Solid Mechanics 189


loading

Elastic
limit
Unloading

Dissipated


Permanent Elastic
Set Set
Malleability
It is the property of material which allow material to be extended in all
direction without rupture like sheets. A malleable matrial possess high degree
of plasticity but not necessary great strength
Plasticity: The characteristics of material by which it undergoes inelastic
strain beyond those at the elastic limit. The plasticity is particular useful in
the operation of pressing & forging
Creep: Property by virtue of which a material undergoes additional
defromation (over & above due to applied load) with passage of time under
sustained loading with in elastic limit
Relaxation: The decrease in stress in steel as a result of creep with in
steel under prolonged strain

Strain

Elastic
recovery

Permanent
Elastic plastic strain
strain
Time

Brittleness
 In brittle materials, strain at rupture is much smaller as compared to
ductile material (rupture strain is elastic).
 In brittle materials, rupture occurs without any noticeable prior change
in the rate of elongation.
190 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

 There is no plastic zone for brittle material.

 Ordinary glass is nearly ideal brittle material.
 Brittleness is not an absolute property of material. A material which is
brittle at room temperature is ductile at elevated temperature.
 Generally in brittle post elastic strain <5%
 Generally in ductile post elastic strain >5%
Special Point: Ductile material must have low degree of elasticity & this
is useful in wire drawing
Reloading: Proportional limit increases from B to C but ductility
decreases ‘B to F’ to ‘C to F’

F
C
B

Reloading

Fatigue: Deterioration of a material under repeated cycles of stress or

strain resulting in progressive cracking that eventually producess fracture.
Fatigue failure occur if total strain energy > toughness
Endurance limit: Stress level below which even large number of stress
cycle can not produce fatigue failure.
1
For structural steel, Endurance limit = × ultimate strength
2

Stress

Endurance
limit
For ferrous material

No of cycle
 Solid Mechanics 191

Stress

For Non-ferrous
materials

Cycle
Resilience
 It is the property/ability of a material to absorb energy when it is deformed
elastically & then upon unloading to have this energy recovered.
 Hence greater the resilience more desirable is the material for spring
action.
 Area under load-deformation curve within elastic limit is called
resilience.
 The area under stress strain curve within elastic limit is called modulus
of resilience.
Elastic limit
y

Area of shaded portion

= modulus of resilience


2y
Strain energy stored per unit volume =
2E
Toughness: Ability to absorb mechanical energy upto failure.
 It represents the ability to resist fracture.
 Toughness is desirable against impact loading
 Bend test is use to measure the toughness.
 The ability of the material to absorb energy till breaking/rupture/failure
takes place is known as toughness.
 Area under stress-strain curve upto fracture is called modulus of
toughness.
 As failure strain is more in ductile material. Hence Mild steel is more
tough than cast iron.
192 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

modulus of toughness

Toughness  Resists fracture

Hardness  Resists scratch or abrasion
Hardness
 Ability to resist scratch or abrasion.
 The higher the yield stress, higher is the hardness.
 Surface hardness is measured by carrying out nondestructive indentation
test.
Striker direction

Specimen
Notch Support

The Charpy impact test continues to be used as an economical quality

control method to determine the notch sensitivity & impact toughness
of engineering materials.
 Brinell hardness test is used for checking the hardness of a material.
 Brinell hardness test uses hardened steel ball (10 mm diameter) as an
indentor.
P
Brinnell Hardness Number 
πD 
D- D 2 -d 2 
2  
Where P = Standard load(kg), D = Dia. of steel ball (mm), d = Dia. of
indent (mm)
Tenacity: Property of material to resist fracuture under the action of
tensile load
 Solid Mechanics 193

Special Points: As the percentage carbon in steel increases.

(a) The ductility of steel member decrease.
(b) Strength of the steel member increases.
(c) Brittleness of the steel member increases.
(d) Hardness also increases.

Material Percentage carbon

Wrought iron (purest < 0.1%
from of Iron)
Steel 0.10–0. 25%
High carbon steel 0.55–0.95%
Cast Iron 2.00–4.00%
From above table, if we go from top material to bottom material, then
ductility decreases (ductility of cast iron is low as it brittle material) &
strength, brittleness are increased.
Special Point:
 Modulus of elasticity of steel = 2 ×105 MPa & is same for all Grade
of steel.
Stress-strain curve for various steel grade.

Fe500 (HYSD)

Fe415
Stress (MPu)

Fe250

Strain

 From stress-strain curve, we can say that initial slope of stress-strain

curve ( modulus of elasticity) is same for all grade of steel.
 Also, the % strain before failure decreases as the grade of steel
increases which means that with increase in carbon content ductility
of steel decreases.
 As the grade of steel increases means carbon contaent increases.
194 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Note:With increase in carbon content in steel, toughness of steel will

decrease.
(a) Toughnes is the ability to absorb mechanical energy upto failure.
(b) Cast iron having high % carbon has low toughness than the mild
steel having low % carbon.
Visco-Elastic material Materials having both Viscous & Elastic
properties & exhibit time dependent strain.
Approximate stress-strain curves

Elastic - Plastic
Elastic - Plastic Ideal-Fluid
with strain hardening
Hoke’s law:- It’s valid only for Homogenous, Isotropic & linearly
elastic materials
 
Deformation of member under axial load

L
1.

P
Area A
P
PL

AE
2.
A1 E1 L1

A2 E2 L2

A3 E3 L3

  1   2   3
 Solid Mechanics 197

p E
K 
 v 3 1  2 
x   y  z
For Hydrostatic Pressure =   x   y  z   
3
Special Points:
(i) Stretching of material in one direction will lead to increase in volume
(ii) Volume of rod remains unchanged as a result of combined effect of
elongation & transverse condition.
(iii) During plastic deformation, volume of specimen remains constant.
(iv) In Pure Shear case  centre of mohr circle will fall at origion.
(v) In hydrostatic loading  Mohr circle reduces to a point.
Shearing Strain:
1. Hooke’s law for shearing stress & strain
 xy  G xy
2. If only shearing stresses are acting, then volume of the specimen does
not change.
E
3. Modulas of rigidity or shear modulus G, G
2 1    as
E E
0    0.5 , then G
3 2
Relationship between Elastic Constants

E E 9KG 3K  2G
G K E 
2 1    3 1  2  3K  G 6K  2G
Young’s modulus of elasticity of
Wood = 0.12 × 105 N/mm2
Glass = 0.8 × 105 N/mm2
Copper = 1.17 × 105 N/mm2
Aluminium = 0.69 × 105 N/mm2
No. of Independent Elastic Constants & total Elastic Constants
1. Homogenous & Isotorpic  2 (4)
2. Orthotropic (wood)  9 (12)
3. Anisotropic  21 (Infinity)
198 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Residual stress: When some part of an indeterminate structure undergoes

plastic deformation or different part undergoes different plastic deformation.
The stress in different parts of the structure will not return to zero after the
load removal. These stresses are known as Residual stresses.
Thermal Stress and Strain
  ET ,  L  Lt
Lt
Strain (  )  = t
L
 Aluminum   Brass   Copper  Steel (CIVIL Ki GOLI - A > B > C > S)

Special Points:
(a) Principle of superposition is applicable only when stress is within
proportional limit
(b) If temperature is increased & member is restrained, then force
produced is compressive. If temperature is decreased the force
produced is tensile.
(c) When bar is not restrained, then there will be no induced temperature
stresses due to change in temperature.
Note:

Compression force
Copper
Steel Tension force

Final elongation

Coefficient of thermal expansion of copper is more than steel, as copper

will try to expand more but its expansion will be restrained by steel because
both will move together by same amount (composite bar). Hence copper
will be in compression & steel in tension.
202 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

(b) Slope of Bending moment diagram = Shear force at that section.

dM
V
dx

Special Point : V   Wx dx , M   Vdx

M final  M initial = Area under the SFD between those two sections.
Loading Shear Diagram, Moment Diagram,
dv dM
=W =V
dx dx
VR

P VL
mL MR
MR
VL
VR ML
(i)
Zero slope
VL VR +ve constant
slope

ML 0 MR VR
VL
(ii) VL
VR MR
VL VR ML

WL –W1 VR
WL MR
ML –W2 VL
VL
(iii) VL MR
ML
VL VR –Ve increasing slope +ve decreasing slope

mL m MR ML
(iv) MR
Zero slope

WL –W1 VR
ML WL MR –W2
VL
MR
(v) ML
-ve ( decreasing
VL VR slope) +ve (decreasing slope)

P
+ve P –
(A) (ii) (iii) –pl
I SFD BMD
 Solid Mechanics 203

slope=0
2
W0 W0I
WoI + 2
(B)
I SFD
Slope = WbI
BMD

W1 Slope = – W0 2
–
W0I
Slope = 0 Slope = 0
Wo I 6
2oCurve 3oCurve
(C) 2 +
Wo I
– BMD
I SFD 2

(D) Slope= Pab

P Pb + C B a+b
A a b B a+b Pb
A – Pa a+b Slope=
c SFD – a+b Pa
a+b
a BMD b

2
Wc I
Slope = 0
8 Slope = 0
Wc Wo I Slope =
Slope =
(E) 2
SFD Wo I Wo I
W I
2 2 – o
BMD 2

wl 2
9 3
Wl 2oCurve

W0 6 Wl 3oCurve
l –
(F) 3
3
SFD l
3 BMD

Wo I
Slope =
4 3oCurve
0
Parabolic
Wo I +
(G) 4 Wo I
!
loading SFD 4 2
Wo I
BMD
12
204 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Deflection of
Beams 3
Deflection of structure is caused by its internal loading such as Normal
force, Shear force, Bending Moment, Torsion.
For Beams and Frames major deflection due to Bending. For Trusses,
deflection is caused by internal Axial Forces
 Deflection of a beam is inversely proportional to the flexural rigidity i.e.
El, where E is elastic modulus which is a property of a material where as
l is moment of inertia which depends upon dimension of section.
 Deflection decreases by
(a) Providing stronger material (E)
(b) Increasing moment of inertia (l), Increase in depth will increase more
moment of inertia compared to width.
(c) Decrease length of the beam & load on the beam.

Loading Deflection Slopes

Pl3 Pl2
 
l  3EI 2EI

w
wL4 wL3
  
8EI 6EI

P
PL3 PL2
 
 48EI 16EI
 Solid Mechanics 205

 ML2 ML
 
2EI EI

l
5 wL4 wL3

 
384 EI 24EI
P
1  PL3 
  
 4  48EI 

1  5 wL4 
  
5  384 EI 
P
a b Pa 2 b 2

 3EIL

P
Pa 3 b3

 3EIL3
m
 ML


24EI
W

wL4 wL3
 
30EI 24EI

2L/3 m
ML2 ML
   
27EI 4EI
m0
L/ 3
ML2 ML ML
   A  B 
 9 3EI 6EI 3EI
A B
206 Civil Booster (Civil Ki Goli Publication 9255624029)

Maxwell's Reciprocal Theorem: In any beam, frame or truss, the

deflection at any point due to load P at any point A is equal to deflection at
any point A due to load P at any point B.
P P
A B A
B


A  B

S m
A B A
B
A  B
 

A W B W
A B
   2  2 1

Methods of determining slope and deflection at a point

(i) Double Integration Method  Gives deflection only due to bending

d2 y M d  dy  M d M
2
    =  dx  EI
dx EI dx  dx  EI
Where,EI = Flexural rigidity
Flexural rigidity
Flexural Stififness = Length
dM ) d3 y V d4 y W
d 3y ( dx  
  
d3x 3 EI dx 3 EI dx 4 EI
dV
d 4 y ( dx )

dx 4 EI
(ii) Moment Area Method - Mohr’s Method: It requires understanding
of geometry of deflected shape & applicable only when deflected shape
is continuous.
x(+ve)

OB/A
 Solid Mechanics 223

Cross-section distribution Shear stress

3
(a) Rectangle max  .avg
2
avg
 = avg at distance
d from neutral axis
2 3
d max d/2 3
d
2 3

V
b avg 
bd
3
(b) Triangular max = 2
avg
V
b avg 
Area
= 1.5avg.(at h/2)

V NA = 4/3 avg
1/ 2bh
N A NA = 1.33avg
h max Distance betwen
h/2 N.A. & max
location = h/6
4
(c) Circular max = 3
avg
v
  
avg avg C / s Area

V
 2
= 1.33 avg (at R/2
d
4
distance from
R/2 neutral axis)
max
R/2

9
(d) Diamond max = 8
avg
max

h
h/4
N A h/4
h

2h avg
V
avg 
Area
V

bh
(e) Hollow circular
section max = 2avg
max
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CIVIL ENGINEERING FACTS
1. John Smeaton is known as the Father of CIVIL Engineering.
2. Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya is the first INDIAN CIVIL Engineer.
3. India celebrates Engineer's Day on 15 September every year as a tribute to
the greatest Indian Engineer Bharat Ratna Mokshagundam Visvesvaraya.
4. Shakuntala A. Bhagat is the first INDIAN Woman CIVIL Engineer.
5. Elattuvalapil Sreedharan is known as "Metro Man" of India.
6. George Stephenson, an English Civil engineer and mechanical engineer, is
known as Father of Railway Engineering.
7. Elmina Wilson was the first woman to receive a Bachelor of civil engineering
degree at Iowa State College, and the first one to complete her master's
degree in the field. She was known as the "first lady of structural
engineering", she collaborated with Marston to build the 168-foot-tall Ames,
Iowa, water tower, the first raised steel tower west of the Mississippi.
8. Karl Von Terzaghi, Austrian Civil Engineer,Geotechnical Engineer and
Geologist known as "Father of Soil Mechanics"
9. Ludwig Prandtl changed the field of the fluid mechanics and is called the
modern father of fluid mechanics because
10. Stepan Prokopovych Timoshenko is consider to be the father of modern
engineering mechanics.
11. The survey of India is central engineering agency in-charge of mapping
and surveying, set up in 1767.
12. George Everest was surveyor-general of India, under whom great
Trigonometrical survey (1802-1852) was completed and Mount Everest was
named in his honour by Andrew Scott Waugh.
13. Qutub Minar, is the tallest minaret in the world made up of Bricks. Qutub
Minar is 73-metre (239.5 feet) tall tapering tower of five storeys, with a
14.3 metres (47 feet) base diameter, reducing to 2.7 metres (9 feet) at the
top of the peak. It is having a spiral staircase of 379 steps. It's design is
thought to have been based on the minaret of Jam, in western Afghanistan.
14. Golden Quadrilateral is the largest highway project in India and the fifth
longest in the world. The project was launched in 2001 by Atal Bihari
Vajpayee and was completed in 2012. It consists of 5,846 km (3,633 mile)
four/six lane express highways.
15. Taj Mahal is an ivory white marble on the south bank of the Yamuna river
in the in Agra (UP). It was built for Mumtaz Mahal by Shah Jahan.
16. Indira Gandhi Canal is the longest canal in india and largest irrigation project
in the world. It is 649 km long and runs through Haryana, Punjab and
Rajasthan.

F
 CIVIL Ki GOLI PUBLICATION
17. Tehri Dam is located on the Bhagirathi river, Uttarakhand. It is the highest
dam (261 meters) in India and 8th tallest dam in the world. It is a Earth and
rock-fill type dam.
18. Bhakra Nangal Dam is a concrete gravity dam across the Sutlej river,
Himachal Pradesh.
19. Hirakund dam is a composite dam built across the Mahanadi River in Orissa.
It is one of the longest dams in the world about 26 km in length.
20. Nagarjuna Sagar dam is the world's largest Masonry dam with a height of
124 meters, built accross krishna River in Andhra Pradesh.
21. Kizhi Pogost situated on Kizhi island in north-west Russia stands as the
worlds largest-standing structure built entirely from Wood.
22. India is the world's 2nd largest cement producer and consumer.
23. The Great wall of China is wall built in 220-206 BC by Qin Shi Huang. It is
made of stone, brick, tamped earth, wood and other materials.
24. The Cantilever railway bridge is the second longest sea bridge in India (after
Bandra-Worli Sea Link) with a total length of nearly 2.065 km. The Pamban
Bridge is India's first sea bridge and third longest rail bridge of India. It is
build across the Palk Strait water body.
25. Pir Panjal Tunnel is the India's longest (10.96 km) railway tunnel in Jammu
& Kashmir.
26. Bandra Worli Sea Link is a cable Stayed bridge with pre-stressed concrete-
steel viaducts on either side that links Bandra in the Western Suburbs of
Mumbai with Worli in South Mumbai.
27. John smeaton pioneered The use of 'hydraulic lime', which led to discovery
of modern cement.
28. An Indian company erected a 10-storey structure in 48 hours in Mohali,
Chandigarh. The man responsible, Harpal Singh, chairman and managing
director of Synergy Thrislington, says he made Instacon - short for "instant
construction" -to show the world that it could be done in India.
29. The Delhi Metro is the world's 10th longest metro system in length and
16th largest in ridership.
30. The Godavari Bridge also known as Kovvur Rajahmundry bridge over river
Godavari in Rajahmundry is Asia's second longest road-cum-rail bridge
crossing a water body. The 2.7 kilometres long bridge has two lanes of road
single railway line.
31. The Kathipara Junction of Chennai is the largest cloverleaf interchanges in
India and largest cloverleaf flyover in the whole of Asia. Kathipara cloverleaf
grade separator is located at the intersection of Grand Southern Trunk Road,
Inner Ring Road, Poonamallee road and Anna Salai.
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