Water and Wastewater Operators
2 and Their Roles
Our planet is shrouded in water, and yet 8 million children
under the age of five will die this year from lack of safe
water.
United Nations Environmental Program
2.1 WATER AND WASTEWATER
OPERATORS
To begin our discussion of water and wastewater opera-
tors, it is important that we point out a few significant
factors.
• Employment as a water and wastewater operator
is concentrated in local government and private
water supply and sanitary services companies.
• Postsecondary training is increasingly an asset
as the number of regulated contaminants grows
and treatment unit processes become more
complex.
• Operators must pass examinations certifying
that they are capable of overseeing various
treatment processes.
• Operators have a relatively high incidence of
on-the-job (OTJ) injuries.
To properly operate a water treatment and distribution
and/or a wastewater treatment and collection system usu-
ally requires a team of highly skilled personnel filling a
variety of job classifications. Typical positions include
plant manager/plant superintendent, chief operator, lead
operator, operator, maintenance operator, distribution
and/or interceptor system technicians, assistant operators,
laboratory professionals, and clerical personnel, to list just
a few.
Beyond the distinct job classification titles, over the
years those operating water and wastewater plants have
been called by a variety of titles. These include water
jockey, practitioner of water, purveyor of water, sewer rat,
or just plain water or wastewater operator. Based on our
experience we have come up with a title that perhaps more
closely characterizes what the water and wastewater oper-
ator really is: a jack-of-all-trades. This characterization
seems only fitting when you take into account the knowl-
edge and skills required of operators to properly perform
their assigned duties. Moreover, operating the plant or
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
distribution/collection system is one thing; taking sam-
ples, operating equipment, monitoring conditions, and
determining settings for chemical feed systems and high-
pressure pumps, along with performing laboratory tests
and recording the results in the plant daily operating log
is another.
It is, however, the non-typical functions, the diverse
functions, and the off-the-wall functions that cause us to
describe operators as jacks-of-all-trades. For example, in
addition to their normal, routine, daily operating duties,
operators may be called upon to make emergency repairs
to systems (e.g., making a welding repair to a vital piece
of machinery to keep the plant or unit process on line),
perform material handling operations, make chemical
additions to process flow; respond to hazardous materials
emergencies, make confined space entries, perform site
landscaping duties, and carry out several other assorted
functions. Remember, the plant operator’s job is to keep
the plant running and to make permit. Keeping the plant
running, the flow flowing, and making permit — no matter
what — requires not only talent but also the performance
of a wide range of functions, many of which are not called
for in written job descriptions.1
2.2 SETTING THE RECORD STRAIGHT
Based on our experience, we have found that most people
either have a preconceived notion as to what water and
wastewater operations are all about, or they have nary a
clue. On the one hand, we understand that clean water is
essential for everyday life. Moreover, we have at least a
vague concept that water treatment plants and water oper-
ators treat water to make it safe for consumption. On the
other hand, when it comes to wastewater treatment and
system operations, many of us have an ingrained image
of a sewer system managed and run by a bunch of sewer
rats. Others give wastewater and its treatment and the folks
who treat it no thought at all (that is, unless they are irate
ratepayers upset at the cost of wastewater service).
Typically, the average person has other misconcep-
tions about water and wastewater operations. For example,
very few people can identify the exact source supply of
their drinking water. Is it pumped from wells, rivers, or
streams to water treatment plants? Similarly, where is it
treated and distributed to customers? The average person
is clueless as to the ultimate fate of wastewater. Once the
toilet is flushed, it is out of sight out of mind and that is
that.
Beyond the few functions we have pointed out up to
this point, what exactly is it those water and wastewater
operators, the 90,000+ jacks-of-all-trades in the U.S. do?
Operators in both water and wastewater treatment systems
control unit processes and equipment to remove or destroy
harmful materials, chemical compounds, and microorgan-
isms from the water. They also control pumps, valves, and
other processing equipment (including a wide array of
computerized systems) to convey the water or wastewater
through the various treatment processes (unit processes),
and dispose (or reuse) of the removed solids (waste mate-
rials: sludge or biosolids). Operators also read, interpret,
and adjust meters and gauges to make sure plant equip-
ment and processes are working properly. They operate
chemical-feeding devices, take samples of the water or
wastewater, perform chemical and biological laboratory
analyses, and adjust the amount of chemicals, such as
chlorine, in the water and wastestream. They use a variety
of instruments to sample and measure water quality, and
common hand and power tools to make repairs and adjust-
ments. Operators also make minor repairs to valves,
pumps, basic electrical equipment and other equipment.
(Electrical work should only be accomplished by qualified
personnel.)
As mentioned, water and wastewater system operators
increasingly rely on computers to help monitor equipment,
store sampling results, make process-control decisions,
schedule and record maintenance activities, and produce
reports. Computer-operated automatic sampling devices
are beginning to gain widespread acceptance and use in
both industries, especially at the larger facilities. When a
system malfunction occurs, operators may use system
computers to determine the cause and the solution to the
problem.
2.2.1 THE COMPUTER-LITERATE JACK
At many modern water and wastewater treatment plants
operators are required to perform skilled treatment plant
operations work and to monitor, operate, adjust and regulate
a computer-based treatment process. In addition, the opera-
tor is also required to operate and monitor electrical,
mechanical, and electronic processing and security equip-
ment through central and remote terminal locations in a
solids processing, water purification or wastewater treatment
plant. In those treatment facilities that are not completely or
partially automated, computer-controlled computers are
used in other applications, such as in clerical applications
and in a computer maintenance management system
(CMMS). The operator must be qualified to operate and
navigate such computer systems.
© 2003 by CRC Press LLC
Typical examples of the computer-literate operator’s
work (for illustrative purposes only) are provided as
follows:2
• Monitors, adjusts, starts, and stops automated
water treatment processes and emergency
response systems to maintain a safe and efficient
water treatment operation; monitors treatment
plant processing equipment and systems to
identify malfunctions and their probable cause
following prescribed procedures; places equip-
ment in or out of service or redirects processes
around failed equipment; following prescribed
procedures monitors and starts process related
equipment, such as boilers, to maintain process
and permit objectives; refers difficult equip-
ment maintenance problems and malfunctions
to supervisor; monitors the system through a
process integrated control terminal or remote
station terminal to assure control devices are
making proper treatment adjustments; operates
the central control terminal keyboard to perform
backup adjustments to such treatment processes
as influent and effluent pumping, chemical feed,
sedimentation, and disinfection; monitors spe-
cific treatment processes and security systems
at assigned remote plant stations; observes and
reviews terminal screen display of graphs,
grids, charts and digital readouts to determine
process efficiency; responds to visual and audible
alarms and indicators that indicate deviations
from normal treatment processes and chemical
hazards; identifies false alarms and other indi-
cators that do not require immediate response;
alerts remote control locations to respond to
alarms indicating trouble in that area; performs
alarm investigations.
• Switches over to semiautomatic or manual con-
trol when the computer control system is not
properly controlling the treatment process; off-
scans a malfunctioning field sensor point and
inserts data obtained from field in order to
maintain computer control; controls automated
mechanical and electrical treatment processes
through the computer keyboard when computer
programs have failed; performs field tours to
take readings when problems cannot be cor-
rected through the computer keyboard; makes
regular field tours of the plant to observe physical
conditions; manually controls processes when
necessary.
• Determines and changes the amount of chemicals
to be added for the amount of water, waste-
water, or biosolids to be treated; takes periodic
samples of treated residuals, biosolids processing
 products and by-products, clean water, or
wastewater for laboratory analysis; receives,
stores, handles and applies chemicals and other
supplies needed for operation of assigned sta-
tion; maintains inventory records of suppliers
on hand and quantities used; prepares and sub-
mits daily shift operational reports; records
daily activities in plant operation log, computer
database or from a computer terminal; changes
chemical feed tanks, chlorine cylinders, and
feed systems; flushes clogged feed and sam-
pling lines.
• Notes any malfunctioning equipment; makes
minor adjustments when required; reports
major malfunctions to higher-level operator and
enters maintenance and related task information
into a CMMS and processes work requests for
skilled maintenance personnel.
• Performs routine mechanical maintenance such
as packing valves, adjusting belts, and replacing
shear pins and air filters; lubricates equipment
by applying grease and adding oil; changes and
cleans strainers; drains condensate from pres-
sure vessels, gearboxes, and drip traps; performs
minor electrical maintenance such as replacing
bulbs and resetting low voltage circuit switches;
prepares equipment for maintenance crews by
unblocking pipelines, pumps, and isolating and
draining tanks; checks equipment as part of a
preventive and predictive maintenance program;
reports more complex mechanical-electrical
problems to supervisors.
• Responds, in a safe manner, to chlorine leaks
and chemical spills in compliance with the
Occupational Safety and Health Admimistra-
tion’s (OSHA) Hazardous Waste Operational
and Emergency Response (29 CFR 1910.120)
requirements and with plant specific emergency
response procedures; participates in chlorine
and other chemical emergency response drills.
• Prepares operational and maintenance reports
as required, including flow and treatment infor-
mation; changes charts and maintains recording
equipment; utilizes system and other software
packages to generate reports and charts and
graphs of flow and treatment status and trends;
maintains workplace housekeeping.
2.2.2 PLANT OPERATORS AS EMERGENCY RESPONDERS
As mentioned, occasionally operators must work under
emergency conditions. Sometimes these emergency con-
ditions are operational and not necessarily life threatening.
A good example occurs during a rain event when there
may be a temporary loss of electrical power and large
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amounts of liquid waste flow into sewers, exceeding a
plant’s treatment capacity. Emergencies can also be caused
by conditions inside a plant, such as oxygen deficiency
within a confined space or exposure to toxic and/or explo-
sive off-gases such as hydrogen sulfide and methane. To
handle these conditions, operators are trained to make an
emergency management response and use special safety
equipment and procedures to protect co-workers, public
health, the facility, and the environment. During emergen-
cies, operators may work under extreme pressure to correct
problems as quickly as possible. These periods may create
dangerous working conditions; operators must be
extremely careful and cautious.
Operators who must aggressively respond to hazard-
ous chemical leaks or spills (e.g., enter a chlorine gas filled
room and install chlorine repair kit B on a damaged 1-ton
cylinder to stop the leak) must possess a Hazardous Mate-
rials (HAZMAT) emergency response technician 24-hour
certification. Additionally, many facilities, where elemen-
tal chlorine is used for disinfection, odor control, or other
process applications, require operators to possess an
appropriate certified pesticide applicator training comple-
tion certificate. Because of OSHA’s specific confined
space requirement whereby a standby rescue team for
entrants must be available, many plants require operators
to hold and maintain cardiopulmonary resuscitation/first
aid certification.
Note: It is important to point out that many waste-
water facilities have substituted elemental chlo-
rine with sodium or calcium hypochlorite,
ozone, or ultraviolet irradiation because of the
stringent requirements of OSHA’s Process
Safety Management Standard (29 CFR
1910.119) and the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency’s (EPA) Risk Management Program.
This is not the case in most water treatment
operations. In water treatment systems, elemen-
tal chlorine is still employed because it provides
chlorine residual that is important in maintain-
ing safe drinking water supplies, especially
throughout lengthy distribution systems.
2.2.3 OPERATOR DUTIES, NUMBERS,
AND WORKING CONDITIONS
The specific duties of plant operators depend on the type
and size of plant. In smaller plants, one operator may
control all machinery, perform sampling and lab analyses,
keep records, handle customer complaints, troubleshoot
and make repairs, or perform routine maintenance. In
some locations, operators may handle both water treat-
ment and wastewater treatment operations. In larger plants
with many employees, operators may be more specialized
and only monitor one unit process (e.g., a solids handling
operator who operates and monitors an incinerator). Along
with treatment operators, plant staffing may include envi-
ronmentalists, biologists, chemists, engineers, laboratory
technicians, maintenance operators, supervisors, clerical
help, and various assistants.
In the U.S., notwithstanding a certain amount of
downsizing brought on by privatization activites, employ-
ment opportunities for water and wastewater operators
have increased in number. The number of operators has
increased because of the ongoing construction of new
water and wastewater and solids handling facilities. In
addition, operator jobs have increased because of water
pollution standards that have become increasingly more
stringent since adoption of two major federal environmental
regulations: The Clean Water Act of 1972 (and subsequent
amendments), which implemented a national system of
regulation on the discharge of pollutants, and the Safe
Drinking Water Act (SDWA) of 1974, which established
standards for drinking water.
Operators are often hired in industrial facilities to
monitor or pretreat wastes before discharge to municipal
treatment plants. These wastes must meet certain mini-
mum standards to ensure that they have been adequately
pretreated and will not damage municipal treatment facil-
ities. Municipal water treatment plants also must meet
stringent drinking water standards. This often means that
additional qualified staff members must be hired to monitor
and treat/remove specific contaminants. Complicating the
problem is the fact that the list of contaminants regulated
by these regulations has grown over time. For example,
the 1996 SDWA Amendments include standards for mon-
itoring Giardia and Cryptosporidium, two biological
organisms (protozoans) that cause health problems. Oper-
ators must be familiar with the guidelines established by
federal regulations and how they affect their plant. In
addition to federal regulations, operators must be aware
of any guidelines imposed by the state or locality in which
the treatment process operates.
Another unique factor related to water and wastewater
operators is their working conditions. Water and waste-
water treatment plant operators work indoors and outdoors
in all kinds of weather. Operators’ work is physically
demanding and often is performed in unclean locations
(hence, the emanation of the descriptive but inappropriate
title, sewer rat). They are exposed to slippery walkways;
vapors; odors; heat; dust; and noise from motors, pumps,
engines, and generators. They work with hazardous chem-
icals. In water and wastewater plants, operators may be
exposed to many bacterial and viral conditions. As men-
tioned, dangerous gases, such as methane and hydrogen
sulfide, could be present so they need to use proper safety
gear.
Operators generally work a 5-day, 40-hour week.
However, many treatment plants are in operation 24/7, and
operators may have to work nights, weekends, holidays,
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or rotating shifts. Some overtime is occasionally required
in emergencies.
Over the years, statistical reports have related histor-
ical evidence showing that the water and wastewater
industry is an extremely unsafe occupational field. This
less than stellar safety performance has continued to dete-
riorate even in the age of the Occupational Safety and
Health Act of 1970.
The question is why is the water and wastewater treat-
ment industry’s OTJ injury rate so high? Several reasons
help to explain this high injury rate. First, all of the major
classifications or hazards exist at water and wastewater
treatment plants (typical exception radioactivity):
• Oxygen deficiency
• Physical injuries
• Toxic gases and vapors
• Infections
• Fire
• Explosion
• Electrocution
Along with all the major classifications of hazards,
other factors cause the high incidence of injury in the
water and wastewater industry. Some of these can be
attributed to:
• Complex treatment systems
• Shift work
• New employees
• Liberal workers’ compensation laws
• Absence of safety laws
• Absence of safe work practices and safety
programs
Experience has shown that a lack of well-managed
safety programs and safe work practices are major factors
causing the water and wastewater industry’s high inci-
dence of OTJ injuries.
2.3 OPERATOR CERTIFICATION/LICENSURE
A high school diploma or its equivalency usually is
required as the entry-level credential to become a water or
wastewater treatment plant operator-in-training. Operators
need mechanical aptitude and should be competent in basic
mathematics, chemistry, and biology. They must have the
ability to apply data to formulas of treatment requirements,
flow levels, and concentration levels. Some basic familiar-
ity with computers also is necessary because of the present
trend toward computer-controlled equipment and more
sophisticated instrumentation. Certain operator positions,
particularly in larger cities, are covered by civil service
regulations. Applicants for these positions may be required
to pass a written examination testing mathematics skills, state licensure examinations are provided by various state
mechanical aptitude, and general intelligence. and local agencies. Many employers provide tuition assis-
Because treatment operations are becoming more tance for formal college training.
complex, completion of an associate’s degree or 1-year Whether received from formal or informal sources,
certificate program in water quality and wastewater treat- training provided for or obtained by water and wastewater
ment technology is highly recommended. These creden-
operators must include coverage of very specific sub-
tials increase an applicant’s chances for both employment
and promotion. Advanced training programs are offered ject/topic areas. Though much of their training is similar
throughout the country. They provide a good general or the same, Tables 2.1 and 2.2 list many of the specific
through advanced training on water and wastewater treat- specialized topics waterworks and wastewater operators
ment processes, as well as basic preparation for becoming are expected to have a fundamental knowledge.
a licensed operator. They also offer a wide range of com-
puter training courses. Note: It is important to note that both water and
wastewater operators must have fundamental
New water and wastewater operators-in-training typ-
ically start out as attendants or assistants and learn the knowledge of basic science and math operations.
practical aspects of their job under the direction of an Note: For many water and wastewater operators,
experienced operator. They learn by observing, show-and-
crossover training or overlapping training is
tell, and doing routine tasks. These tasks can include
common practice.
recording meter readings; taking samples of liquid waste
and sludge; and performing simple maintenance and repair
work on pumps, electrical motors, valves, and other plant
or system equipment. Larger treatment plants generally TABLE 2.1
combine this OTJ training with formal classroom or self- Specialized Topics for Wastewater Operators
paced study programs. Some large sanitation districts Wastewater math Fecal coliform testing
operate their own 3- to 4-year apprenticeship schools. In Troubleshooting techniques Recordkeeping
some of these programs, each year of apprenticeship Preliminary treatment Flow measurement
school completed not only prepares the operator for the Sedimentation Sludge dewatering
next level of certification or licensure, but also satisfies a Ponds Drying beds
requirement for advancement to the next higher pay grade. Trickling filters Centrifuges
Rotating biological contactors Vacuum filtration
The SDWA Amendments of 1996, enforced by the Activated sludge Pressure filtration
EPA, specify national minimum standards for certification Chemical treatment Sludge incineration
(licensure) and recertification of operators of community Disinfection Land application of biosolids
and nontransient, noncommunity water systems. As a Solids thickening Laboratory procedures
result, operators must pass an examination to certify that Solids stabilization General safety
they are capable of overseeing water and wastewater treat-
ment operations. There are different levels of certification
depending on the operator’s experience and training.
Higher certification levels qualify the operator for a wider TABLE 2.2
variety of treatment processes. Certification requirements Specialized Topics for Waterworks Operators
vary by state and by size of treatment plants. Although Chemical addition Hydraulics — math
relocation may mean having to become certified in a new Chemical feeders Laboratory practices
location, many states accept other states’ certifications. Chemical feeders — math Measuring and control
In an attempt to ensure the currentness of training and Clarification Piping and valves
Coagulation — flocculation Public health
qualifications and to improve operators’ skills and knowl-
Corrosion control Pumps
edge, most state drinking water and water pollution con- Disinfection Recordkeeping
trol agencies offer on-going training courses. These Disinfection — math General science
courses cover principles of treatment processes and pro- Basic electricity and controls Electric motors
cess control methods, laboratory practices, maintenance Filtration Finances
procedures, management skills, collection system opera- Filtration — math Storage
tion, general safe work practices, chlorination procedures, Fluoridation Leak detection
sedimentation, biological treatment, sludge/biosolids Fluoridation — math Hydrants
treatment, biosolids land application and disposal, and General safe work practices Cross connection control and
backflow
flow measurements. Correspondence courses covering
Bacteriology Stream ecology
both water and wastewater operations and preparation for

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2.4 CHAPTER REVIEW QUESTIONS REFERENCES
AND PROBLEMS
1. Spellman, F.R., Safe Work Practices for Wastewater
Treatment Plants, 2nd ed., Technomic Publ., Lancaster,
2.1. Briefly explain the causal factors behind the PA, 2001, p. 2.
high incidence of OTJ injuries for water and 2. Job description and requirements taken from compilation
wastewater operators. of many requirements; many are from those described in
2.2. Why is computer literacy so important in [http://www.phila.gov/personnel/specs/7e45.htm]. Access-
operating a modern water and wastewater ed May 15, 2002.
treatment system?
2.3. Define CMMS.
2.4. List the necessary training requirement for
HAZMAT responders.
2.5. Specify the national minimum standard for
certification (licensure) and recertification for
water and wastewater operators.

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