Research Methodology Notes: Section:A

Section :A
Research
Methodology
Notes
Karan Veer
Singh
Research Methodology 5 th Semester
Table of Contents
I. Research Design 3
A.Research Process 3
B.The research Design 4
II. Sampling 7
A.Important statistical terms 7
B.Sampling Process 7
C.Types Of sampling 8
1. Probability sampling 8
2. Non probability sampling 9
D. Sampling Errors 10
III. Data Collection Methods 11

A.Types of data collection methods 11
B.Multi Methods 15
IV. Measurement and scaling 16

A.Scales 16
B.Rating Scales 17
C.Ranking scales 19
D. Questions format 20
E.‘Bad Questions’ 21
F. Question sequence 22
G.Questionnaire layout 22
H. Questionnaire pretesting 22
I. Questionnaire translation 23
V. Criteria for Good Measures 24

A.Measuring Reliability 24
B.Measuring Validity 25
Revision Notes For Final 2 | Page


I. Research Design
A. Research Process
1.1.Observation
Observation
Broad
Broadarea
areaofof
research
researchinterest
interest
identified
identified 4.4.
Theoretical
Theoretical
Framework
Framework
3.3.Problem
Problem 5.5. 6.6.
Definition
Definition Generation
Generation Scientifi
Scientif
Variables
Variables
Research
Researchproblem
problem ofof Researc
Resear
clearly
clearly
delineated
delineated Hypothesis
Hypothesis Design
Design
identified
identified
and
and
labelled
labelled
2.2.Preliminary
Preliminary
Data
DataGathering
Gathering
Interviewing
Interviewing 8
Literature
Literaturesurvey
survey H
R
No
No Yes
Yes
9.9.Report
Report 10.
10.Re
Re
Writing
Writing Present
Presen
1. Observation ✔ Interviewing
✔ First Step of the Research Process ✔ Literature surveys
✔ area of attention realized ✔ Usually costly
2. preliminary data gathering 3. problem definition

✔ Collecting First hand information ✔ scope of problem defined

✔ issues that need to be focused on 8. Deduction

✔ Conclusions are made out of analysis and
4. theoretical framework interpretation
✔ Variables Clearly identified and labeled ✔ The hypothesis is tested
✔ Dimensions of study defined ✔ Whether Hypothesis sustained or not
✔ Relationship among variables recognized ✔ Is Research question answered?
✔ Further research required?
5. generation of hypothesis
✔ Developing of a hypothesis statement 9. report writing
based on literature review ✔ Conclusions and findings are listed
✔ Usually tested at the end of research
✔ Can be directional or non directional 10. report presentation
hypothesis ✔ Report made listing conclusions and
drawings from research
6. scientific research design ✔ Contains recommendations and suggestions
✔ discussed later in this document ✔ might interest to the stake holders of the
research area
7. data collection analysis and
interpretation 11. managerial decision making
✔ Data is collected at this stage ✔ decisions are made based on the results
✔ Once gathered, it is analyzed and derived from the research
interpreted
B. The research Design

1. Purpose of Study
Exploratory study
The research is exploratory if it is the following:
▪ Situation is unknown
▪ Exclusively based on Preliminary information
▪ Comprehensive study of the topic
▪ Focus groups and comprehensive interviews are appropriate
Example: Ethical values of different Cultures to manage workforce diversity
Descriptive Study
The research is said to be descriptive if the following occurs:
▪ Description of features of the variables

▪ Data is quantitative ( coded or otherwise) for calculation of Mean, Percentages, Std. Deviation
A descriptive study also does the following:

▪ Understand characteristics
▪ Think systematically
▪ Offer ideas for further probe and research
▪ Helps in decision making
Testing Hypothesis
▪ Explain nature of relationships among the variables and their dimensions
▪ Differences and interdependences among factors
Example: sales volume –promotion efforts
Case Study
▪ conceptual analysis of similar situations for generalization
▪ Difficult to find same type of problem in comparable setting
2. Type of Investigation
Causal Relationship Co-Relation
Establish definite cause of a problem. Identify important factors associated with

A causal relationship means that one things problem.
leads to another. A Co-relation means that two factors are
related to each other in any possible way.
Example: does smoking causes cancer?
Example: are smoking and cancer related?
3. Researcher Interference
Minimal Interference
When research studies in natural settings without changing or altering any factor whatsoever
Example: training effectiveness based on data
Researcher has some Interference
Manipulation, control or simulation of the environment
The analyst controls variables or factors
Example: effect of light on worker output
4. Study Setting
Non contrived Contrived

▪ Controlled settings
▪ natural setting- like field experiment ▪ Either specific or number of settings

(1) Field Study
▪ Non-contrived setting as no changes were made
Example: rates of interest related to extent of deposits?
(2) Field Experiment
▪ Controlled settings
▪ Some factors are manipulated
(3) Lab Experiment
▪ independent variable changed to see effect on dependant
▪ Contrived settings and maximum interferences
Example: to study relationship of rate of interest on inclination to save the rates of interest in various
branches are changed
5. Units of Analysis
1. Individuals 4. Organizations
Study motivation of employees
Differences among functions of management in
2. Dyads various organizations
Interaction of supervisor-subordinate pair
5. Cultures
3. Group Nations as unit of analysis
Pattern of misuse by various departments
6. Time Horizon
Cross Sectional
One shot study-one time or period
Example: data study of stock market April-June
Longitudinal
Study of information at more than one period of time e.g.: change in behavior of employees before and
after management change.

▪ Initially it needs to be defined.
2. Define the Sampling frame

▪
▪ II.Sampling
List the sources from where the sample is drawn
The basis on which samples are selected
3. Determine the Sample Design

▪ A. sampling
Probability or Non-probability Important statistical terms
1.
4. Population
Determine the appropriate sample size
Population
▪ Therefers to the
amount entire set
of sample of interest
should be largeofenough
the researcher.
to represent the entire population yet small
2. enough
Sampleto make it easier to analyze and research.
5. ▪ Sample
Execute is the
a limited number
Sampling of subjects chosen from the population for research.
Process
▪▪ It is a subset
Method of population.
of selecting sampling units from sampling frame
▪ Sample is usually taken to get information when it is impossible to research due to a large
population
C. Types Of sampling
1. Probability sampling
A probability sample is one in which each element of the population has a known non-zero probability
of selection. Each subject has a known probability of being selected.
Allows application of statistical sampling theory to results to:

▪ Generalise
▪ Test hypotheses
Probability samples are the best, they ensure

▪ Representativeness
▪ Precision
Simple random sampling

Merely choosing anyone from anywhere, no order no criteria
▪ Each element in the population has an equal probability of selection AND each combination of
elements has an equal probability of selection
▪ Names drawn out of a hat
▪ Random numbers to select
▪ elements from an ordered list
Systematic sampling
Developing a pattern to select the sample, every 4th element or every tenth element etc
▪ Involves drawing every nth element in the population starting with a randomly chosen element
between 1 and n

Stratified sampling
▪ Probability sampling procedure in which simple random sub samples that are more or less equal
on some characteristics are drawn from within each stratum of the population
▪ Each group is internally homogenous but there are comparative differences between groups.
Double sampling
Selection of a sample for research and then a subset of the sample for further research
▪ A sampling design where initially a sample is used in a study to collect some preliminary
information of interest and later a subsample of this primary sample is used to examine the
matter in more detail.
Multi-stage sampling
▪ First step cluster sampling (for geographical location); next particular area would be chosen and
at third stage particular units would be chosen.
Cluster sampling
▪ Groups that have heterogeneous members are first identified, and then some are chosen at
random.
▪ Each group is internally heterogeneous but groups are homogeneous on some characteristic.
▪ All the members in each of the randomly chosen groups are studied.
▪ Target population is first divided into clusters and then random sample of clusters is drawn
2. Non probability sampling

▪ When probability of being chosen is unknown
▪ Cheaper but unable to generalise
▪ potential for biasness
Types of Non-Probability Sampling
(1) Convenience Sampling

▪ Ease of Access
▪ Sample is selected from elements of a population that are easily accessible to the
researcher
▪ Snowball sampling (friend of friend….etc.)
(2) Purposive Sampling
❖ Judgemental
▪ Select subjects who are in the best position to give the required information.
▪ Experts etc
❖ Quota sample
▪ Predetermined proportions of subjects are sampled from different groups.

D. Sampling Errors
1. Error 1
Random Sampling Error
This is defined as the “difference between the sample result and the result of a census conducted using
identical procedures” and is the result of chance variation in the selection of sampling units
▪ If samples are selected properly the sample is usually deemed to be a good

approximation of the population and thus capable of delivering an accurate result
▪ Usually, the random sampling error arising from statistical fluctuation is small, but
sometimes the margin of error can be significant
▪ Increasing the sample size will reduce this error.
2. Error 2
Systematic (Non-Sampling) Errors
These errors result from factors such as:
▪ an improper research design that causes response error ,

▪ errors committed in the execution of the research,
▪ errors in recording responses and
▪ non-responses from individuals who were not contacted or who refused to
participate
Both Random sampling errors and systematic (non-sampling) errors reduce the representativeness of a
sample and consequently the value of the information which is derived by business researchers from it

III. Data Collection

Methods
A. Types of data collection methods
1. Questionnaires
Questionnaire Design
(1) Definition
▪ A reformulated, written set of questions to which the respondent records his answers, usually
within rather closely defined alternatives
(2) When to use a Questionnaire

▪ When researcher knows precisely what information is needed
▪ When large numbers of people are to be reached in different geographical regions
▪ When groups of people can be assembled in conference rooms to which questionnaire can be
administered and collected immediately.
(3) Principles of Questionnaire Design
❖ Measurement
❖ Word content
❖ General Appearance and Get-up
(4) Questionnaire Administration and Data Collection
(5) Advantages of a Questionnaire

▪ Helps researched obtain data fairly easy
▪ Information from questionnaires is easily coded
▪ Benefits the scientific community if the measure are well validated and are reliable
Two types of questionnaires
(6) Personally administered

▪ To groups of people ▪ Return rate is high
▪ Possible to establish right amount of ▪ Doubts of the respondents can be
rapport with respondents clarified at the spot

(7) Mail Surveys
❖ Advantages
▪ Wide geographic coverage
▪ No face to face interaction awkwardness
▪ Can be answered at home and at own pace
❖ Disadvantages
▪ Low return rates
▪ Clarifications can’t be made
▪ Respondents can’t be observed at all
▪ Representatives of samples difficult to establish because return rates are low
Guidelines
(1) Purpose
▪ To get at objective facts or subjective feelings and perceptions
(2) Wording and Language

▪ Would respondent understand the ▪ Are the questions recall-dependent?
words in the questionnaire? ▪ Does any question prompts social
▪ Are the questions ambiguous? desirability?
▪ Are there double barreled questions? ▪ Does the length of question exceed 20
▪ Are there loaded questions? words or one line of print?
(3) Type of Question
❖ Open ended
▪ Freedom to answer a question any way ▪ Could be a problem for the researcher
the respondent wants to encode the response
❖ Closed ended
▪ Easy to interpret the code ▪ Alternatives that are mutually exclusive
▪ Respondents can make quick decision and collectively exhaustive are given.
(4) Form of question

▪ Both positively and negatively worded to reduce response bias or halo effect

(5) Sequencing of question

The funnel approach:
▪ From general to specific
▪ From easy to difficult
(6) Classification of Data

▪ Personal Information or Demographic Data
▪ Whether personal information is required?
▪ What data is required? Income, marital etc
▪ Should a range be given, if yes what are the appropriate ranges?
▪ Personal and demographic should be asked in the beginning or end?
2. Interviews
Structured Unstructured
▪ Saves times ▪ Useful during exploratory states of a
▪ helps to code information better research
▪ inter-rater reliability could be ▪ helps develop better theoretical
established through trained framework
interviewers ▪ helps develop better questionnaires
and structured interviews
Face to face or direct interviews

(1) Advantages (2) Disadvantages
▪ Can change or adapt/ adopt questions ▪ Costly
▪ Can pick up non verbal cues ▪ Geographic limitations
▪ Can clarify doubts ▪ Reliability of measure may suffer
● Interviewer bias (different interpretation)

● Inter-rater reliability (differences in interpretations between interviewers)
▪ Voice inflection and interviewer conditioning the subjects may introduce response biases
▪ Confidentiality rather difficult to be assured of
Telephonic interviews
(1) Advantages
▪ Discomfort of face to face interviews avoided
▪ Number of calls per day could be high
(2) Disadvantages
▪ Time may be limited for the respondent.
▪ Interviewee could put the phone down and refuse to answer

Tips for interviews
▪ Interviews can be taped with the permission of the interviewee

▪ Cameras can be used to capture the non verbal cues of the interviewee and can be studied at
leisure by researcher
▪ Training of interviewees necessary to establish inter-rater reliability
2. Observation
Types of observation
(1) Participant
Participates in the environment and makes an observation.
(2) Non participant

Merely observes without interfering or making amendments.
Advantages
▪ Sample size could be increased at less costs
▪ Respondent bias could be avoided
▪ Both bevavirual and non-verbal reactions could be studied
Disadvantages
▪ Observer fatigue could set in ▪ Inter-observer reliability problems
▪ Observer bias ▪ Costs of observer training could be high
3. Motivational Research
Types of Motivational research
(1) In-depth probing
(2) Word association
(3) Sentence completion
(4) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
(5) Ink blot Tests
4. Panel Studies
Mostly used in Market Research
Examples: advertising effects, Product improvements, Brand comparison etc
Types of panel studies

Static Dynamic
▪ Same members throughout ▪ Members substituted from time to time

Advantages
▪ Panel gains expertise and can give ‘good’ data
▪ Longitudinal study could establish cause-effect relations
Disadvantages
▪ Could be expensive
▪ Attrition of members with time
▪ Panel could lose interest after a while
B. Multi Methods
Data from different sources and through different methods could improve the ‘goodness’ of the data.
● Interview
● Observation
● Questionnaire
● Same-source and other-source data
● Objective measure ( physical measurement, counting, etc)
Example: Performance data get from all the above sources. See how they correlate

II.Measurement and scaling

A. Scales
1. Nominal
Allows researcher to assign subjects to certain categories or groups, the Categories should be mutually
exclusive and exhaustive.
▪ It Splits data into groups.
Example: Gender
❑ Male
❑ Female
2. Ordinal
Allows researcher to characterize the variables in such a way so as to
denote differences among various categories and also rank them in some
order.
▪ Ranks data in some order.
Example: Studying for 2 hours daily is good, for 4 hours is

better and studying 6 hours a day is best.
3. Interval
An interval scale allows us to perform certain arithmetic operations on the
data collected from the respondents
▪ Sets data on a continuum.
Example: very low- very high

Negative extreme to positive extreme
4. Ratio
The ratio scale overcomes the disadvantage of the arbitrary origin point of the interval scale, in that it
has an absolute (in contrast to arbitrary) zero point, which is meaningful measurement point
▪ Starts with zero and indicates proportion
Example: how many organizations did you work for before joining this system?

B. Rating Scales
▪ Asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object
possesses
▪ The respondent’s position on a scale(s) is where he or she would rate an object
There are 11 rating scales
1. Category Scale
A category scale is a more sensitive measure than a scale having only two response categories - it
provides more information.
How important were the following in your decision to visit Switzerland? (Check one for each item)
VERY SOMEWHAT NOT TOO
IMPORTANT IMPORTANT IMPORTANT
CLIMATE ___________ ___________ ___________
COST OF TRAVEL ___________ ___________ ___________
FAMILY ORIENTED ___________ ___________ ___________
FAMILIARITY WITH AREA ___________ ___________ ___________
2. Likert Scale
It is an extremely popular means for measuring attitudes. Respondents indicate their own attitudes by
checking how strongly they agree or disagree with statements.
Response alternatives: “strongly agree”, “agree”, “uncertain”, “disagree”, and “strongly disagree”.
3. Numerical Scale
Numerical scales have numbers as response options, rather than “semantic space’ or verbal
descriptions, to identify categories (response positions).
4. Semantic Differential Scale

A series of seven-point bipolar rating scales. Bipolar adjectives, such as “good” and “bad”, anchor both
ends (and poles) of the scale.
A weight is assigned to each position on the rating scale. Traditionally, scores are 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2, 1, or +3,
+2, +1, 0, -1, -2, -3.
n Exciting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Calm
n Interesting ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : Dull
n Passive ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ : ___ Active

5. Itemized Rating Scale
6. Fixed or Constant Sum Rating Scale
Divide 100 points among each of the following brands according to your preference for the brand:
1. Brand A _________
2. Brand B _________
3. Brand C _________
▪ Magnitude of each alternative known
▪ Equal value can be indicated.
▪ Too many can confuse
7. Staple Scale
Modern versions of the Staple scale place a single adjective as a substitute for the semantic differential
when it is difficult to create pairs of bipolar adjectives.
The advantage and disadvantages of a Staple scale, as well as the results, are very similar to those for a
semantic differential. However, the staple scale tends to be easier to conduct and administer.
8. Graphic Rating Scale

A graphic rating scale presents respondents with a graphic continuum.
Easy to construct and simple to use, can discern fine distinctions,

but not very reliable, can be treated as interval data.
9. Simple Attitude Scaling

In its most basic form, attitude scaling requires that an individual agree
with a statement or respond to a single question. This type of self-rating
scale merely classifies respondents into one of two categories.
THE PRESIDENT SHOULD RUN FOR RE-ELECTION 3

_______ AGREE ______ DISAGREE 1
10. Dichotomous Scale Very
11. Consensus Scale Very
Good
Poo

C. Ranking scales
Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank order a small number of objects in overall performance
on the basis of some characteristic or stimulus.
Following are the ranking scales

Rank order scale
Rank the following in order of preference, 1 being the most preferred and 3 the least:
▪ Brand A _________
▪ Brand B _________
▪ Brand C _________
Paired comparison
In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two objects at a time and asked to pick the
one they prefer.
Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a few products are compared, but as
the number of items increases, the number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n -1)/2).
▪ It causes fatigue and respondent no longer carefully discriminate among them.
Example: Which support provides you more motivation to complete your task?
Friends support family support
Comparative scaling
▪ Provides a benchmark to assess attitudes toward current object, event or situation
understudy.
Example: Please indicate how the amount of authority in your present position compares with the
amount of authority that would be ideal for this position.
TOO MUCH ABOUT RIGHT TOO LITTLE
Forced choice
A Forced Choice enables respondents to rank objects relative to one another, among the alternatives
provided.
Example: Rank the following channels you like to watch in the order of preference, assigning 1 to the
most preferred choice and 5 to the least preferred.
▪ Duniya ▪ Express
▪ Geo ▪ Samaa
Two important guidelines are:

1. Relevancy 🡪 ask only questions that are relevant to the research objective

2. Accuracy 🡪 ask only questions that will provide accurate information
D. Questions format
▪ Need to decide how “what is to be asked” should be phrased
▪ Alternative question formats are shown below
▪ Each format has its advantages and disadvantages
1. Open ended
Respondent answers in his own words
Example : Why do you like studying at UCP?
2. Closed ended
Respondent selects one or more options from pre-determined set of responses.
Simple dichotomy 🡪 Closed ended question with only two response alternatives
Example: What do you consult while preparing for the examination?

PPT-slides prescribed course literature
Multiple Choice 🡪 Closed ended question with more than two response alternatives
(1) Checklist question

Multiple choice questions in which respondent can select more than one of the response alternatives.
What sources of information would you use to compile your research paper:
❑ Local bookstores ❑ The Digital library

❑ University libraries ❑ Technical Journals
❑ Research Institutes ❑ Magazines and Newspapers
Response categories provided for each close-ended question should be mutually

exclusive and exhaustive
❖ Mutually Exclusive
Response categories must be such that the same respondent cannot be classified into more
than one category.
Example: the categories $1,000-5,000 and $5,000-10,000 are not mutually exclusive.
❖ Mutually Exhaustive
Response categories should include all possible response options. Sometimes this is achieved
by including a response option like “Other (Please specify)….”

E. ‘Bad Questions’
▪ Avoid complexity: use simple, conversational language.
▪ Avoid leading and loaded questions.
▪ Avoid ambiguity: be as specific as possible.
▪ Avoid double barreled items.
▪ Avoid making assumptions.
▪ Avoid burdensome questions.
1. Leading
A question that suggests or implies a certain answer
▪ The bandwagon effect

Example: Most Saudis have stopped eating junk food. Do you eat junk food?
▪ Partially mentioning some alternatives

Examples: which fast food restaurant do you prefer, Pizza Hut or others?
▪ Questions with the phrase: “Don’t you think that ...”
2. Loaded
A question that is designed to suggest a socially desirable answer, usually it is emotionally charged.
▪ Choice of words
Using emotionally-charged words,
Example: In your opinion is it fair that the Security Dept should be harassing students with parking
tickets?
Example: Do you think that older people should be laid off?
▪ Framing question such that honest answer is painful or embarrassing 🡪 use counter biasing
statement.
Example: There are pros and cons to retaining senior citizens in the workforce. To what extent do you
think firms should continue to keep the elderly on their payroll?
3. Double barreled
Introduces bias because it covers two issues at once
I am satisfied with my master’s level performance. My bachelor’s performance was also

satisfying
▪ Highly satisfied ▪ Somewhat dissatisfied

▪ Somewhat Satisfied ▪ Completely dissatisfied
▪ Neither satisfied nor dissatisfied

F. Question sequence
Two related issues:
1. Order of questions in questionnaire.
2. Order of answer alternatives for specific questions.
Both can lead to order bias.
Order of questions
▪ Use simple, interesting opening questions
Example: asking for respondent’s opinion on an issue.
▪ Ask general questions before specific questions 🡪 funnel approach

▪ Use branching questions (filter & pivot) with care.
▪ Ask for classification information last.
▪ Place difficult or sensitive questions late in questionnaire.
▪ Finish asking questions on one topic before moving to another.
G. Questionnaire layout
▪ Keep questionnaire short if possible, but not too short that you sacrifice needed information
▪ Do not over crowd questionnaire
▪ Provide decent margin space
▪ Use multiple- grid layout for questions with similar responses
▪ Use good quality print paper.
▪ Use booklet form if possible
▪ Carefully craft the questionnaire title:
1. Captures respondent’s interest.
2. Shows importance of the study.
3. Shows interesting nature of the study.
H. Questionnaire pretesting
1. Pretesting Process
Seeks to determine whether respondents have any difficulty understanding the questionnaire and
whether there are any ambiguous or biased questions.
2. Preliminary Tabulation
A tabulation of the results of a pretest to help determine whether the questionnaire will meet the
objectives of the research

I. Questionnaire translation
1. Back Translation
▪ Taking a questionnaire that has previously been translated into another language and
having a second, independent translator translate it back to the original language.
▪ A questionnaire developed in one country may be difficult to translate because equivalent
language concepts do not exist or because of differences in idiom and language

III. Criteria for Good

Measures
Major criteria for evaluating measurements are reliability and validity.
▪ Reliability is an indicator of a measure’s internal consistency.

▪ Validity is the accuracy of a measure or to the extent to which a score truthfully represents a
concept. In other words, we are accurately measuring what we think we are measuring.
A. Measuring Reliability
Internal consistency represents a measure’s homogeneity or the extent to which each indicator of a
concept converges on a common meaning.
▪ Two methods used:
Split half
A method for assessing internal consistency by checking the results of one-half of a set of scaled items
against the results of the other half
Coefficient alpha
The most commonly applied estimate of a multiple-item scale’s reliability
▪ It represents the average of all split half reliabilities for a construct.

▪ Ranges from 0 to 1.
▪ When the coefficient is below 0.6, the scale has poor reliability.
▪ IN SPSS (Analysis -- Scale -- Reliability Analysis and Select items)
1. Test- Retest Reliability

▪ Administering the same measure to the same respondents at 2 separate points in time to test
for stability
▪ To check the stability of the measure over time
▪ Problems:
▪ First measure will influence the results when used for the second time.
▪ Change in attitude because of long time duration between the two measures.

B. Measuring Validity
The 4 basic approaches to establish validity are:
1. Face Validity
A scale’s content logically appears to reflect what was intended to be measured.
2. Content Validity
Is the degree that a measure covers the breadth of the domain of interest?
3. Criterion Validity
The ability of a measure to correlate with other standard measures of similar constructs or established
criteria
4. Construct Validity
Exists when a measure reliably measures and truthfully represents a unique concept; consists of several
components including face, content and criterion validity.

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Section :A

III. Data Collection Methods 11

IV. Measurement and scaling 16

V. Criteria for Good Measures 24

Revision Notes For Final 2 | Page

Revision Notes For Final 3 | Page

2. preliminary data gathering 3. problem definition

Revision Notes For Final 4 | Page

✔ issues that need to be focused on 8. Deduction

B. The research Design

Example: Ethical values of different Cultures to manage workforce diversity

▪ Description of features of the variables

A descriptive study also does the following:

Revision Notes For Final 5 | Page

Example: sales volume –promotion efforts

Causal Relationship Co-Relation

Establish definite cause of a problem. Identify important factors associated with

Example: training effectiveness based on data

Researcher has some Interference

Manipulation, control or simulation of the environment

The analyst controls variables or factors

Example: effect of light on worker output

Non contrived Contrived

Revision Notes For Final 6 | Page

(1) Field Study

▪ Non-contrived setting as no changes were made

Example: rates of interest related to extent of deposits?

(2) Field Experiment

▪ Some factors are manipulated

(3) Lab Experiment

▪ independent variable changed to see effect on dependant

▪ Contrived settings and maximum interferences

Example: data study of stock market April-June

Revision Notes For Final 7 | Page

▪ Initially it needs to be defined.

2. Define the Sampling frame

3. Determine the Sample Design

Allows application of statistical sampling theory to results to:

Probability samples are the best, they ensure

Simple random sampling

Revision Notes For Final 8 | Page

2. Non probability sampling

Types of Non-Probability Sampling

(1) Convenience Sampling

(2) Purposive Sampling

Revision Notes For Final 9 | Page

▪ If samples are selected properly the sample is usually deemed to be a good

These errors result from factors such as:

▪ an improper research design that causes response error ,

Revision Notes For Final 10 | Page

III. Data Collection

(2) When to use a Questionnaire

(3) Principles of Questionnaire Design

❖ General Appearance and Get-up

(4) Questionnaire Administration and Data Collection

(5) Advantages of a Questionnaire

Two types of questionnaires

(6) Personally administered

Revision Notes For Final 11 | Page

(7) Mail Surveys

(2) Wording and Language

(3) Type of Question

(4) Form of question

CLIMATE _____ _ _______

COST OF TRAVEL _____ _ _______

FAMILY ORIENTED _____ _ _______

FAMILIARITY WITH AREA _____ _ _______

n Exciting _ : _ : _ : _ : _ : _ : ___ : Calm

n Interesting _ : _ : _ : _ : _ : _ : ___ : Dull

n Passive _ : _ : _ : _ : _ : _ : ___ Active