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About design, materials selection and manufacturing technologies of centrifugal

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Conference Paper · November 2013

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ADIPEC 2013 Technical Conference Manuscript

Name: MASSIMO GIANNOZZI

Company: GE OIL & GAS
Job title: TURBOMACHINERY MATERIALS AND PROCESS ENGINEERING MANAGER
Address: VIA FELICE MATTEUCCI, 2
Phone number: +390554232690
Email: massimo.giannozzi@ge.com
Category: GAS PROCESSING ROTATING EQUIPMENT

Abstract ID: [505]

Title: About design, materials selection and manufacturing technologies of centrifugal compressors for extreme sour and
acid service
Author(s): M.Giannozzi, L. Baldassarre, M. Cecconi, M. Camatti, D. Becherucci, X. Coudray, C. Puaut
This manuscript was prepared for presentation at the ADIPEC 2013 Technical Conference, Abu Dhabi, UAE, 10-13 November 2013.
This manuscript was selected for presentation by the ADIPEC 2013 Technical Committee Review and Voting Panel upon online submission of an
abstract by the named author(s).

Abstract:

The increasing demand of oil and gas has led to exploit oil fields and gas reservoirs with an increased content of
contaminants. Reserves of natural gas are abundant, but about 40% of the fields contain high concentration of hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide and chlorides. This makes such fields difficult to exploit and need a complex system for refining
with a significant associated cost. Such fields are referred as Sour and are found in many areas of the world but the
Middle East and Central Asia hold the largest volumes.

Design of equipment for such harsh environments, especially high pressure centrifugal compressor needs a deep
knowledge of equation of state of gas mixture, material science and manufacturing technologies.

Material selection is performed taking into account several parameters like minimum design temperature, wet and dry
conditions of different compressor stages, partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide and the amount of other
contaminants like halides, elemental sulphur, mercury, etc…

This paper describes the design approach and the material selection for centrifugal compressors operating in extreme
sour service. Particular attention will be dedicated to the influence of chlorides on material stress corrosion cracking
resistance.

Secondly a description of GE Oil&Gas manufacturing technologies experience is provided by reporting standard special
processes and new trends in manufacturing technologies.

1
1 – INTRODUCTION

The increasing demand for oil and gas has led to exploit oil fields and gas reservoirs with an increased content of
contaminants. Reserves of natural gas are abundant, but about 40% of the fields contain high concentration of hydrogen
sulfide, carbon dioxide and chlorides. This makes such fields difficult to exploit and, as a consequence, it needs a
complex system for refining with significant associated costs. Such fields are referred to as “Sour” and are found in many
areas of the world. Middle East and Central Asia are presently some of the places of preeminent interest to the
International Oil Company due the large volumes, in spite of the high concentration of contaminants found in the oil
fields.

In order to maximize the exploitation of these oil reservoirs, it is necessary to safely handle the associated gases
containing high percentage of aggressive components which cannot be dispersed in the atmosphere.

The design of equipment for such harsh environments, especially high pressure centrifugal compressor, requires deep
knowledge of thermodynamics of gas mixture, material science and manufacturing technologies.

Material selection is performed taking into account several parameters such as minimum design temperature, wet and
dry conditions at the different compressor stages, partial pressure of hydrogen sulfide & carbon dioxide and the amount
of other contaminants such as halides, elemental sulphur, mercury, etc…

GE Oil & Gas is the company that has gained more experience in reinjection of sour gas at the pressures required by
Middle East and Central Asia wells.

This paper describes the design approach, the material selection and the manufacturing technologies for centrifugal
compressors operating in extreme sour service. Particular attention will be dedicated to the influence of halides on
material stress corrosion cracking resistance.

2
2 – DESIGN
Operating in extreme sour and acid environment requires specific attention from design standpoint. To make a proper
design and material selection, one has to precisely understand the steady and transient operating surrounding
environment as well as the stress load acting on each one of the components.
The compressor components that deserve a specific attention are the ones in contact with the process gas. In short, it
corresponds to (figure 1):
- Pressure containing components, such as casing and covers
- Rotating components, such as shaft, impellers, balance drum and spacers
- Internal static components, such as inner casing and diaphragms
- Sealing components, such as Dry Gas Seals (DGS) and gaskets

From a general standpoint, the basis of design criteria for material selection is to follow NACE guidelines. Risk of failure
is a combination of several factors: aggressiveness of the gas, wetness & stress distribution.

Aggressiveness of the Operating Environment

Regarding aggressiveness, key parameters to be carefully assessed are typically: partial pressure of H2S, partial pressure
of CO2, pH, water content, and other contaminants such as chlorides for instance. The understanding of the surrounding
operating environment should not be restricted to stabilized operations including standstill, but it should also look to
potential transients where some peaks of aggressiveness may occur. This part being directly linked to the overall process
of the plant and its dynamic, this detailed analysis is to be handled by the equipment user. In this respect, it is important
that the results of such process analysis in upset conditions clearly appear in the project specifications, having in mind
that they could considerably impact design choices.

Wetness vs. Dryness

Wetness is another essential factor that deserves precise attention. The absence of liquefied water (i.e. dryness) is
sufficient to prevent any kind of concerns regarding general corrosion, galvanic corrosion, pitting or other corrosion
cracking for example. Wet areas shall require dedicated material selection, whereas dry areas could remain in carbon
steel, still with sufficiently limited hardness in order to prevent risks of fast failure (cracking, typically) in case of
malfunction of a de-hydration unit, for instance.
Wetness can usually occur at the suction conditions of the centrifugal compressor. Indeed, it is very common that the
inlet stream comes out of a scrubber (a.k.a. separator) and, as a consequence, the resulting gas will be precisely on its
dew curve. As a conservative approach no further considerations will be made on which gas component is condensing
first; it will be assumed that it corresponds to water for the rest of this discussion (conservative approach).
For the definition of the wetness/dryness operations across the compressor, the dew curve of the gas shall be
computed. For typical Acid Gas applications, Peng-Robinson equations of state are generally recommended. Then, the
operating conditions at each stage of the compressor shall be superimposed on this dew curve to detect potential
wetness or not. In this respect, in view of possible uncertainties regarding precise gas composition or tools accuracy, it is
recommended to consider a safety separation margin of few degrees between the real operating conditions vs. the dew
curve (i.e., the operating conditions of a given stage shall be few degrees hotter than the dew point to be consider dry).

3
From a thermodynamics standpoint, the pressure rise across the compression stages leads to a temperature rise, which
contributes to move away from the dew curve. In other words, the operating margin vs. dew curve (figure 2) at each
compression stage increases while moving from suction to discharge area of the compressor.
Obviously, such analysis shall not be restricted to stabilized operations, but it should also look to the complete expected
operating envelope of the machine, from surge to choke area. Thanks to the high compression happening on surge side,
this area is generally the most favorable, whereas the choke area is the one which is traditionally the design case.

Stress Distribution
Finally, the stress distribution of the different components is also a key factor for the material selection. As a general
guideline, static components (which usually operate at no more than 200MPa) are less sensitive compared to rotating
components (where impellers typically operate above 400-500MPa). Regarding Stress Corrosion Cracking, the tensile
component of the stress is the critical one, which drives the failure mechanism by opening up the crack. This tensile
stress can be locally amplified by geometrical singularities, like stress concentration factors coming from pitting, for
example. Among other possible examples, one can consider the removal of keys at the bore diameter of the impeller in
order to avoid their resulting stress concentration factor.
When selecting Corrosion-Resistant Alloys, one shall make sure that the stress load of the component will not exceed
the threshold stress of the material in the given environment. For a given application with specific aggressiveness, in
case it is not already covered by field references operating at similar stress level & in environment of at least equivalent
aggressiveness, and if the threshold stress of the material is not known in that environment, then specific laboratory
testing might be required to properly qualify a material selection.
It is understood that the detailed determination of all these key parameters (aggressiveness of the gas, wetness & stress
distribution) across the whole life of the plant (including transients) is not an easy task. Considering the risk linked to a
release of such lethal gas to the surrounding atmosphere, in case the gas conditions with contaminants, in steady state
and in upset conditions, cannot be formally guaranteed by the process equipment of the end user, it could be
recommended not to select CRA material (Corrosion Resistance Alloys) for pressure-containing parts in such harsh
environment, in view of their susceptibility to rapid cracking when used out of their design envelope. In such cases,
other solutions, such as bulk carbon steel protected by a surface overlay, may be preferable to minimize uncertainties
on namely casing and cover.
In a similar way, the sealing between covers and casing is an area of significant interest. Potential leakages shall be
directed to a safe area (flare, typically) and a pressurized barrier based on Nitrogen is advisable to remove any (or at
least greatly dilute) any kind of leakage towards atmosphere.

4
3 – MATERIAL APPROACH
The purpose of this section is to cover the fundamentals aspects of material selection for compressors operating in the
natural gas refining. Natural gas is formed primarily of methane, but it can also include ethane, propane, butane and
pentane plus other contaminants as shown in the table 1, that outlines the typical makeup of natural gas before it is
refined. Natural gas processing consists of separating all of the various hydrocarbons and fluids from the pure methane,
thus generating different blend of gas.
For the purpose of this paper and to select material it is useful to classify the process gas service according to the
following rules :
- Sweet service
- Sour service
- Acid gas

Among the several rules for material selection for centrifugal compressors, corrosion is particular important for service
in harsh environment.
There are several corrosion phenomena, but for the sake of simplicity and for the subject of this paper, the following
types are the most relevant:
- General corrosion – an even attack of the surface of the material
- Pitting corrosion – an uneven localized attack
- Stress corrosion cracking (SCC and CSCC)

It must be highlighted that corrosion phenomena listed above can only take place if condensed water is present, that
acts as electrolyte for electrochemical process. For this reason, from now on and if not differently specified, the material
selection criteria and consideration given, are done assuming wet gas conditions. Another important condition that must
be addressed is represented by pressurized stops (SOP). In this case temperature drops and pressure in the different
stages become the same. This is normally one of the most severe conditions for material selection since it implies a wet
gas at high partial pressure of harsh gases. SOP are transient conditions limited in time and therefore can be addressed
with a different approach (time dependent) and be solved with different solution like coatings.

Sweet Gas
Sweet Service refers to a gas containing hydrocarbon with wet carbon dioxide (CO2), in sweet service, the failure risk is
due to CO2, the condensed water is acidified by carbonic acid that promotes the surface metal loss by general corrosion.
Carbon or low alloy steels can be used if corrosion rate is below acceptable limit. The rate of corrosion depends on
partial pressure of CO2 and service temperature.

If general corrosion rate of material is unacceptable, then stainless steels have to be selected for this service.

5
There are several types of stainless steels:
- Austenitic
- Ferritic
- Martensitic
- Duplex or Superduplex

Martensitic Stainless steels are the most important category of material used in centrifugal compressor for rotor and
stator parts. Martensitic stainless steels are characterized by a good corrosion behavior and outstanding mechanical
properties.
The following material types are normally used depending on design and environment requirements:
- 12 % Chromium steel like AISI 410 (UNS S41000)
- Low Carbon Chromium Nickel Steel like ASTM A182 F6NM (UNS S41500)
- Precipitation Hardening like 17-4 PH (UNS S17400) or 15-5 PH (UNS S15500)

Sour Gas
The sour service is characterized by hydrocarbons with wet hydrogen sulphide (H2S) where the pH2S is higher than
0.0030 bar. This value is valid for carbon and low alloy steels. NACE MR0175/ISO 15156-1 doesn’t define a minimum
pH2S limit for corrosion resistant alloys (CRAs), because this limit is a function also of acidity of the solution (pH) and the
values can be lower than the one defined for carbon and low alloy steels.
Two main mechanisms of metal cracking are considered with wet H2S:
 Sulphide Stress Cracking (SSC)
 Hydrogen Induced Cracking (HIC)

In general the mechanism involves the diffusion in the metal of hydrogen atoms generated by corrosion. SSC can occur
only if the following three conditions are verified [1]:
• Tensile stress (residual and/or applied)
• H2S + condensed water
• Material prone to SSC damage

Contaminants such as halides, arsenic (As), antimony and cyanides (CN-) act as catalyst, increasing the concentration of
hydrogen atoms on surface and by preventing their recombination in hydrogen molecules making SSC more severe [2].
The HIC is generated by the following conditions:
• Atomic hydrogen source (i.e. H2S) and condensed water
• Material prone to HIC damage

HIC occurs when atomic hydrogen generated by the corrosion reaction diffuses through the steel and then accumulates
as molecular hydrogen in correspondence of non-metallic inclusion, particularly when these inclusions have been
flattened by rolling operations, or at bands of segregation or perlite. The local H2 pressure generates cracks and blisters

6
on the material. If only H2S is present forged carbon or low alloy steels with a controlled cleanliness (low level of non
metallic inclusion), are suitable for service. The maximum SSC susceptibility occurs around ambient temperature [3].

Acid Gas
Gas containing hydrocarbon, CO2 and H2S represents a complex environment for material selection. The presence of
contaminants to this system such as chlorides, makes the material selection a very important design phase in order to
guarantee reliability and sustainability of products.
The material selection is therefore based on a three dimensional space governed by partial pressure of H2S (p(H2S)), pH
(mainly function of CO2), and chlorides (and/or other halides) content, as schematically represented in figure 3.
To approach the material selection in this three dimensional space is useful to define boundaries for the different class
of materials. In addition to the environmental criteria, the material selection must take into consideration the
manufacturability, the availability on market of the raw material and last but not least, the cost.

The Duplex and Superduplex materials

Duplex stainless steels are widely used in oil & gas applications due to their good properties in highly chlorides
environments both in terms of localized corrosion and stress corrosion.
This stainless steels family is characterized by a mixed microstructure of austenite and ferrite, the aim usually being to
produce a 50/50 mix, although in commercial alloys the ratio may be 40/60. Duplex stainless steels have roughly twice
the strength compared to austenitic stainless steels and also improved resistance to localized corrosion, particularly
pitting, crevice corrosion and stress corrosion cracking [4]. They are characterized by high chromium (19–32%) and
molybdenum (up to 5%) and a nickel content ranging between 4 and 9%.
The properties of duplex stainless steels are achieved with an overall lower alloy content than similar-performing
superaustenitic grades, making their use cost-effective for many applications. Duplex grades are characterized into
groups based on their alloy content and corrosion resistance (Pitting Resistance Equivalent Number PREN) as follow:
- Standard Duplex - with Mo addition, with PREN ~ 35 are considered an intermediate solution between austenitic
and superaustenitic SS;
- 25% Cr - ‘’High Alloyed’’ with variable Ni and Mo content and possible addition of Cu and W, 35<PREN<39;
- Superduplex - with high Ni, Mo and N content and 40<PREN<45 are considered comparable to superaustenitic SS
(but with high mechanical strength);

Due to the higher mechanical and corrosion properties, superduplex find application in turbomachinery environments,
allowing the production of both stator and rotating component in a design space ranging from -100°C to 200°C. Within
these limitations, and when the wet environment becomes critical (normally at 0÷90°C in Centrifugal compressor), the
superduplex offers the higher performances in Chlorides rich environments superseding most of the other stainless
steel classes.
Moreover, as reported in international standard NACE MR0175, duplex and superduplex materials can withstand in Sour
environment a maximum hydrogen sulfide partial pressure of respectively 0,1 bar and 0,2 bar (any pH and chloride
concentration up to 232°C). In general duplex stainless steels should not be used at temperature above 250-325°C.

7
Particular care is needed in the production and machining of duplex class materials due to embrittlement caused by
precipitation of detrimental phases during slow cooling (i.e. thick section of parts). High alloyed duplex and superduplex
are more susceptible to these phenomena, due to high content of second-phase forming elements, and requires
additional care.
GE O&G has extensively produced centrifugal pump components (casings and impellers) using duplex/superduplex
stainless steel. As said, because of their ferritic-austenitic microstructure, this class of alloy shows significant issues in
obtaining the required machining tolerances in terms of planarity, concentricity and dimension. Residual stresses
released during machining, non “linear” elastic behavior of material, hardening during cutting operations requires
specific machining methods with multiple part setting during raw and finishing operations. Typical machining
parameters are in the range of 100÷150 m/min for the cutting speed and of 0.2÷0.25 mm/rev for the feed rate using
carbide tools.

The martensitic and PH stainless steel

The plain 12% Chromium steel (UNS S41000) is often an optimum solution at low partial pressure of H 2S and moderate
pH. This material does not suffer chloride stress corrosion cracking (ASTM G123 passed) but has a critical pitting
temperature of about 0°C determined by ASTM G 48 E and therefore pitting can be observed in presence of chlorides.
The effect of pitting on part integrity can be arguable. On one side, if pitting does not reach a critical size to initiate a
fatigue crack or a fast brittle fracture propagation, could not be considered a reason of concern. On the contrary, pits
are sites where the protective scale of material has been broken and therefore areas of material more susceptible to
stress corrosion cracking. NACE TM-0177 does not consider pitting as evaluation parameter for suitability of materials in
sour environments.
NACE MR-0175 limits the hardness of 12% chromium steels to 22 HRC. Very often for rotating components the yield
stress of this material is not sufficient to accomplish with increasing tip speed of impellers.
For this reason and for low temperature application a valid alternative is represented by precipitation hardening
stainless steels, like 17-4 PH (UNS S17400) or 15-5 PH (UNS S15500). The chemical compositions of these two materials
show an overlap in the range of alloying elements (Cr, Ni, Cu) and therefore, depending on heats, the material can be
either classified as 17-4 PH and 15-5 PH. For this reason is very difficult to distinguish the different behavior of these
two materials with regard to mechanical and corrosion properties.
With specific reference to SCC resistance, precipitation hardening materials are slightly better than 12% Chromium
steel, but they are very susceptible to chloride presence. It is well known that even small increase of chlorides in the
condensed water (i.e. from 100 ppm to 600 ppm) results in a reduced environmental severity (in terms of pH and pH 2S)
tolerated by this class of materials. Moreover, precipitation hardening materials are susceptible to CSCC as shown by
field experience [5]and highlighted by lab tests according to ASTM G123.
It is worth to point out that NACE MR-0175 table A.30 allows the use of 17-4 PH and 15-5 PH for any partial pressure of
H2S, any pH and any chloride contents. This recommendation is not in GE Oil & Gas experience as well as in major oil
companies that refuse the use of precipitation hardening materials for extreme sour conditions especially if chlorides
are present.

The low carbon chromium-nickel martensitic stainless steels

The low carbon chromium-nickel steels are modifications of plain 12% chromium steel to increase corrosion behaviour
and fracture toughness while keeping or slightly increase the yield and rupture strengths.
8
One of the most common material of this class is the ASTM A182 F6NM (13% Cr – 4% Ni, UNS S41500). This material is
listed in NACE MR-0175 table A.22 and it is limited to 23 HRC. X4CrNi16-4 (known as Virgo 38®) is a material developed
by the former Creusot Loire Research center in early 80’s [6].
The metallurgy of both these materials is complex. The low carbon content associated with the addition of nominally 4%
nickel makes possible the formation of martensitic lath with low carbon content that after tempering result in an
improvement of mechanical properties of the material.
The limitation of hardness requires an accurate heat treatment cycle, especially during the tempering. In fact the nickel
addition lowers the austenite transformation starting temperature (AC1) and therefore the capability to temper the
martensite without generating an excessive quantity of austenite (reverted austenite).
High volume fraction of reverted austenite, as result of an incorrect tempering cycle, can produce high volume fraction
of residual austenite (reverted stable austenite) with a negative impact lowering yield strength. At the same time high
volume of unstable reverted austenite retransforms in fresh martensite that is detrimental for SSC behavior and
hardness of the material. To mitigate this last detrimental effect, is normal practice and it is required by NACE, to
perform a second treatment at a lower temperature in order to temper the fresh martensite.
A certain quantity of reverted austenite has beneficial effects on corrosion properties of the material.
The chemistry of X4CrNi16-4 and the heat treatment sequence (temperature and cooling rate) is tailored in order to
retain some austenite phase after complete heat treatment sequence, but minimizing the presence of fresh martensite
after the first tempering heat treatment. This approach has been extensively studied in similar materials by several
researchers [7] [8] [9]. The advantages of reverted austenite in this material can be summarized as follow:

- Increase of fracture toughness of the material at low temperature;

- Increase of stress corrosion cracking resistance;
- Reduction of tendency to sensitization.

The face centered cubic structure (fcc) of austenite is characterized by a low diffusivity and high solubility of hydrogen.
The fcc structure acts as a trap for hydrogen, improving the resistance of the material to SCC.
The volume fraction of reverted austenite depends, as said previously by chemistry and heat treatment sequence. These
are not the only parameters since the volume fraction strongly depends on presence of retained austenite in the ingot
or bar, prior forging. It is therefore extremely important to control the steel production method in order to minimize the
presence of retained austenite and delta ferrite as result of the material segregation. It is also very important the
morphology of the reverted austenite. This aspect has been extensively studied by several authors [9-17]. The reverted
austenite can be as thin islands between martensite lath or as globular grains at prior austenite grains or within
martensite needles.
The influence of volume fraction of reverted austenite and its morphology has been extensively studied in GE Oil & Gas
in order to maximize material performance in terms of corrosion, stress corrosion and mechanical properties.
X4CrNi16-4 represents the best stainless steel inside the GE Oil & Gas portfolio.
95% AYS tests were passed standard NACE TM0177 – method A tests with 1 bar H2S up to 1 g/l NaCl. Several high
pressure tests was also performed demonstrating the suitability of X4CrNi16-4 up to 10 bar H2S (100 ppm chlorides) and
4 bar H2S (600 ppm chlorides).
As a term of comparison GE Oil & Gas performed an extensive characterization of F6NM (UNS S41500) resulting in
limiting the use of this material at pH2S at 0.1 bar or even lower depending on chlorides content.
9
X4CrNi16-4 shows a threshold stress in solution A method A according to TM-0177 higher than AISI 410 and 17-4 PH.
Many GE Oil & Gas compressors for sour gas service are equipped and are successfully running with stator and rotor
parts made of X4CrNi16-4 and it is validate by field experience as shown in figure 4.

The nickel base alloys

For extreme sour gas service the material to be used are IN 718 (UNS N07718), IN625 (UNS N06625) and IN625M (UNS
N07626).
IN 718 is well known in GE and in GE Oil & Gas because it is largely used for aircraft engines and heavy duty gas turbine.
This deep knowledge made possible to smoothly produce parts for centrifugal compressor without problems during
forging of large parts and avoiding material issues like notch sensitivity typical of an inadequate melting procedure for
the master heat production.
Obviously experimental work has been performed in order to optimize the heat treatment sequence and the metallurgy
of IN 718 to comply with sour service and NACE. In particular solution heat treatment has been set up in order to
minimize/avoid delta phase without causing grain coarsening that is detrimental for material properties. Ageing heat
treatment has been set up to reach a maximum value of tensile and impact properties without exceeding 40 HRC as per
NACE.
GE Oil & Gas has characterized IN718 and IN625M at 95%AYS SSC testing according to NACE TM0177 Method A at pH 2S
up to 50 bar in a temperature range from RT to 150°C and up to 70 bar at room temperature in acidic environments
(pH=3 by CO2) in presence of high concentration of Chlorides (30000 ppm). Qualification of these materials in such
environments represents one of the current challenges because of gas to liquid transformation of H2S.

The high strength of IN 718 and IN 625M makes this material a perfect solution for rotating components like impellers,
that are preferably manufactured in a single piece construction to avoid any kind of joint (welding or brazing) that could
reduce the rotating speed capability. GE has developed and applied several methods to manufacture single piece
impellers, one of each optimized for a certain range of dimension and shape.
Bi-dimensional impellers are characterized by low flow coefficients resulting in narrow gas passages that are created by
die sink EDM (Electro Discharge Machining). A set of graphite tools is generally used to access the impeller from inducer
(gas inlet side) and exducer (gas outlet side) performing rough and finishing operations. The EDM technology to
manufacture single piece impellers has started in 2004 and since then 5000+ EDM manufactured impellers made by low
alloy and stainless steel have been put in operation with zero recorded failure. In an average year, about 700 impellers
are produced using this technology. More than 50 Inconel 718 impellers have been manufactured by EDM since 2006.
The EDM material removal rate is largely independent by the kind of alloy machined, so that Inconel 718 and martensitic
stainless steels have comparable machining cycle time. After the optimization of EDM process parameters, the recast
layer generated by this process is generally less than 25µm; it is completely removed at the end of the vane generation
by an abrasive flow process that has also the benefit to improve the surface roughness. When very low levels of gas path
roughness are required, a more sophisticated super-finish process is used.
In GE O&G the EDM impeller shop has been implemented following a Lean Manufacturing concept that includes all pre
and post vane operations in a single flow line limiting the amount of unnecessary operations.

10
Tri-dimensional impellers have a more complex gas path that makes the manufacturing of those impellers in a single
piece a big challenge in terms of accessibility to the vane. GE O&G has patented several years ago a 5 axis milling process
that has guaranteed the production of high quality impellers for many different fields of application.
The low variation of mechanical properties from room to high temperature, is one of the most desirable characteristics
of Inconel alloys. Unfortunately, this is a disadvantage when it comes to cut them for machining purposes. These alloys,
in fact, tend to work harden during the cut and the relevant heat generated is preferably transferred to the tool than to
the piece, due to low thermal conductivity of nickel alloys. The result is that the cutter is typical subject to high thermal
shocks that drastically reduces its life. Further phenomena that limit the effectiveness of the process are the flank wear,
chipping, Build Up Edge (BUE) and catastrophic failure. Those alter the cutting mechanisms, cause tool rejection and
affect the surface integrity when cutting nickel based super-alloys [19].
Under so challenging machining conditions, the capability to obtain good final surfaces without affecting base material
properties can be obtained only through a rigorous tool and technological parameters selection. The nickel based alloys
turning machinability has been assessed by an engineering approach based on a wide FEM simulation campaign, where
several option of cutting parameters and inserts have been scouted. The best candidates have been selected and finally
validated in our Metal Working Laboratory under real machining conditions before their final release to the production
line. This resulted in a complete set of standard tools and cutting parameters that includes ceramic insert for rough
machining and solid carbides for finishing operations (figure 5).
Finishing turning operations of Inconel 625M and 718 (used for impellers) is performed using solid carbide inserts
(multilayer PVD coated). The relevant cutting depth, as usual for nickel based alloys, ranges from 0.7 mm to 0.1 mm
approaching the final dimension. The use of carbide inserts doesn’t allow cutting speed higher than 50 m/min because
of the poor thermochemical stability of this kind of material.
Rough turning operations (figure 6), especially during the first passes of Inconel 625 clad, is a tremendous challenge for
the cutter life as the welding asperities and discontinuities generate an interrupted cut. Some of the most advanced
ceramic inserts made of Alumina (Al2O3) mechanically reinforced with Silicon Carbides whiskers (in 50%-50% proportion)
is used here. The whiskers assure a fracture toughness doubled when comparing to a simple Alumina cutter.
Furthermore, the high thermal conductivity and the low thermal expansion coefficient of the whiskers guarantee an
improved durability to thermal shocks. A depth of cut of 3 mm, a feed rate of 0.25 mm/rev and a cutting speed limited
to 250 m/min resulted in a 4x extended life versus traditional ceramic inserts. Cutting speed can be pushed up to 400
m/min if the cut is continuous.
While turning is a well explored and tested “arena” for Nickel Super-alloys, the 5 axis milling of cavities, like that of a
single piece closed impeller, is still an area of development and potential optimization. Generally carbide tools are used
as the cutting speed capability of a milling machine at the tool diameter doesn’t permit to get the required cutting speed
for the use of ceramics.
The approach is both theoretical and experimental and it is made by a comprehensive effort of FEM simulations to
optimize cutting parameters and tool geometry. The tool life is maximized by the measurement of real cutting forces on
the workpiece for a dynamic characterization of the parameters to avoid chattering and other vibrations on the cut
surface. Two milling methods were specifically developed: deep drilling for rough machining and slot milling. In both
cases standard solid carbide tools were used.
Inconel Super-alloys rough milling productivity for impellers can be further improved by the use of the Blu ArcTM
Technology. This is a modified EDM process, for which GE owns several patents (general concept, tool shape, wear
compensation method, etc.), that improves drastically the material rate removal with the use of higher current
11
amperage. This equipment is designed to be installed on a 5 axis machine so that both rough and finish operations can
be performed in a single setting of the impeller.
This technology, after a period of development and validation, has been released for use in production in 2007 for low
alloy and martensitic stainless steel. The validation has been extended to Inconel 718 in 2008. The material removal rate
of Blu ArcTM for Inconel 718 can be up to 3 times higher than the most optimized five axis milling machining process. The
recast layer is completely removed during the 5 axis milling finishing operation.
Hybrid methods, combining the benefits of milling and EDM for finishing operations, are also used for impellers of
particularly complex vane shape.

The Bridge alloys

Another important area of research performed during the last years has focused on the development of new materials.
The main objectives, schematically shown in figure 7, are:
1) to extend the area of application of martensitic stainless steels to higher pH2S, lower pH and higher chlorides
contents,
2) to develop a low cost nickel base alloy having same or similar corrosion properties to IN 718

The alloy development has been performed by a comprehensive metallurgical design approach. The first step was a
thermodynamics and kinetics modeling activity aimed to identify possible analytical variants starting from base
compositions.
Each chemical variation was made taking into account a set of critical requirements, related to material performance
(i.e. corrosion resistance and mechanical properties) or associated with production of alloys (raw material and post
processing). Through an array of calculations involving tens of variants, the final compositional ranges were down
selected and the experimental casts were made. The first attempt consisted of two variants for the new steel and two
for the new nickel base alloy.
After the cast process, a thermo-mechanical process, hot deformation plus heat treatment has been set-up taking into
account the theoretical data obtained by simulation and the literature data of similar materials.
In figure 8 and 9 the ingot after casting and a forging process step are shown. The casting and forging process have been
performed without any manufacturability problems (have proven to be successful). The experimental heats will be
characterized by mechanical and corrosion means. Based on results a further tuning of the chemistry and post
processing could be necessary in order to make the final pilot production prior the industrialization of the new alloys.

The coating technology

Combinations of low alloy for the bulk structure (casing, diaphragms) and cladding or plating result in a cost effective
and optimized solution for the combined effects of general, chloride and sulfide stress corrosion. The application of a
protective layer by welding (clad) or chemical (plating) is a process well known and experienced in GE O&G.
Cladding is preferably used to protect pressure containing parts casing and cover flanges using both automatic welding
processes (SAW, ESW) and manual (SMAW, GTAW). Depending by the severity of the operating environment
determined by the chloride contents, protection can be performed using austenitic stainless steels (grades AISI 316L,
AISI 309LMo, AISI 318, AISI 347) or Inconel 625. In particular, the Electro Slag Welding is the latest addition to the
portfolio of validated automatic welding processes. This process has been used for many years by GE O&G for stainless
12
steel cladding of Cr-Mo-V heavy wall reactors. Its applicability has now been extended to compressor casing where it
assures a 60% higher deposition rate versus the more widely used Submerged Arc and a lower iron dilution. This permits
a reduced overall thickness of cladding and an evident benefit in terms of overall heat input.
The Electroless Nickel Plating (ENP) has been more recently introduced to improve coverage of very complex shapes
(like diaphragms) for which the welding cladding would be unpractical. Casing, cover flange and any other stator
component can be protected with this plating applied with a chemical process of pure nickel oxide reduction. The
applied layer of nickel has proved its ability to overcome accelerated corrosion test to guarantee full operability for 20
years, in compliance with API617 requirements. The validation process was completed with full scale test, including
assembly and disassembly of bundles.
The ENP has been also successfully applied to entire assembled rotor. This technology is well suitable for both new and
overhauled rotors.

On Going Developments
A set of unconventional and transformative technologies to manufacture impellers and other stator components are
presently under development at O&G. The most promising one is based on powder metallurgy. Centrifugal pump casing
and two Inconel 625M net shape impellers were produced and tested using powder metallurgy and hipping process. The
process is actually capable to achieve a very complex final flow path shape drastically cutting the overall lead time, as no
forging procurement is necessary. Powder metallurgy and Additive Manufacturing technologies are key enablers for new
concepts in material science (i.e. functionally graded materials, composite structure, new strengthening mechanisms,...).
Additive manufacturing machine is already available in GE O&G to produce prototype parts. This program, started in
2011, will lead to install “3D printed” components in our prototype turbines and compressors by 2015.

13
4 – CONCLUSIONS

Exploitation of oil fields and gas reservoirs with an increased content of contaminants is a driver for research in the field
of materials, design equipment and manufacturing technologies.

GE Oil & Gas is pushing over the state-of-art of material technology with big efforts and investment in research.
Development of new materials is focused on the improvement of their properties and performances in order to increase
reliability and availability of equipment without affecting significantly capital expenditure.

Continuous improvement of manufacturing technology made possible to produce centrifugal compressors with nickel
based super-alloys reducing significantly machining cycle time.

New manufacturing technologies aim to reduce the waste of material and machining operation. The most promising
one is powder metallurgy that is capable to produce net shape parts with limited final machining operation. Efforts are
also in progress to further optimize cladding and coating technologies.

GE Oil & Gas has a large field experience in all sour services and is leading edge in reinjection of high pressure sour gas
fields. This successful experience has been gained with a solid partnership and co-engineering with EPCs, oil companies
and end users.

14
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[3] H.E. Towsend, Jr: Corrosion, Vol 28, No 1, 1972, pp 39-45

[4] Practical Guidelines for the fabrication of duplex stainless steel, Second edition 2009

[5] F. Fantechi, M. Innocenti, Chloride stress corrosion cracking of precipitation hardening S.S. impellers in centrifugal
compressor. Laboratory investigations and corrective actions. Engineering Failure Analysis 8 (2001) pag. 477-492.

[6] New steels for use in H2S service – G.M. Pressouyre, L. Bretin, C. Zmudzinski - Creusot Loire Research center
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[7[ - A.G. Haynes: Some factor Governing the Metallurgy and Weldability of 13%Cr and Newer Cr-Ni Martensitic Stainless
Steels., Belgian Welding Institute, paper S99-3, pp.25-32.

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Steel X5CrNiMoCuNb (14-5PH), Esher Wyss News, 1/1978, pp. 38-48.

[9] H.J. Nieredau: Properties and Uses of 16Cr-5Ni Stainless Steel, ACHEMA 1982.

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Supplement, pp. 213-223.

[11] - T. Chandra, N.Wanderka, W.reimers, M.Ionescu, Temperature dependence of austenite nucleation site on
reversion of lath martensite, Materials Science Forum, 638-642, 6, 2010, pp.3424-29.

[12] . Z.B. Liu, Z.Y.Yang, J.X.Liang, L.N.Zhang, X.L.Zhang, Precipitation behavior and trasformation kinetics of reverted
austenite in ultre-high strength stainless steels, 31, 2010, pp.39-44.

[13] Liu, L.; Yang, Z.-G.; Zhang, C.; Liu, W.-B., An in situ study on austenite memory and austenitic spontaneous
recrystallization of a martensitic steels, Materials Science & Engineering, A: Structural Materials: Properties,
Microstructure and Processin 527, 2010, pp.7204-09.

[14] Park, Eun Seo; Yoo, Dae Kyoung; Sung, Jee Hyun; Kang, Chang Yong; Lee, Jun Hee; Sung, Jang Hyun., Formation of
reversed austenite during tempering of 14Cr-7Ni-0,3Nb-0.7Mo-0.03C super martensitic stainless steels, 10, 6, 2004,
pp.521-6.

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[15] - Iwabuchi, Yoshitaka, kobayashi, Isao, Masaki, Kichuchi, Masato, Precipitation and decomposition behaviors of
reverted austenite in 13-Cr-4Ni stainless steel, 58, 1994, pp.411-417.

[16] - Dawood, M. Al; El Mahallawi, I. S.; El Azim, M. E. Abd; El Koussy, M. R., Materials Science and Technology, 20,
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[17] - Du, Rongyao; Qiao, Yuanji., Effects of reversed austenite structure on cracking in large impeller of Ni 4 cast steel.,
Zhuzao Jishu, 6, 1996, pp.3-5.

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16
Appendix

Gas Types Chemical Formulation Percentage

Methane CH4 70-90%
Ethane C2H6
Propane C3H8 0-20%
Butane C4H10
Carbon Dioxide CO2 0-8%
Oxygen O2 0-0.2%
Nitrogen N2 0-5%
Hydogen Sulphide 0-5%
Rare gases Ar, He, Ne, Xe Traces
Table 1 - typical makeup of natural gas before refining (from naturalgas.org)

Figure 1 : compressor components

17
Figure 2 : operating margin vs. dew curve at each compression stage

Figure 3 : the three dimensional space pH2S, pH and chlorides

18
 Figure 4 : X4 Cr Ni 16-4 field application as function of pH2S

Figure 5 : FE macro-mechanical approach to investigate the machinability of Inconel718 when using Carbide and Ceramic
cutting tools.

19
Figure 6 : The Inconel 718 impeller under rough turning operation and a view of the metal working laboratory

Figure 7: schematic view of desired target properties of alloys development

20
 Figure 8: the experimental alloy cast ingot

Figure 9: the experimental alloy forging

21

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