete Bridges’ which incorporates many advancements in testing methodology, equipment, materials
besides repair and strengthening methods. The Revised version has additional feature on Maintenance, since
the previous version. This Special Publication may also be referred for Maintenance of concrete bridges.

(Sanjay Kumar Nirmal)

Secretary General

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 5

 ADVeRtISeMeNt tARIFF/CALL OF PAPeRS

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CALL foR teCHnICAL PAPeRs

1. the Indian Roads Congress (IRC) invites technical Papers for publication in its periodicals i.e. Indian Highways
(monthly), IRC Journal (quarterly) & Highway Research Journal (half yearly)

2. the contents of papers should cover the additional knowledge, information and ideas so that highway fraternity
gets benefitted from them. The papers should be properly structured and should avoid dwellings at length on facts
broadly known to highway engineers. the papers may deal with important case studies, new design concepts/
principles, new construction techniques, modern quality control, modern maintenance techniques applied in
highway projects, besides traffic engineering, transport planning, etc. including a paragraph on application of Paper
to Highway Profession and updation of IRC Codes.

3. Authors and Co-authors should be members of IRC and their Roll Numbers should be mentioned in the forwarding
letter. Even non-members, who are Experts in any relevant field or who have specialized knowledge on any subject
related to highway engineering are also welcome to contribute technical Papers.

4. the length of the paper should be upto 5000 words including tables, Figures, Photographs, etc. on A4 size paper
with 12 pt. font size of times New Roman, typed in 1.5 line space.

the Authors are requested to send one hard copy of the complete paper consisting manuscript, drawing, tables,
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For more details and rules for contribution of technical Papers please visit IRC website: www.irc.gov.in.For further
Contact e-mail: papers.irc@gmail.com tel.011-26185273.
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6 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
ADVeRtISeMeNt

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 7

 ADVeRtISeMeNt

8 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 ADVeRtISeMeNt

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INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 9

 IAHE TRAINING CALENDAR 2020-21
10

Indian Academy of Highway Engineers (IAHE) Training Calendar for the Year 2020-2021
(Ministry of Road Transport & Highways, Govt. of India)
INDIAN HIGHWAYS

S. April May June July August Sept. October Nov. Dec. January Feb. March
No. Name of Training Programme Training Participation
2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2020 2021 2021 2021
Period Level/Equivalent
Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates Dates
1 Modern Topographic Surveying Methods 5 days EE/AE/JE 13-17 2-6

2 Road Safety Engineering &Auditing 5 days SE/EE/AE 20-24 6-10 5-9 4-8

3 Geometrics Design of Highways using CAD Tools 5 days EE/AE 27-1 1-5

4 Design, Construction & Maintenance of Flexible Pavement 5days EE/AE/JE 11-15 7-11 11-15

5 Design, Construction & Maintenance of Rigid Pavement 5 days EE/AE/JE 18-22 18-22
Design of Box Culvert, RCC Voided Slab, RCC Slab, T-Beam Girder Bridge
6 5 days EE/AE 22-26 1-5
on Open Foundation
APRIL 2020

Design of PSC (Cast-in-Situ, Precast Girder with Cast-in-Situ Slab)

7 11 days EE/AE 8-19
Superstructure Bridge on Pile/Well Foundation
Preparation of Feasibility Study and Detailed Project Report for Highway
8 6 days EE/AE/JE 31-5 08-13
Projects including Bridges
Engineering, Procurement and Construction (EPC) Contract for Highway
9 3 days CE/SE/EE/AE 27-29 21-23 21-23
Projects
10 Public Private Partnership (PPP) Contract for Highway Projects 5 days CE/SE/EE/AE 22-26
11 Pre-construction Activities for Highway Projects 3 days EE/AE/JE 29-01 28-30
12 Highway Development & Maintenance Investment Decision 3 days CE/SE/EE/AE 8-10
13 Construction, Quality Control & Maintenance of Structures 6 days EE/AE/JE 14-19 15-20
14 Planning, Design, Construction & Maintenance of Hill Roads 5 days EE/AE/JE 13-17
15 Refresher Course for EEs 6 days EE 20-25
16 Refresher Course for SEs 5 days SE 27-31
17 Management Development Programme for Mid-level Officers (EE & SE) 3 days SE/EE 5-7
2 days (
18 Management Development Programme for Senior Officers (CE & E-in-C) off – E-in-C/CE 16-17
campus)
19 Asset Management for Highways 5days SE/EE/AE 1-5
20 Contract Management & Dispute Resolution in Highway Projects 5 days CE/SE/EE/AEE 17-22 22-26
Design & Construction of High Embankments with Free Slope/RE
21 5 days EE/AE/JE 24-28
wall/Retaining Wall, Ground Treatment of Soft Soil
22 Surface & Subsurface Drainage Management 3 days EE/AE/JE 28-30
23 Intelligent Transportation System Applications for Highways 3 days SE/EE/AE 5-7
24 Operation, Maintenance & Tolling of Highways 3 days EE/AE/JE 12-14
1-5
25 Material Testing Procedure & hands on practices 5 days AE/JE 8-12 2-6
26 Use of Waste materials in Highway Construction 3 days EE/AE/JE 27-29
27 Design, Construction, Maintenance and Operation of Tunnels 3 days SE/EE/AE 9-11

28 Slope Management in Hill Roads & Landslide Mitigation 3 days EE/AE/JE 27-29 18-20

29 Control of National Highways (Land & Traffic) 2 days EE/AE/JE 7-8

30 Design, Construction, Maintenance and Operation of Expressway 5 days SE/EE/AE 23-27

31 Project Management 4 days SE/EE/AE 20-23 1-4
Course Fee including Lodging and Boarding in IAHE Hostel
Central and State Govt. Departments including PSUs / Corporations of
Private SectorOrganizations
the Govt.
Nil Rs.5000 per dayper participant
4
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

DeVeLOPMeNt OF ADVANCeD tRAVeLLeR INFORMAtION SYSteM FOR

HIStORICAL CItY USING ANt ALGORItHM

Prof Praveen Kumar1 nidhi Chaudhary2

ABStRACt
Advanced traveller Information System (AtIS) is one of the user services of Intelligent transportation System (ItS). the
main aim of AtIS is to bridge the information gap by using computer, information and communication technologies, and
management techniques to provide the pre-trip and en-route information to the travellers about the travel options (like route
choice, time of travel, and mode etc.).
In this paper, an Advanced traveller Information System for Jaipur city has been developed using ArcGIS and Microsoft
Visual Studio. The package developed using ArcGIS provides complete information about Jaipur city such as road network,
railway line, historical places, religious places, hotels, metro stations, transportation, etc. the information about historical
and religious places includes their history, entry fee, visiting time and duration with the image of that place. This package
displays shortest route between an origin and destination based on either distance or travel time, alternate route if there
is any blockage on the road, best path to closest facilities based on either distance or time, and also provides detailed path
directions with map. The information about metro station includes metro time-table, metro fare, amenities near metro
stations, feeder services at metro stations, etc. The collected survey data is also attached with this package and alternate
route is also provided based on this data. Some predefined information for the ease of users is also attached. This package
also provides tools like measure tool, zoom, and pan, etc.
The package developed using Microsoft Visual Studio provides the shortest route between an origin and destination based on
either distance or travel time. This package uses the ant system algorithm to find the shortest

1. INtRODUCtION Ant colony optimization algorithms are a component

Intelligent Transport System (ITS) is an integrated
system that implements existing or emerging computer,
communication, information and vehicle-sensing
technologies to coordinate transportation systems in a safe
and efficient manner, monitor traffic conditions, control
traffic flow, and provide information to the motoring
public about traffic conditions.
Advanced Traveller Information System (ATIS) is the
type of ITS user services that implement computer,
communication and information technologies and
management strategies to provide the pre-trip and en-route
information to the travellers about their travel options and
to influence their travel behaviour about “mode choice, time
of travel, route choice or trip making”. ATIS technologies
vary from one-way audio communications to interactive
video communications, and suggest routes automatically
when the driver gives origin and destination information.
1
Director, National Institute of Technology, Delhi, (Formerly Professor at IIT Roorkee) Email: praveenaeron@gmail.com
2
M. Tech. Student, Civil Engg Deptt., IIT Roorkee
of swarm intelligence, means the research area that
studies algorithms inspired by the swarm behaviour.
These algorithms are built up of simple individuals
which cooperate by self-organization, i.e. without any
type of central control of swarm members. Ant colony
optimization gets motivation from the foraging behaviour
of some ant species. Ants deposit pheromone on the ground
to mark some favorable paths which should be followed
by other members. Ant colony optimization works on a
similar mechanism to solve optimization problems. Ant
colony optimization algorithms are latest for solving many
combinatorial optimization problems.
1.1 Need of the Study
Due to non-availability of proper traveller information
dispersion source in metropolitan cities in developing
countries (like India), road users in urban metropolitan
cities are not well informed about spatial and temporal

INDIAN HIGHWAYS MARCH 2020 11

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
variation in traffic and road conditions. Hence, they are not
determined about their travel options viz. Mode choice,
route choice and time of travel. Seeing these facts, India
requires a system, which is cost effective and efficient, at
the same time is also compatible with the personal level of
development in the country in the related areas.
Hence, the present study proposes a methodology for an
Advanced Traveller Information System for Jaipur city
using ArcGIS and Microsoft Visual Studio that provides
traveller information to large number of road users in an
efficient and cost-effective way to bridge the information
gap.
2. PReVIOUS StUDIeS
Many researchers from different countries have successfully
developed the Advanced Traveller Information System
for different cities. The information dispersion medium
and the type of technology used are different in all the
developments.
For example, the United States focused specifically on the
development of telephone-based, television-based, and web-
based ATIS systems, whereas Japan and Europe are more
focused on the dissemination of traveller information using
in-vehicle navigation system. However, the development of
ATIS is at the primary stage in India. Most ATIS applications
in India have been startedas pilot projects. But there are
ongoing efforts to implement ATIS user services.
2.1 Work Done on ATIS Outside India
Research works done on ATIS around the world are
discussed below:
Heti (1993) developed the Travel Guide in the city of
Toronto and gave a brief overview of route guidance
concepts. This Travel Guide uses the Toronto Transit
Commission’s vehicle location system, manual reports
of traffic incidents and the ministry’s Freeway Traffic
Management System to produce transit and traffic
information. This transit and traffic information is then
amalgamated to produce a data stream that is transferred
to the receivers created into the handy computers.
Peng (1997) proposed a GIS based Automatic Transit
Traveller Information System (ATTIS). The idea behind
the development of this system is to provide the optimal
trip option with minimum travel time between the origin
and destination including walking, waiting, transfer and in-
vehicle time based on the user’s origins, destinations and
bus schedules and real time information of bus locations.
Pottmeier et al. (2004) developed a web-based advanced
traffic information system named as OLSIM for North
Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. This system delivers the
information about the current traffic situation and a 30 and
12 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
60 minutes analysis of the autobahn network.
Kotzinos and Prastacos (2004) provided an Advanced
Traveler’s Information System (ATIS) for Athens and
Chania cities in Greece. This system uses web-based GIS
for delivering real time traffic information.
Shao-Han et al. (2005) proposed a shortest path network
analysis by using an annealed ant algorithm.
2.2 Work Done on ATIS in India
Research works done on ATIS in India are discussed
below:
Reddy (2002) proposed a GIS based Advanced Traveller
Information System for Hyderabad city. This system gives
detailed information about Hyderabad city like hospitals,
stadiums, offices, transportation facilities (like bus, railway
station, and road network), and tourist places.
Narayanan and Prakash (2003) provided an in-vehicle
Advanced Traveller Information System for Chennai
city. This system gives the information about congestion,
alternate route, and network analysis features like shortest
route, service area, and closest facility.
Kumar et al. (2004) proposed an Advanced Traveler
Information System for Delhi Metro Railway using
ArcGIS. This system gives the comprehensive information
about Delhi Metro (information like metro fare, frequency
and facilities available near metro stations etc.),
Singh and Kumar (2010) developed a Web-GIS based
Advanced Traveller Information System for Developing
Countries named as Computerized Traveller Information
and Decision Support System (CTIDSS). This system is
developed by integrating two information technologies
i.e. geographic information system and World Wide Web,
so that the powerful geospatial analysis abilities of GIS
can be used for producing useful and detailed information.
This is a three tier architecture system consisting of
presentation tier, application tier, and data tier.
Suman and Kumar (2012) discussed the development
methodology of an ‘Ant Administrative System’ for
developing a Web-GIS based Advanced Public Transport
System.The features provided by this system are designed
in a web based Graphical User Interface (GUI) and
database tables on the central database server designed
along with the C# (C Sharp) programming language.
Gurmesh (2017) developed an Incident Management
System for Chandigarh City using ArcGIS and Microsoft
Visual Studio using C# (C Sharp) programming language.
The package developed using ArcGIS has the ability to
provide the shortest route between origin and destination
and alternate route if there is any blockage on the road.
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

3. METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF different educational qualification and occupation were

AtIS surveyed. This survey was done at Station road and MI
Jaipur city has been selected for the present study. The road (Two most congested routes in Jaipur).
map has been taken from Google earth in the form of tiles. The filled questionnaire is shown in Fig 2 and 3.
Total 493 tiles were downloaded from Google earth. The
basic Information includes their history, entry fee, visiting
time and duration etc.
3.1 Travel Time Data
Travel time data was collected at three different times of
a day, i.e. first in morning at 9:00 AM (peak flow), second
in afternoon at 2:00 PM (normal flow) and third in night at
10:30 PM (wee hours). The study network is shown in Fig 1.

Fig. 2 Filled Questionnaire Page-1

Fig. 1 Study Network for Travel Time Data Collection

3.2 Information About Metro Stations
The Jaipur Metro is India’s sixth metro rail system after those
in Kolkata, Delhi, Bangalore, Gurugram and Mumbai. There
are two metro lines in Jaipur city. The collected information
includes metro time-table, metro fare, amenities near metro Fig. 3 Filled questionnaire page-2
stations (like School, Hospitals, Hotels, Police Station etc.)
and feeder services at metro stations. 4. SOFtWAReS USeD
3.3 Survey Data for Finding Alternate Route in Following softwares are used in the development of ATIS
Congested Areas Jaipur:

The survey was done for finding alternate route in a. ERDAS IMAGINE
congested areas and to know the feeder services used at b. ArcGIS 10.3.1
metro station by people of different occupation. For this c. Microsoft Visual Studio 2012 with .net , C++
survey a questionnaire was prepared and 100 people of and C#

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 13

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
4.1 Steps involved in development of AtIS
4.1.1 Creation of Base Map for Jaipur City
Fig. 4 Mosaicking of Google earth tiles in ERDAS
IMAGINE 9.2
Base map of the Jaipur city has been created using ERDAS
IMAGINE 9.2. For this, all 493 Google earth tiles were
inserted in ERDAS.
4.1.2 GeOReFeReNCING OF BASe MAP
Fig. 5 Georeferencing of base map
14 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
Base Map of Jaipur city was georeferenced in ERDAS
IMAGINE 9.2.
This Georeferencing process is shown in Fig 5.4.1.3
Digitization of Features
Digitization is the procedure of converting map features
into digital form so that the concerned information can be
stored in a database.
In the present study, the registered map of Jaipur city was
digitized using ArcMap 10.3.1. Jaipur Roads, Railway
Lines, Metro Line and Data collected roads were digitized
as line features. Historical places, Religious places, Hotels
and Metro stations were digitized as point features. Bus
Stand, Railway Station, Airport, and Old Jaipur were
digitized as polygon features.
Digitized map of Jaipur City is shown in Fig 6.
Fig 6 Digitized map of Jaipur city
4.1.4 Hyperlinking of Information
The information about Historical and Religious places,
Metro stations and the data collected from surveys has been
added to the respective features by the ‘Add hyperlink’
tool.
4.1.5 Creation of Road Network Dataset
For developing road network dataset following steps were
used:
i. First of all, the ‘Network Analyst Extension’ is to be
enabled.
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

ii. Now for creating network dataset, Open ArcCatalog 5. METHODOLOGY FOR DEVELOPMENT OF
window and right-click on ‘Jaipur’ feature AtIS JAIPUR USING VISUAL StUDIO
dataset in ‘Jaipur Geodatadase.mdb’ and then click In ATIS Jaipur package using Visual Studio, only Shortest
New>Network Dataset. After this, a New Network Route Finding function was developed. General steps
Dataset window opens. followed to develop the program are as follows:
iii. Now by clicking Next, a new window opens. Click i. Study of C# (C Sharp) language and Visual
‘Yes’ to model turns and then check ‘global turns’ in Studio software.
the network and click Next.
ii. Determination of various features required for
iv. Now, click ‘Connectivity’. Then a new window the development of ATIS.
opens. The connectivity policy of streets is already
set to ‘End Point’, so click OK and click Next. iii. Development of logic for programming of
overall methodology and the different actions to
v. As this dataset has no elevation fields, so select
‘None’ and click Next. be performed by the program.
vi. Now as we don’t have the historical traffic data, iv. Formation of flow chart.
therefore select ‘No’ and click Next. v. Collection of input data like map, travel time,
vii. Now next step is setting network attributes of New route length etc. Travel time data is already
Network Dataset. discussed in section 4.2.3.
viii. Arc GIS Network Analyst analyzes the source feature vi. Developing the code in C Sharp language for the
classes and looks for common fields such as One-way, package.
Meters, and Minutes. If Network Analyst finds these
vii. Then run the developed code.
fields, it automatically creates the corresponding
network attributes and assign the respective fields 6. DEMONSTRATION OF ATIS JAIPUR
to the network attributes. These can be viewed by APPLICAtION
clicking ‘Evaluators’. Now to select the Distance 6.1 ARC-GIS Package
attribute, click the ‘Distance’ row and after this to The ATIS Jaipur application developed using ArcGIS has
see that how the values of network attributes are the following features:
determined click ‘Evaluators’. Now a new window
6.1.1 Using general functions
named as ‘Evaluators’ opens.
ix. Now click OK to return to the new network dataset Full view of Jaipur city map with all features in the
window and click ‘Next’. ATIS Jaipur application is shown in Fig. 7.
x. Now click ‘Directions’ to establish driving directions
and a new window named as ‘Network Directions
Properties’ opens. In the ‘General’ tab, the ‘Name’
field for the Primary row should be mapped as the
name of source line feature.
After creating the network dataset, the system asks for
building the network dataset. It is essential to build the
network before performing any network analysis.
xi. Now click Yes, the ‘build network dataset’ progress
bar opens. The new network dataset named as Jaipur_
Roads_ND2 is created and added to ArcCatalog
along with the feature class, system junctions and
Jaipur_Roads_ND2_Junctions.
xii. For preview the new network dataset, click on the
Jaipur_Roads_ND2 and then click the ‘Preview’ tab.
Now ArcCatalog can be closed and the new network
dataset can be added to ArcMap. After this, network
analysis can be done.
Fig. 7 Full view of Jaipur city map with all features

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 15

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6.1.2 Find features in jaipur city
As an example, Jal Mahal is searched in this Find tool
and shown in Fig 8.
Fig. 8 Jal Mahal searched in Find tool
6.1.3 Find service area
A service area is a region that includes all accessible streets
(i.e. streets that are within specified impedance). For
instance, the 5-minute service area for any place includes
all the streets that can be reached within 5 minutes from
that place.
Fig. 9 Five-minute Service area for Sindhi Camp Metro Station
16 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
6.1.4 Information of Historical and Religious Places
with Image
Travellers can view the information like opening and
closing time of places, information about functioning days
in a week, details of entry fee, visit duration etc.
Fig. 10 Information about Jantar Mantar
6.1.5 Closest facility
Load Locations window and Layer Properties window
are shown in Fig 11 and 12. As an example, Sindhi Camp
Metro Station is taken as starting point (shown as light
blue colored box on the map) and hotels (shown in pink
color) within 5 km. are searched as closest facility.
Fig. 11 Load Locations Window
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

6.1.7 Shortest Route Between Origin and Destination

Shortest path will be displayed in blue color on the map.
Layer properties window is shown in Fig 14. Shortest path
between point 1 and 2 is shown in Fig 15 when distance
is selected as impedance and if travel time is selected as
impedance then the shortest path is according to 16.

Fig. 12 Layer Properties Window

6.1.6 Path directions
Path directions with detailed information and map for all
hotels are shown in Fig 13.

Fig. 14 Layer Properties Window

Fig. 13 Path directions with detailed information and Fig. 15 Shortest route between point 1 and 2 when
map for all hotels Distance is selected as impedance

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 17

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
Fig. 16 Shortest route between 1 and 2 when travel time
is selected as impedance
6.1.8 Path direction
Path directions with detailed information for the path
between point 1 and 2 is shown in Fig 17.
Fig. 17 Path directions with detailed information and map
6.1.9 Alternate route during any blockage on the road
If road is blocked due to any reason (like accident, work
18 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
progress, or traffic jam) this application is capable to show
the alternate route in this case. A new alternate route is
computed that avoids the blockage, as shown in Fig. 18.
Fig. 18 Alternate Route during any blockage on the road
6.1.10 Suggested alternate route in congested areas
As discussed above, the data collected from survey in
congested areas has also been attached in this application.
To see this information, follow the steps given below:
i. Click on ‘Hyperlink’ icon on toolbar.
ii. Now blue color lines will appear on the surveyed
routes.
iii. When user clicks on this blue line, the survey data and the
suggested alternate route will appear as shown in Fig 19.
Fig. 19 Survey data and suggested alternate route instead
of Station Road
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
6.2 Information about Metro
6.2.1 Metro time-table, fare, amenities near metro
stations, feeder services at metro stations
As discussed earlier, the data collected about metro time-
table, amenities near metro stations, feeder services at
metro stations has also been attached in this application.
Guidelines to view this information is as follows & as
shown in Fig. 20
i. Click on ‘Hyperlink’ icon on toolbar.
ii. Now blue color dots will appear on every metro station.

Fig. 20 Detailed information about Sindhi Camp Metro Station

6.2.2 Predefined Information
This application also consists of some predefined queries
for best path and directions. These are very useful for
tourists to search best hotels to a particular distance from
railway station, best path from railway station to historical
places and hotels to historical places.
6.2.2.1 Railway station to hotels
To view this information, user has to check the box given
in front of the layer ‘Railway Station to Hotels as shown
in Fig. 21
6.2.2.3 Railway station to historical places
The best path for different historical places is shown in
blue color in Fig 22. From Hotel to various places, the
screen shot is shown in Fig. 23

Fig. 21 Best Path for Different Hotels from Railway Station

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 19

 teCHNICAL PAPeR

time as impedance.When the user starts the application, a

window will appear as shown in Fig 24. That contains the
information like name of the application, services etc.

Fig. 22 Best Path for Different Historical Places from

Railway Station Fig. 24 ATIS Jaipur Home Window
7.1 Shortest Route Finder
When the user clicks on the ‘Shortest Route Finder’ button,
a window will open as ‘Shortest Route Finding Window’
as shown in Fig. 25

Fig. 23 Best Path for Different Historical Places from

Hotel Gangaur
7. VISUAL STUDIO PACKAGE
The ATIS Jaipur application, developed using Visual
Studio program is capable of finding shortest route
between origin and destination by using either distance or Fig. 25 Shortest Route Finding Window
20 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
Fig. 26 Shortest Route Finding Window with input values
Fig. 27 Shortest Route Result Window
8. CONCLUSIONS AND ReCOMMeNDAtIONS
8.1 Conclusions
In this research work, an Advanced Traveller Information
System for Jaipur city has been developed using two
softwares i.e. Geographic Information System (GIS) and
Microsoft Visual Studio 2012.
a. The package developed using ArcGIS has the
following capabilities:
i. It provides general functions such as display desired
features, zoom in/out, pan, and measure tool.
ii. It facilitates ‘Find features’ tool which can be used to
find the features in Jaipur city on the map.
iii. The service area for any place can be found using this
package.
iv. It gives the information related to historical and
religious places(such as history, entry fee details,
visiting time, and duration etc.) with the image of that
place.
v. It also helps in finding the best path for closest facility
based on either travel time or distance and detailed
path directions with map.
vi. It provides the shortest route between origin and
destination based on either travel time or distance
and detailed path directions with map. It also helps in
finding the alternate route if there is any blockage on
the road.
vii. It also suggests the alternate route in congested areas
on the basis of survey data.
viii. It provides the information about Jaipur Metro such
as metro time-table, metro fare, amenities near metro
stations, and feeder services at metro stations.
ix. It also displays the survey data related to feeder
services used by people of different occupation at
metro stations.
x. Some predefined information has also been attached
according to user’s requirement.
b. The package developed using Microsoft Visual
Studio has the capability to find the shortest route using
Ant System Algorithm. It gives the shortest route based
on either travel time or distance. This package gives the
shortest route only for the study network on which the
data was collected. The developed package can be used
at Bus stand, Railway stations, Metro stations, Airport,
Tourist information centers, and Kiosks.
ATIS is the recent development in Transportation
Engineering. It can reduce the traffic congestion as well
travel cost in addition to environment pollution. But
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 21
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
the cost involve is very high. This the reason that while
developed countries are using it for last one decade, we
are not able to even start properly. So there is a need to
give attention and call concern experts.
ReFeReNCeS
i. Gurmesh, (2017), “Development of Incident
Management System for a Planned City”, M. Tech
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee.
ii. Heti, G., (1993), “Travel Guide: Ontario’s Route
Guidance System”, In Vehicle Navigation and
Information Systems Conference, 1993, Proceedings
of the IEEE-IEE,pp.53-A18.
iii. Kotzinos, D. and Prastacos, P., (2004), “Use of a
Web-Based GIS for Real-Time Traffic Information
Fusion and Presentation over the Internet”,
In Proceedings of the 7th AGILE Conference.
iv. Kumar, P., Agrawal, A. and Kumar, S., (2004),
“Advanced Traveler Information System for Delhi
Metro Railway”, Indian Highways, Indian Road
Congress, vol. 32, No. 11, pp.21-30.
v. Meena Rishikesh (2010), M. Tech. Thesis,
Intelligent Transport System, IIT Roorkee.
vi. Narayan, R. and Prakash, C.S., (2003), “Advanced
22 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
Traveller Information System(ATIS) Using GIS-
A Case Study of Chennai City”, Map Asia 2003,
Kuala Lampur, Malaysia, Oct. 13-14.
vii. Peng, Z. R., (1997), “A Methodology for Design of a
GIS-Based Automatic Transit Traveler Information
System”, Comput., Environ. and Urban Systems.
Vol. 21. No. 5, pp.359-372.
viii. Pottmeier, A., Chrobok, R., Hafstein, S.F., Mazur,
F. and Schreckenberg, M., (2004), “OLSIM:
Up-To-Date Traffic Information on the Web”,
Communications, Internet, and Information
Technology, pp.572-577.
ix. Reddy, D., (2002), “Development of Intelligent
Transport System in GIS Environment”, M. Tech
Dissertation, Department of Civil Engineering,
Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Feb 2002.
x. Singh, V. and Kumar, P., (2010), “Web-based
Advanced Traveller Information System for
Developing Countries”, Journal of Transportation
Engineering, ASCE, 136(9), pp. 836-845.
xi. Suman, S. and Kumar, P., (2012), “Application of Ant
Administrative System in Web GIS based Advanced
Public Transport System (APTS)”, Journal of the
Indian Roads Congress (Vol. 73, No. 3).
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

PeRFORMANCe eVALUAtION OF INVeRteD PAVeMeNt – A ReVIeW

shahbaz Khan1 m n nagabhushana2 devesh Tiwari3

ABStRACt

The Indian Roads Congress (IRC) guidelines for the design of flexible pavements has introduced the use of stabilized materials
in pavement design such as cemented base and sub-base with crack relief interlayer (SAMI at the interface of cemented and
bituminous layer) and foam bitumen/bitumen emulsion treated RAP. the introduction of these materials has been done to
keep up pace with evolving technologies which help to reduce usage of stone aggregate in pavements. The introduction of
these materials encourages the reuse of existing, as well as, waste material in pavements. One such type of not so conventional
pavement is an ‘inverted pavement’, in which basically a strong layer is placed below a relatively weak layer as compared to
the flexible pavement concept in which each lower layer is relatively weaker. There is a considerable difference between the
performance of a conventional flexible pavement and an inverted flexible pavement in terms of design thickness requirement
for carrying the same traffic in a different geological condition. Since this type of design and construction is not so usual
therefore in the current paper, an attempt is made to review the concerned aspects of an inverted pavement so that it can be
adopted more readily for Indian conditions.

1. BACKGROUND from large scale use of conventional aggregates to use

The design of flexible pavement is based on wheel loads,
traffic, climate, terrain and sub-grade conditions. The IRC
has published its first guidelines on the design of flexible
pavement in 1970. This was based on the material property
i.e. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) concept and traffic
load in terms of number of commercial vehicles. As the
loading conditions changed with time, to account for the
large spectrum of axle loads, these guidelines were first
revised in 1984 with the incorporation of equivalent axle
load concept. The IRC:37-1984 was applicable to design
traffic upto 30 million standard axles (msa). The growth
of infrastructure has led to increased traffic and excessive
loading on highways, and thereafter the IRC:37-2001
considered the design traffic up to 150 msa with semi-
mechanistic design concept. Conventional construction
materials like natural stone aggregates and sand are
gradually becoming scarce on account of over exploitation
followed by environmental concerns and related legal
restrictions on quarrying whereas the construction activity
has expanded phenomenally. This has shifted focus
of local, recycled, engineered and marginal materials
in the construction. Therefore, IRC again revised the
guidelines, once through IRC:37-2012 and again through
IRC:37-2018 to incorporate the use of these materials and
improvise the design approach. With the international and
national experience of new methods of construction and
available materials such as foamed/emulsion bitumen,
RAP, warm asphalt, cementitious bases and sub-bases,
these have been duly considered by the Indian Road
Congress documents. The scope of this paper is to review
the design and performance of inverted pavement giving
due consideration to each layer with a case study.
2. StRUCtURAL DeSIGN APPROACH OF IRC:
37-2018
The new form of construction and materials such as
stone matrix asphalt, modified bitumen, foamed bitumen,
bitumen emulsion, warm asphalt, Cement Treated Bases
(CTB) and Cement Treated Sub-Bases (CTSB) have also
been included in the pavement design approach with
their applications. Commercially available chemical soil

1
Research Scholar, AcSIR, CRRI, Email: skhan247@gmail.com,
2
Senior Principal Scientist, Email: mnaga.crri@nic.in
3
CSIR- Central Road Research Institute, New Delhi
Senior Principal Scientist, Email: devesht.crri@nic.in

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 23

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
stabilizers which have been successfully used in trial
sections are also covered. The need for environmentally
optimised design is shifting focus from large scale use
of conventional aggregates to use of local, recycled and
engineered marginal aggregates in construction therefore
Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) with or without
addition of fresh aggregates is also part of the approach.
The mechanistic-empirical design approach, which has
been used in the earlier revisions of IRC:37, is retained
in the current revision as well for the design of flexible
pavements. The theory selected for the analysis of
pavements is ‘linear elastic layered theory’ in which the
pavement is modeled as a multi-layer system. The bottom
most layer (foundation or subgrade) is considered to be
semi-infinite, and all the upper layers are assumed to be
infinite in the horizontal extent and finite in thickness.
Elastic modulus, Poisson’s ratio and thickness of each
layer are the pavement inputs required for calculation
of stresses, strains and deflections produced by a load
applied at the surface of the pavement. The critical
parameters considered in a flexible pavement, at three
locations (Fig. 1) are basically the same as given below:
i. Vertical compressive strain (εv) at top of sub-grade
(shown as point C in Fig. 1).
ii. Horizontal tensile strain (εt) at the bottom of bituminous
layer (shown as point A and B in Fig. 1).
iii. Pavement deformation within the bituminous layer.
Fig. 1: Critical Locations in Flexible Pavement Design
The vertical compressive strain (εv) on top of the subgrade
is considered to be the critical mechanistic parameter for
controlling subgrade rutting. Horizontal tensile strain
(εt) at the bottom of the bituminous layer is taken as the
causative mechanistic parameter which has to be limited
to control bottom-up cracking in bituminous layers.
Similarly, to ensure that the Cement Treated Bases (CTB)
do not fail by fatigue cracking, tensile strain and tensile
stress at the bottom of the CTB are considered to be the
critical parameters to control.
24 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
The fatigue performance models are given by equations 1
and 2 below:
Nf = 1.6064*C*10-04 [1/εt]3.89* [1/M ]0.854
Rm
(for 80 % reliability) equation 1
Nf = 0.5161*C*10-04 [1/εt]3.89* [1/M ]0.854
Rm
(for 90 % reliability) equation 2
Where
va = % volume of air void in the mix used in the bottom
bituminous layer
vbe = % volume of effective bitumen in the mix used in
the bottom bituminous layer
Nf = fatigue life of bituminous layer (cumulative
equivalent number of 80 kN standard axle loads that
can be served by the pavement before the critical
cracked area of 20 % or more of paved surface area
occurs)
εt = maximum horizontal tensile strain at the bottom
of the bottom bituminous layer (DBM) calculated
using linear elastic layered theory by applying
standard axle load at the surface of the selected
pavement system
MRm = resilient modulus (MPa) of the bituminous mix
used in the bottom bituminous layer, selected
as per the recommendations made in these
guidelines.
The rutting models are given by equations 3 and 4 below:
NR = 4.1656 x 10-08 [1/εv] 4.5337 (for 80% reliability) equation 3
NR = 1.4100 x 10-08 [1/εv] 4.5337 (for 90% reliability) equation 4
Where
NR = subgrade rutting life (cumulative equivalent number
of 80 kN standard axle loads that can be served by the
pavement before the critical rut depth of 20 mm or more
occurs)
εv = vertical compressive strain at the top of the subgrade
calculated using linear elastic layered theory by applying
standard axle load at the surface of the selected pavement
system
3. OBJECTIVE OF THE PAPER
The current IRC guidelines published later in 2018 proposed
the software IITPAVE which is a modified version of earlier
FPAVE (IRC:37-2001). The design and failure criteria for
new codes is same as given in the old IRC:37-2001 which
is upto 30 million standard axles (MSA). Whereas, traffic
having more than 30 MSA, the failure criteria for cracking
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
and rutting have been restricted to 10 per cent of the area.
The IRC:37-2012 and IRC:37-2018 incorporated the new
materials in the design of the pavement which includes
RAP in different layers, long lasting pavement for design
life more than 50 years and incorporation of inverted
pavement. There is comprehensive literature available for
RAP materials worldwide (Copeland, 2011; Maliick and
Kandhal 2008; Al-Qadi et. al., 2007). There is a need of
comprehensive review of the inverted pavement systems.
The benefit of this paper is that it considered the review of
different layers of the pavement at the same time, which
completely gives the overall evaluation of the inverted
pavement system at one go.
4. INVeRteD PAVeMeNt:
The pavement with a relatively strong layer below a weak
layer is generally classified as inverted pavement.This type
of pavements are also called stone interlayer pavements,
G1-base pavements, inverted base pavements, sandwich
pavements, and upside down pavements (Lewis et al.
2012). The following definition for inverted pavements
has been given in South African literature:
“A structural pavement system, where the static modulus
of the unbound base layer is lower compared with the
supporting (light cementitious) sub-base layers. Unbound
Fig. 2: Pavement Composition for Inverted Pavement Compared with Conventional Pavement
4.1 Properties of Individual layer of Inverted Pavement
as Compared to Conventional Pavement
The various components of an inverted pavement consisting
of bituminous layer, aggregate, cement stabilized layer are
discussed in the following sections.
4.1.1 Bituminous Layer
The inverted pavement consists of a thin bituminous layer.
The thin bituminous layer normally acts as a functional
layer. This thin bituminous layer provides a good riding
base layer (crushed rock) of extremely high bearing
capacity is usually covered with 12 mm to 50 mm asphalt
layer for sealing and functional properties” (De Beer,
2012).
An inverted pavement is comprised of a treated or untreated
sub-base, Cement Treated Base (CTB) layer, above it an
unbound aggregate layer and a relative thin layer(s) of Hot
Mix Asphalt (HMA).
The components of the system consist of the following:
a. A thin bituminous layer –of about 50-90 mm
thickness.
b. Unbound aggregate layer of about 150-200 mm
thickness, compacted to a minimum of 100% modified
proctor density.
c. CTB layer of about 150-300 mm with cement content
of approximately 4% (Buchanan, 2010).
Fig. 2 gives a comparison for pavement crust composition
in an inverted pavement with the flexible pavement.
quality to the pavement and also acts as a membrane
rather than beam in an inverted pavement(Vaughan, 2014;
Papadopoulos & Santamarina, 2016). As the thickness
decreases, the tensile strain decreases at the bottom of
the bituminous layer, but it increases at the edges of the
load i.e. the high shear is present at the edge of the load
(Theyse et al. 1996, Papadopoulos & Santamarina,2014).
In order to benefit from this behavior, the bituminous
layer thickness must not exceed 25–50 mm, depending on
the weather conditions. Thin bituminous layer in inverted
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 25
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

pavements, at base layer interface develops relatively low 4.1.2.1 Stress Dependency of aggregate layer in an
tensile strains which lead to longer fatigue life combined inverted pavement
with the economic savings of low-cost thin layer. Also, Conventional pavements rely on stiff upper layers to
shear stress due to acceleration and braking increases the spread traffic loads onto less rigid lower layers. In contrast,
tension in bituminous layer when a thin bituminous layer an inverted pavement has a thin asphalt pavement with
is used (Papadopoulos & Santamarina, 2016). Periodic aggregate layer sandwiched between two high modulus
maintenance should be conducted on the HMA layer to layers i.e. asphalt layer and cement stabilized base
ensure optimal performance (South African National layer. The aggregate layer which is near to the load is
Road Agency, 1998).Therefore, with thin bituminous in horizontal compression (Tutumluer and Barksdale,
layer, the top down hairline cracking is common mode of 1995). Increase in unbound layer modulus because
failure and it is easier to maintain top –down cracking as of increase in bulk stress is called stress hardening,
compared to bottom up cracking. (Li et al 1999, Lewis et whereas decrease in modulus with increase in octahedral
al 2012). shear stress is called stress softening. The stiffness of
aggregate layer increases with increase in load (Terell et
4.1.2 Aggregate Layer al, 2003b) and this shows the stress hardening behavior
The reduced thickness of the HMA surface layers in the of aggregate layer in an inverted pavement. The stress
inverted pavement systems are cost-effective alternatives dependency of unbound aggregate layer as evaluated
for high performance pavement structures. The primary using Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) at different
advantage of inverted pavements includes: load levels found that stress-hardening is dominant in
the case of base layer, whereas subgrade exhibits both
a. Better compaction of aggregate layer placed over the stress-hardening and softening behavior (Ahmed et.al,
cement stabilized layers; 2016). The stress hardening property of aggregate layer
b. Optimum use of unstabilized aggregate layer; and leads to high elastic modulus values in the layer upto
689 MPa (O’Neil et al., 1992). Such high modulus will
c. Elimination or significant reduction in reflective
be able to dissipate the stress induced. Table 1 gives the
cracking in the pavement structures (Barksdale and different stress dependent material model used for the
Todres 1983). aggregate layer.
table 1: Model for Stress Dependency of Aggregate Layer

Where, =octahedral shear stress (2)0.5/3| σ1-σ3|,
pa = atmospheric pressure, K1,K2, K3 regression
coefficients, σd = deviatoric stress (σ1-σ3),θ = bulk
stress.
IRC:37-2018 guideline also specifies the typical modulus
value of well graded crack relief granular layer of 450
MPa for the analysis of pavement where poisson’s ratio
may be taken as 0.35.
The listed three types of materials are also called G1,
G2 and G4 type of material in South African design
guidelines (Theyse, 1996). The South African practices
generally adopt a minimum unbound aggregate base layer
of apparent density of 86 percent (solid particle density)
equal to 100 to 105% of modified proctor (AASHTO
T180) density level during the construction of aggregate
layer (Theyse, 1996, Lewis et. al., 2012). The compaction
of aggregate base is normally done by slushing technique
in South Africa as well as conventional method elsewhere.
In slushing method, the layer is compacted using numerous
applications of water until air bubbles are formed on the

26 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
surface. The fines are expelled, and surface appears to
be coarser at the end. The identification of the process is
that no air bubbles will appear behind the wheel of the
roller. There is no significant difference in the compaction
density achieved whether slushing used or not. The higher
density is normally achieved due to the rigid foundation
i.e. cemented layer below aggregate layer (Lewis et. al
2012).
4.1.3 Cement Stabilized base layer
This layer is the strongest layer in the inverted pavement. It
bears the maximum load and the load transfer mechanism
is different from that of the conventional pavement. In
conventional pavement load transfer is through grain to
grain contact whereas in inverted pavement, the cemented
layer act as semi rigid base layer and load transfer is
done differently, on a wider area. The cement stabilized
layer is the main load bearing layer of the pavement.
Since, the UCS value of cement stabilized layer is more
than the conventional layer, the stress distribution in the
base layer is higher in inverted pavements as compared
to the conventional pavements. The following summary
of studies by different researchers shed more light on the
cemented base layer.
a. At the similar densities obtained using gyratory
compactor and standard proctor test, the influence of
compaction method has little influence on the strength
(unconfined compression and indirect diametrical
tensile test) and modulus value of the cemented base
layer (White and Gnanendran, 2005).
b. The use of high carbon calcium-based fly ash (14%)
with Reclaimed Pavement Material (RPM) in the
cemented base layer increases the resilient modulus
from 257 MPa to 2984 and 4334 MPa at 7 days and
28 days respectively. Furthermore, addition of fly ash
also lowered the plastic strains nearly five times from
2.77% to 0.58% and 0.56% after 7-day and 28-day
curing respectively (Camargo et. al.,2013).
c. Also, the utilization of other type of class F Fly Ash
as a base material in base layerhas been studied for
road pavements (Lav and Lav 2000, Lav et al., 2005).
They utilized class F fly ash with varying cement
content viz. 2%, 4%, 8%,10% by total weight for base
layer stabilization. The study suggest that the failure
mechanism was mainly due to fatigue cracking and
crushing using Semi-field test Accelerated Loading
Facility (ALF) in the stabilized fly ash layer. In
this study, the mixture of cement and fly ash were
used without the aggregate. So,a minimum 8%
cement content was recommended (Lav et al.,
2005). In another study by the same author they
studied the use of class F fly ash (low calcium)
in base layer stabilized with cement and lime.
The authors studied the effect of cement and lime
stabilization in terms of Unconfined Compressive
Strength (UCS), chemical composition, crystalline
structure and hydration products. The cement or
lime content of stabilized sample was 10 % by mass.
To identify its chemical and phase composition,and
microstructural development they conducted X-ray
Fluorescence spectrometry (XRF) to find chemical
composition, also X-ray Diffraction (XRD) to find
the chemical composition, Differential Thermal
Analysis (DTA) and Thermo Gravimetric Analysis
(TGA) to study the hydration products and Scanning
Electron Microscopy (SEM) in order to focus on
microstructural development. They concluded that
cement and lime stabilized fly ash produced the
similar hydration products. The shortcoming of their
study was they did not vary the cement/lime content
to achieve the economic percentage of admixture to
be used for field application. Also, no durability and
flexural study were conducted to use the material in
base layer (Lav and Lav 2000).
d. Moreover, the utilization of demolished brick in
pavement base and sub-base layer with cement has
studied by researcher (Yueqin et al., 2015). The focus
of the study was to find the applicability of Crushed
Brick Aggregates (CBA) in asphalt pavement through
cement stabilization. The authors studied the various
empirical as well mechanical properties such as
compaction properties, compressive strength, split
strength, compressive resilient modulus, shrinkage
performance and fatigue performance. They
investigated the various properties for six varying
CBA content viz. 0%, 20%, 40%, 60%, 80%,100% at
a constant cement of 5%. They suggested the upper
limit of the CBA content of 46.3% and 74.2% for
the base and sub-base layer respectively to satisfy
the Unconfined Compressive Strength (UCS) and
Splitting strength (SPS) requirement (Yueqin et al.,
2015). The main drawback of the study was they
considered the constant cement content.
e. The stabilization of Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement
(RAP) aggregate with cement in Oman has been
studied for base layer. They varied the RAP/virgin
aggregate mixtures: 100/0, 90/10,80/20,70/30 and
0/100% along with the varying cement content (0,3,5
and 7%).They conducted compaction and unconfined
compressive strength test and concluded that RAP
aggregate stabilized layer act as structural layer and has
the potential to be used as base layer (Taha et al 2002).
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 27
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

f. The utilization of low quality aggregates such as designing the inverted pavement is the Unconfined
laterite, gravel, bricks can be effectively used as a Compressive Strength (UCS) of cemented layer. The
pavement base or subbase by stabilizing with portland UCS of the material is dependent on cement content,
slag cement and sand, provided the strength criteria material gradation and curing period. Normally, the UCS
are met (Majumder et al.,1999, IRC:63-1976, design value is based on the 7 days strength (Austroad,
Dipti et. al., 2018, Yueqin et al., 2015 ). 2004, IRC:37-2018).The UCS is a major property of the
cemented base layer and it is well related to other material
Normally, during construction, the tender cemented base
property of the layer. The relationships of UCS and elastic
layer mix is workable for 2-3 hours in Ordinary Portland
modulus of the layer given by different agencies are shown
Cement. For other cement types, there may be variation in
in equations 5, 6 and 7.
the workability of the mix. The compaction of the material
should be done before the setting of the mix. The curing E= 1000 UCS (IRC: 37-2018) equation 5
of the cemented base layer is an important issue to be E= 1200 UCS (ARA-2004) equation 6
taken care of. Curing compounds, gunny bags etc can be
used at the site for curing. The Unconfined Compressive E= 1000 to 1250 UCS (Austroads-2012) equation 7
Strength (UCS), fatigue, shrinkage and durability are theIn IRC:37-2018, the relation of elastic modulus to UCS
other major properties of the cemented base layer which is based on 28 days compressive strength. The elastic
are discussed below. modulus of cement base layer is used as the design criteria
4.1.3.1 Unconfined compressive strength (UCS) in the pavement design. Table 2 shows the UCS value
adopted for different type of base course (Ismail et. al.,
One of the major criterions apart from the durabilityfor 2014).
table 2: UCS Criteria used for Different types of Material in Cemented Base Course
Design Practices UCS (MPa) References
Base course (South Africa) 3-6 (C2) (SAPEM, 2013)
6-12 (C1)
Base course (UK) 2.5-4.5 (CBM1) (Xuan et al. 2012)
4.5-7.5 (CBM2)
Base course (Australia) >3 (Austroad,2010)
Base course (China) 2.9 -4.99 (Ismail et al. 2014)
Base course (New Zealand) 2.93 (minimum) (Ismail et al. 2014)
Base course (India) 3.0 (for low volume road) (MoRD 2014)
Base course (India) 4.5 (minimum)(for high volume road) (IRC 2018)
Cement treated base (Canada and U.S.) 2.1-5.5 (Halsted et al., 2006)
Base layer (California DOT) 5.17 (Hossain et al., 2017)

Furthermore, the UCS value is well correlated with
the modulus of rupture (Dipti et. al., 2018). Normally,
the modulus of rupture is 20 percent of the UCS value.
Different agencies have specified different UCS value for
the design of cemented base layer. When fly ash is mixed
with cement, the UCS value of the mix is decreased.
Also, the temperature has considerable effect on the
development of compressive strength.The stabilized
mixes treated at lower temperature develop compressive
strength later in comparison of mixes treated at higher
temperature. Moreover, the use of more than 75% of fly
ash in the mix has small effect on temperature in stabilized
mixes (Dimter et. al 2011).
4.1.3.2 Fatigue properties
The cemented layer undergoes fatigue cracking failure
firstly and after its fatigue life is exhausted, the fatigue
cracks start propagating through the bituminous layer
(Austroads 2004, Otte et al. 1992, Theyse et al. 1996).The
proposed terminal conditions for elastic modulus at the
end of cemented materials fatigue life is 1/5th the design
modulus (Austroads 2004). There are three stages of fatigue
cracking which are precracked phase, the onset of fatigue
cracking, and advanced crushing. During the precracked
phase, the layer behaves as a slab with horizontal plane
dimensions larger than the layer thickness.The elastic
modulus during this stage corresponds to that measured

28 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
immediately after construction. At the onset of fatigue
cracking, the initial elastic modulus reduces rapidly as the
layer breaks down into large blocks with dimensions in
the horizontal plane on the order of magnitude of the layer
thickness. Finally, in the advanced crushing state, the
layer crushes and becomes as a granular layer like small
blocks. At this stage, the original cemented aggregate now
behaves nonlinearly and with stress-dependent stiffness
(Theyse et al. 1996; Balbo 1997). This is the evolution
in mechanical behavior of the cement treated base which
results in rearrangement of stresses and strains within
the entire pavement structure. Therefore, deterioration
of the cemented aggregate, itself is not considered a
critical mode of distress but it has serious implications
on the distress (cracking) evolution of other critical
layers, especially the thick bituminous layer. Moreover,
the compressive strain on sub grade is generally low on
a uncracked section, because of higher elastic modulus
of the cemented material, and therefore, the pavement
remains safe from rutting considerations (Theyse et
al. 1996). In the case of cemented material bases used
with thin bituminous surfacing, if the cemented material
cracks due to fatigue, it is reasonable to assume that it
will lead to surface cracking. The definition of end of life
is conservative where cemented material bases are used
with thin bituminous surfacing as life is determined by
the extent and severity of surface cracking. The long-term
behavior of lightly cemented aggregate bases exhibits
three distinctive stages as shown in Fig. 3.
Fig. 3: Variation of Elastic Modulus of the Cemented Layer with
Traffic Repetitions (Reproduced from Das and Pandey, 1998)
a. The first phase is the period soon after construction,
when the elastic modulus of cemented layer is high.
Hence original elastic modulus (E) value is taken as
initial E value of the cemented material. The cracks get
propagated due to the shrinkage, thermal effects and
construction traffic. Thus the effective elastic modulus
drops from E1 to E2 soon after the pavement is opened
to traffic. Since phase I is too short therefore it is not
considered within the design period.
b. For Phase II, tensile strain is computed at the bottom
of the cemented base with elastic modulus of E2
(Phase II). The fatigue equation of the material can
be used to calculate the fatigue life of the cemented
base. Since modulus of the bituminous layer is lower
than cemented layer, flexural fatigue of bituminous
surfacing will not govern the pavement performance
as long as cemented layer is intact.
c. When the life of cemented material is consumed
completely, it becomes fully cracked and no longer
it behaves like a layered elastic material, rather it
can be considered as a granular layer with an elastic
modulus of E3 (Phase III). The elastic modulus
will reduce due to cracking and several guidelines
suggest various percentage reductions. For example,
South African guidelines suggest 90 % reduction in
elastic modulus. The fatigue life for the third phase
is estimated from the maximum tensile strain at the
bottom of bituminous layer.
d. The layer thickness of bituminous layer and cemented
layers are adjusted such a way that the sum of these
two fatigues lives (Phase II and Phase III) becomes
the design life.The fatigue life can be determined by
different modelsas given in Table 3.
Table 3: Fatigue Parameter used for Cemented Base
Layer of the Pavement
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 29
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
The fatigue equation given in Austroad (2014) has
continued the use of the fatigue relationship that has
been developed earlier in Austroad 2004.The same has
been incorporated in IRC:37-2018. However, Austroad
recommends that a major change is required to the current
fatigue relationships for a given applied strain, since flexural
modulus alone is not a useful parameter to differentiate
fatigue characteristics between materials. The research
has found that the variation in fatigue characteristics can
largely be explained using the flexural strength together
with flexural modulus. As per research, the following
changes have to be made in the current Austroad code:
• Define the end of fatigue life as 1/5th the design
modulus
• Retain a strain damage exponent of 12 for all cemented
materials
• Delete the current Austroads fatigue relationships
• Include a method of determining in-service fatigue
relationships from the laboratory measurements,
laboratory-field strain shift factor for an assumed
strain damage exponent of 12
• Include a method of determining in-service fatigue
relationships from laboratory measurements of
flexural modulus and flexural strength for an assumed
strain damage exponent of 12.
• Include presumptive fatigue relationships linked to
presumptive moduli and strength values.
4.1.3.3 Shrinkage
Shrinkage of the cementitous layer affects the performance
of cemented material. The shrinkage is related to the
hydration and curing of the stabilized material. During
the hydration and curing of the cemented base material,
drying shrinkage contribute most to the shrinkage cracking
(George, 2002). Drying shrinkage of the cementitous
layer is the most predominant type of shrinkage cracking
in cement stabilized base course which occurs in first few
days after construction and may last upto a month time
(Gao J., et al 2018).The drying shrinkage is dependent
on the moisture content of the specimen. At moisture
content less than OMC, the drying shrinkage increases
with cement content and at moisture content higher than
OMC, the drying shrinkage decreases with increase in
cement content (Biswal et. al, 2018). Cement content
dosage has an effect on the drying shrinkage.The cement
dosage of 3% to 4% has the lowest drying shrinkage
potential (Wang et al., 2010). Moreover, the shrinkage
cracks can propagate to the asphalt layers. Later on, these
cracks allow the ingress of moisture in the pavement base
layer and can result into the faster deterioration of the
30 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
pavement. Shrinkage cracks have a harmful impact on the
performance of cement treated bases (Texas Department of
Transportation Research and Technology Implementation
Office, 2004).The cemented layers normally develop
transverse and longitudinal cracks due to shrinkage and
thermal stresses due to hydration during the service life.
Hence a layer of Stress Absorbing Membrane Interlayer
(SAMI) of elastomeric modified binders is to provide over
the cemented base to resist reflection cracking. Geotextile
seal and synthetic product available commercially have
also shown crack retardation mechanism (IRC:37). SAMI
is not very effective if the crack opening is more than 3mm.
Alternatively, another method of arresting crack from
propagating to the upper bituminous layer is to provide a
good quality aggregate interlayer between the bituminous
layer and cemented base.The minimum thickness of
100mm is required for aggregate interlayer (AASHTO,
1993). Also, to reduce the effect of shrinkage, the method
of microcracking has been induced at the base layer in the
field (Louw and Dones, 2015). Heat of hydration plays an
important role in drying shrinkage where more the heat of
hydration, more is the drying shrinkage in the cemented
base layer. Adding a material such as fly ash that reduces
the heat of hydration in the cemented base may reduce
the shrinkage cracking (Zhangli Hu, 2017). Dry shrinkage
stress is the main cause of crack creation and spacing. The
sensing fibre can be used in the crack development law of
cement stabilized macadam base as an alternate to optical
fibre (Gao J., et al 2018). Moreover, a small cement content
has found to be suitable for stabilized base layer based on
strength criteria.
4.1.3.4 Durability
The design of cement stabilized layer is done based on the
UCS value and durability of the mix (IRC: SP-89-2010).
Wet-dry durability test for 12 cycles which account for
mass loss and UCS test has been a general accepted test
for durability of the cemented base and sub-base layer.
Moreover, the durability of the mix should be more than
80% as per UCS strength ratio criteria (IRC: SP-89-2010).
The use of UCS test as the durability criteria has been
more pragmatic as compared to the use of wetting and
drying cycle (Biswal et. al, 2018).
4.2 Performance evaluation of Inverted Pavement
The performance of inverted pavement depends on the
performance of constituent layer individually, as well
as, a whole. However, the performance of the inverted
pavement has different better merits and demerits which
are discussed below:
The conventional and inverted pavement was compared at
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
the same level of loading and it was visually found after 10
years of loading that inverted pavement performed better
as compared to conventional pavement. Also, it was found
using FWD testing that the remaining life of an inverted
pavement was more than 90% as compared to conventional
pavement, which was around 68% (Lewis et al., 2012). To
minimize the potential premature failure of the stabilized
layer, the use of limiting base moduli for stabilized, as well
as, unbound aggregate base layer has been done (Chen et.
al, 2011). Forensic investigation has been conducted on
eight sections using FWD and dynamic cone penetration
test to determine the elastic modulus. The purpose of
finding the elastic modulus is determined whether the
layer is too weak or too brittle. Also, the laboratory tests
were conducted to assess the base material reaction to
the stabilizers (lime or cement) and base susceptibility to
moisture. It was found that premature distress or failure
occurred when base moduli are too high or too low. So,
base modulus was used as a parameter to control premature
distress and failure. Therefore, it was proposed that a
constructed base layer should have modulus of atleast 345
MPa and stabilized base moduli should range from 1033
to 3445 MPa. Furthermore, moisture susceptibility of the
base layer caused premature failure because of insufficient
support (modulus less than 345 MPa).
The Wyoming department of transportation has conducted
field performance of cement/fly ash treated bases in
Wyoming on 29 sections and has found that the partial
replacement of cement with fly ash in cement treated bases,
there is no significant change in the pavement condition
index, transverse crack density, longitudinal crack density,
or the distance between transverse cracks (Bowen and
Ksaibati, 2000). The numerical simulation of inverted
pavement has shown that it can perform well in rutting
and has similar fatigue property when compared to the
conventional pavement structure. The tensile conditions
are not developed in an unbound layer of an inverted
pavement (Cortes et. al, 2012). Moreover, performance
study of the Louisiana field test has shown that the inverted
pavement has performed well in comparison to full depth
soil cement pavement in terms of cracking and roughness
(Titi et.al. 2003).
There are other examples of pavement performance of
cement stabilized layer which are not directly an inverted
pavement but consist of cement stabilized layer, which is
also a feature and component of inverted pavement (Chen
at al., 2008). A section in U.S. was failed within two months
after being in service for which a forensic investigation was
conducted on the pavement section. It consists of a three-
layer system of 75 mm asphalt concrete over a 300mm of
cement treated base, placed in two lifts and 150 mm of lime
treated sub-grade. The cement treated layer consists of 3%
cement by dry weight for a 100% crushed stone aggregate.
Nondestructive testing such as Ground Penetration Radar
(GPR), Falling Weight Deflectometer (FWD) and Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer (DCP) were conducted apart from
coring. It was concluded that the pavement layer consists
of voids in CTB, segregation of coarse aggregate, lack of
bond between the two CTB lifts, high air void and low
density in the HMAC surface allowed the moisture to enter
the base layer (Chen at al., 2008).
The weak upper base course of the cemented pavement
with a thin bituminous surfacing pavement may lead to
severe surfacing distress and upper base layer failure i.e.
premature failure, within a week to months after opening
to traffic due to poor construction or due to chemical
degradation (Netterberg and De Beer, 2012).The presence
of thin interlayer of weak material between a cemented
base course and thin surfacing may lead to excessive
distress within a week or month after opening to traffic
(Netterberg and De Beer, 2012). The full-scale testing on
cemented base and sub-base were carried using heavy
vehicle simulator. The full-scale testing programmes
established a range of structural failure modes of these
layers such as fatigue cracking in the relatively dry states,
erosion or wet erodibility (De Beer & Visser, 1989), as well
as, pumping during wet conditions, for both, bases and
sub-base layers. Moreover, the traffic associated cracking
of these layers include fatigue cracking and crushing or
compression failure (De Beer, 1990).
4.3. Inferences and Gaps in Literature
The Inverted Pavement is not a new concept, it has
already in use in South Africa (Theyse, 1996) but the
performance of inverted pavement in field has not been
very popular across the world. The major factor could be
apprehension in adopting a new technology based on the
research conducted elsewhere. Although the technology
has been already developed but there are still areas where
more research can be done. The literature suggest that
already waste material has been utilized in the cemented-
base layer due to the low strength requirement of base
layer based on the laboratory characterization, but the
field performance of these layer has been seldom done.
Sometimes the waste material contains hazardous metal
which can leach in the soil. So, the leachate studies of
the waste material have to be done. Moreover, after the
service life of these pavement, the cemented layer would
be converted into an equivalent granular layer therefore
the studies related to the recycling of these layer has to
be done. Apart from the above areas the following areas
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 31
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
need immediate focus with respect to stabilization of
cemented base layer.
• The overlay studies of the inverted pavement using
Benkelman Beam Deflection (BBD): The BBD on
the inverted pavement may not give representative
overlay thickness as it was not designed for it
and performance data used at the time of BBD
calibration was different that of normal pavement
since inverted pavement was not present during
that time. Therefore, more performance based
studies are needed to come up with simple and
realistic overlay design thickness of pavements.
• The rutting model used for conventional pavement
is based on vertical compressive strain, however
in inverted pavement the presence of strong base
layer may require different rutting model and
transfer functionfor the design of pavement.
• The fatigue equations currently used in the IRC
adopted from Austroads code need to be looked
into it. Based on the fatigue equation of Austroads,
when modulus of cemented layer is reduced from
5000 MPa to a lower value, the fatigue life of
the base layer of an inverted pavement keep on
increasing which needs to be looked into.
• Although, there are inherent benefit available
with the use of thin-bituminous layer in term of
economic saving and high strength of cement base
layer as compared to the conventional pavement
but a life-cycle cost analysis of the inverted
pavement needs to be done to get a better story of
the picture.
• The load distribution is normally at 45 degree in
case of conventional pavement whereas the in case
of inverted pavement containing cemented base
layer it may not be true as it behaves as semi rigid
layer. The falling weight Deflectometer test is used
for the back calculation of modulus where during
the analysis it is assumed the last three sensors
i.e. 1200, 1500 and 1800 mm gives the average
deflection of the sub-grade based on the load level,
which may not be true due to the presence of semi-
rigid base layer in the pavement.
4.4. Indian Study for Design and Performance
Verification
The research work carried out under a major R&D Project
sponsored by DST and NRIDA has shown that fly ash
can be used with aggregates and cement to produce the
required mixtures for base course layer of a road pavement
32 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
to be deemed as an inverted pavement. However, for sub-
base layer construction, fly ash stabilised with cement
without any aggregate addition would suffice. The present
research study is based on performance of flyash-cement
stabilised pavements specifically for low volume roads.
Therefore, the composition of two pavement crust was
designed and implemented/constructed at site to observe
the controlled field performance. The crust composition
consists of Open Graded Premix Carpet (OGPC), Cement
Treated Aggregate Fly Ash Base Layer (CTAFBL) and
Cemented Fly Ash Mix Sub-Base Layer (CFSBL) on
the prepared sub-grade for 0.5 MSA (million standard
axle) and 2 MSA. The properties of material used for
each layer of the stabilised pavement for both pavement
compositions have been evaluated.
The commercially available aggregate of proper size
and fly ash, the primary components of the mix, were
conveniently blended to get the desired mix gradation. In
this study the required gradation has been met through the
blending of the commercially available aggregate and fly
ash
4.4.1 Laboratory Mix Design of Stabilised Layers
Fly Ash was stabilised with varying percentage of cement
to achieve the desired unconfined compressive strength
(UCS) in the base and sub-base layer as per MORD
Specifications/ IRC:SP:72. According to these guidelines,
7 days UCS value required for the stabilised Base and
Sub-Base layer are 3.0 MPa and 1.7 MPa respectively.
Both base course and sub-base course of the test section
were stabilised and they were named as:
a. Cement Stabilised Fly ash-Aggregate Base Layer
(CFAB)
b. Cement Stabilised Fly Ash sub-base Layer
(CFASB)
Fly Ash was used in base layer construction along with the
aggregates and cement. IRC:SP:89 ‘Guidelines for Soil and
Granular Material Stabilisation’ and MoRD Specifications
were referred to obtain the optimum blend of fly ash and
aggregates. The optimum mix blend was obtained using
the gradation of fly ash and aggregates to meet the desired
gradation of material as per MoRD Specifications. The
Optimum mix design was obtained from the excel solver
function also using the upper and lower of gradation as
constraint and from both the methods, the optimum mix
proportion was found to be similar.
Tests were conducted on the basic ingredients and the
resulting mixes as well. These include:
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
1 Compaction Properties Sub-Base/ Base
2 UCS/Compressive Strength Sub-Base/ Base
3 Durability Sub-Base/ Base
4 Flexural Strength Sub-Base/ Base
5 Indirect Tensile Strength Sub-Base/ Base
6 Repeated Triaxial(MR) Sub-Base/ Base
4.4.2 Pavement Design and Construction of
Pavement Section Including Stabilised Layers
After designing the mixes for CFAB and CFASB layers,
pavement design was carried out. Test track pavement
was designed as per Indian Road Congress Specification
IRC:SP:72 for 0.5 MSA and 2 MSA load repetitiontraffic.
The pavement crust composition consist of Bituminous
surfacing of Open Graded Premix Carpet (OGPC) with
seal coat, Wet Mix Macadam (WMM) aggregate inter
layer, cement stabilised fly ash and aggregate mix base
layer (CFAB), cement stabilised fly ash sub-base layer
(CFASB) and sub-grade. Construction and quality control
of designed test section was carried out as per MoRD
specifications. Subsequently, the test section was subjected
to performance evaluation tests.
The total thickness of various pavement layers was found
to be 295 mm and 345 mm for the design traffic of 0.5
MSA and 2 MSA respectively. However, in case of 2
MSA, keeping the overall thickness same, the Bituminous
Macadam was replaced by Cement flyash aggregate
stabilised base as the strength requirement (in terms of MR)
was adequately met by this layer. This was proposed as
cost saving measure as well as to increase usage of flyash.
The stabilised layer includes cement-fly ash stabilised sub-
base layer and cement stabilised aggregate base layer in
the present study. The pavement layer consist of wearing
course of Open Graded Premix Carpet (OGPC) with seal
coat, granular aggregate interlayer of WMM, cement
stabilised fly ash and aggregate mix base layer (CFAB),
Cement Stabilised Fly Ash Sub-Base layer (CFASB) and
prepared sub-grade of 5 per cent CBR.
MoRD Specification stipulates construction of 300 mm
thick subgrade layer compacted to 100 per cent of standard
Proctor density. However, to ensure better performance
of the pavement, subgrade layer in the test track was
compacted to 97 per cent of modified Proctor density.
300 mm thick sub-grade was compacted using static roller
in three layers (compacted thickness of 100 mm each)
at the optimum moisture content till the 97 per cent of
the modified proctor density was achieved. The base and
sub-base were compacted in individual layers of 100 mm
thickness till total design thickness was achieved.
Normally within two hours after laying cement treated
material compaction has to be completed to achieve the
desired density. Mixing of cement and fly ash was carried
out using concrete mixer and mixed material was laid
using manual labour. After laying sub-base layer, curing
of the layer was done for 7 days by covering the layer with
wet gunny bags to achieve the design strength. Similar
procedure was followed for base layer. When sufficient
strength of base layer is achieved after curing, WMM
layer was overlaid over stabilised base layer. WMM layer
was well compacted using road roller and field density of
WMM layer attained was about 98 per cent of laboratory
density. Thereafter, prime coat of slow setting grade 1
bitumen emulsion was applied on top of aggregate layer
for priming. After curing of prime coat, tack coat of
rapid setting bitumen emulsion was applied for proper
bonding of bituminous wearing course with the WMM.
Subsequently, OGPC layer was laid at the temperature of
1300C and compacted. Finally, OGPC layer was provided
with liquid seal coat and compacted.
4.4.3 Pavement Evaluation
In order to carry out performance evaluation of stabilised
layer at base and sub-base, different tests were carried out.
Initially, the Dynamic cone penetration test was done at
sub-base level. Thereafter, the Falling Weight Deflection
(FWD) test was carried at base level on the cement
aggregate-fly ash mixture. Subsequently, the Benkelman
Beam deflection test, Ultrasonic pulse velocity test,
rebound hammer test, actual loading by plying loaded
truck and plate load tests were done to evaluate the newly
constructed pavement.
The study inferred fly ash can be utilised in different layers
of the pavements provided the proper mix design has been
carried out. Use of fly ash can be highly recommended
in the base layer consisting cement and aggregate of the
cement treated pavements when strength and durability
criterion are met and the costlier bituminous (BM) layer
is being avoided.
4.5 CONCLUSION
The inverted pavement though a prevalent concept in
South Africa consisting of thin bituminous layer, aggregate
layer, cemented base layer prepared on a sub-grade, is still
a new concept to other part of the world. The bituminous
layer is just used for the required riding quality and it act
as functional layer. The aggregate layer is stress dependent
layer and shows stress hardening behavior whereas cement
stabilized layer is the main load carrying capacity of the
pavement. The aggregate layer is mostly in compression as
it is close to loading wheel path therefore the compaction
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 33
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
of aggregate layer should be done properly. The South
African generally adopt a minimum unbound aggregate
base layer density of 86 percent of solid density which is
equal to 100 to 105 % of modified proctor (AASHTO T180)
density level (Theyse, 1996). The shrinkage and fatigue
are two major mode of failure for the cement stabilized
layer. The design life of the inverted pavement depends
on the fatigue life of the cemented base layer. There is no
significant difference between the construction equipment
required for the construction of inverted pavement.
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i. AASHTO (2006). “Mechanistic-Empirical Design of
new and rehabilitated pavement structures (NCHRP
1-37)”,. Transportation Research Board USA
ii. AASHTO. 2002. Guide for the Design of New
and Rehabilitated Pavement Structures. National
Cooperative Highway Research Program, AASHTO
NCHRP Project 1-37A. American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO),
Washington, D.C
iii. Ahmed, M. U., M. M. Hasan, and R. A. Tarefder.
“Investigating Stress Dependency of Unbound Layers
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Modulus Tests.” Geotechnical Testing Journal 39, no.
6 (2016): 954-964.
iv. Al-Qadi, Imad L., Mostafa Elseifi, and Samuel H.
Carpenter. Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement—a Literature
Review. 2007.
v. ARA: Part 2. Design Inputs; Chapter 2. Material
Characterisation. NCHRP, TRB (2004)
vi. Austroads (2004). “Pavement design”, a Guide to
the Structural Design of Road Pavements. Austroads,
Sydney.
vii. Austroads: Guide to Pavement Technology Part
2: Pavement Structural Design. Sydney, NSW:
AUSTROADS Incorporated (2012)
viii. Barksdale, R.D. and H.A. Todres, A Study of Factors
Affecting Crushed Stone Base Performance, School
of Civil Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology,
Atlanta, 1983.
ix. Biswal, Dipti Ranjan, Umesh Chandra Sahoo, and
Suresh Ranjan Dash. “Strength and Stiffness Studies
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Geotechnology”, pp. 320-336. Springer, Cham, 2017.
x. Bowen, Melinda M., and Khaled Ksaibati.Performance
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xi. Buchanan, S. “Inverted Pavement Systems.” National
Stone, Sand and Gravel (2010).
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Bilyeu. “Results from a Forensic Investigation Of A
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BICYCLE MOVEMENTS IN A CLASS-I CITY – A CASE STUDY OF ROORKEE

dr rajaT rasTogi1 bhargav ruParThi2 Prasham Khadiaya3

ABStRACt

This paper discusses the outcomes of two studies carried out on bicycle movements in Roorkee city. The aim of these studies
was to supplement information on bicycle guidelines given in IRC:11. Ten road stretches were selected in first study and three
in second. These differed with respect to location, connectivity, nature of traffic, road side activities, margins at side of the
carriageway, etc. Data were collected manually as well as using camera. It was observed that the share of non-motorized traffic
and bicycles in total traffic was quite high on certain stretches, almost 67%. Temporal variations in traffic volume indicate
towards heavy flow from outside into the city during morning time. It comprised of heavy bicycle traffic. Share of bicycles
was high on stretches selected in old city area or falling in shopping commercial area. Narrow shoulders, encroachments and
bi-directional traffic also influenced the bicycle flows. Average speed was estimated to be 13.92 kmph, with maximum and
minimum recorded as 22 kmph and 8 kmph respectively. Bicyclists’ demographic also influenced the speeds. Three different
distributions got fit on speed data taken on three operationally different road stretches. No formal speed-flow relation could
be formalised due to narrow band of speeds of bicycles.

1. INtRODUCtION also promoted by National Urban Transport Policy of

Nearly, 60% of India’s GDP is contributed by the urban
population. Consequently, rising population, coupled with
higher trip lengths and per capita trip rate are expected to
push up the urban transport demand at a much higher rate
than the rate of growth of population. The total number of
daily trips by vehicular modes in all million-plus cities,
which was estimated as 67 million in 1994, is projected
to rise to about 216 million by 2021. This value would
be much more if all urban areas are considered together.
The daily trips are accomplished by using different
vehicles like Public Transport (PT, mainly bus system),
Intermediate Public Transport (IPT, like auto-rickshaws,
taxis), Non-Motorized Transport (NMT) like cycle-
rickshaw, pedal cycles, and private vehicles like owned
cars and motorised two-wheelers. Absence of adequate,
effective and quality public transport facilities in these
cities, would result in greater use of personalized motor
vehicles which in turn would result in the choking up of
already congested roads, rising rates of traffic accidents,
and raising of atmospheric pollution to unbearable levels
(Annual Report 2013 – 2014). One of the option, that in
India (NUTP 1996), is the reliance on public transport in
combination with bicycle and walk access facilities. The
policy also talks about the promotion of NMT and walk
for short distance trips and to make provision of facilities
for these modes in detailed project reports.
One of the counter in this respect is that the share of
NMT and walk is reducing with an increase in level of
motorisation in India. In this respect, Tiwari (2011) has
indicated that, in megacities of India, 30% trips are made
by NMT, 50% by PT (formal and informal bus system)
and rest by private vehicles. If cities in population band
of 0.05 to 0.5 million are considered then the share of
NMT and walk increases to around 55%. This is clear
from Table 1. It means that whatever is the size of the
city, a substantial proportion of trips are made using NMT
and walk. But these modes are criticised mostly on two
accounts, one the low mobility in terms of speed and other
regarding suitability and adaptability in terms of carrying
loads or protection from adverse weather. Lower mobility
remains questionable only on high speed facilities. In
urban areas, the speeds are already low due to heavy traffic

1
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, Email: rajatfce@iitr.ac.in
2
Asstt. Design Engineer, STUP Consultants Pvt. Ltd., Hyderabad, Email: bhangv.ruparti@gmail.com
3
Former M. Tech student, Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Email: prasham592@gmail.com

36 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
flows and therefore lower speed of pedal cycles cannot be carriers, but impact of weather cannot be fully nullified.
questioned. Rather they become efficient in heavy traffic Still the literature (Table 1, MOUD 2008) indicates that
conditions owing to the small size of the vehicle. Though good numbers of trips are made using pedal cycle in cities
load carrying capacity can be taken care off by providing of different population sizes of India.
table 1: Modal Shares in Cities with Different Population (Million)
City Category Population Walk Cycle two wheeler Public transport Car IPt
Category 1a <5 lakhs with plain terrain 34 3 26 5 27 5
Category 1b <5 lakhs with hilly terrain 57 1 6 8 28 0
Category 2 5-10 lakhs 32 20 24 9 12 3
Category 3 10-20 lakhs 24 19 24 13 12 8
Category 4 20-40 lakhs 25 18 29 10 12 6
Category 5 40-80 lakhs 25 11 26 21 10 7
Category 6 >80 lakhs 22 8 9 44 10 7
National 28 11 16 27 13 6

Tiwari has also reported that the average trip length in
medium and small sized cities is found to be less than 5 km
(80% in Pune and 70% in Hyderabad travelled distances
less than this). Rastogi and Rao (2003) have reported that
acceptable cycling distance in Delhi and Tiruchirapalli has
been found to be just more than 5 km and that in Mumbai
it was 2724 m (mean) and around 3500 m (85th Percentile).
The relative information available clearly indicates
towards the possibility of promoting the NMTs, in cities
of different sizes, and out of NMTs the pedal cycle can
replace a large number of trips for short distance travel as
well as for commuting. A look at IRC:11-2015 highlights
that the code only provides information on the size of
the facility to be created but does not provide any idea of
bicycle speeds and the associated statistical features.
Going by the above scenario, two studies were taken up in
succession in the Roorkee city of Uttarakhand state, which
is a small size city having population in band 0.1 – 0.5
million. The aim of the first study was fixed as examining
the use of bicycle in making trips (or conversely in traffic
flow) and to study the variation in speed of bicycle on
different road segments of the city. The aim of second
study was fixed as analysing the bicycle speeds on roads
with different operational conditions in terms of volume,
composition and size or type of the facility, and the
distribution that may fit the bicycle speed data. Out of
the above scope of works, this paper focusses on bicycle
speed on different road stretches, the statistical variation
within that and the distribution that can define the speed
profile of bicycle.
These are now discussed in the following sections.
2. MetHODOLOGY AND DAtA COLLeCtION
Major roads of Roorkee city were selected for the conduct
of the bicycle study. The city has three main connectivity
through NH 58 and NH 73. These are:
(i) Delhi Road
(ii) Haridwar Road
(iii) Dehradun Road
Another road bifurcates from Delhi – Haridwar road which
also carries heavy volume of traffic. It is called as Lakshar
Road. Various Study locations were selected based on
the possibility of getting substantial bicycle traffic and
other factors like roads leading to different places from
the city, no influence of the intersections, no influence
of congestion, and no influence of the neighbouring
habitation. The list of locations selected in the first study
(Ruparthi 2010) is given below:
i. Near Solani River Bridge (Haridwar road)
ii. Before Railway over-bridge (Delhi road)
iii. Near Y-intersection, Military hospital (Lakshar road)
iv. Beyond Lal-Kurti (Lakshar road)
v. Main Bazar Road (Old Dehradun road)
vi. Old bridge above canal (Old Dehradun road)
vii. Near Malviya Chowk (Dehradun road)
viii. Ganeshpur bridge (Dehradun road)
ix. Near HDFC Bank (Haridwar road)
x. Opposite Nehru stadium (Old Roorkee road)
These locations are shown in Fig. 1.
Three locations were selected in second study (Khadiya
2014). S-1 was on Dehradun road beyond Malviya chowk
(near location 7 of study-1), S-2 was on Civil Lines road,
which was leading to location 6 of study-1 and S-3 was
selected on Main bazar road (before location 5 of study-1).
First location was a four lane divided road carrying local

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 37

 teCHNICAL PAPeR

and National Highway traffic, second road was a two-lane (1)

road but with shoulder or clear area on both the sides thus
giving an impact of open space available on sides, and third
was also two-lane road with high built-up area on both sides
having shopping nature, thus showing space constraints. In
this manner, the first and second location differed in terms
of one and two-directional traffic, and location two and
three differed in terms of increase in space constraints.

Fig. 2: Trap Marked Using a Medicated Tape for Speed

Study
Second study was conducted in 2013 and a video camera
was used to capture the traffic on the three locations.
Camera was installed on the top of an adjoining building
such that it captured a fairly good length of the road
stretch. One such location (Civil lines) is shown in Fig. 3.
The movement of bicycle between identified locations
was studied to estimate their speed.

Fig. 1: Study Locations Selected in First Study

(Google Maps)
Manual method of data collection was used in first study to
collect volume counts on the road sections and time taken
by a bicycle in traversing a marked road section of specified
length. Marking made on the road is shown in Fig 2.
This data was collected in 2010. Classified volume count
was made on each of the road section by using Talley’s
method (four successive vertical strokes followed by a
horizontal stroke to show capturing of five numbers of a
vehicle category). Different vehicle categories considered
were passenger car (along with van and jeep), motorized Fig. 3: Video Captured through Camera in Civil Lines
two-wheeler, bus, truck, tractor (with or without trailer), Roorkee
bicycles, cycle-rickshaws, and animal drawn vehicles.
The collected data from all the locations was analysed in
A trap length of 20 m was laid for the speed study of the following order:
bicycles. Medicated tape was used to mark the trap length
on both the ends. The speed study was done during early • The volume data in vehicles collected at all the
morning hours at the locations that were moving out of mentioned locations of the city was entered into
Roorkee and during pre-noon hours for the locations EXCEL worksheets and the proportion of the
within the city. The time taken by the bicycles to cross the bicycle traffic to the total traffic was calculated.
trap was taken using stopwatch. Additional information • Variations in volume data within NMT category
like gender and age of the bicyclist were recorded based was also looked at.
on visual examination. The speeds of vehicles were • The time data of bicycles collected at different
calculated as the ratio of trap length to the time taken in locations was also entered in the EXCEL worksheets
traversing that trap length as given by equation 1. and the mean speed of bicycles and its standard

38 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
deviation were calculated.
• The S curve was plotted between speed and the
cumulative percentage frequency and the 85th
percentile, 15th percentile and mean speeds at all
the locations were found out from the S-curves.
• The S curves for total data, male data, female data
and age data were plotted individually and their
85th percentile, 15th percentile and mean speeds
were tabulated.
• The speed data was classified based on gender and
age groups.
• The speed data was compared among male, female
and different age groups and their F-statistics
(significance testing) were estimated using a
statistical analysis software.
• The proportion of motorised and non-motorised
traffic and the mean speed of bicycle at locations
studied were taken into consideration for developing
a bicycle speed prediction model.
• The goodness of fit of the model was tested using
Chi-Square test.
• Different types of distributions were checked with
respect to the speed data of the bicycles.
• Three statistical checks were made to arrive at
the best distribution fitting the data: Kolmogorov-
Smirnov test, Anderson-Darling test and Pearson
Chi-squared test.
3. VOLUMe ANALYSIS
Traffic in India is of mixed nature. Equivalent Passenger
Car Units (PCU) are used to convert the heterogeneous
traffic into homogeneous traffic. Following equivalency
factors, as given in IRC:73-1980, are used for the
conversion. These are given in Table 2.
Table 2: Passenger Car Equivalency Factors for mid-
block (IRC: 73-1980)
S. Vehicle type equivalency
No. factor
1 Passenger car, tempo, auto-rickshaw, 1.0
jeep, van or agriculture tractor
2 Truck, bus or agricultural tractor- 3.0
trailer
3 Motor-cycle, scooter and cycle 0.5
4 Cycle-rickshaw 1.5
5 Horse-drawn vehicle 4.0
6 Bullock-cart 8.0
7 Hand-cart 6.0
Variation in the traffic volume on different road sections,
as selected in study-1, is shown in Fig. 4. ‘Down’ data
indicates movement towards Roorkee and ‘Up’ data
indicates movement away from Roorkee on the considered
location. Numbers 1 to 10 depicts the location being
selected and as mentioned under data collection.
Fig. 4: Variation in Traffic Volume on Different Road
Stretches
It can be noted that the non-motorized traffic is higher
than the motorized traffic on some road stretches (location
3 and 4). These are on Laksar road and the direction of
movement is towards Roorkee. It is the morning hour data
when many workers arrive in the city. There are other
locations where the motorized and non-motorized traffic
flow is found to be more or less equal. These locations
are 1–Down direction, 6–both directions, and 10–both
directions. Same reason is valid for location 1 down
movement. Location 6 connects old and new Roorkee. Old
Roorkee comprises of main shopping area and is densely
built-up. Movement of motorized vehicles, especially four
wheelers, is difficult. Location 10 also falls in old Roorkee
area. The cited reason might have caused an increase in
the non-motorized movements at these locations. On
other locations like 2, 5, 7, 8 and 9, which fall in new
developments of the city and cater to highway traffic also,
the volume of non-motorized traffic was found to be quite
low as compared to the motorized vehicle volume.
3.1 Proportion of Non-motorised Traffic and Bicycles
The Proportion of the bicycle traffic and in general non-
motorised traffic on different road stretches is estimated
and given in Table 3. At locations like 4, 3 6 and 10, the
share of NMT traffic is found to be quite high in the overall
traffic plying in both the directions. Same condition is
observed at location 1 for down direction traffic. This
is a result of inward or outward movements to or from
Roorkee city in the morning time at locations 3, 4 and 1,
and internal old city traffic at locations 6 and 10 during
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 39
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

the day time. The locations which are within the city area Now, it the focus is shifted to the share of bicycles in the
and catering to both city and highway traffic also showed traffic, it was observed that the visitors to the city from
substantial flow of NMT traffic, ranging between 25% areas outside the municipal limits dominantly use bicycle
and 43%. These locations are 7, 8 and 9. As we move out for their travel. These locations are 1, 3 and 4 with down
to locations like 2 and 5 which have lesser habitation on movement. Similarly, the locations in old Roorkee area
adjoining land area, the proportion of NMT traffic has like 6 and 10 have relatively high share of bicycles, even
fallen down and ranged between 25% and 15%. within NMT traffic, of the order of 37% to 43%. Locations
Table 3: Proportions of Non-motorised Traffic, like 8 and 9 have also shown substantial proportion of
Study-1 bicycle users in the traffic. In general, it can be said that
the bicycles constitute a good share within the total traffic
Location– Proportion of plying on different road sections of Roorkee city.
Direction of traffic Bicycles Non-motorized traffic The second study conducted in 2013 indicated the
1 – Down 43.31 47.12 following composition of traffic at three locations being
1 – Up 16.15 18.23 studied (Refer Table 4). It can be noted that the location
2 – Down 15.11 16.93 catering to both city traffic and highway traffic (beyond
2 – Up 17.73 19.58 location 7) has 33% share of NMT traffic, whereas, rest
3 – Down 59.14 68.10 of the two locations have 46% and 51% share of NMT in
3 – Up 28.23 40.76 the total traffic. These two locations fall in shopping areas
4 – Down 53.31 72.45 of the city on either side of the bridge over canal (location
4 – Up 33.63 43.65
6 of study-1). In the old city area the movement of four
wheelers is quite difficult and hence is the reason of null
5 – Down 12.89 15.37
value of such traffic on location 3.
5 – Up 10.56 27.90
6 – Down 41.82 52.22 Table 4: Composition of Traffic on Three Locations of
6 – Up 37.84 51.04 Study-2
7 – Down 12.11 16.49 Location Car 2W 3W Bus/ Tractor- Cycle Cycle-
7 – Up 11.92 25.03 Truck Trolley Rickshaw
8 – Down 20.73 33.06
S1 13 44 6 3 1 27 6
8 – Up 21.19 28.31
S2 3 51 - - - 27 19
9 – Up 30.31 37.44
S3 - 49 - - - 30 21
9 – Down 32.13 42.82
10 – Up 36.82 45.93 Fig. 5 below show the variation in NMT, cycle and cycle-
10 – Down 38.41 48.39 rickshaw flows at the three locations studied in Study-2

(a) Location 1

40 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR

(b) Location 2

(c) Location 3
Fig. 5: Flow Pattern of NMT, Cycle and Cycle-Rickshaws with Time

4. SPeeD ANALYSIS The range interval for the whole data (sample size 850)
came out to be 1.35. Cumulative frequency with respect
Speed analysis has been carried out to estimate the mean
to these intervals are computed and plotted for mid value
speeds of the bicycles, as well as, various statistics like
of the range.
85th and 15th percentile speeds, standard deviations
etc. These percentile values define the range for design
purposes. The percentile values have been found from
the cumulative frequency distribution graph plotted with
this purpose as shown in Fig. 6. The speeds have been
categorized in ranges, the range interval being computed
using the formula given in equation 2.
(2)

Where i = class interval

Range = difference between the largest and
the smallest value
N = Number of observations Fig. 6 Cumulative Frequency Distribution Curve for Speeds

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 41

 teCHNICAL PAPeR

4.1 Bicycle Speeds at Locations
The mean and percentile speeds estimated at different
locations in study-1 are given in Table 5. It was observed
that the locational factors have least impact on the speed
of bicycles as observed at different locations. It was found
to be varying between 13 kmph and 16 kmph, leaving
location 8 where it was observed to be the lowest as 10
kmph. Probable reason for the same could be ascertained
as the layout of roads and crossing traffic. This is a bridge
site over canal. On both the sides of the canal runs a canal
road which crosses the main road at either side. On one side
the traffic also diverts to/from railway station. These might
have caused the reduction in the speeds of the bicycles at
this location. Here the speeds have remained within a close
narrow band, as is clear by standard deviation value.

Table 5: Mean and Percentile Speeds at Different Locations (kmph, Study-1, 2010)
Location – Direction of travel Mean speed 85th percentile 15th percentile Standard Deviation
1 – Down 14.79 16.20 12.40 1.90
1 – Up 14.30 15.20 11.00 2.10
2 – Down 15.58 16.80 12.20 2.30
2 – Up 15.08 16.30 13.00 1.65
3 – Down 14.43 15.20 10.70 2.25
3 – Up 14.61 15.80 11.60 2.10
4 – Down 15.12 16.20 11.20 2.50
4 – Up 14.11 15.80 10.70 2.55
5 – Down 15.84 17.20 13.20 2.00
5 – Up 15.26 16.80 12.40 2.20
6 – Down 13.10 14.60 10.40 2.10
6 – Up 13.93 15.20 10.60 2.30
7 – Down 14.11 15.20 10.60 2.30
7 – Up 15.55 16.70 13.00 1.85
8 – Down 10.10 10.20 9.20 0.50
8 – Up 10.04 10.60 9.40 0.60
9 – Down 12.45 13.40 9.20 2.10
9 – Up 15.58 17.60 12.00 2.80
10 – Down 14.40 15.80 10.20 2.80
10 – Up 13.06 14.30 10.20 2.05

Relative examination of the bicycle speeds indicate that
at locations, which are towards outer areas of the city
(like 1, 2, 4 and 5), the bicycle speeds are higher, ranging
between 15.2 kmph and 17.2 kmph. The variation in the
speeds is also high, ranging between 1.65 kmph and
2.55 kmph, thus indicating towards wider distribution of
speeds. It is interesting to see that bicycle movements
in old city area, as represented by locations 6 and 10,
are also widely dispersed thus indicating that the bicycle
movements remain efficient even under constrained
conditions.
Bicycle speeds estimated in the study-2 are tabulated in
Table 6. It was observed that bicycle speeds on four-lane
divided road stretch were the highest. The mean speed at
this location was found to be higher than the one estimated
in study-1. But the distribution around mean was found
to be lower indicating that most of the bicycle users
were cycling within a narrow range. The effect of two-
directional traffic on the same width of the carriageway,
even with wide shoulder spaces, resulted in lowering of
the bicycle speeds by around 25%. Further constraints in
terms of narrow shoulder spaces, higher built-up area and
encroachments, as depicted by location S3, has caused
very high reduction in the speed, of the order of 46%. In
all cases, the speed values were found to be varying within
a narrow range.

42 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

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Table 6: Bicycle Speeds (kmph) at three Locations (Study-2)

Speed Data Location S1 Location S2 Location S3
Sample Size 31 92 60
Maximum 19.87 14.71 10.2
Minimum 14.07 9.6 5.24
Range 5.79 5.11 4.96
Mean 16.79 12.59 8.88
Variance 1.77 .99 1.26
Std. Deviation 1.33 .99 1.12

4.2 BICYCLe SPeeDS BY GeNDeR AND AGe speed and 15th percentile speed was around 12%. A
At the time of collection of data, additional information of comparison of bicyclists based on their gender indicated
bicyclist like gender and approximate age were also noted that the two were not much different in the lower range of
through visual inspection in Study-1. The bicyclists were the speeds, but big difference was noted when the upper
then categorized in four age groups namely Child (5-15 range of speeds was examined. This looked obvious as
yr), Young (15-35 yr), Adult (35-60 yr), Old (> 60 yr). The male are expected to have relatively more strength as
median and percentile speeds of these groups are given in compared to female. The effect of age of the bicyclist was
Table 7. evident from the mean speeds of the respective group.
It was found reducing with an increase in the age of the
The analysis indicated that some of the bicycle users were bicyclist. Again, the variation in the lower speed profiles
bicycling at a high speed of 22.84 kmph. These must be the was low for age groups except child. Speeds in upper
bicyclists who were in hurry, as the 85th percentile speed range followed the reverse pattern with age, though the
had been found to be around 66% of the highest speed. highest speeds in different groups were quite near to each
Compared to this, the difference between the minimum other except for old age bicyclist.
Table 7: Mean and Percentile Speeds (kmph) by Age and Gender (Study-1)
Category Mean speed Min speed Max speed 85th percentile 15th percentile
Population 13.92 8.10 22.84 15.00 9.20
Gender
Male 13.96 8.56 22.84 15.20 9.30
Female 13.68 8.10 19.29 14.80 9.20
Age Group
Child 14.29 8.28 21.49 15.80 9.50
Young 14.07 9.36 22.28 15.40 9.00
Adult 13.57 8.10 22.14 14.60 9.00
Old 12.60 8.89 18.43 13.80 8.80

4.3 Statistical Testing (Study-1) Table 8: F-Test for Bicyclists Categorised by Gender
A statistical examination was done to examine whether test Sum of Degree of Mean F Sig.
the speed difference between gender and age groups was squares freedom square
significant or not. F-test was conducted for the same. The Between 1.006 1 1.006 1.961 0.162
results are presented below: Groups
a. testing of Means for Gender groups Within Groups 434.566 847 0.513
Total 435.572 848
The testing of significant difference between mean speeds
of male and female bicyclists was done against the The results indicated that the two means were not
hypothesis that the two are same. The results are given in significantly different at 95% confidence level, but were
Table 8. significantly different at 85% confidence level.

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b. testing of Means for Age Groups Table 9. The results indicated that the mean speeds of the
different age groups were having significant difference
The significance testing of the mean speeds of different
with respect to population mean at 99% confidence level.
age groups with respect to population mean is given in
Table 9: F-Test for Bicyclists in Different Age Groups
test Sum of squares Degree of freedom Mean square F Sig.
Between Groups 17.893 3 5.964 12.041 0.000
Within Groups 414.108 836 0.495
Total 432.001 839

c. Comparison between Groups age groups with respect to other group means is given in
Table 10.
The significance testing of the mean speeds of different

table 10: Comparisons among Age groups

95% Confidence Level
Group (I) Group (J) Mean Difference (I-J) Std. error Sig.
Lower Bound Upper Bound
1 2 0.06564 0.06653 0.324 -0.0649 0.1962
3 0.21067* 0.07113 0.003 0.0711 0.3503
4 0.45671* 0.08466 0.000 0.2905 0.6229
2 1 -0.06564 0.06653 0.324 -0.1962 0.0649
3 0.14503* 0.06076 0.017 0.0258 0.2643
4 0.39106* 0.07615 0.000 0.2416 0.5405
3 1 -0.21067* 0.07113 0.003 -0.3503 -0.0711
2 -0.14503* 0.06076 0.017 -0.2643 -0.0258
4 0.24603* 0.08021 0.002 0.0886 0.4035
4 1 -0.45671* 0.08466 0.000 -0.6229 -0.2905
2 -0.39106* 0.07615 0.000 -0.5405 -0.2416
3 -0.24603* 0.08021 0.002 -0.4035 -0.0886
* Mean difference is significant at 0.05 level. 1=Child, 2=Young, 3=Adult, 4=Old
The results indicated that the mean speed of the child group Three of the statistics which were used to decide upon the
was not significantly different from that of young group, best fitting distribution in the three cases are discussed
but was significantly different when compared with adult below.
and old age group. The mean speed of the young bicyclists
1. Kolmogorov–Smirnov test (K–S test): It is
was found significantly different than the mean speed of
the adult and old bicyclists group. The mean speed of a nonparametric test for the equality of continuous, one-
the adult and old age bicyclists group were significantly dimensional probability distributions that can be used to
different when compared with mean speeds of rest of the compare a sample with a reference probability distribution
three groups respectively. (one-sample K–S test), or to compare two samples
(two-sample K–S test). The K–S test statistic quantifies
5. SPEED DISTRIBUTIONS
a distance between the empirical distribution function of
The speed data of bicycles were used to identify the best the sample and the cumulative distribution function of
fitting distribution. Following distributions were examined the reference distribution, or between the empirical
in the process: distribution functions of two samples.
1. Gen. Extreme Value 2. Beta The empirical distribution function Fn for n IID
3. Dagum 4. Log Gamma observations Xi is defined as:
5. Weibull 6. Johnson SB
3
7. Normal 8. Gamma
9. Logistic 10. Pearson 6
Where IXi≤x is the indicator function, equal to 1 if Xi ≤ x
11. Lognormal 12. Pearson 5
and equal to 0 otherwise.

44 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
2. Anderson–Darling test: It is a statistical test to
examine whether a given sample of data is drawn from a
given probability distribution or not. In its basic form, the
test assumes that there are no parameters to be estimated
in the distribution being tested, thus assuming that the test
and its set of critical values is distribution-free.
The formula for the test statistic A to assess if
data {Y1< . . . . . < Yn} (the data must be put in order)
comes from a distribution with cumulative distribution
function (CDF) Φ is:
A2 = –n – S, 4
Where,
5 Ei = Expected (theoretical) frequency, asserted by the null
The test statistic can then be compared against the critical
values of the theoretical distribution. Note that in this
case no parameters are to be estimated in relation to the
distribution function Φ.
Pearson’s chi-squared test: This test is used to assess
two types of comparison, one test of goodness of fit and
second test of independence. A test of goodness of
Table 11: Distribution Fit Based on Different Statistics’ Ranks (Study-2)
Location Distribution best fit on its speed data Kologorov-Smirnov test Anderson-Darling test Pearson Chi-Squared test
1 Gen. Extreme Value
2 Dagum
3 Logistic
The analysis indicated that three different distributions
were fitting the speed data for the three locations which
were different in terms of opposing traffic, space beyond
edge of the carriageway, activities at the road side and the
constraints due to built-up area and encroachments.
6. SPEED PREDICTION MODELS
The mean speed estimated at different locations was
considered as a dependent variable and variables like
proportion of motorized and non-motorized traffic, and
volume of motorized and non-motorized vehicles in the
traffic were considered as independent variables. A linear
regression analysis was carried out for the above data
and models were developed. The models developed are
presented below:
7
fit establishes whether or not an observed frequency
distribution differs from a theoretical distribution. A test
of independence assesses whether paired observations
on two variables, expressed in a contingency table, are
independent of each other.
The value of the test-statistic is:
6
Where,
χ2 = Pearson’s cumulative test statistic, which
asymptotically approaches a distribution
Oi = Observed frequency
hypothesis
n = Number of cells in the table
Bicycle speed data was evaluated with respect to the
different distributions and the three statistics so as to
identify the distributions which more or less satisfies all
the three criteria. Those distributions which got highest
possible ranks in the three statistics were considered as
best fitting the data. These are given in Table 11.
1 4 1
3 2 2
2 4 1
7
8
The goodness of fit of the equation is verified by estimating
the values of bicycle speed and using the Chi-Square test
for the observed and the model values of the mean speeds.
The Chi-Square statistics values are found to be 0.99995,
0.99997 and 0.99997. The tabulated Chi-square value for
the degree of freedom of 18 and 19 is found to be 28.86 and
30.14 at 95% level of significance, which is much greater
than the calibrated value. This indicates the goodness of
fit of the models.
7. SPeeD – FLOW ReLAtIONSHIP
Bicycle speeds were plotted with respect to the total flow
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 45
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
in the direction for the three locations selected in study-2.
These are shown in Fig 7. It can be seen that the bicycle
speeds are varying within a narrow range on the three roads’
categories even with substantial change in the vehicular
traffic flow. This is because of the limited capabilities of
bicycles, generally used in normal daily life for commuting
(not for adventure). The only difference which is visible is
the speed band in which the bicycle speeds are varying on
the three roads. On a four lane divided road (location S1)
it is varying between 15 kmph and 19 kmph. The variation
is between 11 kmph and 15 kmph on a two-lane two way
traffic road with wide shoulder spaces (location S2). It
has reduced to the range varying between 7 kmph and 11
kmph on a two-lane two way road without wide shoulder
spaces.
The variation indicates that no formal relationship
can be created between speed and flow in the case of
bicycles.
(a) Location S1
(b) Location S2
(c) Location S3
Fig. 7 Speed-Flow Relationship for Bicycles (Study 2)
46 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
8. CONCLUSIONS
Two studies were carried out in Roorkee city to study and
analyse the bicycle movements on different road stretches
in the Roorkee city. Various flow characteristics like
proportion of bicycles in the total flow, temporal variation
in flow, bicycle speeds, and statistical measures related
to speed were estimated. Following conclusions could be
made based on the analysis:
i. The studies have clearly reported that there is a
possibility of increasing the share of bicycle trips in
urban areas. Cities of different sizes show different
potential. Measures should be taken to provide safe
or exclusive facilities for such movements so that trip
makers can be stimulated to use bicycles.
ii. High proportion of NMT movements has been
reported in Roorkee city, which provides employment
and market opportunities to people in adjoining
villages. These movements are found influenced by
the time of the day, direction of travel and type of
road connectivity. Heavy flows of NMT and bicycles
have been observed during morning time on the
roads providing connectivity to the areas around. The
relative share is found higher towards Roorkee as
compared to from the city on such roads. The share
of NMT is found to be as high as 67% and as low as
15% in the total traffic volume.
iii. The relative shares of motorized and non-motorized
traffic volume are also found governed by type of
activity in areas adjoining the road, built-up density
and operational condition of the road. The shares
of NMT and bicycle traffic volume are found quite
high on road stretches which passed through the
shopping or commercial areas. The increase in built-
up density causes constraints on space available
for traffic movements and thus reduces the share of
four-wheeler vehicles. In fact under most constrained
conditions it falls to negligible value. The share of
NMT and bicycles was much higher on roads where
the shoulders were narrow and encroached and traffic
was bi-directional and local in nature. It was least
on the road with one-directional traffic, mixed of
highway and local traffic and section having wide
shoulders.
iv. The average speed of bicycles are found varying
between 12.5 kmph and 15.84 kmph, with overall
average of all locations being 13.92 kmph. This speed
has been found getting influenced by the operational
condition of the road stretch. On stretches two-lane
wide with wide shoulders and one-directional traffic
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
it increased by around 20%, whereas, on two-lane
wide stretch with narrow and encroached shoulders
it reduced by 36%. This indicated that the increasing
frictions on the road stretch highly influence the
bicycle speeds negatively.
v. Though the average speed of bicycling by male
and female bicyclists were not found statistically
significantly different at 95% confidence level,
but a clear distinction could be observed in the
upper segment of speed distribution as denoted by
85th percentile and highest speed in a group. Male
bicyclists in this range are much faster than female
bicyclists.
vi. The bicyclists in different age groups showed reverse
pattern for group average speeds. The speeds reduced
with an increase in the age of the bicyclist. It was
interesting to see that child, young and adult bicyclists
exhibited similar speed profiles, the reduction with
age being low as compared to the old bicyclists
group. The average speeds of these groups were
found significantly different from the population
mean. Within groups, the old and adult bicyclists
were found to be significantly different then rest of
the three groups respectively.
vii. Fitting of distribution to the bicycle speed data
indicated that different distributions represent the
flow behaviour under different operational conditions
of the road stretches. On a one-directional two-lane
stretch with wide shoulders, the General extreme
value distribution was found fitting well. It was
Dagum distribution for a two-lane two-directional
road stretch with wide shoulders and changed to
Logistic distribution on a two-lane two-directional
road stretch with narrow shoulders.
viii. Bicycle speed prediction models were developed with
proportion of motorized and non-motorized traffic,
and traffic volume of motorized and non-motorized
vehicles as independent variables. The models were
found statistically good.
The analysis indicated that bicycles can be used as an
effective means of travel mode even under congested
conditions and that too at speeds which may be higher than
the speeds of motorized modes under those conditions.
Apart from such conditions, the bicycle can also be used
as an effective means of transport for short distance
commuting, say for utility trips within neighbourhood
areas and educational trips. There is a need to create safe
and exclusive facilities for bicycles on urban roads so that
these trips can be stimulated.
ReFeReNCeS
i. Annual Report 2013 – 2014, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India, New
Delhi, India, pp 56, moud.gov.in
ii. IRC: 11-2015, “Recommended Practice for the
Design and Layout of Cycle Tracks”, Indian
Road Congress, New Delhi.
iii. IRC: 73-1980, “Geometric Design Standards
for Rural (Non-Urban) Highways”, Indian
Road Congress, New Delhi.
iv. Khadiaya, P. (2014), “Flow Characteristics
of Non-Motorised Traffic’, M. Tech thesis
Submitted to Department of Civil Engineering,
IIT Roorkee, Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India.
v. MOUD (2008), “Study on Traffic and
Transportation Policies and Strategies in
Urban Areas in India”, Ministry of Urban
Development, Government of India, New
Delhi, India.
vi. NUTP (2006), “National Urban Transport
Policy”, Ministry of Urban Development,
Government of India, New Delhi, moud.gov.in
vii. Rastogi, R. and K. V. Krishna Rao (2003),
“Travel Characteristics of Commuters Accessing
Transit: A case study”. Journal of Transportation
Engineering, vol. 129 (6), American Society of
Civil Engineers, USA, 684-694.
viii. Ruparthi, B (2009), “Bicycle Movements in
a Class-I city’, M. Tech. Project submitted to
Department of Civil Engineering, IIT Roorkee,
Roorkee, Uttarakhand, India.
ix. Tiwari, G. (2011), “Key Mobility Challenges
In Indian Cities”. Discussion Paper 2011-18,
The International Transport Forum, OECD,
Leipzig, Germany, May 25-27.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 47
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ReVISItING DeSIGN OF GRAVItY RetAINING WALLS

rajendra ChalisgaonKar1
ABStRACt
Gravity Retaining walls are generally constructed to retain earth in a position and to resist the lateral pressure of the soil
against the wall. Though Gravity Retaining walls are very simple structures and commonly built in every nook and corner,
yet many problems are encountered in the field. These problems arise mainly due to the fact that engineers in the field
are bogged down with numerous responsibilities and often do not find time to carry out proper design. In this paper, very
basic principles of design of gravity retaining walls have been revisited and presented in chart forms so that field engineers,
working in highways/water resources sector, can provide techno-economic sections as per site conditions before constructing
the massive gravity retaining walls.
1. INtRODUCtION that there are many design parameters, which influence
the design of these simple structures (Chalisgaonkar,
Gravity retaining walls are indispensable elements of
2018) and even the slight negative batter results in
most important infrastructures. In the year one-million
an economical design (Chalisgaonkar, 1988, 2019).
BC, or thereabouts, an anonymous man, or woman, laid
a row of stones atop another row to keep soil from sliding In the present paper, design of 5.0m high retaining wall
into their camp. Thus was constructed an early retaining with positive and negative batter has been presented in
wall, and we’ve been keeping soil in place ever since with graphical form for different values of angle of repose of
increasingly better methods and understanding. The early backfill and vertical angle of earth face of wall, which will
engineers also discovered that by leaning a wall slightly facilitate field engineers in selecting various parameters
backward, the lateral pressure was relieved and the height in providing techno-economic sections of the gravity
could be extended – an intuitive understanding of the soil retaining wall.
wedge theory. 2. eARtH PReSSURe tHeORIeS
Retaining walls are structures that are used to retain soil Most lateral pressure theories are based upon the
and to resist the lateral pressure of the soil against the wall. assumption that if the wall is suddenly removed, a
The gravity retaining walls are normally not intended to triangular wedge of soil will slide down along a rupture
stabilize slope failures. They are mainly meant to support plane, and it is this wedge of soil that the wall must retain.
the active or passive earth pressure from the assumed failure Rankine’s and Coulomb’s theories are the most popular
wedge above the base of the wall. Gravity retaining walls amongst geotechnical engineers. Rankine’s approach is
basically retains earth pressures by virtue of its self-weight very simple to use but it predicts a larger active force than
and are commonly built with locally available stones. that of Coulomb and thus the Coulomb theory has been
Though gravity retaining walls are simple structures and used in the present study to estimate the active and passive
commonly built in every nook and corner of the country earth pressures.
for various earth retaining purposes, yet many problems
2.1 Coulomb’s theory
are encountered in the field as a result of either improper
design or poor quality constructions. These problems arise Coulomb (1776) developed a method for the determination
mainly due to the fact that engineers in the field are bogged of the earth pressure considering the equilibrium of the
down with numerous responsibilities and often do not find sliding wedge formed due to movement of the retaining
time to carry out proper design. It has also been observed wall. In the Active Earth Pressure case, the sliding wedge

1
Retd. Engineer-in-Chief, Irrigation Department, Govt. of Uttarakhand, E mail: chalisgaonkar@gmail.com

48 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR

moves downwards and outwards on a slip surface relative

to the intact backfill and in the case of Passive Earth
pressure, the sliding wedge moves upward and inwards
(Fig. 1 a-b).

Fig. 3 – Passive Earth Pressure

a. Active Pressure Due to Backfill
a. Active Earth Pressure
The active pressure exerted against the wall shall be:
Pa = ½ γ H2.Ka 1
Where
Pa - Active Earth Pressure along the length of Wall
γ - Unit weight of the backfill
H - Height of wall
Ka - Coefficient of active pressure, which takes into
account backfill slope, friction angle at wall face,
angle of repose of backfill and angle of wall face
with vertical:

b. Passive Earth Pressure 2

Fig. 1. (a-b) Failure Wedges for Active and Passive
Earth Pressure
2.1.1 earth pressure acting on the wall
The active and passive earth pressures behind the walls
(Fig. 2 and Fig. 3) have been enumerated in para 23.1.1
and 23.1.2 of Indian Standard Code of Practice: Criteria
for Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures Part 3 –
Bridges and Retaining Walls, IS:1893:Part 3 (2014).
Kahoriz = Ka Cos ι
Where
φ - Angle of internal friction of the soil;
δ - Angle of friction between wall and earth fill
ι - Angle which the earth surface makes with the
horizontal behind the earth retaining structure.
α - Angle, which earth face of Wall makes with
Vertical

b. Passive Pressure Due to Earthfill

The general conditions for development of passive earth
pressure encountered in the design of retaining walls are
illustrated in Fig. 2. The passive pressure exerted against
the wall shall be:
Pp = ½ γ h12.Kp 3
Fig. 2 – Active Earth Pressure Where

INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 49

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
Pp - Passive Earth Pressure along the length of Wall
γ - Unit weight of the earthfill in front of wall
h1 - Height of earthfill in front of Wall
Kp - Coefficient of passive pressure, which takes into
account earthfill slope in front of wall, friction
angle at wall face, angle of repose of earthfill and
angle of wall face with vertical:
The active and passive earth pressures behind the walls
have been calculated in accordance to para 23.1.1 and
23.1.2 of Indian Standard Code of Practice: Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures Part 3 – Bridges
and Retaining Walls, IS:1893:Part 3(2014) in the present
study. However, Para 214.1 of IRC:6-2017 specifies that
Coulomb’s theory shall be acceptable, subject to the
modification that the centre of pressure exerted by the
backfill, when considered dry, is located at an elevation
of 0.42 of the height of the wall above the base instead of
0.33 of that height, mentioned in IS:1893 Part 3(2014) and
have been used accordingly in the study.
Para 5.7.1 of Indian Railway Standard Code of Practice
for the Design of Sub Structure and Foundation of Bridges
(2003) states that while calculating earth pressure, the
angle of friction between wall and earth fill, where value
of δ is not determined by actual tests, the following values
may be assumed:
(i) δ = 1/3 ø for concrete structures.
(ii) δ = 2/3 ø for masonry structures.
In the present study, δ has been considered as 2/3 ø for
computing earth pressures.
3. REDUCING ACTIVE EARTH PRESSURE
Lateral movement of a retaining wall primarily depends
upon the size of failure wedge, which is influenced by
many parameters. It has been observed that the active
pressure behind the wall can be reduced by modifying
the back-face shape of a wall. Fig. 4 shows the failure
wedge sizes when the earth face of the wall is vertical, has
positive batter (an outward-leaning) and negative batter (a
landward-leaning). It can be clearly seen from the Fig. 4
that size of the backfill failure wedge is smaller, when the
back face of wall has a negative batter i.e. it leans towards
the backfill, than the vertical back and positive batter and
therefore a smaller lateral thrust on the wall.
50 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020
Fig. 4 Failure Wedges for Active Earth Pressure, When
the Earth Face of Wall has Positive Batter, Vertical and
Negative Batter
4. DeSIGN MetHODOLOGY
The design of a gravity retaining wall consist of two
principal parts, the evaluation of loads and pressures that
may act on the structure and the design of the structure to
withstand these loads and pressures.
4.1 Design Loads
In general, following forces are considered in the design
of gravity retaining walls:
i) Self Weight of Wall;
ii) Earth pressure acting on the wall;
iii) Surcharge;
iv) Water pressure;
v) Allowable Soil Bearing Pressure;
vi) Frictional Forces on base against Sliding.
a) Self Weight of Wall
The self weight of the gravity retaining wall shall be
considered on the basis of unit weight of materials, as
per Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design Loads
(Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and Structures
IS-875(Part1).
b) earth Pressure acting on the Wall
Active and Passive Earth Pressures have been considered,
as enumerated in para 2.1.1.
c) Surcharge
No surcharge has been considered in the study.
d) Water Pressure
Para 5.1 of Indian Standard Retaining Wall for Hill Area
– Guidelines, Part 2 Design of Retaining/Breast Walls,
IS:14458(Part 2) (1997) states that at least 30 percent
water pressure shall always be considered even in case of
 teCHNICAL PAPeR
provision of good efficient pressure release system. When
the water pressure is considered, uplift pressure at the base
is also considered in computing the stability of wall.
e) Earthquake forces
Para 3.1.1 of Indian Standard Retaining Wall for Hill Area
– Guidelines, Part 1 Selection of Type of Wall, IS:14458
(Part 1) 1998 states that for hilly roads, being of low
volume, walls may not be designed for earthquake forces.
It is economical to repair failed walls after earthquake.
Therefore, earthquake forces have been ignored in
developing the design charts.
f) Frictional Forces on base against Sliding
Para 706.3.4 of Standard Specifications and Code of
Practice for Road Bridges Section: VII Foundations and
Substructure IRC:78(2014) states that Frictional co-
efficient between concrete and soil/rock will be Tan ,
being angle of friction. Founding soil in foundation of
bridge being generally properly consolidated, following
values may be adopted:
Friction co-efficient between = 0.50
soil and concrete, µ
Friction co-efficient between = 0.80 for good rock
rock and concrete, µ 0.70 for fissured rock
In the present study, coefficient of friction between the
concrete &soil/rock mass, µ has been considered as 0.50.
4.2 Stability Requirements
The stability requirement of gravity retaining wall must be
checked under the following cases:
4.2.1 Stability against Overturning
Para 5.2 of Indian Standard Retaining Wall for Hill Area
– Guidelines, Part 2 Design of Retaining/Breast Walls,
IS:14458(Part 2) (1997) states that for static loads, factor
of safety as 2.0 against overturning shall be ensured for
stability.
4.2.2 Stability against Sliding
Para 5.2 of Indian Standard Retaining Wall for Hill Area
– Guidelines, Part 2 Design of Retaining/Breast Walls,
Earth face of Wall: Vertical Earth face of Wall with Positive Batter
Fig. 6 Typical Section of Gravity Retaining Walls
IS:14458(Part 2) (1997) states that for static loads, factor of
safety as 1.5 against sliding shall be ensured for stability.
a. Shear Key
When the factor of safety against sliding is less than 1.50,
it is advantageous to provide a shear key projecting below
the base of wall and extending throughout the length of
the wall.
A simple and conservative method (Pillai et al, 2005) is
used to estimate the passive resistance Pp by considering
the pressure developed over a region, h2-h1, below the toe:
Pp = Kp . γ(h22-h12)/2 7
where h1 and h2 are the depth below the natural ground
level, as indicated in Fig. 5.
Fig. 5 Passive resistance due to shear key
The shear key is best positioned to be located near the heel
to get the maximum advantage. However, in the present
paper, it has been assumed that the Shear Key is located at
the centre of the base.
4.2.3 Bearing Pressure
The width of the base of a gravity retaining wall must be
adequate to distribute the vertical reaction to the foundation
soil without causing excessive settlement or rotation. When
the base pressure exerted, exceeds the safe bearing capacity
of the soil, the wall fails due to bearing pressure.
5. DeSIGN OF GRAVItY RetAINING WALLS
The typical section adopted for design of gravity retaining
wall has been shown in Fig. 6.
Earth face of Wall with Negative Batter
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 51
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

5.1 Design Parameters near the heel under static loading. The results of the analysis
have been presented in the succeeding paragraphs.
The following parameters have been varied for developing
the design charts for Gravity retaining Walls: 6. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS
The results obtained after carrying out the analysis of
Angle of Repose of : 250, 300, 350, 400
Backfill, φ 5.0 m high gravity retaining wall for different parametric
variations are:
Angle of Surcharge of : 00
Backfill, ι 6.1 Co-efficient of Active Earth Pressure
Height of Gravity : 5.0 m Co-efficient of active earth pressure Ka for the different
retaining Wall H angle of repose of backfill φ for different angles, which
Angle of Friction : ⅔ φ or 22.500, whichever is earth face of Wall makes with Vertical, α varying from
between Masonry Wall less. -14.030 to 14.030 have been calculated, using Coulomb’s
and Backfill, δ theory and are shown in Fig. 7.
Angle, which earth : 5.710 1.0(H):10.0(V)
face of Wall makes 11.310 1.0(H):5.0(V)
with Vertical, α / Slope 14.030 1.0(H):4.0(V)
1.0(H):x(V) 00 Vertical Face
- 5.710 1.0(H):10.0(V)
- 11.310 1.0(H):5.0(V)
- 14.030 1.0(H):4.0(V)
Coefficient of Friction : 0.50
between the Masonry
and Soil/rock mass µ
Other Parameters assumed for carrying out the design of
gravity retaining wall include: Fig. 7 Coefficient of Active Earth Pressure Ka
Unit Weight of Saturated : 1.76 t/m3 or 17.27 kN/m3 The perusal of Fig. 7 clearly indicates that the coefficient
Earthfill, γsat of active earth pressure Ka reduces with increase in angle
Unit Weight of : 0.76 t/m3 or 7.46 kN/m3 of repose of backfill φ. It also indicates that the coefficient
Submerged Earthfill, γsub of active earth pressure Ka reduces substantially, when the
angle of the earth face of the wall is given a negative batter
Unit Weight of Water, : 1.00 t/m3 or 9.81 kN/m3
γwater instead of vertical face or positive batter.
Unit Weight of Masonry, : 2.30 t/m3 or 22.56 kN/m3 6.2 Base Width
γmasonry Base width of the Gravity retaining Wall, obtained for
Effect of Water Pressure : 30% of Total Height economic section, nearly zero stress at heel, for 5.0 m
Top Width of Wall : 200 mm high gravity retaining wall for different angle of repose of
Width of Shear Key at : 300 mm backfill φ for different angles, when the earth face of Wall
Bottom has positive batter, vertical face and negative batter, are
Location of Shear Key : At the Centre of the Base shown in Fig. 8.

5.2 Design Loads

Following forces have been considered in the design of
5.0 m high gravity retaining wall:
i) Self Weight of Wall;
ii) Active and Passive Earth Pressures acting on the
Wall;
iii) Water Pressure;
iv) Uplift Pressure;
v) Frictional Forces on Base.
The base of the gravity retaining walls has been so
proportioned in the analysis that there is nearly zero stress Fig. 8 Economical Base Width of Gravity retaining Wall

52 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 teCHNICAL PAPeR
The perusal of Fig. 8 clearly indicates that the base width of
the Gravity retaining Wall reduces substantially, when the
angle of the earth face of the wall is given a negative batter
instead of vertical face or positive batter for cohesionless
backfill having any angle of repose φ.
6.3 Maximum Pressure at Toe
Maximum Base Pressures obtained at Toe, when the stress
at Heel is nearly zero, for 5.0 m high gravity retaining
wall for different angle of repose of backfill φ for different
angles, when the earth face of Wall has positive batter,
vertical face and negative batter, are shown in Fig. 9.
Fig. 9 Maximum Pressure at Toe of Gravity retaining Wall
The perusal of Fig. 9 indicates that the Maximum Base
Pressures obtained at Toe reduces substantially, when the
angle of the earth face of the wall is reduced from positive
batter to vertical face and increases slightly when the
angle of the earth face of the wall is given negative batter
in comparison to vertical face for cohesionless backfill
having any angle of repose φ.
6.4 Volume of Masonry in Gravity Retaining Wall
Total Volume of Masonry Wall per m length for construction
of Gravity Retaining Wall, for 5.0 m high gravity retaining
wall for different angle of repose of backfill φ for different
angles, when the earth face of Wall has positive batter,
vertical face and negative batter, are shown in Fig. 10.
Fig. 10 Volume of Masonry in Gravity retaining Wall
The perusal of Fig. 10 clearly indicates that the Volume of
Masonry in Gravity Retaining Wall reduces substantially,
when the angle of the earth face of the wall is given a
negative batter instead of vertical face or positive batter
for cohesionless backfill having any angle of repose φ.
6.5 Factor of Safety against Sliding
Factor of Safety against Sliding and Depth of Shear Key
required to attain a factor of safety of 1.5, for 5.0 m high
gravity retaining wall for different angle of repose of
backfill φ and coefficient of friction between masonry and
soil/rock mass µ=0.50 for different angles, when the earth
face of Wall has positive batter, vertical face and negative
batter, are shown in Fig. 11.
Fig. 11 Factor of Safety against Sliding and Depth of
Shear Key
The perusal of Fig. 11 indicates that the Factor of Safety
against Sliding goes on reducing with the change in earth
face of wall angle from positive batter to negative batter
for cohesionless backfill having any angle of repose φ. It
can also be observed from Fig. 11 that Factor of Safety
against Sliding in all cases is below 1.50 and provision
of shear key is must to safeguard the wall against Sliding.
The maximum depth of shear key for achieving factor of
safety of 1.50 is 1200 mm, when angle of repose of soil φ
is 250 and 400 mm, when angle of repose of soil φ is 400.
7. CONCLUSION
Retaining walls are simple structures and commonly built
in highway projects for various earth retaining purposes.
The engineers in the field are bogged down with numerous
responsibilities and often do not find time to carry out
proper design and also do not pay much attention while
designing these simple structures, resulting in improper
or conservative design. In this paper, basic principles of
design of gravity retaining wall have been presented and
an attempt has been made to highlight the importance of
negative batter wall to achieve techno-economic sections
of wall. Thus it can be said that wherever the gravity
retaining walls are built to retain soil and resist the lateral
pressure of the soil against the wall only, earth face of wall
with negative batter be constructed to achieve economy
without sacrificing safety.
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 53
 teCHNICAL PAPeR

8. ReFeReNCeS Materials and Stored Materials, IS-875: Part 1, Bureau

i. Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(1988), Inclined Retaining
Walls, Indian Concrete Journal, August.
ii. Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(2018), Influence of Design
Parameters on Earth Pressures behind Retaining Walls,
Journal of Indian Highways, Indian Road Congress, New
Delhi, Vol. 46, No.11, November.
iii. Chalisgaonkar, Rajendra(2019), Charts for Techno
Economic Design of Masonry Breast Walls, Water and
Energy International, Central Board of Irrigation and
Power, New Delhi, Volume 62/RNI, No. 3, ISSN : 0974-
4711, June.
iv. Coulomb, C. A.(1776) Essai sur une application des
regles des maximis et minimis a quelques problems de
statique relatifis a Parchitecture, Mem. Acad. Roy. Pres
divers savants, Vol. 7, Paris.
v. Pillai, S. Unnikrishna and Devdas Menon(2005)
Reinforced Concrete Design, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company Limited, New Delhi.
vi. (2008) Indian Standard Code of Practice for Design
Loads(Other than Earthquake) for Buildings and
Structures Part 1- Dead Loads-Unit Weights of Building
of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
vii. (1998) Indian Standard Code of Practice: Retaining Wall
for Hill Area – Guidelines, Part 1 Selection of Type of Wall,
IS:14458 Part 1, Bureau of Indian Standards, New Delhi.
viii. (1997) Indian Standard Code of Practice: Retaining Wall
for Hilly Area - Guidelines IS:14458: Part 2, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
ix. (2014) Indian Standard Code of Practice: Criteria for
Earthquake Resistant Design of Structures Part 3 –
Bridges and Retaining Walls, IS:1893:Part 3, Bureau of
Indian Standards, New Delhi.
x. (2017) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges Section : II Loads and Stresses IRC:6,
Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
xi. (2014) Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for
Road Bridges Section : VII Foundations and Substructure
IRC:78, Indian Road Congress, New Delhi.
xii. (2003) Indian Railway Standard Code of Practice
for the Design of Sub Structure and Foundation of
Bridges, Research Designs and Standards Organisation,
Lucknow.

OBItUARY

Lt. Shri S. C. Sharma

Former DG (RD) & AS, MoRt&H
Shri S.C. Sharma, former DG (RD) & AS, MoRT&H and Hon. Treasurer, IRC has left for heavenly abode on
24.2.2020. Shri S.C. Sharma who also served as Hon. Secretary, Indian Roads Congress (1994-99). He was born
in 1942, did his B.E. from Rajasthan University in 1962 and obtained Master of Science degree in Highway
Engineering from the University of Birmingham, U.K. After initial service in Rajasthan P.W.D., he joined the
Ministry of Surface Transport as Asst. Executive Engineer in 1964 and superannuated as the Director General
(Road Development) & Addl Secretary, Ministry of Road Transport & Highways in the year 2002. Shri Sharma
an active Life Member of IRC and was the Convenor of HSS & BSS Committee of IRC. He was Chairman of
Highway Research Board, he has also served as the Convenor of Flexible Pavements Committee & Convenor
of Road Maintenance and Asset Management Committees of IRC. Shri Sharma was also the member of various
Technical Committees of IRC and has contributed his experience and expertise in forming of many IRC
documents & contributed Technical Papers. Shri S.C. Sharma was a distinguished highway engineer of long
standing. With his vision, leadership and direction, the country progressed in the modernization of highway
network. His contributions to National Rural Infrastructure Development Agency is well acknowledged.
His demise is a loss to the highway profession, may his soul rest in peace.
peace .
piece

54 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

 ReADeR’S COMMeNt
COMMeNtS BY S.K MAZUMDAR ON PAPeR“SILt FACtOR FOR SCOUR CALCULAtION AROUND BRIDGe
FOUNDAtION” AUTHORED BY :R.K.DHIMAN,VSM, Published in ‘INDIAN HIGHWAYS’, ISSUE OF Oct.2019
Author of the paper has recommended use of ‘Silt Factor’ several parameters e.g. geometry of pier, type of foundation,
method of scour calculation around bridge foundation with silt obliquity of flow, size and non-uniformity of sediments,
factor (Ksf= f) up to maximum value of 8 and he has strongly geometry of approaching flow, flow depth, duration of scour(t)
recommended it for use in bridge projects by Border Roads with respect to time to attain equilibrium scour (te) i.e. t/te etc.
Organisation (BRO). Currently, IRC:78-2000 and IRC:5- In IRC equation for scour, none of these parameters other than
1998 recommend silt factor method of scour computation up Q(or q) and d50 are considered.
to a maximum value of silt factor f=1.50 corresponding to a
It is now universally established that scour depth below river
mean sediment size d50=2 mm for cohesion less soil. Silt factor
bed (ds) in bridge piers attains a maximum value (dsmax) at
method of scour calculation was introduced by IRC based on
threshold condition when V/Vc=1 as shown in Fig.1. Here V
Lacey’s(1929) regime theory as follows:
(=q/y) is the mean flow velocity and Vc is the critical velocity
P=W=4.75 Q0.5 (1) when the river bed sediments just start moving. Value of Vc is
R=Dsm=0.475 (Q/f)1/3 (2) determined by the mean size of sediments in the river bed i.e. d50.
VC-value can be determined from Shield’s (1936) function for
Where, P is Lacey’s regime perimeter which is almost equal to
both non-cohesive and cohesive soil and other methods (K-G-
regime width (in wide stream only) in m, Q is the design flood
R,1992). Once the mean flow velocity (V) exceeds the critical or
discharge in m3/sec, R is the regime depth in m unit and f is the
threshold value(Vc), scour depth (ds) reduces due to deposition
silt factor given by the relation:
of incoming bed sediments in the scour hole. With further rise
f=Ksf=1.76(d50)0.5 (3) in V, scour depth increases again and it attains an equilibrium
where d50=dm=mean size of sediments. value (dse) at V/VC=4 as shown in Fig.1. It has been found that
When waterway under a bridge, W=P, it can be proved that the equilibrium scour depth dse (at V/VC=4) is always less than
the threshold value of scour depth dsmax (at V/Vc=1). Thus, it
R=Dsm=1.34 (Db2/Ksf)1/3 (4)
will be always safe to design bridge foundation for a maximum
where, Db=q=Q/W= discharge intensity in m3/sec/m. scour under threshold condition. Several mathematical models
IRC recommends maximum scour depth at the nose of pier as [Blench,1997; Bruessers et al,1991 (IAHR); Dey,2005-
2R below design flood level. In other words, maximum scour 06;Kothyari-Garde-RangaRaju (K-G-R),1992; Mellvile &
depth below river bed is R. It is based on scour measurement Kolemam, 2000; Richardson &Davis,1995 (HEC-18)] have
by Inglis (1949) in piers in 17 railway bridges (CWPRS,1944) been developed in India and abroad over the years for finding
- all of which were constructed on very fine and uniform maximum scour depths of foundation by using the threshold
alluvial soil ( d50 varying from 0.17 to 0.37 mm). All the piers scour concept as discussed above.
had well type foundation. There is no other field data in India IRC formula recommends that scour goes on increasing as
to verify the above hypothesis based on which relevant IRC mean velocity of flow V or discharge intensity q (=Vy) increases
codes were framed. which is in contradiction to the above scientific study on scour
in bridge foundation made by several gifted research scientists
After going through research study made in India (mostly in in India and abroad mentioned above.
laboratory flumes) and data collected from both laboratory
flumes as well as field data (collected in rivers abroad) and his
own research study (Mazumder et al -2005,2014; Mzumder-
2007,2009,2016) discussor concluded that the regime scoured
depth (dsm) equation may be adopted for finding depth of
flow (general scour) above the mean bed, only when the river
runs in fine (d50<2mm) and uniform alluvial soil with low
geometric standard deviation [σg= (d84/d16)0.5] less than 1.3. For
gravelly/bouldery soil (d50>2mm) which has very high degree
of non-uniformity (σg>1.3), Lacey’s regime depth equations
(2,3&4) are not at all applicable (Mazumder,2009). As regards
maximum scour level (MSL) at pier nose is concerned, the
IRC recommendation for MSL at pier nose is 2Dsm below HFL
or Dsm below mean bed level. It is not at all scientific, since Fig.1 Variation of Scour Depth (ds) With Mean Flow Velocity (V)
the Lacey’s regime depth above river bed has no bearing with Note: B is pier Thickness; Peak scour occurs at Threshold stage; ds
scour below river bed. Scour below river bed is governed by reduces with σg

BY : Prof. S.K.Mazumder, Former AICTE Emeritus Fellow and Prof. of Civil Engineering, Delhi College of Engineering
(Now Delhi Technology University)
INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020 55
 ReADeR’S COMMeNt

Table-1 taken from a paper written jointly by the discusser vi. IRC:78-2000, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice
with the author of the present paper gives a comparison of the for Road Bridges, Section-VII” Indian Roads Congress,
observed maximum local scour depths in a bouldery river and Jamnagar House, Shajahan Road, New Delhi-110 011
scour predicted by different mathematical models (including vii. Inglis,C.C.(1949),”The behavior and control of Rivers and
Lacey’s Model adopted by IRC). Figs in bracket indicate ys/R- Canals”, research Pub. No.13, Central Water and Power
values where ys=ds is the maximum local scour depth and R is Research Station, Khadakwasla, Pune.
Lacey’s regime depth. viii. Kothyari, U.C., Garde, R.J. and Ranga Raju, K.G. (1992)
“Temporal Variation of Scour Around Circular Bridge Piers”,
Table-1 Observed and Predicted values of Maximum Scour Depths JHE, A.S.C.E., 118(8), PP 1091-1106.
by Different Models ix. Lacey, G.(1929) “Stable Channels in Alluvium” Paper 4736,
Observed Predicated Scour Depth (ys in m) Proc. of Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. 229, William
Scour Clowes & Sons Ltd., London, U.K. P. 259-292
Bridge Melville
Depth Lacey HEC- x. Mazumder, S.K. and Yashpal Kumar (2005) “Estimation
Site Blench & IAHR K-G-R
(R) 18 of Scour in Bridge Piers on Alluvial Non- Cohesive Soil by
’
(ys in m) Coleman
different methods”, paper pub. in IRC Highway Research
1
0.35 2.29 2.29 0.69 0.57 0.43 0.46 Bulletin. Oct.,2006 and presented in the 67th IRC Congress at
(0.15) (1.00) (1.00) (0.30) (0.25) (0.19) (0.20) Panchkula, Haryana during 17-21 Nov.2006.
0.24
0.98 1.22 0.76 0.99 0.38 0.90 xi. Mazunder, S.K. (2007) “Limitations of Lacey’s Theory for
10 Estimation of Bridge Scour” Pub.in the Proc. of Hydraulics
(1.00) (1.24) (0.77) (1.01) (0.39) (0.92)
(0.25) & Water Resources, HYDRO-2007 org. by Indian Society for
1.44 1.44 0.98 1.27 0.33 1.02 Hydraulics and VSNIT at Surat,.21-22 Dec., and Pub. By Elite
0.42
11 Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi.pp.328-336.
(0.42)
(1.00) (1.00) (0.68) (0.88) (0.23) (0.71)
xii. Mazumder, S.K.(2009) “Determination of Waterway Under
0.63
4.85 4.85 1.44 1.70 1.39 1.34 a Bridge in Himalayan Region - Some Case Studies” Paper
16
(1.00) (1.00) (0.29) (0.35) (0.28) (0.27) presented at 70th IRC congress held at Patna on 11-14 Nov.,
(0.12)
2009 and Published in the Journal of IRC, Vol.70-2, July-
0.91 3.69 5.27 2.21 2.19 0.90 1.67 sept.2009.
22
(0.25) (1.00) (1.43) (0.60) (0.59) (0.21) (0.45)
xiii. Mazumder, S.K. and R.K. Dhiman (2014) “Local Scour in
ReFeReCeS Bridge Piers on Coarse Bed Material- Observed and Predicted
i. Blench,T. (1957) “Regime Behavior of Canals and Rivers” by Different Methods”, paper presented and pub. in the
Butterworth Scientific Publications, London. J. of Indian Roads Congress during the annual session at
ii. Breussers, HNC and Raudviki, A.J. (1991) “Scouring” , Bhubneshwar.
Chapter-5 “Scour at Bridge Piers” A.A. Balkema Pub., IAHR xiv. Mazumder S.K. (2016) "Scour in Bridge Piers on Non-
Hydraulic Structures Design Manual Cohesive Fine and Coarse Soil". pub. online in ISH J.of Hyd.
iii. CWPRS(1944),”Annual Report (Tech)”,Central Water & Engg.(Taylor&Francis), Oct..
Power Research Station, , Pune xv. Melville, B.W. and Coleman, S.E.(2000) “Bridge Scour”,
iv. Dey, S. (2005-06), Principal Investigator of the Research Water Resources Publications, LLC, Vol.I and II
Project “Determination of Scour Depth (for General Bed, xvi. Richardson, E.V. and Davis, S.R. (1995), “Evaluating Scour at
Within Channel Contraction and at Bridge Piers) in Boulder- Bridges”, Report No. FHWAIP-90-017, Hydraulic Engineering
Bed Rivers Under High Stream Velocities (B-33)”- Sponsored Circular No. 18 (HEC-18), Third Edition, Office ofTechnology
by The Min. of Shipping, Road Transport and Highways, Govt. Applications, HTA-22, Federal Highway Administration, U.S.
of India, Highway Research Record No.33, (2005-06), IRC Department of Transportation, Washington D.C., U.S.A.
Highway xvii. Shields,A.(1936)”Anwendung derth Ahnlichkeitsmmechanik
v. IRC:5-1998, “Standard Specifications and Code of Practice for undTurbulenzforschung auf dieGeschiebebe wegung
Road Bridges-Section-I”, Indian Roads Congress, Jamnagar Mitteilungen der Pruesspsichen Versuchsanstaltfur Wasserbau
House, Shajahan Road, New Delhi-110 011 und Schiffbau, Berlin, No.26

REPLY BY THE AUTHOR:-

(i) It is clarified that author has only proposed and confirm up to ‘8’ can be used for finalisation of scour
depth in strata beyoud the table given in as per IRC clause N, 703.2.2.1 page (10) (copy attached).
This point was further strengthen during presentation made in B-3 committee.

(ii) “Author has not commented on applicably of of IRC formula. This paper should be taken as a
guideline to extend the silt factor beyond 2.42 to 8 and will be helpful to engineers to assess scour
around bridge piers gravely/bouldery starata”
(RK Dhiman, VSM),
Cheif engineer Border Roads Organisation

56 INDIAN HIGHWAYS APRIL 2020

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 Delhi Postal Registration No DL-Sw-17/4194/19-21
uNDeR ‘u’ NumbeR u(Sw)-12/2019-2021
At Lodi Road, PSO on dated 28-29.3.2020 LICeNCe tO POSt
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edited and Published by Shri S.K. Nirmal, Secretary general, Indian Roads Congress, IRC HQ, Sector-6, R.K. Puram,
Kama Koti marg, New Delhi - 110 022. Printed by Shri S.K. Nirmal on behalf of the Indian Roads Congress
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