Standards 2014 05 27 Final rfr7 PDF

REPUBLIC OF RWANDA
2014
Rwanda Feeder Roads Standards
RFRS/Vr_14/05/07_BL
Final Report
Dr. Laurent Bizindavyi
Technical Assistant to RTDA
7/5/2014
Ministry of Infrastructure
Rwanda Transport Development Agency
Rwanda Feeder Roads (Unpaved roads- District

class 1 and 2) Standards
BL‐RFRS‐07/05/14 Page 1
Abbreviations
A
AADT- Annual Average Daily Traffic
AASHTO- American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
ADT- Average Daily Traffic
AL- Attemberg Limit
ARRB- Australian Road Research Board
ASTM- American Society for testing Materials
B
BF- Basic Access farms;
BS- Back Slopes;
C
CBR- California Bearing Ratio
CF- Cross fall
CZ- Clear zone
CRR- Quarried rock;
CRS- Crushed stone
D
DC-x – Design Class-x
DCP- Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
DHV- Design Hourly Volume
DLS- Design Level of Service
DPHW- Department of public Works and Highways (Philippines)
DRTT- Division of Road Transport Technology
DSD- Decision Sight Distance
DTV- Design Traffic Volume
E
EAC- East African Community
EGSSAA- Environmental Guidelines for small scale Activities in Africa
EIA- Environmental Impact Assessment
EIS- Environmental Impact statement
ESA- Equivalent Standard Axle
ESAL- Equivalent Single Axle Load
F
FHWA- Federal Highway Administration
FMC- Feeder Road Management Committee
G
GOR- Government of Rwanda
GWC- Gravel Wearing Course
H
HCM- Highway Capacity manual
HFL- Highest Flood Level
HSG- Hydraulic Soil Group
I
IRI- International Roughness index
L
LC- Lateral Clearance
LCVC- Length of the Crest Vertical Curve
LOS- Level of Services
LVSR- Low Volume Sealed Roads
LVUR-Low Volume Unpaved Roads
LVRR- Low Volume Rural Roads
M
MINAGRI- Ministry of Agriculture (Rwanda)
MDD- Maximum Daily Density
N
NBR- National Bank of Rwanda
NCF- Normal Cross Fall
NITRR- National Institute of Technology Riapur
O
OCHA- United Nation Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs
OMC-Optimum Moisture Content
P
PEA- Programmatic Environmental Assessment
PCU- Passenger Car Equivalent Unit
PLL- Passing Lane length
PSD- Passing Sight Distance
R
RFR- Rwanda Feeder Road program
RICA- Road Inventory Condition Assessment
RL- Run-out Length
RLDSF- Rwanda Local development Support Fund (RLDSF)
RMF- Road Maintenance Fund
RMMS- Road Maintenance Management System
ROW- Right-Of-Way
RRA- Rwanda revenue Authority
RRFD- Rwanda Rural Feeder road Development program
RTDA- Rwanda Transport development Agency;
S
SADC- South African Development Community
SEACAP- South East Asia Community Access Program
SCT- Shoulder Curve Transition
SS- Side Slopes
SSD- Stopping Sight Distance
SW- Shoulder Width
T
TEF- Traffic load Equivalent Factor
TRH- Technical Recommendation for Highway
TRL- Transportation Research laboratory
TRRL- Transport and Road Research Laboratory
U
UFC- Unified Facilities criteria
USAID- United States Agency for International Development
USCE- US- Army Corps of Engineers
V
VPD- Vehicle per Day
W
WB-x – Wheel Base of length x (for the design vehicle, x in SI or Imperial units)
X
Y
Table of Contents
0.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY............................................................................................19
1.0 INTRODUCTION ..........................................................................................................68
2.0 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN ..............................................................................................72
2.1 General .........................................................................................................................72
2.1.1 Climatic zones ............................................................................................................72
2.1.2 Terrain classes ............................................................................................................73
2.1.3 Environmental Considerations ...................................................................................73
2.1.4 Functional classification ............................................................................................74
2.1 5 Projection for future demand ................................................................................76
2.1.6 Level of service ..........................................................................................................76
2.1.7 Design vehicle ............................................................................................................78
2.1.8 Passenger car equivalent unit (PCU) .........................................................................80
2.1.9 Design hourly volume ................................................................................................80
2.1.10 Design speeds ...........................................................................................................81
2.1.11 Brake reaction time ..................................................................................................82
2.1.12 Brake distance ..........................................................................................................82
2.1.13 Effect of grade on stopping ......................................................................................83
2.1.15 Decision sight distance (DSD) .................................................................................84
2.1.16 Object height design value .......................................................................................86
2.1.17 Passing Sight Distance .............................................................................................86
2.2 Horizontal Alignment .......................................................................................................87
2.2.1 Side friction factor f: ..................................................................................................88
2.2.2 Relationship between the design speed and the running speed .................................89
2.2.3. Normal Cross Slope ..................................................................................................89
2.2.4. Maximum superelevation rates .................................................................................89
2.2.5 Minimum radius .........................................................................................................90
2.2.6 The straight ................................................................................................................92
2.2.7 Minimum and maximum length of curves .................................................................93
2.2.8 Turning roadways ......................................................................................................93
2.2.9 Turning design control ...............................................................................................94
2.2.10 The minimum length of super-elevation runoff .......................................................94
2.2.11 Minimum length of tangent run-out .........................................................................95
2.2.12 Location of the superelevation runoff length with respect to the point of curvature
(P.C.) ...................................................................................................................................96
2.2.13 Minimum length of spiral transition curve ..............................................................97
2.2.14 Maximum radius for use of a spiral .........................................................................97
2.2.15 Maximum length of spiral ........................................................................................98
2.2.16 Desirable length of a spiral ......................................................................................99
2.2.17 Limiting super-elevation rates .................................................................................99
2.2.18 Length of tangent runout ........................................................................................100
2.2.19 Widths outside travelled way .................................................................................101
2.2.20 Horizontal site distance ..........................................................................................101
2.2.21 Passing sight distance.............................................................................................104
2.2.22 Turnouts .................................................................................................................105
2.3 Vertical Alignment ..........................................................................................................106
2.3.1 Crest vertical curve ..................................................................................................106
2.3.1.1 Design controls: stopping sight distance ...........................................................107
2.3.1.2 Design controls: passing sight distance ............................................................108
2.3.2 Sag vertical curve .....................................................................................................109
2.3.3 Sight distances at undercrossing ..............................................................................112
2.3.4 Gradients ..................................................................................................................114
2.3.5 Climbing lanes .........................................................................................................114
2.3.6 Other features affecting geometric design ...............................................................114
2.3.6.1 Erosion control and landscape development;....................................................114
2.3.6.2 Utilities ..............................................................................................................114
2.4 Cross section elements ....................................................................................................115
2.4.1 Travelled way ...........................................................................................................115
2.4.2 Lane width................................................................................................................118
2.4.3 Curve widening ........................................................................................................120
2.4.4 Shoulder widths........................................................................................................121
2.4.5 Shoulders cross sections...........................................................................................122
2.4.6 Normal Cross Fall ....................................................................................................123
2.4.7 Slopes in shoulders...................................................................................................124
2.4.8 Side Slope and Back Slope ......................................................................................124
2.4.9 Right-of-Way ...........................................................................................................126
2.4.10 Clear Zones ............................................................................................................126
2.4.11 Safety barriers ........................................................................................................126
2.4.12 Signage ...................................................................................................................127
2.4.13 Headroom and lateral Clearance ............................................................................127
2.5 Drainage design (Tanzania road design manual, USAID Draft standard, AASHTO)....128
2.5.1 Longitudinal drainage ..............................................................................................128
2.5.2 Roadside ditches ......................................................................................................128
2.5.2 Median drains ...........................................................................................................130
2.5.3 Median drains ...........................................................................................................130
2.5.4 Mitre drains ..............................................................................................................130
2.5.5 Catch-water drains ...................................................................................................130
2.5.6 Subsurface drainage .................................................................................................131
2.5.7 Subsurface drainage .................................................................................................131
2.5.8 Control of seepage flow ...........................................................................................132
2.5.9 Control of seepage flow ...........................................................................................132
2.5.10 Cross Drainage Structures ......................................................................................133
2.5.11 Drainage design (USAID draft –feeder roads standards) ......................................134
2.5.11.1 The rational method ........................................................................................134
2.5.11.2 Minor Runoff Areas ........................................................................................137
2.5.11.3 Spacing of Cross Drains on Steep Gradients ..................................................137
2.5.11.4 Verification of Stream Channel Peak Flow Using Manning’s Equation ........137
2.5.11.5 Pipe Culvert Design ........................................................................................138
2.5.11.6 Side Ditches (longitudinal drains)...................................................................138
2.6 Materials Investigation (USAID Draft manual on feeder roads) ....................................139
2.6.1 General .....................................................................................................................139
2.6.2 Existing Road Condition: Subgrade Strength ..........................................................139
2.6.3 Laterite Wearing Course ..........................................................................................140
2.7 Pavement Design.............................................................................................................141
2.7.1 Pavement Design......................................................................................................141
2.7.2 Traffic volume and Axle Loads ...............................................................................142
2.7.2.1 Design life of Pavements ..................................................................................142
2.7.2.2 Estimation of traffic ..........................................................................................142
2.7.2.3 Traffic (Load) Equivalence Factors (LEF/TEF) ...............................................142
2.7.2.4 DPWH (Philippines) Design .............................................................................143
2.7.2.5 EAC Member States Design .............................................................................144
2.7.2.6 Subgrades ..........................................................................................................144
2.7.2.7 Gravel Wearing Course (GW) ..........................................................................145
2.7.2.8 Earthworks Compaction requirements ..............................................................146
2.7.2.9 Unbound materials ............................................................................................147
2.7.2.10 Crushed aggregate base course .......................................................................148
2.7.2.11 AASHTO Design Method ...............................................................................149
2.7.2.12 Other Design Agencies ...................................................................................150
2.7.2.13 Design for Annual Gravel Loss ......................................................................151
2.8 Seismic considerations ....................................................................................................153
2.9 Other design considerations ............................................................................................154
2.9.1 Demographics ..........................................................................................................154
2.9.2 All-Weather Access .................................................................................................154
2.9.3 Surface Performance ................................................................................................154
2.9.4 .Bridge design ..........................................................................................................155
2.9.4.1 Bridge planning .................................................................................................155
2.9.4.2 Bridge design process .......................................................................................156
2.9.4.3 Bridge Design references ..................................................................................156
2.9.5 Safety .......................................................................................................................157
2.9.5.1 Key Principles for Designing Safer Roads .......................................................157
2.9.6 Environmental Impact Assessment (RRFD-program) .............................................159
2.9.7 Quality control- minimum requirements for the repair and maintenance of the
16,239km of the Feeder road network– from RRFD report .............................................163
3.0 MAINTENANCE METHODS ...........................................................................................165
3.1 Condition assessment ......................................................................................................165
3.2 Typical Unpaved Roads Defects .....................................................................................165
3.2.1 Dustiness ..................................................................................................................166
3.2.2 Potholes ....................................................................................................................166
3.2.3 Stoniness ..................................................................................................................167
3.2.4 Corrugations .............................................................................................................167
3.2.5 Ruts ..........................................................................................................................169
3.2.6 Cracks.......................................................................................................................170
3.2.7 Raveling ...................................................................................................................170
3.2.8 Erosion .....................................................................................................................171
3.2.9 Shape ........................................................................................................................171
3.2.10 Slipperiness ............................................................................................................171
3.2.11 Impassability (trafficability) ..................................................................................172
3.2.12 Gravel Loss ............................................................................................................172
3.2.13 Excessive Loose Material ......................................................................................172
3.3 Existing Maintenance Management of other member states of the EAC community
173
3.4 Existing Maintenance Management in Rwanda..............................................................175
3.5 Scheduled Maintenance in Rwanda ................................................................................177
3.5.1 Recurrent/Routine Maintenance ..............................................................................177
3.5.3 Periodic Maintenance ...............................................................................................178
3.5.4 Emergency/Urgent Maintenance..............................................................................178
3.5.5 District Role in Rural Feeder Roads Maintenance...................................................178
3.6 Maintenance of gravel roads (source: Gravel roads design, maintenance and repair,
Technical recommendations for Highways –TRH-20, South Africa) ..................................180
3.6.1 Level of Serviceability .............................................................................................180
3.6.2 Practical Aspects of Maintenance ............................................................................181
3.6.2.1 Roadside Maintenance ......................................................................................181
3.6.2.2 Drainage Maintenance ......................................................................................182
3.6.2.3 Surface Maintenance .........................................................................................182
3.6.3 Safety Aspects ..........................................................................................................185
3.6.4 Rehabilitation and Upgrading ..................................................................................185
3.6.5 Financial Aspects (from USAID-PARSONS DRAFT Document) ............................186
4.0 REFERENCES....................................................................................................................196
5.0. APPENDIXES ...................................................................................................................201
5.1 Appendix A1 - Traffic Considerations ..........................................................................201
5.2 Appendix A2- Sub-Grade Design Strength ................................................................207
5.3 Appendix A3 - Geometric Design Considerations –source (LVUR- USAID Feeder
Roads draft)...........................................................................................................................216
5.4 Appendix A4- Bridge Design Checklist .........................................................................221
5.5 Appendix 5: Lao’s Low Volume Rural Road design approach .................................225
5.6 Appendix A6- Method of distribution of super-elevation and side friction (AASHTO)241
5.8. Appendix A8- Off-tracking (AASHTO) ........................................................................250
5.9 Appendix A9- Travelled way widening for Horizontal curves (AASHTO) ...................254
5.10 Appendix A10 – Turning Roadway Widths (AASHTO)..............................................258
5.11 Appendix A11- General Controls for horizontal Alignment (AASHTO) ..............261
5.12 Appendix A12- General Controls for vertical Alignments ...........................................264
6.0 INDEX ................................................................................................................................267
List of figures
Figure 1: Geometry of the design vehicle and lateral clearance on the curve ............................79
Figure 2: Relationship Between Side Friction and Design Speed on Curve ..............................88
Figure 3: Types of Lane Rotations and Determination of the Adjustement Factors. .................95
Figure 4: Diagram Illustrating Components for Determining Horizontal Sight Distance ........102
Figure 5: Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves ........................103
Figure 6: Parameters Considered in Determining the Length of the Crest Vertical Curve to
Provide Sight Distance ..............................................................................................................106
Figure 7: Minimum Lengths of Crest Vertical Curves for Different Values of Algebraic
Difference in Grade (A) ............................................................................................................108
Figure 8: Length of Sag Vertical Curve as a Function of Algebraic Difference in Grade A (%)
...................................................................................................................................................111
Figure 9: Schematic View of Sight Distance at Undercrossing ................................................112
Figure 10: Typical Cross-Section, Normal Crown ...................................................................116
Figure 11: Typical Cross Section, Super-Elevated ...................................................................117
Figure 12 : Graded and Usable Shoulders ................................................................................121
Figure 13: Designation of Roadside regions .............................................................................124
Figure 14: Road Side Ditches (source: Tanzania Manual of Roads Design)............................129
Figure 15: Roadside Ditches (Source: Tanzania Manual of Roads Design).............................131
Figure 16: Capillary Cut-off .....................................................................................................131
Figure 17: Interception drain for the Seepage Zone .................................................................132
Figure 18: Example of a Pipe Culvert .......................................................................................133
Figure 19: IRI vs Speed vs. Road Types ...................................................................................154
Figure 20: System Approach to Road Safety ............................................................................158
Figure 21: (a)-Forced Oscillation Theory for the Formation of Corrugation; (b)- Typical
Corrugation (uncompacted and Compacted Crests) .................................................................169
Figure 22: Deterioration of Low-Volume Unpaved Roads ......................................................176
Figure 23: Periodic Maintenance of Low-Volume Unpaved Roads .........................................177
Figure 24: A2-1: The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer .................................................................208
Figure 25: A2-2: Empirical DCP-Based Pavement Design Thickness .....................................208
Figure 26: A2-3: Sample Feeder Road Pavement .....................................................................209
Figure 27: A2-4: Pavement Design Chart .................................................................................210
Figure 28: A2-5: Layered Pavement Model for Geo-textile Reinforcement ............................210
Figure 29: A2-6-: CBR- Shear Strength Correlation ................................................................212
Figure 30: A2-7: Pavement Design Calculations ......................................................................212
Figure 31: A5-1: The Assembled DCP .....................................................................................230
Figure 32: A5-2- Typical Excel Calculations Sheet and Plots for DCP Data...........................235
Figure 33: A5-3: Typical Water Impacts on Mountainous Road Section.................................236
Figure 34:-A5-4, USACE Design Chart ...................................................................................238
Figure 35: A6-1- Procedure for development of Method for Superelevation Distribution .....242
Figure 36 : A6-2- Superelevation as a Function of radius of Curvature (m), emax= 4%

(AASHTO) ................................................................................................................................243
Figure 37: A6-3- Super-elevation as a function of radius of Curve (m), emax= 6% (AASHTO)
...................................................................................................................................................243
Figure 38: A6-4: Super-elevation as a function of Radius of Curve (m), emax: 8% (AASHTO)
...................................................................................................................................................244
Figure 39: A6-5- Super-elevation as a Function of Radius of Curve (m), emax=10%

(AASHTO) ................................................................................................................................244
Figure 40: A8-1- Track Width for Widening of Travelled Way on Curves (AASHTO) .........251
Figure 41: A8-2- Front Overhang for Widening of Traveled Way on Curves (AASHTO) .....252
Figure 42: A8-3- Extra Width Allowance for Difficulty of Driving on Travelled Way on
Curves (AASHTO) ...................................................................................................................253
Figure 43: A9-1- Widening Components on Open Highway Curves (Two-Lanes Highway,
One-Way or Two-Way)- (AASHTO) .......................................................................................255
Figure 44: I1- Terms Used to Define Low Volume Roads (Cross-Section) .............................267
Figure 45: I2- Road Structure Section and Materials ...............................................................270
Figure 46: I3- Road Surface Drainage ......................................................................................271
Figure 47: I4- Rolling grade with Rock -Armored Rolling Dips ..............................................273
Figure 48: I5- Culvert Components ..........................................................................................275
Figure 49: I6- Natural Drainage Crossing with Culvert ...........................................................275
Figure 50: I7- Ford and low water crossings ............................................................................277
Figure 51: I8- Improved , Vented Ford .....................................................................................277
Figure 52: I9- Use of vegetation, Woody materials and Rock for Erosion Control for Erosion
Control ......................................................................................................................................279
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Road design class and functional class Tanzania……………………………….……75
Table 2: Extract from the functional classification of roads from the EAC standards
harmonization document……………………………………………………………................75
Table 3: General definitions of levels of service …………………………..............................77
Table 4: Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of Service (AASHTO)………………….77
Table 5: EAC-harmonized design levels of service for access roads…………………………77
Table 6: Design vehicles from the EAC harmonization Committee……………………….…78
Table 7: Design Vehicle WB-12 (WB-40)……………………………………………………78
Table 8 : Passenger Car Equivalent Unit………………………………………………………80
Table 9: Typical Design Speeds for Local Rural Roads (AASHTO)…………………………81
Table 10: Design Speeds for Access Roads Class 4 and Class 5 as a Function of the Terrain
Type(EAC)………………………………………………………………………………….....81
Table 11: Stopping Sight Distances for Access Roads (feeder)………………………………83
Table 12: Stopping Sight Distance for Access Roads on Grade (feeder)……………………..84
Table 13: Decision Sight Distance…………………………………………………………….84
Table 14: Object Height (m) for Use in the Computation of SSD, DSD and PSD……………86
Table 15: Passing Sight Distance in Two-Lane Highway……………………………………..87
Table 16: Relationship Between Design Speed and Running Speed (km/h)…………………..89
Table 17: Limiting Superelevation Rates…………………………………………………….90
Table 18: Minimum Side Friction in Terms of Design Speed and Corresponding Radius…..91
Table 19: Limiting Values of the Side Friction as per EAC………………………………….92
Table 20: Other Countries Practice on Straights……………………………………………...92
Table 21: Length of Circular Arcs for Different Compound Curves Radii…………………..93.
Table 22: Maximum Relative Slope as a Function of the Relative Gradient and the Design
Speed (AASHTO)……………………………………………………………………………94
Table 23: Adjustment factor for the number of lanes rotated………………………………..95
Table 23 : Runoff Locations that Minimize the Vehicle's Lateral Motion…………………..96
Table 24: Maximum Radius for use of a Spiral Curve Transition (AASHTO)……………...97
Table 256: Desired Length of Spiral…………………………………………………………..99
Table 26 : Limiting Superelevation Rates……………………………………………………100
Table 28: Typical Shoulder Width Design Values…………………………………………...100
Table 27: Range of Usable Shoulder Widths or Equivalent Lateral Clearances Outside of
Turning Roadways not on Structures………………………………………………………...101
Table 28: Passing lane Length as a Function of One-way Flow Rate………………………..104
Table 29: Minimum Length of Turnout (AASHTO)…………………………………………105
Table 30: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves based on Stopping Sight Distance……108
Table 31: Design Controls for Passing Sight Distance and Corresponding Vertical
Curvature……………………………………………………………………………………...108
Table 32: Stopping Sight Distance and Rate of Vertical Curvature as a Function of the Design
Speed……………………………………………………………………………………........111
Table 33: Maximum Gradient as Adopted by the EAC Harmonization Committee………...114
Table 34: Ranges in cross slopes rates (AASHTO) …………………………........................118
Table 35 : Cross Section Dimensions of the Road Design Classes / Tanzania………………119
Table 36: British Overseas Road Notes Standards…………………………...........................119
Table 37: Lane Widths Comparison for Different Countries…………………………...........120
Table 40: Typical Shoulder Widths Design Values………………………….........................122
Table 38: Comparison of Shoulder Width Design Values (m) (EAC-Road Standards
Harmonization) …………………………................................................................................123
Table 39: Typical Shoulder Widths Design Values………………………….........................123
Table 40 : Clear Zones …………………….............................................................................126
Table 41: Typical Cross Section Dimensions (EAC Road Standard Harmonisation) .............127
Table 42: Hydrological Soil Groups.........................................................................................135
Table 43: Recommended Runoff Coefficient C for Pervious Surfaces by Selected Hydrologic
Soil Groupings and Slope Ranges............................................................................................136
Table 47: Tabulated Correlation of CBR Vs. DCP..................................................................140
Table 44: Traffic Equivalence Factors (TEFs) from Various Studies......................................142
Table 45: Recommended Thickness of gravel Layers to the Placed on the Subgrade of the
Gravel.......................................................................................................................................143
Table 46: Comparison of Subgrade Classes and CBR Design Values in Three of the EAC
Countries (Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda) ..............................................................................145
Table 47: Compaction Requirements for Earthwork (EAC Harmonization) .........................146
Table 48: Requirements for Fill and Improved Subgrade Layers (EAC Harmonization)…...147
Table 49: Code Designation for Unbound Materials...............................................................147
Table 50: Material Requirements for Gravel Wearing Course (EAC-Harmonisation)………148
Table 51: Grading Requirements for G80 and G60 Materials (BS 1377: part 2)…………….148
Table 52: Crushed Aggregate Base Course Requirements…………………………………...149
Table 53: Recommended Aggregate Thickness Vs. Roadbed Soil Quality and Traffic……..150
Table 54: Other Sources- minimum Thickness for Gravel Wearing Course…………………151
Table 55: Gravel Thickness Comparison, all Sources..............................................................151
Table 56: Normal Gravel Loss..................................................................................................152
Table 57: Earthquake Reporting Scales....................................................................................153
Table 58 : Intervention Levels for Unpaved Roads in Tanzania..............................................173
Table 59: Data Collection Regime and Frequency of Road Maintenance……………………174
Table 60: Condition Definition and Type of Intervention........................................................176
Table 61: Definition of Levels of Serviceability......................................................................180
Table 62: Cost Estimates for Works on Unpaved Roads.........................................................186
Table 63: Estimated Maintenance Costs per Kilometre...........................................................187
Table 64: Summary of Feeder Roads Design Standards..........................................................188
Table 65- A1-1: Vehicle Classification....................................................................................202
Table 66: A1-2: Average Equivalency Factors for vehicle Classification...............................205
Table 67: A1-3: Estimated Vehicle Classification Table for Rwanda.....................................205
Table 68: A1-4- Factors for Design traffic Loading ...............................................................206
Table 69: A3-1: Carriageway Widths......................................................................................207
Table 70: A3-2: Minimum Curve Radius (m) ........................................................................217
Table 71: A3-3- Stopping Sight Distance (m) ........................................................................219
Table 72: A3-4 : Vertical Curve K-values...............................................................................219
Table 73: A5-1: Lao's Terrain Classification.........................................................................225
Table 74: A5-2: Calculation for Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Loading, ESA……228
Table 75: A5-2 Standard DCP Field Sheet.............................................................................234
Table 76: A5-3 - Hue-DCP Field Sheet..................................................................................235
Table 77 : A5-4- USACE Road Classes.................................................................................237
Table 78: A5-5: USACE Traffic Categories..........................................................................239
Table 79:A5-6- USACE Design Index...................................................................................239
Table 80: A5-7- USACE Gravel Roads Minimum Thicknesses............................................239
Table 81: A5-8- LVRR Gravel Loss Matrix..........................................................................240
Table 82: A7-1- Mininimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax=
4% (AASHTO) ......................................................................................................................246
Table 83: A7-2- Minimum Radii for Design Super-elevation rates, Design Speeds and emax=
6% (AASHTO........................................................................................................................247
Table 84: A7-3- Minimum Radii for design Super-elevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax=
8% (AASHTO) ......................................................................................................................248
Table 85: A7-4- Minimum Radii for Design Super-elevation Rates, Design Speeds and
emax=10% (AASHTO...........................................................................................................249
Table 86: A9-1- Calculated and Design Values for Travelled Way Widening on Highway
curves (Two-Lane Highways, One-way or Two-Way, AASHTO) .......................................256
Table 87: A9-2- Adjustments for Travelled Way Widening Values on Open Highway Curves
(Two-Lane Highways, One-Way or Two-Way, AASHTO) .................................................257
Table 88: A10-1- Design widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways (AASHTO)………259
Table 89: A10-2- Design Vehicle Combinations for Values Calculations
in Table 92:A10-1..................................................................................................................260
Table 90: A10-3- Design Vehicle Combinations for Values Calculations in Table 92: A10-1
with Variations as stated in preceding paragraph (AASHTO) .............................................260
i0.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In 2010, the Government of Rwanda (GoR) started discussion with Development Partners for
the implementation of the feeder roads program, and set target lengths of road kilometers for
each Development partner to rehabilitate. The GoR had committed to start the implementation
of the program of feeder roads by fiscal year 2012/2013 while also addressing the Millennium
Development Goal targets: making effective contributions to successful implementation of
SPAT III, provision of rural employment as well as modernizing and commercializing
agriculture for ultimately increased social, economic, and environmental transformation of
Rwanda.
The objectives of the feeder roads program are in line with those of the EDPRS II as follows:
a. Contributing to modernization and commercialization of agriculture by creating
possibilities for transporting modern agricultural inputs and machineries to farms, and
b. Timely transporting agricultural productions to post-harvest storage and processing
facilities, and markets.
The stakeholders of the overall “Feeder Road Program” is composed of the Minstry of
Agriculture and Natural resources (MINAGRI) as a leader for prioritization of roads, the
Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC) for implementation through Districts and Rwanda
transport Development Agency (RTDA) for technical support to the project implementation in
respect with the Road Act.
The priority roads identified by the projects cover different category of roads as per the Road
Act: National, District Class 1, District Class 2 and unclassified roads. Before the Road Act was
adopted in January 2012, the planning of EDPRS II activities and subsequent discussions for
funds mobilization and project identification was already initiated with the Ministry of
Commerce and Finance (MINECOFIN) and Development Partners (Nederland’s cooperation,
USAID, European Development Fund and World Bank). In the effort to comply with the GoR
requirement for the implementation of 7 meters, the stakeholders reviewed standards of other
advanced countries in Feeder Roads like projects, and with the perspective of traffic volume,
economy and future road improvements, made the following recommendations to the GoR : That
roadway width of 6.0 meters be considered for all unpaved, low volume (less or equal to 400
AADT) roads, regardless of hierarchal classification of National road, District 1 road, or District
2 road. If however, the present traffic volume is greater than 400 AADT, a higher width should
be considered, but for such roads, a paved surface should also be considered.
These recommendations were based on:

1. The difference in construction costs. All indications are that the average increase in
construction costs would be 35% between the two widths (6m vs. 7m)
2. The projected difference in maintenance costs. All indications are that the average
increase in maintenance costs would be 17% between the two widths
3. The increase in right-of-way costs, which was not included in the above totals. While
these have not been estimated, they are significant.
4. The prevailing widths mandated from several developed, developing, and neighboring
countries, which indicate a 6.0 meter width.
5. The width of the largest vehicles which will use the roads, which, at 2.6 meters, gives a
requirement of at least 5.5 meters for a two lane road.
Lined ditches need not be lost if at some time in the future traffic dictates that the road width
is increased from 6m to 7m. The lined ditch can be saved if the future centerline is merely
moved over 0.5 meters to the road side away from the lined ditch, giving a 7m wide road.
Road classification as per the Road Act N0: 55/2011
The Term feeder road is not included in the road act for their description and therefore feeder
road standards have become a controversial issue for implementation. The new Road Act N0:
55/2011 classified the roads in their respective categories with stipulated roadway width as
follows:
• National road Paved or Unpaved: These are roads comprising the following categories:
 International roads that link Rwanda with neighboring countries;
 Roads that link Districts or that link a District and the city of Kigali;
 Roads that link areas of Touristic significances and facilities of National and
International importance such as ports or airports;
 Minimum viable width of a lane : 3.5m not including drainages ditches &
embankment;
 Embankment slope: 45%;
 Right Of Way (ROW) Reserve: 22m on each side of the road
• District Road Class One:

Roads linking different sector’s Headquarters within the same Districts or those road that are
used within the same sector.
 Minimum viable width of a lane : 3.5m not including drainages ditches &
embankment;
 Embankment slope: 45%;
 ROW Reserve: 22m on each side of the road;
• District Road Class Two:

Arterial roads that link District roads to rural community centers that are inhabited as an
agglomeration
 Minimum width of Roadway : 6m not including drainage ditches & Embankment
Main focus of the Rural Feeder Road Development Program
While the program covers all the 27 districts, the Rural Feeder-Road Development program is
focused to:
 Construction of 12, 900 km of 6 m roadway rural feeder roads and 9, 000 km of 3m
roadway basic access farm-roads
 Upgrading and full overhauling of 9,302 km rural feeder roads that are already hugely
dilapidated to have roadway width of 6m
 Continued and sustained maintenance of 16,239 km of rural feeder roads and farm roads
in all the 27 districts that have served four years after new construction or upgrading in
this program.
Functional objectives of the Rwanda Rural Feeder-road Development program
 First it is a transport chain with one end in the agricultural fields and the other on the farm-
gate market (Basic-access Farm-road (BF)).
 The second is the transport chain from the farm gate network to private sector’s activities
such as agricultural production, post-harvest processing and storage facilities.
 The third is a transport chain from private-sector’s activities such as local markets,
processing centers, post-harvest storage facility centers, etc., to “District and City of Kigali
roads and that of other urban areas-Class 2’’.
RRFD program technical coverage
The RRFD program subdivided the technical coverage of the feeder roads program according
to the conditions, size and stage of their development in the following work frame.
(1)-Existing rural feeder-roads requiring upgrading and total overhauling

 These are existing unclassified earth roads that are considered in the rural feeder-road
network and are reported to be predominantly dilapidated.
 Their cumulative length is also reported by RTDA to be 9,302 km. These are reported
to be major constraints to the mobility of the rural population in Rwanda.
 The first priority is given to up-grading and rehabilitation of these existing feeder roads.
Their roadway width will be uniformly 6 meters with additional side drainage facilities.
All require overhauling. Therefore, the price allocated for the upgrading and repairing
work of these roads is estimated at 84% of the cost allocated for the new construction.
They are meant to connect district roads and other urban areas to farm gate markets,
post-harvest storage facilities, and to rural settlement and facility centers.
(2)-Basic Access farm-roads /2nd group of rural feeder-roads/

 These are feeder roads needed to transport improved agricultural inputs to farms believed
to be centers of agricultural transformation and required to transport outputs to be
harvested from these farms.
 The same is true to proper rehabilitation and maintenance of land-husbandry and
irrigation infrastructures to be installed and already installed.
 By end of 2020, it is estimated the area coverage of these developments would easily
reach 150,000 ha. Rwanda has massively endorsed the use of comprehensive land-
husbandry technologies in these agricultural project sites.
 The basic access farm-road required to serve installment and maintenance of
comprehensive land-husbandry measures, provision of modern agricultural inputs and
transportation of agricultural outputs from deep-inside these project sites, become
9000km.
 Basic-access farm-roads are to be installed within the fertile arable land. The traffic
density will be comparatively very minimal. Because of these two factors, the roadway
width is recommended to be 3m and this roadway will be covered with laterite/gravel.
 The basic-access farm-roads will mainly serve for vehicles that are used to transport
improved agricultural inputs to farms, farm products to collection centers and serve to
transport farm machineries such as power tillers, sprayers and harvesting equipment to
and from farms.
(3) New feeder roads totaling 12,900 km

 The length of these new feeder roads is a balance between the total feeder road need in
Rwanda and those identified under points (1) and (2).
 According to experts in Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) of UK taken from
‘development of Feeder Roads in Ghana’, is that a minimum standard of access which
should be open for 80% of the year, at the rate of 1 km / 100 inhabitants.
 Relaxing this rate to 1km/200 inhabitants to account for inhabited and unpopulated land
would require a total of 51 250 km of feeder roads in Rwanda for a population of
10250000 by year 2020. This cannot be accomplished in eight (8) years.
 The RRFD program set target to 60% of the total feeder roads required, i.e relaxing the
rate to 3km/1000 inhabitants, which lead to a total of 31,202 km for the 2020 target.
 After deducting the feeder-roads that are considered under 1 and 2 above (cumulatively
18,302) and deduct them from the total feeder-road need, which is 31302km, the balance
to be additionally constructed becomes 12,900 km long.
 These roads are outside of the farm plots and the density of traffic would be relatively
more hire than the Basic-access farm-roads. The roadway width must be 6 m and this is
in line with Article 16 of the Road Law No 55.
Need for comprehensive standards for feeder (unpaved) roads

There is an urgent need to set up guiding standards not only for feeder roads, but also
for the entire Road network. The following document will cover Feeder (unpaved)
roads and mainly focus on two mainstream activities: Design, and maintenance of
feeder roads.
As stated earlier in this introduction, the function of the feeder road network is such
that goods will likely move along either national roads or district roads and unclassified
roads. The current draft will mainly address the standards for those roads identified in
the previous section as group 1 and group 3. Although some of the features of this
standard might be used for group 2 (Basic access farm roads), it might be deemed
necessary to set up separate design guidelines for that category of roads.
It is understood that unpaved District roads class I and II will fall in the categories
covered by this standards. For the sake of generality, we will keep the generic
denomination of Feeder-unpaved roads throughout the document.
It is also understood that while trying to link Agro-producers to consumers, some of the
goods will use national roads network in their routine activities. This does not have any
impact on the current standards as all other categories of roads will be covered by a
separate standards.;
While developing these standards, an effort was put in the consultation of existing
standards in Rwanda, in the East-African community and other neighboring countries
as well as countries with comparable topography and climate as Rwanda. The need for
harmonization with the East African Community roads standards was also considered.
Content of the current draft standards for feeder (unpaved) roads
Elements of design:
In this section, the following key points will be developed:
 Feeder road functional classification;

 Road geometry
o Horizontal alignment;
o Vertical alignment;
o Cross section;
o Drainage
 Materials and properties;
 Thickness design;
Maintenance methods:
In this section will be developed the maintenance strategies specific for gravel roads and
particularly for the normal functioning of the Feeder roads.
Appendixes:
Elements of design
Climatic zones
Four climatic seasons have been identified for Rwanda with reference to the seasonal rainfall
distribution pattern.
 Season 1 is a generally dry period which extends from December of the preceding year
to the end of February of the succeeding year;
 Season 2 is the primary rainy season throughout Rwanda and referred to as the “long
rains” extends from February to the end of May;
 Season 3 is dry, except in parts of Rwanda, and extends from June to the end of August; and
 Season 4 is the second rainy period throughout Rwanda and referred to as the “short
rains” extends from October to the end of November.
Though for the purposes of crushed aggregate or lateritic LVUR designs, Rwanda can be considered to
have only one (1) climatic zone - wet zone. All places with mean annual rainfall greater than 500-mm
are considered to be wet zones and all places with mean annual rainfall less than 500-mm can be
considered to be moderate/dry zones.
Terrain Classes
As suggested by the USAID draft document on Low Volume Unpaved Roads, terrain class is determined
by the number of five (5)-meter contours crossed by a straight line connecting the two (2) ends of the
LVUR in question according to the following definitions; independent of a road’s selected alignment:
 Flat: Zero (0) to ten (10) five (5)-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally below three percent (3%).
 Rolling: Eleven (11) to twenty-five (25) five (5)-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between three (3) and 25%.
 Mountainous: Twenty-Six (26) to fifty (50) five (5)-meter contours per km. The natural ground
slopes perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above twenty-five percent (25%).
 Escarpment: Geological features that require special geometric standards because of the
engineering risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than those encountered in mountainous terrain.
Environmental Considerations
A wide variety of governmental authorities at various levels may play a role in dealing with the potential
for adverse impacts. One does not mitigate design, engineering or construction mistakes, one corrects
them. Another extremely important recommendation related to mitigation is the importance of considering
environmental impact early in the road rehabilitation/reconstruction process, during the project planning
phase, during the road segment assessment and as part of the process of choosing and contracting a road
construction company.
Clearly, there are choices that can affect the potential for adverse environmental impacts, for example,
finding the correct road alignment or location to cross a watercourse or a wetland at the narrowest place;
being aware of the boundaries of protected areas; considering the possibility of a road diversion around an
urbanized village to minimize the potential for traffic safety or dust issues; considering the quality and
dimensions of a road going through an urbanized area, and the option to seal it, widen it, enhance the quality
of the shoulders, create pedestrian lanes, etc. There is a direct relationship between good road engineering
practices and sound environmental management.
As far as the design engineer is concerned, he should consider these eleven (11) environmental issues:
 Road building related disruptions to the local hydrology and watershed function;
 Damage to fragile wetland ecosystems, stream courses, drainage ways, and the
biodiversity assets they contain;
 Improper road construction or lack of maintenance creates standing or stagnant water
situations;
 Proper environmental management of borrow pit and quarry sites;
 Improved road conditions may lead to better access to rural forestry assets such as
woodlots, small plantations, and even natural forest;
 Sourcing timber needed for road furniture or structures in an unsustainable manner;
 Social conflict because of perceived inequities with the road building;
 Improved road conditions and traffic safety;
 Providing traffic control devices, i.e., road humps, to slow traffic through villages and
other populated areas;
 Will improved roads lead to more noise and road dust; and
 Road camps and their placement and decommissioning.
Functional Classification
There is a common convergence of roads specialists and organizations around the world on the
definition of low volume local roads. The limit traffic volume is commonly taken equal to 400
veh/day.
Recommendation:
For Application to the Rwandan terrain, and with due projection to the future needs and
design life of the gravel roads which will constitute mostly the majority of the feeder roads
networks. The choice of the road design parameters for feeder roads will rely on the
maximum design traffic volumes of 400 to 1500 veh./day. This value is equivalent to the one
suggested by the AASHTO code for low volumes local roads. A traffic volume of less or equal
to 400 veh./day will normally cover the gravel feeder roads while the range from 400 to 1500
veh/day would cover those portions of feeder roads on national network unpaved and
paved and at the same time respond to the future needs of the current gravel roads.
Projection for future demand

Geometric design of new highways or improvement of existing highways should not usually be
based on current traffic volumes alone, but should consider future traffic volumes expected to
use the facility. In the case of feeder roads, this will fall in the category of rehabilitation projects
and gravel roads; shorter design life (5 to 10 years) will have to be used.

Recommendation
In the case of Rwanda feeder roads, the design life and traffic design volume will
predominantly be for seven 7 years on gravel roads corresponding to the period of re‐
gravelling on a regularly maintained gravel road.
Level of service
There is no unique definition of level of service for feeder roads given the fact that by their
function, the network will include different classes of roads. However, according to AASHTO
and to the traffic (less or equal to 400 veh./day), the level of services for the feeder road network
would be in the ranges given in table 4 below. Level C would be only applicable on those portions
of the feeder network where national roads Class 1 and II need to be used.
Table 4- Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of Service (AASHTO)
According to the EAC-roads standards harmonization documents, feeder roads will be assimilated
to Access roads and the corresponding design levels of services are as given in Table 5.
Table 5: EAC-harmonized design levels of service for access roads
Recommendation
The feeder road network will predominantly cover District roads Class 1 and class 2. For
District roads Class 2, we recommend to use level of service D for all types of terrain while
for District roads class 1, national roads class 2; level of service D is recommended for rural
mountainous. We recommend level of service C for District class 1 and national Class 2 for
rural levelled and rural rolling terrains.
Design vehicle
From the EAC-draft standards harmonization document, vehicle size closest to the largest one
found in Rwanda as given in table 7 would be the DV5 semi-trailer with an overall length of
18 m and a width of 2.59 m.
Table 7: Design VehicleWB-12 (WB-40)

Design Vehicle Dimensions in Meters
Overall
Type Symbol Wheelbase Front Rear Overall Width Height
Length
Semitrailer WB-12 12.19
1.22 1.83 15.24 2.59 4.12
Combination (WB-40) 3.96+ 8.23
It can be seen that this design vehicle is comparable to the intermediate semi-trailer WB-12 (SI)
(WB-40- imperial) suggested by AASHTO as shown in figure 1a and Figure 1b. Of particular
interest is the fact that to accommodate the passing of two such vehicles along a gravel road, the
width of the road must be twice this value, plus some value for safe clearance between the
vehicles. This dictates the minimum selection of a width of 5.5 meters, as specified in the design
standards for several countries.
Recommendations
For the design of feeder roads, it is recommended that the WB‐12 SI ‐ WB‐40 imperial be
used for those portions of feeder roads on District roads class I and II. However in order to
comply with the EAC harmonisation standards, it would be advisable to upgrade to at least
DV5 for those type of vehicles travelling feeder Roads on national roads class I and 2.
Furthermore, for design purpose, the width of the truck shall be assumed to be 2.6 m
minimum.
Passenger car equivalent unit (PCU)

The number of PCU’s associated with a single vehicle type is a measure of impedance that it
offers to the passenger cars in the traffic stream. The recommended PCUs by the EAC –
harmonization team are as following:
Table 8: Passenger Car Equivalent Unit
Recommandations
It is recommended to adopt the EAC-Road standards harmonization values presented in table 8.
Design hourly volume
The design hourly volume represents the 30th highest hourly volume during the year.
Field data should be gathered to estimate the K factor. In the absence of these data, the
EAC roads standards harmonization committee recommends values of K of 0.15 for rural
highways and 0.10 for urban roads. Then DHV=0.15x ADT or 0.10 x ADT respectively.
Recommendations;
In the absence of data, which is the case now, it is recommended that the above values
suggested by the EAC –road standards harmonization be adopted in these standards.
Design speeds
The AASHTO standards suggests design speeds as a function of the AADT classes and the type
of terrain (Level, Rolling, Mountainous) as shown in table Table 9 of the main document. The
EAC harmonization committee on the other hand suggest in table 10 design speeds
corresponding to Class 4 and Class5 roads which form the Access road and respond to the traffic
volume criteria defined earlier for feeder roads as a function of the four terrains classifications
typical to the East African Countries, Rwanda in particular. The main difference between the
two approaches is in the absence of steep terrain in the AASHTO code.
Table 10: Design speeds for access roads class 4 and Class 5 as a fonction of the terrain type
(EAC)
Recommendation
While keeping in mind that the AASHTO standards may be applied in relation to road security.
We recommend complying with the EAC‐road standards harmonization format of suggested
values and terrain classification as it more or less reflect the Rwandan reality.
Brake reaction time

Recommendation
The braking distance shall be computed on base of the applicable design speed using a
deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 and a reaction time of 2.5 s. The corresponding stopping sight
distances as a function of the design speed likely to be encountered on majority of the feeder
roads network for those segments of the feeder road network pertaining to higher class
roads, refer to corresponding standards are given in Table 11 AASHTO . The EAC
harmonisation committee adopted the AASHTO values at the exception that the lowest
design speed adopted is 30 km/h. We shall use in the broad AASHTO values in this standard.
Brake distance
A brake reaction time of 2.5 s has been adopted by the EAC harmonisation committee and
will be adopted in this standard. Note that the design speed of 80 km/h is only relevant for
that segment of the feeder road networks on National roads I and II.

Effect of grade on stopping

For roadway segment on a grade, the previous table shall be modified to take into consideration
the grade G as shown in table 12. It can be seen that the stopping sight distance increases with
the increase of the grade.
Table 12: Stopping Sight Distances for Access Roads on a grade (feeder)- effect of grade
G
Decision sight distance (DSD)
The decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway environment that
may be cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and
path and initiate a complex manoeuver. Its values are substantially greater than stopping sight
distances as can be seen in Table 13.
Table 13: Decision Sight Distance
Where avoidance manoeuvers A to E are defined in the relevant subsection.
Recommendation
The AASHTO – suggested values in Table 13 shall be used to determine the Decision Sight
Distance DSD in this standard.
Object height design value

Recommendation
The following object height shall be adopted for purpose of SSD, DSD and PSD computation,
consistent with the AASHTO and EAC‐road standards harmonization suggested values in table
14.
Table 14: Object height (m) for use in the computation of SSD, DSD and PSD.
Passing Sight Distance

As suggested by the EAC-road standards harmonization Committee, the passing sight distance is
calculated on the basis of a distance required for a successful overtaking maneuver and makes
adequate provision for an aborted maneuver in the case of a truck attempting to pass another truck.
The minimum passing sight distance is the total of four components: d1+d2+d3+d4. Definition of
the different components is given in the relevant subsection.
The EAC harmonization committee adopted the AASHTO minimum passing sight distance for
two lane highways as given in table 15.
Table 15: Passing Sight Distance for two-lane Highway
Recommendation:

The rounded values in Table 15 shall be adopted in this standard for Passing Sight Distance
m calculations.
Horizontal Alignment
Alignment between control points should be designed to be as favorable as practical, consistent
with the environmental impact, topography, terrain, design traffic volume, and the amount of
reasonably obtainable right-of-way. Sudden changes between curves of widely different radii or
between tangents and sharp curves should be avoided.
Side friction factor f:

The relationship of the side friction and speed for low speed roads is given in the above graph
which can be simplified for design purposes to the following graph given in Figure 2 under the
relevant subsection
Recommendation
For the case of feeder unpaved roads, the first portion of the graph corresponding to speeds
of 20km/h to 70 km/h. For these same speeds, the side friction decreases from 0.35 at 20
km/h to 0.15 at 70km/h .
Relationship between the design speed and the running speed

As suggested by the AASHTO standard, the running and design speeds are the same for low
speeds (from 20 km/h to 40 km/h). The difference between the design speed and the running
speed increases with increasing speed.
Table 16: relationship between Design speed and running speed (km/h)
Normal Cross Slope
Normal cross slope need to be adapted to the design of drainage system.
Recommendation:
For Rwandan terrain and rainfall an average cross slope of 3% between 2% to 4% shall be
adopted with due consideration of the drainage system.

Maximum superelevation rates
Maximum superelevation rates are controlled by four factors: climate conditions (frequency and
amount of rain); terrain conditions (flat, rolling or mountainous); type of area (rural, urban); and
frequency of slow-moving vehicles whose operation might be affected by high superelevation
rates. To account for a wide range of agency practices, five maximum superelevation rates 4,
6, 8, 10 and 12 % are found in the literature as given in Table 17 below. In an early draft standard
for feeder roads performed by USAID though, it was suggested that no superelevation be
provided for gravel roads and that a normal crown be provided instead.
Table 17: Limiting superelevation rates

Recommendation:
For unpaved feeder roads, it is recommended that super‐elevation be limited to a maximum
of 8%. Where terrain conditions are favorable, providing the normal crown shall be given
priority.
Minimum radius
For a given speed, minimum curve radius is limited by maximum allowable side friction, which
is usually based on comfort standard, maximum superelevation rate for the curve, and the
necessity to maintain stopping sight distance. The minimum radius can be calculated directly
from the simplified curve equation given in section 2.3.5 and the values thus obtained are shown
in Table 18.
Table 18: Maximum side friction in terms of design speed and corresponding radius.
The EAC road standard harmonization committee suggests the limiting values of the side friction
as shown in table 19. The dependency of these values on the superelevation rate does not appear
in the table.
Table 19: limiting values of the side friction as per EAC
Recommendation
As for other EAC partner states, Rwanda shall adopt maximum super elevation rates of 4%
on roads in urban areas and 8% on roads in rural areas as well as side frictions with
corresponding design speeds above for Feeder district class 1&2 roads. An additional
requirement is that the distribution of super ‐ elevations and side friction over a range of
curves should be such that super‐elevation and side frictions are proportional to the inverse
of the curve radius.
The straight
Table 20 shows selected countries practice on Straights.
Table 20: Other countries practices on Straights:
Kenya Straights not to have lengths greater than 20 x Vd;

Straights between circular curves following the same direction
should have lengths greater than 6 x Vd
Tanzania Length of straight not to exceed 2 km
Uganda Length of straight not to exceed 4 km
The EAC recommends the length of straight sections not to be greater than 20 x Vd where Vd is
the design speed (km/h). A minimum of 6 x Vd should be also adopted between circular curves
following the same direction.
Recommendation
The values recommended by the EAC road standards harmonization shall be adopted for
Feeder roads design, subject to future modification as needed and determined by the field
practice. 60

Minimum and maximum length of curves
For small deflection angles, curves should be long enough to avoid the appearance of a kink.
The EAC harmonization committee recommends that the length of a curve should be at minimum
300 m but should not exceed 1000 m.
Recommendation
It is recommended to adopt the EAC road standards harmonization recommendations
subject to future changes as needed and determined by field experience.

Turning roadways
Compound curves
Table 21 shows the minimum compound curves lengths computed on base of desirable
deceleration rate in gear alone of 1.5 to 2.5 km/h.
Table 21: Lengths of Circular Arcs for different Compound Curve radii (AASHTO)
Recommendation
The values presented in table 21 shall be adopted in this standard.
Turning design control
Tangent-to-curve transition
Current practice is to limit the grade difference between the longitudinal grades of the axis of
rotation referred to as the relative gradient and the edge of pavement, to a maximum value of 0.5
% or a longitudinal slope of 1: 200 at 80 km/h. A comfortable and aesthetically pleasing runoff
design can be attained through the exclusive use of the maximum relative gradient criterion.
Table 22: maximum relative slope as function of the relative gradient and the design Speed
(AASHTO).
The EAC Road Standards harmonization Committee adopts the same values but limits the
minimum design speed to 30 km/h.
Recommendations
We suggest to adopt the broad values of table 22 from AASHTO.
The minimum length of super-elevation runoff

The minimum length of super-elevation runoff should be determined using the formula in
subsection 2.2.10 and whose corresponding values are given in table 23 and sketched on Fig. 3
Table 23: Adjustment factor for the number of lanes rotated
Recommendation
From the figure 3, it can be seen that the adjustment factor for the majority part of the
Rwandan Feeder road network will be equal to unity. Therefore, the minimum length for
super‐elevation runoff will be calculated from the equation given in subsection 2.2.10 with
the value of bw 1 and w 3.0m.
Minimum length of tangent run-out

The length of tangent run-out is determined by the amount of adverse cross slope to be removed
and the rate at which it is removed. To achieve a smooth edge of pavement profile, the rate of
removal should equal the relative gradient used to define the super-elevation runoff length. The
length of the tangent run-out (m) is calculated in section 2.2.11 in terms of the normal cross slope
rate (%), the design super-elevation rate (%) and the minimum length of super elevation run-off
(m).
Recommendation
The minimum length of tangent run‐out shall be computed using the adopted values of cross
slope rates, the design super‐ elevation rates and the minimum length of super elevation
length by means of equation in section 2.2.11.
Location of the superelevation runoff length with respect to the

point of curvature (P.C.)
To achieve the balance in lateral acceleration, it is desirable to locate the runoff length on the
tangent prior to the curve. The portion of the runoff length placed on the tangent varies from 0.6
to 0.8 as shown on Table 24 (see Appendix II) for explanation.
Table 24. Runoff locations that minimize the Vehicle’s Lateral Motion
Recommendations
It is recommended to adopt the value in Table 24 with only one lane rotated 0.8
Minimum length of spiral transition curve
The minimum length of the superelevation curve is proportional to the speed and inversely
proportional to the curve radius and the rate of increase of lateral accelerations as computed in
subsection 2.2.13. A more practical control for the length of spirals is that it should equal the
length needed for super-elevation runoff.
Recommendations
It is recommended that the minimum length of the spiral transition curve be equal to the
length needed for super‐ elevation runoff.
Maximum radius for use of a spiral

The maximum radius for use of a spiral should be based on a minimum lateral acceleration rate
of 1.3 m/s2.
Table 25 Maximum radius for use of a Spiral Curve transition (AASHTO)
Recommendation
The values given in table 25 shall be used in this standard for determination of the maximum
radius for a spiral curve transition.
Maximum length of spiral

Two criteria shall be used, the first is intended to provide a spiral length that allows for a
comfortable increase in lateral acceleration as a vehicle enters a curve, the second is intended to
provide a spiral curve that is sufficiently long to result in a shift in a vehicle’s lateral position
within its lane that is consistent with that produced by the vehicle’s natural spiral path. The
minimum spiral; length is thus computed using the formula in subsection 2.2.15.
As pointed out in the USAID draft standards on Feeder roads, an inventory was performed during
2011 and it was observed that there were several horizontal curves for existing roads which did
not conform to the minimum requirements for the selected design speed. These curves should
be improved to conform to the standards. The same draft standard stresses that the design should
re-establish a single radius curve where the present curves have either been previously built, or
have degenerated through the years, into a series of compound curves. In the latter case, this is
likely due to gravel maintenance operations, and encroachments. The single curve can be
attained with some meander from the existing road centerline and edges, within the ROW, but
the removal of some farmland and fences will be required which currently infringe within the
existing ROW. The standard road width is often greater than the existing width and with the
need for ditches, additional ROW will be required. Similarly, in some locations, the existing
road meanders within what should otherwise be long, tangent sections.
Recommendation
The recommended minimum value of the length of the spiral shall be given by the highest
value obtained from the two equations for Ls,min as formulated in subsection 2.2.15 but
shall not exceed the desirable length of spiral as given in table 26. Widening of the traveled
way shall be envisaged to minimize the potential for encroachments into the adjacent lanes
wherever lower values than those given in Table 26 or the preceding formulas are used.

Desirable length of a spiral
Table 26 gives desirable length of Spiral Curve Transition. If these values are higher than those
given by equations in the preceding section, the minimum value shall be used.
Table 26: Desirable length of a spiral
Limiting superelevation rates

Table 27 gives super-elevation rates associated with large relative gradients. The values of
superelevation to be used in the design should not exceed those given in table 27 so as to avoid
an increase in the maximum relative gradient allowed for a tangent –to-curve design. Column 1
in table 27 will be used in this standard.
Table 27: Limiting superelevation rates
Length of tangent run out

Table 28 gives the values of tangent Run out Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design for
superelevation rates from 2 to 10%.
Table 28 Tangent Runout Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design
Recommendation
The values from table 28 shall be adopted in this standards in accordance with the relevant
superelvation.
Widths outside travelled way

Table 29 gives a range of usable shoulder widths or equivalent lateral clearances outside of
turning roadways not on structures. Where roadway barriers are provided, the width indicated
should be measured to the face of the barrier, and the graded width should be about 0.6 m greater.
Table 29 : Range of usable shoulder widths or equivalent lateral clearances outside of
turning roadways not on structures
Recommendations
The width of the shoulders will be dictated by the currently established law right‐of‐way
ROW . See the recommendations for road sections geometry.

Horizontal site distances
The sight line for general use in design of horizontal curve is a chord of the curve, and the
stopping sight distance is measured along the centerline of the inside lane around the curve. As
illustrated on figure 4. Figure 5. Is a design chart showing the horizontal sight line offsets needed
for clear sight areas that satisfy stopping sight distance criteria for horizontal curves of various
radii on flat grades?
Recommendations
The chart from Fig. 5 shall be used for corresponding applicable to feeder roads design
speeds and superelevations as identified in previous sections.
Passing sight distance

Table 30 gives the passing lane lengths as a function of the usable on feeder roads one way flow
rates.
Table 30: passing lane length as a function of one-way flow rate
Recommendations
The recommended values of passing lane lengths in table 30 might be difficult to apply on
Rwandan terrain, especially on gravel roads. However, on flat and rolling terrain, where
applicable, the values of passing lane length shall limited to 0.8‐1.2 km corresponding to a
maximum flow rate of 400 veh./h. In such cases, physical delineation on gravel roads where
marking would be impossible shall be provided.

Turnouts
Table 31 shows the minimum length of turnout. Turnouts require a minimum width of 3.6 m but
widths of 5 m are considered desirable. A turnout should not be located on, or adjacent to
horizontal or vertical curve that limits sight distance in either direction. The available sight
distance should be at least 300 m on the approach of the turnout. Proper marking or physical
delineation to maximize usage of the turnout shall be provided.
Table 31: Minimum length of turnout (AASHTO)
Recommendations
Turnouts are appropriate for the Rwandan terrain especially in those areas where
economical activities will involve an important volume of trucks. However the additional
minimum width of 3.6 m shall not meet the conditions of the available Right‐Of‐Way. It is
recommended to limit the width of the turnout to 3.0 m. Proper delineation shall be provided.
Vertical Alignment
Crest vertical curve;

Stopping sight distance;
Passing sight distance
Fig. 6 illustrates the parameters used in determining the length of a parabolic vertical curve
needed to provide a specified value of sight distance. The basic equation of a crest vertical curve
in terms of algebraic difference in grade and sight distance is given below:
Fig. 6 Parameters Considered in Determining the Length of the Crest Vertical Curve to
Provide Sight Distance

Recommendations
The AASHTO –suggested dispositions in subsections 2.3.1, 2.3.1.1, to 2.3.1.2 shall be
adopted for vertical crest design controls in these standards.

Sag vertical curve
For drivers to see the roadway ahead, a sag vertical curve should be long enough that the light
beam distance is approximately the same at the stopping sight distance. Accordingly, it is
appropriate to use stopping sight distances for different design speeds as the value of S in the
equations for sag vertical curves as presented in subsection 2.3.2 the resulting lengths and the
stopping sight distance as well as the rate of vertical curvature as a function of the Design Speed
are shown in Fig. 8 and table 34 respectively.
Recommendations
It is recommended to use same lengths of sag vertical curves as that of the stopping sight
distance and determine the rate of vertical curves accordingly as indicated in subsection
2.3.2.

Sight distances at undercrossing
In some conditions it is desirable to check the available sight distance at undercrossing such as
at an undercrossing without ramp where passing sight distance need to be provided. General
equations are developed for two cases: (i) sight distance greater than length of vertical curve
and (ii)- sight distance less than length of vertical curve.
Recommendation
The sight distance undercrossing shall be determined for two cases where i ‐ the sight
distance is greater than the vertical curve, ii ‐ the sight distance is less than the vertical
curve. The cases of a truck driver’s eye from 2.4 m staring an object of 0.6 m height for the
taillights of a vehicle shall as well be considered as developed in sections 2.3.3.
Gradients
To avoid stagnant water, the minimum gradient should be of at least 0.5%, and the maxima shall
not exceed the values given in the following tables as adopted by the EAC harmonization
committee.
Table 35- maximum gradient as adopted by the EAC Harmonization committee.
Recommendations
These gradients shall be adopted for feeder roads Unpaved roads, district roads class 1&2
with due consideration of other factors like the drainage system.
Climbing lanes
Not required for conditions of traffic flow on feeder roads except when safety considerations
may require such addition of climbing lane, in which case it shall be done regardless of grade
or traffic volumes.
Other features affecting geometric design

Erosion control and landscape development;
Erosion control and maintenance are minimized largely by using specific design features: flat
side slopes, drainage channels designed with due regards to width, depth, slopes, alignment, and
protective treatment, inlets located and spaced with erosion control in mind; prevention of
erosion at culvert outlets; proper facilities for groundwater interception; dikes berms, and other
protective devices to trap sediment at strategic locations; and protective ground coverage and
planting. To the practical extent, these features should be designed and located to minimize the
potential crash severity for motorists who unintentionally run of the roadway.
Utilities
Depending on the location of a project, the utilities involved could include (1) sanitary sewers,
(2) water supply lines; (3) oil, gas, and petroleum product pipelines, (4) overhead and
underground power and communications lines including fiber optic cable, (5) cable television;
(6) wireless communication towers; (7)-drainage and irrigation lines; special tunnels for building
connections. All utility installation on, over or under highway or street right-of-way and attached
structures should be of durable materials designed for long service-life expectancy, relatively
free from routine servicing and maintenance, and meet or exceed the applicable industry codes
or specifications.
Cross section elements

Travelled way
The rate of cross slope is an important element in cross-section design. Cross slope or crown on
tangents or on long radius curves are complicated by two contradictory controls. On one hand, a
reasonably steep lateral slope is desirable to minimize ponding of water on pavements with flat
profile grades as a result of pavement imperfections or unequal settlement. Horizontal and
vertical alignment should also be coordinated to avoid creating flat spots where crest vertical
curves and super-elevation transition coincide. On the other hand, steep cross slopes are
undesirable on tangents because of the tendency of the vehicle to drift towards the low edge of
the travelled way.
In areas of intense rainfall, a steeper cross slope may be needed to facilitate roadway drainage.
Because of the nature of the surfacing materials used and surface irregularities, unpaved surfaces
as earth, gravel or crushed stone need an even greater cross slope on tangents to prevent the
absorption of water into surface. Cross slopes greater than 2 % may be used on these types of
surfaces. Where roadways are designed with outer curbs, the lower values in the ranges of cross
slopes shown in table 36 are not recommended because of the likelihood of there being a sheet
of water over a substantial part of the travelled way adjacent to the curb. For any rate of rainfall,
the width of travelled way that is inundated with water varies with the rate of cross slope,
roughness of gutter, frequency of discharge points and longitudinal grade. Table 36 shows the
AASHTO-suggested normal travelled way Cross Slope.
Table 36: Ranges in cross slopes rates (AASHTO)
Recommendations
It is recommended that a minimum cross slope of 4 % be used for unpaved feeder roads
district roads class1&2

Lane width
The lane width of the roadway influences the confort of driving, operational characteristics, and,
in some situations, the likelihood of crashes. Lane width of 2.7 to 3.6 m are generally used. The
lane width to be used on Feeder (unpaved) roads will be limited by the Right-of-Way as adopted
by the national Road Act. Table 37 and 38 show cross section dimensions from the Tanzanian
Road Standards and the Britsh Overseas Road Notes Standards respectively. It can be seen from
the Tanzanian road standards that Class DC6 roads have 3 m wide lanes, and 1.0 m wide sloulders
for both gravel and paved runways, Class DC7 is a gravel road with a 2.75 m wide lanes and 1.0
m wide shoulders, while Class DC8 is a gravel or earth road with one single lane 4-m wide and
1m-wide shoulders. Table 38 on the other hand gives lower values of road-way widths which
are function of the traffic flow.The present widths of rural feeder roads in Rwanda vary from 3-
4 meters in mountainous sections to more than 7 meters in some urban areas. Roadway width
remains a sensitive issue. The Official Gazette mandates a width of 7.0 meters for all National
and District 1 roads, and 6.0 meters for District 2 (feeder) roads. Reference has also previously
been made to the required width for the passing of two WB-40 (imperial), WB-12-(metric) size
vehicles, dictating that the absolute minimum width for two lanes should be 5.5 meters.
Table 37: Cross Section Dimensions of the Road Design Classes/Tanzania
Source : Tanzanian Road design manual 2012
Table 38: British Overseas Road Note Standards
Table 39 summarizes comparison of lane widths for various countries. It can be seen that for
minor and local roads, the lane widths vary from 2.5 to 3.65 m.
Table 39: Lane widths comparison for different countries
Recommendation
In line with the EAC adopted lane widths for access roads feeder roads and in line with the
Rwanda road act, the lane width for Feeder roads unpaved District Class 1 shall be 3.5 m
and for unpaved District roads class 2 shall be 3 m. Note that in very difficult terrain where
cut and fill operations might require substantial amount of earthwork, demarcation from the
standard lane width might be considered. The same shall be done for need of enlargement
especially in curves however the lanes width shall remain in the range of the proposed EAC
width of 2.5 to 3.5 m for access roads Feeder roads‐District class 2 roads . In some
circumstances it may be advisable to consider the construction of a single lane road, with
periodic turn‐outs to allow to opposing vehicles to pass. Such circumstances are largely
confined to existing 3‐4 meter wide roads in side hill cuts in mountainous terrain. In such
locations, earthwork cost would be prohibitive to construct a two lane width, and slope
stability could be affected. Engineering judgment should be employed in making the decision
to use a single lane facility in low traffic volume areas.
Curve widening
The pavement is often widened at sharp curves to accommodate offtracking, whereby the rear
wheels, particularly of larger vehicles, do not follow precisely the same path as the front wheels
when the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve or makes a turn. The amount of off-tracking, and
therefore the amount of widening needed on a curve depends on the characteristics of the design
vehicle and the radius of curvature negotiated. But AASHTO also states that: “Widening is costly
and very little is actually gained from a small amount of widening...1” The USAID Draft
Standards suggests that for low volume gravel roads, no curve widening should be employed.
Recommendations:
Curve widening will be performed where terrains conditions allow it and where such a
widening is deemed economically justifiable.

1
Ibid, p. 214.
Shoulder widths
The shoulders on minor rural roads with low traffic volume serve essentially as structural lateral
support for the surfacing and as an additional width for the travel way. This permits drivers
meeting or passing other vehicles to drive on the edge of the roadway without leaving the
surfacing thus making use of the shoulder itself. As noted by the USAID draft standard on
Feeder, the distinction between lane widths and shoulder widths is rather meaningless for a
gravel-surfaced road. If, without much thought, a shoulder width of 1.0 meters is selected as a
standard, and 3.0 meters is the lane width, in actuality the result would be a gravel road of 8.0
meters wide.
The USAID draft standards on Feeder roads does however advocate an inclusion of a gravel
shoulder to better accommodate pedestrian and bicycle traffic, and parked vehicles, in built-up
areas, and the width employed in such limited areas is 1.0 meters for each shoulder. It is however
to be noted that that this is often not possible, and the clear distance between existing buildings
does not allow for such widening without the demolition of the very same buildings and
businesses which benefit from the road improvement. Often there are existing lined ditches in
place in such built-up areas, and in such conditions the shoulder width should be selected to allow
the roadway to fit between the ditches. When roadside barriers, walls, or other vertical elements
are present, it is desirable to provide a graded shoulder wide enough that the vertical elements
will be offset a minimum of 0.6m from the outer edge of the usable shoulder. On low-volume
roads, roadside barriers may be placed at the outer edge of the shoulder however, a minimum
clearance of 1.2 m should be provided from the travelled way to the barrier.
Figure 12 shows graded and usable shoulders while Table 40 and 41 show respectively typical
shoulder widths used around the world and in the EAC community.
Shoulders cross sections

The table 40 gives shoulder values compiled by Hall et al. (1995). The table shows clearly that
there is no international consensus on this issue. On the other hand, Table 41 of the EAC
harmonization document below compare the shoulder width design values for the EAC partner
State members where it can be seen that Burundi and Rwanda use the French standards.
Recommendation
It is suggested that shoulders for roads in rolling and mountainous terrain should be 1.0‐1.5
m wide while for access road classes feeder roads‐ district class 2 roads , shoulders should
be 0.6m to 1.0 m. wide. Generally, a minimum shoulder width of 0.6 m should be considered
for low‐volume highways. For the feeder roads, a shoulder width of 0.6 to 1.2 m shall be
provided depending on the terrain conditions.
Normal Cross Fall

A cross slope is used on traffic lanes to promote drainage of surface water. Table 42 gives typical
lane slope design values for different countries. According to the USAID draft standard on feeder
roads for gravel wearing surfaced roads, a 2 % cross slope will create issues with ponding and
eventual runoff in the wheel ruts. Conversely, a 4 % cross slope is difficult for heavy trucks to
navigate, especially when combined with a steep gradient. Such steeper cross slopes are generally
limited to roads of a narrow width, in essence “single lane” roads, where the truck traffic on lightly
travelled roads tends to utilize the center of the road and hence the effective cross slope for the truck
is flat. The USAID draft standard on feeder roads suggests a cross slope of 3 percent for gravel
wearing course. This is the same cross slope suggested by AASHTO for low volume local
unsealed roads.
Recommendation
The EAC harmonization committee adopted Tanzania and Kenya’s normal cross fall gradient
of 4% for gravel roads. For the Rwandan terrain witch tend to be more demanding as
compared to the surrounding countries, a cross slope of 3 % shall be adopted for
mountainous terrain. For the sake of harmonization, a cross‐slope of 4 % shall be used in flat
and rolling terrains for gravel and earth roads.
Slopes in shoulders
Shoulders should be flush with the roadway surface and abut the edge of the travelled way. Any
type of shoulder construction has a bearing on the cross slope and the two should be determined
jointly. Gravel and crushed rock shoulders should be sloped from 4 % to 6% (AASHTO). When
curbs are used on the outside of shoulders, the cross slope should be appropriately designed with
the drainage system to prevent ponding on the travelled way.
Recommendation
Normally, the shoulder should have the same slope as the carriageway 4% . However, to
allow faster drainage a rounding off of the shoulder edge to a steeper grade say 6% It is
recommended that the same value be used for gravel and Earth roads on the Rwandan
terrain.

Side Slope and Back Slope
Side Slopes and Back Slopes are designed to ensure roadway stability and provide reasonable
opportunity for recovery for an out-of-control vehicle. Three main regions of the side slopes are
important to safety: the top of the slope (hinge point), the fore slope and the toe of the slope.
Slope and soil data are used in combination to approximate the stability of the slopes and the
erosion potential. Effective erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and adequate drainage of the
subgrade are largely dependent upon proper shaping of the side slopes. Overall economy depends
not only on initial construction cost but also on the cost of maintenance, which is dependent on
slope stability. Normally, back slopes should be 1V: 3H or flatter, to accommodate maintenance
equipment: Ideally, slopes of 1V: 3H- 1V:4H should be used. In developed areas, sufficient
space may not be available to permit the use of desirable slopes. In such cases, back slopes
steeper than 1V:3H should be evaluated with regards to soil stability and potential crash severity.
Retaining walls should be considered where space restrictions would otherwise result in slopes
steeper than 1V: 2H. With some type of soils, it is essential for stability that slopes be reasonably
flat. Soils that are predominantly clay are particularly susceptible to erosion, and slopes of 1V:
3H or flatter should be used. Design slopes for rock vary widely, depending upon the materials.
A commonly used slope for rock cuts is 2V:1H but can be as steep as 6V: 1H in good rock. The
USAID draft Standards for feeder roads suggests slopes of 1V: 1H.
.
Recommendation
Adopt slopes of 1V: 3H to 1V:4H, and for slopes less than 1V: 3H, provide road side barriers
and evaluate slope stability as well as traffic safety. In such cases, fill slope should not be
steeper than 1V:1H and cut slopes not steeper than 1V:1.5H with additional safety provisions
retaining walls, barriers etc… .

Right-of-Way
According to the Road Act, a ROW of 22 m will be used for District 1 and 2 roads. It is assumed
that the ROW is approximately centered on the existing roadway centrelines. Note that
improvements will generally consist of shifts of usually no more than 3-4m from the existing
centreline, such that the works would remain well within the ROW if it is in fact 22 meters, but
may pose some problems with narrow adjacent property infringements of the ROW. The entire
route lengths will require ROW removal of approximately 1.0 meters on each side of the narrow
existing roads to obtain the required roadway width and provide for longitudinal drainage.
Recommendations
While all efforts will be directed towards the implementation of the ROW requirements an
engineering judgement shall be required to balance the economic issues linked to
expropriations with the needs to provide sufficient travel way with proper functioning
drainage systems.
Clear Zones
Clear zone area is provided beyond the edge of the roadway for the recovery of errant vehicles.
It may include any shoulders or auxiliary lanes and is related to speed, volume, embankment
slope and horizontal geometry. The need for clear zone increases with speed and curvature. The
recommended values in the case of Feeder roads (District class 2 roads) are as given in the Table
43.
Safety barriers
Guardrails will not be used on gravel roads. They will however be added at bridge approaches
and, as directed by the Engineer, may be placed at electric pole locations where these occur
within the roadway shoulder, assuming they cannot be removed prior to completion of
construction.
Signage
Given the general lack of road signs on unpaved roads within Rwanda, signage shall be treated
separately in standard.
Headroom and lateral Clearance

A minimum of 5.5m headroom under a bridge structure, 7.0 m headroom under a high-power
cables and 6.0 m headroom under low-power cables shall be provided; the minimum lateral
clearance width of 0.6 m on each side of a bridge for traffic volume of less than 400 veh/day,
1.0-1.2 m on each side of a bridge for traffic volume of 400 to 2000 v/day and increase the value
by 1 m for bridges of more than 30 m span.
Drainage design
GENERAL
For the sake of brevity, only key issues will be pointed out in this executive summary. For
detailed information, the reader is directed to section 2.6 of these standards.
Drainage is the most important factor in determining the technical performance of a road. When
roads fail, it is often due to inadequacies in drainage. Failure can happen suddenly as the case of
slip failure (parts of cutting or embankment breaking off), or more slowly, as when water
penetrates into the road pavement and sub-grade, weakens them to the extent they are no longer
strong enough to support traffic. Proper drainage design is thus an essential feature of overall
highway design and planning. In drawing up a drainage plan information concerning the
following factors is essential:
 Hydrological consideration such as maximum rainfall and intensity rate of runoff and
nature and amount of stream flow;
 Characteristics of the drainage basin (area to be drained) such as size, shape, general
slope, nature and type of vegetation and land use (existing and future;
 Nature and type of basin soils including their permeability and tendency to erode.
Longitudinal drainage
Water is drained from the carriageway and shoulders by virtue of the cross-fall or transverse
slope and longitudinal grade. Such water is either allowed to flow down the face of the side slope
(for small embankments) or collected at the edge of the shoulder by the use of kerbs, dykes or
paved ditches and carried longitudinally for disposal at a convenient place. The water from the
roadway and surrounding areas is drained away by use of roadside ditches, mitre drains or cut-
off drains. These usually carry the water for disposal at a convenient place or to a bridge or
culvert inlets.
Roadside ditches
Drainage ditches are constructed along the edge of the roadway to receive the runoff from the
pavement surfaces and water from subsurface drains. Where the surrounding area is sloping
toward the roadway, these ditches also serve to intercept and carry away water which would
otherwise reach the roadbed see Fig. 14. Roadside ditches present the following features:
 With open drains, the slope next to the road should not be steeper than 1:4, so as to avoid
the risk of severe damage and injury when errant vehicles fall into the drain;
 Generally trapezoidal shape ditches with side slope of 1 in 1 to 1 in 4 (depending upon

soil type) and bottom width of 0.6 to 2.5m (depending upon excavation method) are used.
 In rolling to hilly terrain where space is limited, V-shaped drains can be used. The
capacity of drainage ditch can be increased by widening or deepening the channel.
Widening is preferred to limit potential scouring.
 The minimum depth of ditches should be 0.6m measured from the bottom of the ditch to
the formation level.
 Maximum velocity of the water in the ditch, which will cause erosion or scour depends
on the material of the ditch. An average value of 1 metre/second for loam or fine sand
and 2 metres/second for coarse gravel will not cause erosion. However, in cases when
velocities are expected to exceed 2 metre/ second a lining shall be used.
 To assure flow, ditches should have minimum longitudinal slope of 0.5 percent if
unpaved and 0.3 percent if paved.
Key points to consider in the design of safe side drains are:
 There should be sufficient discharge points and culverts to ensure that the drain never
gets very deep;
 With open drains, the slop next to the road should as much as possible be flat enough
to reduce the risk of errant vehicles overturning;
 In built-up areas channel drains deeper than 500mm should be covered or under-drain
system be used for the safety and convenience of both pedestrians and vehicles;
 The drain should terminate or discharge in a satisfactory manner without risk of
causing erosion or other problems; and,
 The drain should be capable of being cleaned and maintained easily.
The USAID draft standards on Feeder roads suggest a modified v-ditch configuration whereby
the front ditch slope, i.e.- the one facing the traffic lane, has a slope of 1.5:1 H:V. This will allow
vehicles and pedestrians to resume travel if they enter the ditch. The ditch back slope is made
steeper in the interests of reducing the right-of-way take, and is set at a slope of 0.67:1 H:V. The
ditch shall have a depth of 0.6m. Ditches on gradients steeper than 7% shall be lined (mortared)
ditches.
Median drains
Median drains not only drain the median but also, in the case of a horizontal curve, prevent water
from the higher carriageway flowing in a sheet across the lower carriageway. The transverse
slopes should be in the range of 1:4 to 1:10. Unlike side drains, median drains, are generally
constructed with a shallow V-profile with the bottom gently rounded.
Chutes
Chutes are intended to convey a concentration of water down a slope which, without such
protection, would be subject to scour. They may vary in size from large structures to half-round
precast concrete product, but they are all open channels. Flow velocities are high, so that stilling
basins are required if down-stream erosion is to be avoided. An example of the application of
chutes is the discharge of water down a fill slope from an edge drain. The entrances to chutes
require attention to ensure that water is deflected from the edge drain into the chute, particularly
where the road is on a steep grade. The chutes and stilling basins should be such that these
drainage elements do not present an excessive risk to errant vehicles. Generally, they should be
as shallow as is compatible with their function. Depths in excess of 150 mm should be viewed
with caution.
Mitre drains
The water which is collected on side drains must be disposed of by diverting the drains away
from the road before it has become too long and collected too much water. If there is no stream
or river into which it can be diverted, mitre drains with small check bends should be constructed
pointing away from the road and running downhill. Thus, putting up large size culverts is
avoided. If it is not possible to construct mitre drains because the surrounding ground is sloping
towards the road, then it will be necessary to provide a culvert to take the water across the road
away on the other side.
Catch water drains

Where the surrounding area consists of higher ground, as in a cut or where the highway runs
along the side of a hill, additional drains known as catch water cut-off or interceptor drains should
be provided. These are effective in preventing erosion of the slope and consequent blocking of
the side drain. Catch-water drains are constructed at the back of the top of the cut or on benches
in the cut slope. The practice of providing catch-water drains along the top of the cutting may
sometimes cause a slope failure. Therefore, when it is necessary, it should be provided behind a
line at 45 degrees through the toe of the cutting and at least 6 m away from the top of the cutting.
Subsurface drainage
The road base must be designed either to exclude water completely or alternatively to permit
egress of water which has entered. When permeable and porous base materials are used,
particular attention must be paid to the drainage of the base layer. The base and sub-base should
extend the full width across the roadway and the surface of the sub-base layer given adequate
cross fall to assist drainage.
Capillary cut-offs
The purpose of capillary cut off is to collect and lead to drains any water which may pass through
the road surface (from top) or rising into the pavement from below by capillary action as shown
in Fig. 16. Capillary cut-off can either be a layer of porous materials such as sand or gravel, or
an impervious membrane such as layer of primer, tar felt or polythene. The cut-off should be
located at least 0.6m below top of subgrade. It should also be at least 0.15m above the general
ground level or stagnant water level. For feeder roads, the capillary cut-off would be irrelevant.
Control of seepage flow

There are two methods of dealing with condition of seepage flow. If the seepage zone is narrow
and within 0.6 to 1.0m from the surface then the usual procedure is to install an intercepting drain
in the impermeable strata underlying the seepage zone as shown in Figure 17. If the seepage zone
is wider or the impermeable strata is at a considerable depth below the surface, it is generally
impracticable to construct the drainage trench sufficiently deep to intercept all the seepage water.
In this case, the intercepting drain is usually well above the impervious strata, leading to a partial
interception of seepage zone. Where a road is on sloping ground, longitudinal drains may not be
capable of intercepting all the seepage water. In such cases it may be necessary to install
transverse intercepting drains too.
High water table

A high water table can be lowered by the installation of a drainage system similar to the system
displayed in Figure 17. It is desirable that the water table should be maintained at a depth not less
than 1.2m below the formation level. The actual spacing and depth of drains to achieve this
requirement will depend on the soil conditions and the width of the road formation. In the case of
dual carriageway, drains may be necessary under the median as well as under the edges of the
formation.
Cross Drainage Structures

Cross drainage structures comprise a wide range of measures from major bridges to drifts and
minor culverts. The major structures that are most commonly used for passing water from one side
of a road to the other can be slabs, beam/composite, box girders, trusses, frames, arches and cable
bridges. Collection of water from the roadway should be properly channeled to the bridges to
avoid erosion of abutments. Culverts in various shapes and materials are used to convey water
from streams below the road and to carry water from one side ditch to the other. Culverts should
have inlet headwalls on the upstream side and outlet headwalls on the downstream side. Wing
walls on the upstream are intended to direct the flow into the culvert and provide transition from
the culvert to normal or regular channel on the downstream. Both help to protect the embankment
from flood water. An example is shown in Figure 18.
DRAINAGE DESIGN- THE RATIONAL METHOD (USAID
draft –feeder roads standards)
The reader is directed to the subsection 2.5.11 for a comprehensive development of the drainage
design by use of the rational method together with hydrological, climatic and soil data for
Rwanda. Until a comprehensive database is developed, we recommend following the
methodology presented in subsection 2.5.11.
MATERIAL INVESTIGATION (Source: USAID Draft

manual on feeder roads)
This subsection treats the properties of the laterite soil as it is the prime source for construction
of unpaved roads in Rwanda. . In Africa and parts of Asia, laterite (called murram in East
Africa) soils are used to build dirt roads. Laterites are soil types rich in iron and aluminum,
formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because of iron oxides.
They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock. Tropical
weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a wide
variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils. Laterite which
contains a significant portion of clay can become very slippery when wet, and in the rainy season,
it may be difficult even for four-wheel drive vehicles to avoid slipping off highly cambered roads.
As it dries out, laterite can become very hard.
Laterite performs well when compared with roads using stone or other stabilized material as a
base or wearing course. However, laterite varies considerably in gradation. It ranges from hard
gravel to a softer earth embedded with small stones. While a good correlation is well established
between the DCP tests and CBR for laterite, (see table 48 of main document), it is evident that
laterite does not conform to any accepted specification and there is a need to prepare a
supplemental technical specification addressing the gradation and other performance indicators
such as the plasticity index, liquid limit and CBRs.
Pavement Design
The EAC road standard harmonization document points out that pavement design methods can
be grouped into two broad categories: empirical and analytical. Empirical methods are those that
have evolved from observation of the performance of experimental pavements laid either on
public roads and hence subjected to normal road traffic or on test tracks where loading was
strictly controlled. The majority of current methods of flexible pavement design fall under the
empirical category. In the analytical pavement design, it is assumed that pavements deteriorate
due to repetitions of stresses, strains and deflections generated by traffic loads, ultimately
reaching a terminal condition that necessitate strengthening. Performance models attempt to
relate those parameters associated to a particular mode of deterioration to the number of
repetitions of these that can be sustained before a terminal condition is reached. However, as
stated in a Report on Gravel Road Performance Study2, “the gravel road design process generally
does not focus on cumulative axle loads, fatigue or a target life expectancy. This is because the
gravel road seldom fails as a result of punching into the subgrade (i.e. shear failure of either the
wearing course or the subgrade material). Failure is typically either the result of continued
slippage of the vehicle tires against the soil (gravel) when a high moisture content prevails (lack
of frictional resistance leading to plastic failure) resulting in settlement of the tire into the
material, or shear failure of the upper portion of the wearing course with lateral displacement.”
That report also notes that “unlike paved roads, motorcycles can cause stress to a gravel road due
to kick-out of gravel, and loss of fines.” It should be noted that, conversely, AASHTO does focus
on axle loads and material strengths.
Traffic volume and Axle Loads

Design life of Pavements
For a gravel surfaced road, an appropriate design life is 7 years. In this context, “design life”
means that towards the end of the period, the pavement will need to be strengthened through the
placement of additional surfacing materials so that it can continue to carry traffic satisfactorily
for a longer period.
Estimation of traffic
The USAID draft document on feeder roads reports on a nationwide traffic count study was
conducted in 2010 on the entire paved road network.3 While this has little bearing on what can
be expected for traffic on gravel roads, it does provide an indication of what future counts and
traffic composition may be anticipated as the road develops over time. ITEC Engineering Ltd.
conducted a traffic count which covered all unpaved National and District 1 roads, in 2012.4
Counts were conducted for seven consecutive days in September, and included a 24-hour count
on market day.
Traffic (Load) Equivalence Factors (LEF/TEF)

The TEF approach is to convert damage from wheel loads of various magnitudes and repetitions
("mixed traffic") to damage from an equivalent number of "standard" or "equivalent" loads. The
commonly used equivalent load is the 18,000 lb (80 kN) equivalent single axle load, normally
designated Equivalent Single Axel Load (ESAL). Traffic Equivalence Factors (TEFs) are used
for various sizes of trucks and buses to relate the fleet to the equivalent loads. However, the
nature and composition of Rwanda’s truck traffic is unknown and hence has to be assumed. Such
load assumptions are presented in the following table:
2
Nyquist, M. S., Report on Gravel road Performance Study, USAID GEM2 Project, Philippines, January 2008.
3
Traffic Count on Rwanda National Paved Roads Network (2010), Egis/BCEOM Intl, for Ministry of
Infrastructure, Republic of Rwanda, Project 9.ACP.RW.012-1 European Development Bank.
4
ITEC Engineering Ltd., Consultancy Service for Traffic Count on Rwanda National Unpaved Roads: Final
Report, for Ministry of Infrastructure, Republic of Rwanda.
Table 47: Traffic Equivalence Factors (TEFs) from Various Studies
Vehicle Type TEF

Light Vehicles 0.01
Buses 0.50
Heavy trucks 1.00
Source: USAID –Draft standards of Feeder roads
As a rule-of-thumb, the damage caused by a particular load is roughly related to the load by a
power of four (for reasonably strong pavement surfaces).
AXLE LOADS
Axle loads are estimated by taking an average of the present ADT and the future ADT by vehicle
class, dividing by two to account for the traffic volumes per direction or lane, and multiplying
by the equivalence factor. An assumption is that the ratio of buses to trucks is 50/50.
Gravel Roads Pavement Design - DPWH (Philippines)

According to DPWH, the practice calls for the placement of a gravel wearing course at 150mm
thickness on a prepared subgrade where the subgrade CBR value is greater than 7%. Where the
CBR is between 4 and 7, the gravel wearing course is increased to 200mm in thickness. Instances
where the CBR is less than 4 are considered special cases which may require an additional layer
of 50mm of sub base material. Table 49 of the main text takes into account the traffic volume.
EAC Member States Design

Kenya design manual recommends gravel roads pavements where reported initial daily number
of commercial vehicles is greater than 150 (up to 500) for gravel roads class 1 and less than 150
for gravel roads class 2. Tanzania recommends gravel roads pavements for roads where AADT
is less than 300, same value for Uganda for AADT at the time of construction.
Recommendations
Since the vast portion of feeder roads District roads class 2, class 1, national roads class 2
are gravel or earth roads in Rwanda, it is suggested that gravel roads pavement laterite be
considered for AADT of equal or less than 400. However, the decision to keep a road as a
gravel road or upgrade it to paved surface should be based on the comparison of the cost of
maintaining a gravel road with the cost of upgrading and maintaining a paved surface. This
analysis can be modified to address local conditions.
Subgrades
Design depth:
The EAC harmonization suggested subgrade depths of 0.8 m for normal traffic and 1.2 m for
heavy traffic. For Rwandan terrain in the context of feeder roads, a minimum subgrade depth of
0.6 m shall be provided, but shall be increased up to 0.8 m for subgrades CBRs of lower values.
Centerline Soil Surveys:

A minimum of 1 CBR strength testing per km for other than trunk roads and a minimum of 1
CBR strength testing per 2 km for gravel roads as a minimum material CBR testing frequency
for EAC Partner States is required.
Characterization of the subgrade Strength Design value
The statistical approach of estimating subgrade CBR design value for a section which takes the
90%-ile CBR test value for a homogeneous section has been adopted as the CBR design value
by the EAC Road standards harmonization committee. The same values are recommended for
Rwanda.
CBR classes for the EAC member states

A comparison was made for the CBR values of subgrades of three of the EAC member state. A
need for harmonization and extension to other states (Rwanda and Burundi) recommends the
following three classes of subgrades:
 S3 is natural gravel/soil with nominal CBR value of minimum 3,
 S7 is natural gravel/soil with nominal CBR value of minimum 7;
 S15 is natural gravel/soil with nominal CBR value of minimum 15.
 It is recommended that improvement be done on subgrades with strength values S3 and
S7 only.
 For gravel roads, the materials for improved subgrade layers should meet the
requirements for class G15 and G7.
Recommendation
We recommend using the same classification for classes of subgrades in Rwanda. However
it shall be emphasized that use of subgrades with CBR value less than 7 shall be used with
care and good engineering judgment. Use of extra thickness shall be balanced against the
option of upgrading to higher material strength.
Gravel Wearing Course (GW)

There are two conflicting requirements to be met by materials for gravel wearing course:
 The need for a sufficient cohesion to bind the particles and prevent the surface from
travelling and becoming corrugated in dry seasons;
 Limiting the amount of fines and the plasticity so as to avoid the occurrence of a slippery
surface in wet weather.
Recommendation:
It is recommended that the governing material properties for fully engineered gravel
wearing course are CBR, gradation, shrinkage product, grading coefficient, and field density
and the gravel wearing course should meet the requirements for the same properties.
EAC requirements for fill and improved subgrade layers

The EAC- harmonization committee recommends the requirements in Table 52 of main
document for fill and improved subgrade layers for earthworks. We propose to follow the same
recommendation for Rwanda application.
Unbound materials
The code designation for unbound materials from the EAC harmonization committee is given in
table 53 of the main document. For the sake of harmony, the same codification shall be adopted
for Rwanda.
Pavement layers of natural gravel materials

As suggested by EAC partner states in tables54 and 55 of the main document, the same materials
and grading requirements for gravel wearing course, base and sub base layers, are also adopted
for Rwanda:
Crushed aggregate base course

The 1986 specifications for Kenya recommend requirements of particle strength (LAA and
ACV), Cleanliness (SSS), particle shape (FI) and CR for crushed stone classes A, B and C
materials depending on where the materials are to be used (subbase or base course).
Specifications for Tanzania and Uganda report requirements of Attemberg limits, grading,
particle strength and shape and compaction for crushed stone or quarried rock (CRS) materials
and crushed, fresh, quarried rock (CRR) materials. For a crushed rock to be viable as a pavement
material, it must be available, workable and give satisfactory field performance at the lowest
possible cost. The final in-place cost should take into account supply and cartage costs, cost of
repair to road during cartage, spreading and compaction costs and preparation of surface costs.
Table 56 in the main document gives requirements for crushed aggregate base course materials
as adopted by the EAC harmonization committee. The same requirements hall be adopted for
application in Rwanda.
AASHTO Design Method

Unlike DPWH or several other sources, AASHTO states: 5
“Because the primary basis for all rational pavement performance prediction methods is
cumulative heavy axle load applications, it is necessary in this Guide to use the 18-kip
5
“AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, 1993,” GPO, Washington, DC, p.II-69.
equivalent single axle load (ESAL) design approach for low-volume roads, regardless of
how low the traffic level is or what the distribution is between automobiles and trucks.”
The design process includes computation of the traffic volume, and conversion into ESALs using
a traffic growth rate. The design subgrade CBR values are determined based on estimated 85th
percentile CBR values, and conversion into the Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (K-
value).
The pavement design is accomplished through reference to the catalog table in the AASHTO
Pavement Manual, entitled “Aggregate Surfaced Road Design Catalog: Recommended
Aggregate Base Thickness (in inches) for the Six U.S. Climatic Regions, Five Relative Qualities
of Roadbed Soil and Three Levels of Traffic.”6 The pertinent portions of this table are presented
in Table 57 of the main document. Note that thickness has been converted to metric, and only
U.S. Climatic Region I is represented (Florida, Gulf Coast), as that region is closest to the
Rwanda climate. Using the table, and as the Rwandan soil is of fair quality, and the traffic volume
in ESALs is low (100,000 ESALs/year), a thickness of 150mm would be recommended. For any
higher traffic volumes, the table indicates that “a higher type of pavement design is
recommended.”
Other Design Agencies

Table 58 of the main document presents gravel thickness as a function of subgrade CBR values
(without consideration of traffic volume), obtained from TRRL (UK), US Army Corps of
Engineers, and Australian Road Research Board (ARRB) sources.7 In this table, gravel wearing
course thickness includes the thickness of all gravel layers. Table 59 of the main document
compares on the other hand thicknesses from different design methods corresponding to a CBR
of 8 for DPWH, AASHTO, TRRL, USCE and ARRB. It can be seen from the table that a
minimum of 150 mm is adopted from both DPWH and AASHTO, the other organizations being
conservative.
Design for Annual Gravel Loss8

The formulae used in the determination of DPWH and AASHTO design methods give a measure
of the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive strain in the subgrade. As
was mentioned elsewhere, this can be further enhanced through a determination of the extra
thickness needed to compensate for the gravel loss under traffic during the period between re-
gravelling operations. It is to be noted though that DPWH-based design,9 “…assumes that re-
gravelling will be done regularly every year (particularly at the end of the rainy season), in
addition to regular maintenance of re-grading, re-shaping and re-compaction.” This is unlikely
that re-gravelling will occur at that frequency. Further, TRRL states that “re-gravelling becomes
6
“AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, op. cit, p. II-86.
7
Information Note from International Focus Group on Rural Road Engineering, see www.ifgworld.org
8
Nyquist, M. S., Report on Gravel Road Performance Study, GEM2 for USAID,, January 2008.
9
Design Guidelines Criteria and Standards for Public Works and Highways, Volume II, op.cit.
urgent when the thickness of remaining gravel is reduced to 75mm.10” Both of these facets
indicate that the design should include an additional thickness. Table 60 of the main document
indicates that a gravel loss of about 30 mm /year is to be expected for a traffic volume between
200 and 400 (AADT). The AASHTO suggestion would add 50mm (1/2 x 20mm/yr x 5 yr) to
the gravel thickness.
Recommendations
It is recommended that re‐gravelling be considered whenever a gravel loss of 30 mm /year

is encountered. This would mean that, using the AASHTO formula, an addition of 75 mm
would be required 1/2 x 30mm/yr x 5 yr is re‐gravelling is planned in five years. Rather
than having to add such thickness, methods of stabilizing the wearing course should be
investigated.
Seismic design considerations

According to the OCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Rwanda
is located in an earthquake intensity zone identified as “Degree VII” on the Modified Mercalli Scale
originally developed in 1956. Correspondence of the Mercalli Scale to the Ritcher scale are shown on
table 61 of the main document (5.0-5.9 Moment magnitude on the Richter Scale). Given Rwanda’s
relatively high rating on both scales, it behooves practitioners to include seismic considerations in the
project’s bridges and those locations where slope stability issues warrant close examination.
Other design considerations

Demographics
Appropriate design approaches must be introduced in populous areas to mitigate the effects of dust and
improve the safety of road users, i.e., additional road widths, seal surfacing, parking, bus lay-bys, etc. and
appropriate drainage systems.
All-Weather Access
An essential consideration in the design of LVURs is to ensure all-weather access most of the time. This
requirement places particular emphasis on the need for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement layer’s
structure and the providing of drainage and sufficient earthworks protection in flood or problem soil areas.
Surface Performance
According to the USAID Feeder roads draft standards document, the performance of the so called LVUR
(Feeder ) roads’s surface material primarily depends on its physical properties and qualities, location, and
the volume of traffic. LVUR (Feeder) roads passing through populated areas in particular require materials
that do not generate excessive dust in dry weather. Steep gradients place particular demands on LVUR
pavement layer materials, which must not become slippery in wet weather or erode easily. Consideration
should therefore be given to the type of LVUR pavement layer materials to be used in particular locations
such as towns or steep sections. Annual LVUR surface loss rates of approximately 25 mm thickness per
year per 300 VPD (Vehicles per Day) is expected, depending on rainfall and materials properties,
particularly its plasticity.
10
Road Building in the Tropics. State-of-the-Art Review No.9. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY
(1993). Crowthorne, UK.
Roughness should be maintained between 3.5 mm/m and 8.5 mm/m to satisfy road users and keep the
vehicle operating costs low at a maximum vehicle speed of 50 km/hour on LVUR pavement surface as
shown in Fig. 19 of the main document.
In addition to the forgoing parameters the LVUR’s design engineering must focus on
eliminating the following deficiencies:
(1) Slick or slippery sections owing to the lack of a gravel layer on the road surface;
(2) Water-logged or muddy sections due to the lack of adequate drainage;
(3) Water running down the road account faulty side ditches and the lack of adequate drainage
facilities which contributes to the slippery conditions;
(4) Overly-steep sections that exceed the 12 to 15 percent maximum horizontal gradient, or more
occasionally, which makes it difficult for a fully-laden truck to pass Poorly constructed culverts (pipe
or box) and/or inadequate numbers of such drainage features per kilometer;
(5) Existing drainage structures that cause out flow erosion outside of and adjacent to the
road reserve;
(6) The overly-narrow sections of some existing LVURs that is exacerbated by the failure, i.e.,
slippage of the natural, insitu materials excavated for inside slopes;
(7) Poor surfacing which slow vehicles or damage them as they pass
(5) Failing or inadequately constructed bridges and causeways that traverse streams and wet-
lands;
(6) The overall lack of signage or traffic control devices which adds to wearing issues and
traffic safety problems;
(7) Occasional sections where traffic speed and lateritic surfacing cause air pollution – dust –
problems in populated areas; and
(8) The overall lack of maintaining LVURs which, in general, exacerbates all of the foregoing.
Bridge design
Long bridges are typically not found on LVURs. Hence for these guidelines a small bridge or culvert is
defined as a structure having individual or multiple spans of total length no greater than twelve meters (12
m). Small bridges are an essential part of all highway networks and they are far more numerous
than larger structures. The recommended load consists of 20 tons loading with four wheels 8 tons in
front axle and 12 tons in rear axle in 4.27 m distance in the first type of loading. In the second type of
loading, in the same class of loading has 21.2 tons loading consisting of six wheels 4.2 tons in front axle,
8.5 tons in intermediate and rear axles. The distance between the front and intermediate axle is 3.96 m and
the intermediate to the rear axle is 1.22 m. The spacing between successive vehicles can be
assumed to be 30 m. (Source: Journal of the Institute of Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-5, ©
TUTA/IOE/PCU,All rights reserved. Printed in Nepal Fax: 977-15525830)
Bridge planning
The planning process for bridges encompasses the collection of site information, general positioning and
alignment, materials analysis, evaluation of design alternatives, and economic analysis. Generally
speaking, a bridge’s positioning and alignment is subordinate to general traffic alignment. Sometimes,
planners tend to strive for a bridge to cross a stream or a wash at right-angles simply to lower the cost.
Since the primary purpose of a road network is for the safety and comfort of the motorist, changing the
position of the bridge to lower its cost may result in turns at the approaches and a tortuous alignment. In
turn, this could cause perception problems for motorists and result in more accidents.
Thorough planning must be given to the list of site data to be collected. It is more time consuming to skip
the collection of site data until later in the design phase, i.e., having a complete set of data in hand for the
planning phase ensures the most economical preliminary design. Having to make additional trips to the site
to collect missing data during later stages simply slows down the entire process.
Because the design of bridges is more involved than it is for geometrics and drainage, the bridge design
engineer should be available to devote time during the planning process in order to advise and assist the
planners in this important phase of the project’s total design.
Bridge design process

Because the design phase can become involved, a well thought out design schedule is important. It should
be prepared by the responsible individual and reviewed with the Project Engineer at the onset of this phase.
Frequently, projects with many structures can be seriously delayed because there are not enough designers
assigned to the bridge design team.
It is also necessary to identify beforehand exactly which steps along the design path will require the
submission of calculations and schematics to higher levels for review and approval. Sufficient time for the
review of these design submissions must be allowed for in the overall project design schedule.
Although it may be possible to adapt a stock design to a particular site — after giving due consideration
to proper alignment — the hydrologic and hydraulic analysis must be approached as unique for each site.
Too often, generalized assumptions about these issues are made when there are numerous structures of
similar size. Sometimes this can be false economy because the catchment area for one stream is often
larger or smaller than an adjacent structure. The hydrologic and hydraulic engineering for each structure
should be documented with its own set of calculations.
The Project Engineer should also establish a procedure for internal peer review of calculations to prevent
costly assumptions and/or mistakes from being discovered closer to the end or the phase.
The choice of structure (i.e. between culverts or a conventional bridge) will be the results of both hydrologic
and hydraulic engineering for each structure and geotechnical investigations. The methodology of design
will not differ from that of other bridges except for the particular cases of creek crossings, storm water
discharges, scours etc…
Finally, it cannot be stressed enough that the final plans and specifications must be thoroughly reviewed
from the standpoint of the constructability and inspection. Is there any confusion as to dimensions, the
materials to be used, or the required tolerances? Even the smallest problem in interpreting the plans can
create havoc on the job site under the pressure of the completing the works. If the bridge designer expects
the structure to be built in accordance with the approved design, then the plans and specifications must be
accurate and explicit.
Safety
Safety considerations are addressed for the design process of roads through proper definition of the
geometric characteristics of the road. Key principles of designing safer roads are defined in the SADC
Guidelines on Low-Volume Sealed Roads and are summarized in section 2.10.5.1 of the this
document.
Environmental Impact Assessment (source: RRFD-program)
The RRFD program has defined a set of requirement for the EIA main activities as comprising but
not limited to:
 Ascertaining that the environmental impact of RRFD-PIU project interventions
is minimal (if not none)
 Describing the existing environmental conditions such as land use/cover, climate, soil
erosion etc.
 Establishing environmental baseline for the particular proposed project area
 Preparation of background information
 Notification and involvement of concerned agencies advisors and interested parties and
collection of their view and alternative proposals
 Meeting between the proponent an decision maker in order to determine the scope of EIA
 Undertaking necessary environmental sampling (water quality, salinity, health etc.)
 Identification of necessary environmental impacts and measures to mitigate them
 Summarizing and analyzing impact / findings
 Preparation of Environmental impact statement (EIS).
In line with the above-mentioned activities, the EIA expert will be required to collect all the
necessary information and make description on the following:
 Physical environment (Topography , geology and soils; Climate and hydrology; Ground and
surface water; Sedimentation and water quality);
 Biological Environment (Terrestrial environment; Wildlife; Riverine communities;
Endangered flora and fauna);
 Socio- cultural environnement (Population and demographics ; Villages, towns and settlement
; Ethno-cultural background; Public health ; Archaeological, religious and historical
resources; Aesthetics and tourism ; Feeder-road and other Infrastructure; Land use and
farming practices; Impact on indigenous communities (if any)
For the stages of the EIA work and categorization of the environmental conditions, the reader is
directed to section 2.9.6 of this document.
Quality control- minimum requirements for the repair and

maintenance of the 16,239km of the Feeder road network– from
RRFD report
As stated in the RRFD report, a set of minimum requirements specific to the feeder roads in Rwanda
are presented in section 2.9.7. The minimum requirements should be harmonized with all
recommendations emanating from the preceding sections.
Maintenance Methods
Rwanda’s road network is grouped into classified and unclassified roads. According to the road
maintenance strategy, the Classified Road network in Rwanda is categorized into two classes:
National roads and District Roads. These can be paved or unpaved. The functional concept of
feeder roads being to link consumers to producers, a typical circuit of goods from the producers to
the consumers might consist of all categories of roads. Since the big majority of feeder roads will
fall in the category of District class 1 and 2 roads and unclassified roads, the current standards will
cover only the District class 1 and 2 (unpaved roads),
This part addresses key aspect of maintenance strategies with regards to unpaved roads and
particularly to gravel and earth roads. It touches among other things (i)- condition assessment, (ii)-
typical unpaved roads defects, (iii)-existing maintenance management systems of unpaved roads
in EAC –member states,(iv)- existing maintenance management system in Rwanda, (v)- the
scheduled maintenance modules in Rwanda and; (vi) maintenance strategies of gravel roads. The
reader is directed to the main document for more details.
1.0 INTRODUCTION
Rwanda is known as the land of 1,000 hills. Much of the country, especially the western part, is
occupied by these hills and their accompanying steep slopes that make access to agricultural
production centers and projects very difficult. Unless feeder roads are put in place, the use of
mechanized agriculture and use of improved agricultural inputs is impossible. According to USAID
Field report (2011), transport accounts for 39% of the final market price of beans and maize. The
same document stresses that the poor condition of feeder roads raises the cost of transporting food
products to urban markets.
The current level of influence of Rwanda’s topography and rainfall, including the effect of
steepness, slope gradient, and slope exposition is significant to the extent that linking rural feeder
road programs with the agricultural transformation and commercialization becomes a necessity
than a choice. The influence of its topography and land use on rain erosion is more and more
manifested by ever increasing and severe flooding and landslide that obliterate community-made
feeder roads that are not well planned and constructed. The results have become considerable loss
of productive lands and agricultural products before they reach market centers and /or consumers
that are able and willing to pay better prices to farmers.
According to Law No. 55/2011 of 14/12/2011 Governing Roads in Rwanda, the national rural feeder-
roads, which are the subject of this program, are to a large extent, equated to its section “C. Districts
and City of Kigali roads and that of other urban areas –Class 2” roads (arterial roads that connect
districts roads to rural community centers that are inhabited as an agglomeration).and “D. Specific
roads (These roads shall be those specifically constructed to connect national roads or districts roads
to Kigali City and other urban areas to the centers for private sector’s activities such as agricultural
production, natural resources processing or to tourist sites.)
Scope of RRFD program for feeder roads:
While the program covers all the 27 districts, the Rural Feeder-Road Development program is
focused to:
 Construction of 12, 900 km of 6 m roadway rural feeder roads and 9, 000 km of 3m roadway
basic access farm-roads
 Upgrading and full overhauling of 9,302 km rural feeder roads that are already hugely
dilapidated to have roadway width of 6m
 Continued and sustained maintenance of 16,239 km of rural feeder roads and farm roads in
all the 27 districts that have served four years after new construction or upgrading in this
program.
 RRFD groups Rwanda Rural Feeder-roads into three categories.

 First it is a transport chain with one end in the agricultural fields and the other on the farm-gate
market. This, in this proposal, is known as Basic-access Farm-road (BF).
 The second is the transport chain from the farmgate network to private sector’s activities such
as agricultural production, post-harvest processing and storage facilities.
 The third is a transport chain from private-sector’s activities such as local markets, processing
centers, post-harvest storage facility centers, etc., to “District and City of Kigali roads and that
of other urban areas-Class 2”1.
 All the three types of the roads are to be implemented within the coming 8 years’ time which
is partitioned into two program-phases. The first phase runs from January 2013 to December
2017 (5 years) and the second phase runs from January 2018 to December 2020 (3 years).
This phasing is in compliance to the planning period of PSTA III and ending period of Vision
2020 respectively.
 The routine repair and maintenance is recommended to be conducted by free labor

engagement of rural communities and could be facilitated by Umudugudu level Rwanda
feeder-road Management Committee (FMC). The committee will have feeder-road repair
and maintenance fund to be collected from beneficiaries for which detailed modalities could
be developed during the appraisal period of the program proposal.
RRFD program technical coverage
There are 27 districts and 398 sectors where the RRFD program is to be made operational. Their
roadway width ranges between 3m and 5m. The total length for the different kinds of Feeder-roads
that are to be made operational throughout the 27 districts is 31,202 km. However, the condition, size
and stage of development of the feeder-roads necessitate grouping them into three categories as
discussed below.
Existing rural feeder-roads requiring upgrading and total overhauling

These are existing unclassified earth roads that are considered in the rural feeder-road network and
are reported to be predominantly dilapidated. Their cumulative length is also reported by RTDA to
be 9,302 km. These are reported to be major constraints to the mobility of the rural population in
Rwanda. Farmers transport to markets relies predominantly by human transport and intermediate
means of transport. To this effect, first priority is given to up-grading and rehabilitation of these
existing feeder roads. Their roadway width will be uniformly 6meters with additional side drainage
facilities (please refer to the quality of each type of feeder-road under sub-section ‘a’ of this section).
All require overhauling. Therefore, the price allocated for the upgrading and repairing work of these
roads is 84% of the cost allocated for the new construction. They are meant to connect district roads
and other urban areas to farm gate markets, post-harvest storage facilities, and to rural settlement
and facility centers.
Basic Access farm-roads
These are feeder roads needed to transport improved agricultural inputs to farms believed to be centers
of agricultural transformation and required to transport outputs to be harvested from these farms.
Without existence of these basic-access farm roads, travelling from one consolidated farm to the other
is hugely difficult. The same is true to possibilities of reaching these farms with improved agricultural
inputs such as compost and improved seed as well as machineries such as power-tillers, etc. The same
is true to proper rehabilitation and maintenance of land-husbandry and irrigation infrastructures to be
installed and already installed.
By end of 2020, it is estimated the area coverage of these developments would easily reach 150,000
ha. Rwanda has massively endorsed the use of comprehensive land-husbandry technologies in these
agricultural project sites. And, the comprehensive land-husbandry package is using cut-off-drains that
serve each terraced plot at allocation density of 60m per hectare basis. Therefore, the size of the basic
access farm-road required to serve installment and maintenance of comprehensive land-husbandry
measures, provision of modern agricultural inputs and transportation of agricultural outputs from deep-
inside these project sites, become 9000km.
Basic-access farm-roads are to be installed within the fertile arable land. The traffic density will be
comparatively very minimal. Because of these two factors, the roadway width is recommended to be
3m and this roadway will be covered with laterite/gravel. Please refer to Section “a) quality of Feeder-
roads under section 2.4.3” of this document for the quality of the feeder roads to be maintained for
all feeder roads specified under this program. The basic-access farm-roads will mainly serve for
vehicles that are used to transport improved agricultural inputs to farms, farm products to collection
centers and serve to transport farm machineries such as power tillers, sprayers and and harvesting
equipment to and from farms.
12,900 km totally new feeder-roads

Determining the magnitude feeder-roads discussed under 1 and 2 above has been easy and straight-
forward. Rwanda Rural Feeder-road development (RRFD)-Program is initiated to address the feeder-
road requirements of all the 27 rural districts. And, the current rural population of Rwanda is estimated
to be 8.612 million. At 2.2 % average growth rate, this current population would grow to at least
10,250,000 by 2020.
The issue here is the size of the total feeder-road to be budgeted for this-many population or size of
rural land area. Each country may have its own minimum accessibility requirement definition. A
suggestion by experts in Transport Research Laboratory (TRL) of UK taken from ‘development of
Feeder Roads in Ghana’, is that a minimum standard of access which should be open for 80% of the
year, at the rate of 1 km / 100 inhabitants.
The population of Rwanda by 2020 may be 10.25 million, and it is assumed that the for hilly Rwanda
where there will substantial part which will be topographically excluded from basic human activities
such as cultivation and settlements, the feeder road density would be relaxed by about 2 times or 1km
/200 people that needs to be open for 100% of the time. This would mean that Rwanda needs 51,250km
rural feeder roads. Of course, at the current level of economic development of Rwanda, this will be
impossible to achieve it in the coming 8 year time. Therefore, this proposal is planned for achieving
60% of this target and this would give a feeder road density of about 3km /1000 or a total of 31,202km
feeder-roads for the 2020 target.
After deducting the feeder-roads that are considered under 1 and 2 above (cumulatively 18,302) and
deduct them from the total feeder-road need, which is 31302km, the balance to be additionally
constructed becomes 12,900 km long. These roads are outside of the farm plots and the density of
traffic would be relatively more hire than the Basic-access farm-roads. Therefore, the roadway width
is decided to be 6 m and this is in line with Article 16 of the Road Law No 55.
When considering the modernization and commercialization agenda of the agriculture sector along
with modernization of rural settlements, the need for accessing district roads and other townships to
farm-gate markets, post-harvest storage facilities, and to rural facility centers, the need for additional
rural feeder rods is certain. If the RRFD density is to reach at least 3.0km per 1000 inhabitants by
latest 2020, the existing 9,302 km feeder road will have to be increased to 31,202 km. This target
necessitates construction of additional 12,900 km feeder-road plus 9000km basic-access farm-road
within the coming 8 years’ time.
Need for comprehensive standards for feeder (unpaved) roads

There is an urgent need to set up guiding standards not only for feeder roads, but also for
the entire Road network. The following document will cover Feeder (unpaved) roads and
mainly focus on two mainstream activities: Design, and maintenance of feeder roads.
As stated earlier in this introduction, the function of the feeder road network is such that
goods will likely move along either national roads or district roads and unclassified roads.
The current draft will mainly address the standards for those roads identified in the previous
section as group 1 and group 3. Although some of the features of this standard might be used
for group 2 (Basic access farm roads), it might be deemed necessary to set up separate design
guidelines for that category of roads.
It is understood that unpaved District roads class I and II will fall in the categories covered
by this standards. For the sake of generality, we will keep the generic denomination of
Feeder-unpaved roads throughout the document.
It is also understood that while trying to link Agro-producers to consumers, some of the
goods will use national roads network in their routine activities. This does not have any
impact on the current standards as all other categories of roads will be covered by a separate
standards.
While developing these standards, an effort was put in the consultation of existing standards
in Rwanda, in the East-African community and other neighboring countries as well as
countries with comparable topography and climate as Rwanda. The need for harmonization
with the East African Community roads standards was also considered.
Content of the current draft standards for feeder (unpaved) roads
Elements of design:
In this section, the following key points will be developed:
 Feeder road functional classification;

 Road geometry
o Horizontal alignment;
o Vertical alignment;
o Cross section;
o Drainage
 Materials and properties;
 Thickness design;
Maintenance methods:
 In this section will be developed the maintenance strategies specific for gravel roads and
particularly for the normal functioning of the Feeder roads.
Appendixes:
 These appendices will hold useful complementary information from different sources
including Charts and tables from the AASHTO policy on geometric design of roads.
2.0 ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
2.1 General
Rather than trying to reinvent the wheel, it is advisable to use available expertise and data from
countries and scientific communities that have developed and are using standards for feeder roads, and
adapt them to the Rwandan reality, with due consideration of the need to harmonize the standards with
those of the East African community. The methodology that will be followed up throughout this
document will be to present key features of different codes (among others, the EAC standards
harmonization documents, the AASHTO standards, SADC etc…) and adapt them to the Rwandan
terrain, climate and socio-economic realities.
2.1.1 Climatic zones

The seasonal rainfall distribution pattern over Rwanda can be generalized into four broad seasons:
 Season 1 is a generally dry period which extends from December of the preceding year to the
end of February of the succeeding year;
 Season 2 is the primary rainy season throughout Rwanda and referred to as the “long rains”
extends from February to the end of May;
 Season 3 is dry, except in parts of Rwanda, and extends from June to the end of August; and
 Season 4 is the second rainy period throughout Rwanda and referred to as the “short rains”
extends from October to the end of November.
For the purposes of crushed aggregate or lateritic LVUR designs, Rwanda can be considered to have only one
(1) climatic zone - wet zone. All places with mean annual rainfall greater than 500-mm are considered to be
wet zones and all places with mean annual rainfall less than 500-mm can be considered to be moderate/dry
zones.
2.1.2 Terrain classes

Terrain Classes
Terrain class is determined by the number of five (5)-meter contours crossed by a straight line connecting the
two (2) ends of the LVUR in question according to the following definitions:
 Flat: Zero (0) to ten (10) five (5)-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes perpendicular to
the ground contours are generally below three percent (3%).
 Rolling : Eleven (11) to twenty-five (25) five (5)-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally between three (3) and 25%.
 Mountainous: Twenty-Six (26) to fifty (50) five (5)-meter contours per km. The natural ground slopes
perpendicular to the ground contours are generally above twenty-five percent (25%).
 Escarpment: Geological features that require special geometric standards because of the engineering
risks involved. Typical gradients are greater than those encountered in mountainous terrain.
It should be noted that these definitions are independent of a road’s selected alignment.
2.1.3 Environmental Considerations

There is a direct relationship between good road engineering practices and sound environmental management.
Good road engineering and sound environmental management can and must go hand-in-hand and when they
do, the benefits are mutual for all concerned. The avoidance and mitigation recommendations which follow
start from the supposition that the “Best Engineering Practices” have, in general, been carried out in a
technologically correct way, following the standards and guidance that will be part of the LVUR construction
contract(s). One does not mitigate design, engineering or construction mistakes, one corrects them. That is not
the point of any environmental assessment.
Another extremely important recommendation related to mitigation (which by definition includes avoidance) is
the importance of considering environmental impact early in the road rehabilitation/reconstruction process,
during the project planning phase, during the road segment assessment and as part of the process of choosing and
contracting a road construction company.
Experience has shown, which the RFRIP’s PEA (Programmatic Environmental Assessment) has corroborated,
that avoidance and minimization of impacts can start during the early stages of project planning. Clearly, there are
choices that can affect the potential for adverse environmental impacts, for example, finding the correct road
alignment or location to cross a watercourse or a wetland at the narrowest place; being aware of the boundaries of
protected areas; considering the possibility of a road diversion around an urbanized village to minimize the
potential for traffic safety or dust issues; considering the quality and dimensions of a road going through an
urbanized area, and the option to seal it, widen it, enhance the quality of the shoulders, create pedestrian lanes, etc.
Another important point is the recognition that mitigation is not the exclusive responsibility of the road
contractor or the road agency. A wide variety of governmental authorities at various levels may play a role in
dealing with the potential for adverse impacts.
The design engineer should consider these eleven (11) environmental issues:
 Road building related disruptions to the local hydrology and watershed function;
 Damage to fragile wetland ecosystems, stream courses, drainage ways, and the biodiversity
assets they contain;
 Improper road construction or lack of maintenance creates standing or stagnant water situations;
 Proper environmental management of borrow pit and quarry sites;
 Improved road conditions may lead to better access to rural forestry assets such as woodlots,
small plantations, and even natural forest;
 Sourcing timber needed for road furniture or structures in an unsustainable manner;
 Social conflict because of perceived inequities with the road building;
 Improved road conditions and traffic safety;
 Providing traffic control devices, i.e., road humps, to slow traffic through villages and other
populated areas;
 Will improved roads lead to more noise and road dust?; and
 Road camps and their placement and decommissioning.
In addition to the foregoing, practioners should consult Environmental Guidelines for Small-Scale Activities
in Africa (EGSSAA), Chapter 14: Rural Roads published by the United States Agency for International
Development.
2.1.4 Functional classification

Most standards consulted used sources like the AASHTO document: “A policy on geometric Design
of Highways and Streets, 6th. Edition, 2011. The document itself refers to another one from the
AASHTO series treating roads and streets that carry 400 vehicle per day or less: The “AASHTO
guidelines for geometric design of very low-volume Local Roads (ADT ≤400)”. The Tanzanian road
standard and the EAC harmonization document tend to converge to the same definition of low-volume
roads. Table 1 shows the road design classes from the Tanzanian standards and Table 2 shows an
extract from the functional classification of the EAC road standards harmonization. .
Table 91: Road design class and functional class/ Tanzania
Source: Tanzanian Road design manual 2012
From the functional classification of the EAC, Feeder roads fall in the category of access roads with
the (Class4 – districts roads and secondary roads with partial access control and class 5- minor roads
and local streets with unrestricted access control).
Table 92: Extract from the functional classification of roads from the EAC standards harmonization
document
Recommendation:
For Application to the Rwandan terrain, and with due projection to the future needs and design
life of the gravel roads which will constitute mostly the majority of the feeder roads networks.
the choice of the road design parameters for feeder roads will rely on the maximum design traffic
volumes of 400 to 1500 veh./day. This value is equivalent to the one suggested by the AASHTO
code for low volumes local roads. A traffic volume of less or equal to 400 veh./day will normally
cover the gravel feeder roads while the range from 400 to 1500 veh/day would cover those
portions of feeder roads on national network unpaved and paved and at the same time respond
to the future needs of the current gravel roads.
2.1 5 Projection for future demand
Geometric design of new highways or improvement of existing highways should not usually be based
on current traffic volumes alone, but should consider future traffic volumes expected to use the
facility. A highway should be designed to accommodate the traffic volume that is likely to occur
within the design life of the facility.
From practice it is commonly believed that the maximum design period for most highways is in the
range of 15 to 24 years. A period of 20 years is widely used as a basis of design. This design period
will concern mainly new paved roadway project. In the case of feeder roads, this will fall in the
category of rehabilitation projects and gravel roads, shorter design life (5 to 10 years) will have to
be used.
Recommendation
In the case of Rwanda feeder roads, the design life and traffic design volume will predominantly
be for five years on gravel roads corresponding to the period of re‐gravelling on a regulary
maintained gravel road.

2.1.6 Level of service

The quality of traffic service provided by specific highway facility under specific traffic demands
ids defined by means of levels of service. Table 3 (table 2.4) from the Highway Capacity Manual
(HCM-AASHTO) shows level of services ranging from A to F while Table 4 (table 2.5-AASHTO)
relate the functional classes, the type of terrain to the levels of service.
Table 93: General definitions of levels of service
Table 94: Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of Service (AASHTO)
The recommended EAC-harmonized design levels of services for the access roads are given in Table
5. These values shall be adopted for the District Class 1 and 2 roads (feeder roads).
Table 95: EAC-harmonized design levels of service for access roads
Recommendation
As the feeder road network will cover Disrtict class 2 roads but could also use portion of national
roads classe 2 and district roads class 1, we recommend the use of level of service D for district
class 2 for all types of terrain, and for District class 1 and national roads class 2 for rural
mountainous, while level of service C can be adopted for District class 1 and national Class 2 for
rural levelled and rural rolling terrains.

2.1.7 Design vehicle
Table 6 shows the design vehicle types and their dimensions as suggested by the EAC-
harmonization committee.
Table 96: Design vehicles from the EAC harmonization Committee
From the draft standards prepared by USAID for feeder roads it was stated that roads should be
designed to accommodate all vehicles with safety and convenience. The design must insure that the
vehicle can negotiate the road geometry. The design vehicle, which is the largest vehicle that can be
found on the road, is assumed to be a trailer truck (WB-40) with the following characteristics:
Table 97: Design Vehicle WB-12 (WB-40)

Design Vehicle Dimensions in Meters
Overall Overall
Type Symbol Wheelbase Front Rear Height
Length Width
Semitrailer WB-12 12.19
1.22 1.83 15.24 2.59 4.12
Combination (WB-40) 3.96+ 8.23
Of particular interest from the above table is the fact that the width of this vehicle is 2.59 meters.
Thus, to accommodate the passing of two such vehicles along a gravel road, the width of the road
must be twice this value, plus some value for safe clearance between the vehicles. This dictates the
minimum selection of a width of 5.5 meters, as specified in the design standards for several countries.
It can be seen that this design vehicle is comparable to the intermediate semi-trailer WB-12 (SI)
(WB-40- imperial) suggested by AASHTO as shown in figure 1a and Figure 1b
1
Fig. 1: Geometry of the design vehicle and lateral clearance on curve

Figure 1: Geometry of the design vehicle and lateral clearance on the curve
Fig. 1: Geometry of the design vehicle and lateral clearance on curve
Recommendations
For the design of feeder roads, it is recommended that the WB‐12 SI ‐ WB‐40 imperial be used
for those portions of feeder roads on District roads class I and II. However in order to comply to
the EAC harmonisation standards, it would be advisable to upgrade to at least DV5 for those type
of vehicles travelling feeder Roads on national roads class I&2. Furthermore, for design purpose,
the width of the truck shall be assumed to be 2.6 m minimum.
2.1.8 Passenger car equivalent unit (PCU)

From the practical point of view, the heterogeneous traffic stream is converted to Passenger Car Units
(PCUs). The number of PCU’s associated with a single vehicle type is a measure of impedance that it
offers to the passenger cars in the traffic stream. The recommended PCUs by the EAC –harmonization
team are as following:
Table 98 : Passenger Car Equivalent Unit

Recommandations
It is recommended to adopt the EAC‐Road standards harmonization values presented in table
8.
2.1.9 Design hourly volume

The design hourly volume is the projected hourly volume that is used in the design. It
represents the 30th. highest hourly volume during the year. Field data should be gathered to
estimate the K factor. In the absence of these data, values of K of 0.15 for rural highways and
0.10 for urban roads should be used. Then DHV=0.15x ADT or 0.10 x ADT respectively.
Recommendations;
In the absence of data, which is the case now, it is recommended that the above values suggested
by the EAC –road standards harmonization be adopted in these standards.
2.1.10 Design speeds
From the AASHTO standards, the following minimum design speeds relating the type of terrain
(level, Rolling, Mountainous) to the design volume are suggested in table Table 9.
Table 99: Typical Design Speeds for Local Rural Roads (AASHTO)
The EAC harmonization committee suggest in table 10 design speeds corresponding to Class 4 and
Class5 roads which form the Access road and respond to the traffic volume criteria defined earlier
for feeder roads as a function of the four terrains classifications typical to the East African Countries,
Rwanda in particular.
Table 100: Design Speeds for Access Roads Class 4 and Class 5 as a Function of the Terrain Type
(EAC)
Recommendation
The noticeable difference between the AASHTO classification and the East‐African community
road standards harmonization is the absence of the steep terrain in the former. We recommend
to comply with the EAC‐road standards harmonization suggested values and terrain classification
as it more or less reflect the Rwandan reality.
Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1)- the distance traversed by the vehicle from
the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are applied, and
(2)- the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins. These are
referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance respectively.
2.1.11 Brake reaction time
The brake reaction time commonly considered as adequate for complex conditions as those of
laboratory test is 2.5 seconds. The need for greater reaction time can be encountered in most
complex situations such as those found at multiphase at-grade intersections.

Recommendation:

A brake reaction time of 2.5 s has been adopted by the EAC harmonisation committee and will
be adopted in this standard.
2.1.12 Brake distance

The approximate braking distance of a vehicle level roadway traveling at a design speed of the
roadway may be determined from the following equation (AASHTO):
The deceleration rate has been perceived for most drivers as 3.4 m/s2

Recommendation
The braking distance shall be computed on base of the applicable design speed using a
deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s2 and a reaction time of 2.5 s. The corresponding stopping sight
distances as a function of the design speed likely to be encountered on majority of the feeder
roads network for those segments of the feeder road network pertaining to higher class roads,
refer to corresponding standards are given in Table 11 AASHTO . The EAC harmonisation
committee adopted the AASHTO values at the exception that the lowest design speed adopted is
30 km/h. We shall use in the broad AASHTO values in this standard.
Table 101: Stopping Sight Distances for Access Roads (feeder)
2.1.13 Effect of grade on stopping

For roadway segment on a grade, the previous table shall be modified to take into consideration the
grade G from the following relationship leading to the following table 12:
Table 102: Stopping Sight Distance for Access Roads on Grade (feeder)
2.1.15 Decision sight distance (DSD)
The decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or otherwise
difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway environment that may be cluttered,
recognize the condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate speed and path and initiate a
complex manoeuver. Decision sight distance must offer drivers additional margin for error, afford
them sufficient length to manoeuver their vehicles at the same reduced speed, rather than to just stop,
its values are substantially greater than stopping sight distances as can be seen in Table 13.
Table 103: Decision Sight Distance
Where:
 Avoidance manoeuver A: Stop on rural road-t=3.0 s;
 Avoidance manoeuver B: Stop on urban road – t=9.1s;
 Avoidance manoeuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road 10.2 s< t <11.2s;
 Avoidance manoeuver D: Speed/path/direction change on rural road 12.1s < t < 12.9s;
 Avoidance manoeuver E: Speed/path/direction change on rural road 14.0s < t < 14.5s;
Avoidance manoeuvers A and B Avoidance manoeuvers C, D and E
Recommendation
The AASHTO – suggested values in Table 13 shall be used to determine the Decision Sight
Distance DSD
2.1.16 Object height design value

Recommendation
The following object height shall be adopted for purpose of SSD, DSD and PSD computation,
consistent with the AASHTO and EAC‐road standards harmonization suggested values in table 14.
Table 104: Object Height (m) for Use in the Computation of SSD, DSD and PSD
2.1.17 Passing Sight Distance

As suggested by the EAC-road standards harmonization Committee, the passing sight distance is
calculated on the basis of a distance required for a successful overtaking maneuver and makes
adequate provision for an aborted maneuver in the case of a truck attempting to pass another truck.
The minimum passing sight distance is the total of four components: d1+d2+d3+d4 where:
 D1 is the distance travelled during the perception-reaction time and during initial
acceleration to the point where the passing vehicle just enters the right lane;
 D2- is the distance travelled during the time passing vehicle is travelling in the right lane;
 D3- distance between the passing vehicle and the opposing vehicle at the end of the passing
manoeuvre;
 D4 is the distance moved by the opposing vehicle during two thirds of the time the passing
vehicle is the left lane (usually taken to be 2/3 d2).
The EAC harmonization committee adopted the AASHTO minimum passing sight distance for two
lane highways as given in table 15.
Table 105: Passing Sight Distance in Two-Lane Highway
Recommendation:

The rounded values in Table 15 shall be adopted in this standard for Passing Sight Distance
m calculations.
2.2 Horizontal Alignment

Alignment between control points should be designed to be as favorable as practical, consistent with
the environmental impact, topography, terrain, design traffic volume, and the amount of reasonably
obtainable right-of-way. Sudden changes between curves of widely different radii or between
tangents and sharp curves should be avoided. Where crest vertical curves and horizontal curves occur
together, greater than minimum sight distance should be provided so that the horizontal curves are
visible to approaching drivers.
The following basic AASHTO curve formula for moving mass on a curve features the relationship
between the side friction, the rate of roadway super elevation, the radius of curve and the design
speed.
2.2.1 Side friction factor f:
The value of (0.01ef) being so small, the previous equation is rearranged to give:
The relationship of the side friction and speed for low speed roads is given in the above graph
which can be simplified for design purposes to the following graph on figure 2.
Figure 2: Relationship Between Side Friction and Design Speed on Curve

It can be seen that the side friction decreases as the speed increases.
Recommendation
For the case of feeder unpaved roads, the first portion of the graph corresponding to speeds of
20km/h to 70 km/h. For these same speeds, the side friction decreases from 0.35 at 20 km/h
to 0.15 at 70km/h .

2.2.2 Relationship between the design speed and the running speed
Table 16 suggest values for running speeds as a function of the design speed as suggested by
AASHTO.
Table 106: Relationship Between Design Speed and Running Speed (km/h)
2.2.3. Normal Cross Slope

Consistent with the type of highway and amount of rainfall, normal cross slope vary between 1.5%
and 2 %. Steeper slopes may be needed where curbs are needed to avoid ponding of water on the
outside trough lane. Normal cross slope need to be adapted to the design of drainage system.
Recommendation:
For Rwandan terrain and rainfall an average cross slope of 3% between 2% to 4% shall be
adopted with due consideration of the drainage system.
2.2.4. Maximum superelevation rates

Are controlled by four factors: climate conditions (frequency and amount of rain); terrain conditions
(flat, rolling or mountainous); type of area (rural, urban); and frequency of slow-moving vehicles
whose operation might be affected by high superelevation rates. To account for a wide range of
agency practices, five maximum superelevation rates 4, 6, 8, 10 and 12 % are found in the literature
as given in Table 17 below.
Table 107: Limiting Superelevation Rates
Designs that incorporate superelevation in excess of the limiting rates may be associated with
excessive lateral shift. Therefore, it is recommended that such superelevation rates be avoided. In
case they are used, consideration should be given to increasing the width of the traveled way along
the curve to reduce the potential for vehicle encroachment into the adjacent lane. In an early draft
standard for feeder roads performed by USAID, it was suggested that no superelevation be provided
for gravel roads and that a normal crown be provided instead.
Recommendation:
For unpaved feeder roads, it is recommended that super‐elevation be limited to a maximum of
8%. Where terrain conditions are favorable, providing the normal crown shall be given priority.
2.2.5 Minimum radius

For a given speed, minimum curve radius is limited by maximum allowable side friction, which is
usually based on comfort standard, maximum superelevation rate for the curve, and the necessity
to maintain stopping sight distance. The minimum radius can be calculated directly from the
simplified curve equation as:
The values computed using the preceding equation are shown in table 18.
The EAC road standard harmonization committee is a little bit conservative on the limiting values
of the side friction and suggests rather the values shown in table 19. No clear dependency though
on the relationship between the side friction and the super-elevation rate.
Table 108: Minimum Side Friction in Terms of Design Speed and Corresponding Radius.
Table 109: Limiting Values of the Side Friction as per EAC
Recommendation
As for other EAC partner states, Rwanda shall adopt maximum super elevation rates of 4% on
roads in urban areas and 10% on roads in rural areas as well as side frictions with corresponding
design speeds below for Feeder district class 2 roads. An additional requirement is that the
distribution of super ‐ elevations and side friction over a range of curves should be such that
super‐elevation and side frictions are proportional to the inverse of the curve radius.
2.2.6 The straight

Straight sections provide better visibility and more passing opportunities and hence enhance safety.
Experience has shown that long tangents increase driver fatigue and hence cause accidents. Long
straight on the other hand increase the danger of glare and usually lead to excessive speeding. There
is therefore a tendency to limit the length of straight sections.
Table 20 shows selected countries practice on Straights.
Table 110: Other Countries Practice on Straights
Kenya Straights not to have lengths greater than 20 x Vd;

Straights between circular curves following the same direction should
have lengths greater than 6 x Vd
Tanzania Length of straight not to exceed 2 km
Uganda Length of straight not to exceed 4 km
The EAC recommends the length of straight sections not to be greater than 20 x Vd where Vd is the
design speed (km/h). A minimum of 6 x Vd should be also adopted between circular curves following
the same direction.
Recommendation
The values recommended by the EAC road standards harmonization shall be adopted for Feeder
roads design, subject to future modification as needed and determined by the field practice.
2.2.7 Minimum and maximum length of curves

For small deflection angles, curves should be long enough to avoid the appearance of a kink. As per
EAC harmonization recommendations, the length of a curve should be at minimum 300 m but should
not exceed 1000 m.
Recommendation
It is recommended to adopt the EAC road standards harmonization recommendations subject to
future changes as needed and determined by field experience.
2.2.8 Turning roadways

Compound curves
According to AASHTO, Curves that are compounded should not be too short or their effect in
enabling a change in speed from the tangent or flat curve to the sharp curve is lost. In a series of
curves with decreasing radii, each curve should be long enough to enable the driver to decelerate at
a reasonable rate. The desirable deceleration rate in gear alone represents 1.5 to 2.5 km/h. The
minimum compound curves lengths computed on base of these criteria are developed on the premise
that travel is in the direction of sharper curvature.
Table 111: Length of Circular Arcs for Different Compound Curves Radii
Recommendation
The values presented in table 21 shall be adopted in this standard.
2.2.9 Turning design control
Tangent-to-curve transition
For appearance and comfort, the length of superelevation runoff should be based on a maximum
acceptable difference between longitudinal grades of the axis of rotation and the edge of pavement.
Current practice is to limit the grade difference referred to as the relative gradient, to a maximum
value of 0.5 % or a longitudinal slope of 1: 200 at 80 km/h. A comfortable and aesthetically pleasing
runoff design can be attained through the exclusive use of the maximum relative gradient criterion.
Table 112: Maximum Relative Slope as a Function of the Relative Gradient and the Design Speed
(AASHTO)
The EAC Road Standards harmonization Committee adopts the same values but limits the
minimum design speed to 30 km/h.
Recommendations
Adopt the broad values from AASHTO.
2.2.10 The minimum length of super-elevation runoff

The minimum length of super-elevation runoff should be determined as follows:
Table 113: Adjustement Factor for the Number of Lanes Rotated
Figure 3: Types of Lane Rotations and Determination of the Adjustement Factors.
Recommendation

From the figure 3, it can be seen that the adjustment factor for the majority part of the Rwandan
Feeder road network will be equal to unity. Therefore, the minimum length for super‐elevation
runoff will be calculated from the equation given above with the value of bw 1 and w 3.0m.
2.2.11 Minimum length of tangent run-out

The length of tangent run-out is determined by the amount of adverse cross slope to be removed and
the rate at which it is removed. To achieve a smooth edge of pavement profile, the rate of removal
should equal the relative gradient used to define the super-elevation runoff length. Based on this
rationale, the following equation is used to compute the minimum tangent runout length:
Recommendation

The minimum length of tangent run‐out shall be computed using the adopted values of cross
slope rates, the design super‐ elevation rates and the minimum length of super elevation length
by means of equation in section 2.3.11.
2.2.12 Location of the superelevation runoff length with respect to the

point of curvature (P.C.)
To achieve the balance in lateral acceleration, it is desirable to locate the runoff length on the tangent
prior to the curve. The portion of the runoff length placed on the tangent varies from 0.6 to 0.8 as
shown on Table 24 (see Appendix II) for explanation.
Table 114 : Runoff Locations that Minimize the Vehicle's Lateral Motion
Recommendations
It is recommended to adopt the value in Table 24 with only one lane rotated 0.8
2.2.13 Minimum length of spiral transition curve
The minimum length of spiral transition curve is calculated using the following equation:
The factor C is an empirical value representing the comfort and safety levels provided by the spiral
curve. It is equal to 0.3 m/s3 for railroads but ranges from 0.3 to 0.9 m/s3 for highways. A more
practical control for the length of spirals is that it should equal the length needed for super-elevation
runoff
Recommendations
It is recommended that the minimum length of the spiral transition curve be equal to the length
needed for superelevation runoff.
2.2.14 Maximum radius for use of a spiral

The maximum radius for use of a spiral should be based on a minimum lateral acceleration rate of
1.3 m/s2.
Table 115: Maximum Radius for use of a Spiral Curve Transition (AASHTO)

Recommendation
The values given in table 25 shall be used in this standard for determination of the maximum
radius for a spiral curve transition.
2.2.15 Maximum length of spiral

Two criteria must be used, the first being based on the driver’s comfort is intended to provide a spiral
length that allows for a comfortable increase in lateral acceleration as a vehicle enters a curve, the
second is based on lateral shift and is intended to provide a spiral curve that is sufficiently long to
result in a shift in a vehicle’s lateral position within its lane that is consistent with that produced by
the vehicle’s natural spiral path. The minimum spiral; length is thus computed as:
A value of 1.0 m (3.3 ft) is recommended for pmax. This value is consistent with the maximum
lateral shift that occurs as a result of the natural steering behavior of most drivers. It also provides a
reasonable balance between spiral length and curve radius.
As pointed out in the USAID draft standards on Feeder roads, an inventory was performed during
2011 and it was observed that there were several horizontal curves for existing roads which did not
conform to the minimum requirements for the selected design speed. These curves should be
improved to conform to the standards. The same draft standard stresses that the design should re-
establish a single radius curve where the present curves have either been previously built, or have
degenerated through the years, into a series of compound curves. In the latter case, this is likely due
to gravel maintenance operations, and encroachments. The single curve can be attained with some
meander from the existing road centerline and edges, within the ROW, but the removal of some
farmland and fences will be required which currently infringe within the existing ROW. The
standard road width is often greater than the existing width and with the need for ditches, additional
ROW will be required. Similarly, in some locations, the existing road meanders within what should
otherwise be long, tangent sections.
Recommendation

The recommended minimum value of the length of the spiral shall be given by the highest value
obtained from the two equations for Ls,min as formulated in subsection 2.3.15 but shall not
exceed the desirable length of spiral as given in table 26. Widening of the traveled way shall be
envisaged to minimize the potential for encroachments into the adjacent lanes wherever lower
values than those given in Table 26 or the preceding formulas are used.
2.2.16 Desirable length of a spiral

The most desirable operating conditions are when the spiral curve length is approximately equal to
the length of the natural spiral path adopted by drivers. Differences between these two lengths
resulted in operational problems associated with large lateral velocities or shifts in lateral position at
the end of the transition curve. Table 26 gives desirable length of Spiral Curve Transition. If these
values are higher than those given by equations in the preceding section, the minimum value shall
be used.
Table 116 : Desirable Length of a Spiral
2.2.17 Limiting super-elevation rates

Table 27 gives super-elevation rates associated with large relative gradients. The values of
superelevation to be used in the design should not exceed those given in table 27 so as to avoid an
increase in the maximum relative gradient allowed for a tangent –to-curve design. Column 1 in table
27 will be used in this standard.
Table 117 :Limiting Superelevation Rates
2.2.18 Length of tangent runout

The tangent runout length for a spiral curve transition design is based on the same approach used for
the tangent-to-curve transition design. A smooth edge of pavement design is desired so that the
common edge slope gradient is maintained throughout the superelevation runout and runoff sections.
Table 28 gives the values of tangent Runout Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design for
superelevation rates from 2 to 10%.
Table 118: Tangent Runout Length for Spiral Curve Transition Design
Recommendation
The values from table 28 shall be adopted in these standards in accordance with the relevant
superelvation.

2.2.19 Widths outside travelled way
Table 29 gives a range of usable shoulder widths or equivalent lateral clearances outside of turning
roadways not on structures. Where roadway barriers are provided, the width indicated should be
measured to the face of the barrier, and the graded width should be about 0.6 m greater.
Table 119: Range of Usable Shoulder Widths or Equivalent Lateral Clearances Outside of Turning
Roadways not on Structures
Recommendations
The width of the shoulders will be dictated by the currently established law right‐of‐way
ROW . See the recommendations for road sections geometry.
2.2.20 Horizontal site distance

As illustrated on Fig. 4, the sight line for general use in design of horizontal curve is a chord of the
curve, and the stopping sight distance is measured along the centerline of the inside lane around the
curve. Figure 5. is a design chart showing the horizontal sight line offsets needed for clear sight areas
that satisfy stopping sight distance criteria for horizontal curves of various radii on flat grades. Figure
5 includes radii for all superelevation rates to a maximum of 12 percent.

Figure 4: Diagram Illustrating Components for Determining Horizontal Sight Distance

Figure 5: Design Controls for Stopping Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves
The horizontal sightline offset is calculated using the following equation from AASHTO:

Recommendations
The chart from Fig. 5 shall be used for corresponding applicable to feeder roads design speeds
and superelvations as identified in previous sections.

2.2.21 Passing sight distance

Passing sight distance is measured between an eye height of 1.08 m and an object height of 1.08 m.
the sight line near the center of the area inside the curve is approximately 0.24 m higher than the
stopping sight distance. In cut sections, the resultant lateral dimension for normal highway cross
sections (1V:2H to 1V:6H back slopes) between the centerline of the inside lane and the midpoint of
the sight line is from 0.5 m to 1.5 m greater than that for stopping sight distance. It is obvious that
for many cut sections, design for passing sight distance would need a clear area inside each curve
that would in some instances extend beyond the normal right-of –way line. Table 30 gives the passing
lane lengths as a function of the usable on feeder roads one way flow rates.
Table 120: Passing lane Length as a Function of One-way Flow Rate
Recommendations
The recommended values of passing lane lengths in table 30 might be difficult to apply on
Rwandan terrain, especially on gravel roads. However, on flat and rolling terrain, where

applicable, the values of passing lane length shall limited to 0.8‐1.2 km corresponding to a
maximum flow rate of 400 veh./h. In such cases, physical delineation on gravel roads where
marking would be impossible shall be provided.
2.2.22 Turnouts
Turnout is a widened, unobstructed shoulder area that allows slow-moving vehicles to pull out of the
through lane to give passing opportunities to following vehicles. Turnout are most frequently used
on low volume roads where long platoons are rare and in difficult terrain with steep grades where
construction of an additional lane may not be cost-effective. Such conditions are often found in
mountain where more than 10 percent of the vehicle volumes are large trucks. Table 31 shows the
minimum length of turnout. Turnouts require a minimum width of 3.6 m but widths of 5 m are
considered desirable. A turnout should not be located on, or adjacent to horizontal or vertical curve
that limits sight distance in either direction. The available sight distance should be at least 300 m on
the approach of the turnout. Proper marking or physical delineation to maximize usage of the turnout
shall be provided.
Table 121: Minimum Length of Turnout (AASHTO)
Recommendations
Turnouts are appropriate for the Rwandan terrain especially in those areas where economical activities will involve
an important volume of trucks. However the additional minimum width of 3.6 m shall not meet the conditions of the
available Right-Of-Way. It is recommended to limit the width of the turnout to 3.0 m. Proper delineation shall be
provided.

2.3 Vertical Alignment
2.3.1 Crest vertical curve

Fig. 6 illustrates the parameters used in determining the length of a parabolic vertical curve needed
to provide a specified value of sight distance. The basic equation of a crest vertical curve in terms
of algebraic difference in grade and sight distance is given below:
Figure 6: Parameters Considered in Determining the Length of the Crest Vertical Curve to Provide
Sight Distance

When the height of the eye and of the
object are respectively 1.08 m and 0.6 m as
used for stopping sight distance; equation
simplifies to the following:
2.3.1.1 Design controls: stopping sight distance
Fig. 7 shows minimum lengths of crest vertical curves for different values of Algebraic difference in
grade (A) to provide the minimum stopping sight distances for each design speed. The solid lines
give the minimum vertical curve lengths, on the basis of rounded values of K=UA as determined
from the preceding Equations. Table 32 shows design controls for Crest Vertical Curves based on
Stopping Sight Distance

Table 122: Design Controls for Crest Vertical Curves based on Stopping Sight Distance
Figure 7: Minimum Lengths of Crest Vertical Curves for Different Values of Algebraic Difference in
Grade (A)
2.3.1.2 Design controls: passing sight distance
Design values of crest vertical curves for passing sight distance differ from those for stopping sight
distance because of the different sight distance and object height criteria. The general equations for
the crest vertical curves apply. Using the 1.08 m height of object results in the following specific
formulas with the same terms as shown below:
Table 123: Design Controls for Passing Sight Distance and Corresponding Vertical Curvature

Ordinary, passing sight distance is provided only at locations where combinations of alignment and
profile do not need significant grading. Table 33, shows computed K values for determining lengths
of vertical curves corresponding to passing sight distance values shown in table 32.
Recommendations
The AASHTO –suggested dispositions in subsections 2.3.1.1, to 2.3.1.2 shall be adopted for vertical crest design
controls in this standard.
2.3.2 Sag vertical curve

Four different criteria for establishing lengths of sag vertical curves are recognized to some extent.
These are:
(1) headlight sight distance,
(2) passenger comfort,
(3) drainage control, and
(4) general appearance.
A headlight height of 0.6 m and a 1-degree upward divergence of the light beam from the longitudinal
axis of the vehicle is commonly assumed. The following relationship between S, L and A, using S
as a distance between the vehicle and the point where 1-degree upward angle of the light beam
intercepts the surface of the roadway:

For drivers to see the roadway ahead, a sag vertical curve should be long enough that the light beam
distance is approximately the same at the stopping sight distance. Accordingly, it is appropriate to
use stopping sight distances for different design speeds as the value of S in the above equations. The
resulting lengths of the sag vertical curves for the recommended stopping sight distances for each
design speed are shown in Fig.8 with solid lines using rounded values of K as was done for crest
vertical curves.

Figure 8: Length of Sag Vertical Curve as a Function of Algebraic Difference in Grade A (%)
Table 124: Stopping Sight Distance and Rate of Vertical Curvature as a Function of the Design
Speed
Recommendations
It is recommended to use same lengths of sag vertical curves as that of the stopping sight distance
and determine the rate of vertical curves accordingly as indicated in subsection 2.3.2.
2.3.3 Sight distances at undercrossing
In some conditions it is desirable to check the available sight distance at undercrossing such as at
an undercrossing without ramp where passing sight distance need to be provided. General
equations are developed for two cases: (i) sight distance greater than length of vertical curve and
(ii)- sight distance less than length of vertical curve.
Figure 9: Schematic View of Sight Distance at Undercrossing

Recommendation
The sight distance undercrossing shall be determined for two cases where i ‐ the sight distance
is greater than the vertical curve, ii ‐ the sight distance is less than the vertical curve. The cases
of a truck driver’s eye from 2.4 m staring an object of 0.6 m height for the taillights of a vehicle
shall as well be considered.


2.3.4 Gradients
To avoid stagnant water, the minimum gradient should be of at least 0.5%, and the maxima shall not
exceed the values given in the following tables as adopted by the EAC harmonization committee.
Table 125: Maximum Gradient as Adopted by the EAC Harmonization Committee.
Recommendations
These gradients shall be adopted for feeder roads District class 2 with due consideration of
other factors like the drainage system.
2.3.5 Climbing lanes

Not required for conditions of traffic flow on feeder roads except when safety considerations
may require such addition of climbing lane, in which case it shall be done regardless of grade or
traffic volumes.
2.3.6 Other features affecting geometric design
2.3.6.1 Erosion control and landscape development;

Erosion control and maintenance are minimized largely by using specific design features: flat side
slopes, drainage channels designed with due regards to width, depth, slopes, alignment, and
protective treatment, inlets located and spaced with erosion control in mind; prevention of erosion at
culvert outlets; proper facilities for groundwater interception; dikes berms, and other protective
devices to trap sediment at strategic locations; and protective ground coverage and planting. To the
practical extent, these features should be designed and located to minimize the potential crash
severity for motorists who unintentionally run of the roadway.
2.3.6.2 Utilities
Depending on the location of a project, the utilities involved could include (1) sanitary sewers, (2)
water supply lines; (3) oil, gas, and petroleum product pipelines, (4) overhead and underground
power and communications lines including fiber optic cable, (5) cable television; (6) wireless
communication towers; (7)-drainage and irrigation lines; special tunnels for building connections.
All utility installation on, over or under highway or street right-of-way and attached structures should
be of durable materials designed for long service-life expectancy, relatively free from routine
servicing and maintenance, and meet or exceed the applicable industry codes or specifications.

2.4 Cross section elements
2.4.1 Travelled way

Fig. 10 shows a typical cross section showing different configurations of a normal crown road way.
The rate of cross slope is an important element in cross-section design. Cross slope or crown on
tangents or on long radius curves are complicated by two contradictory controls. On one hand, a
reasonably steep lateral slope is desirable to minimize ponding of water on pavements with flat
profile grades as a result of pavement imperfections or unequal settlement. Horizontal and vertical
alignment should also be coordinated to avoid creating flat spots where crest vertical curves and
super-elevation transition coincide. On the other hand, steep cross slopes are undesirable on tangents
because of the tendency of the vehicle to drift towards the low edge of the travelled way.
In areas of intense rainfall, a steeper cross slope may be needed to facilitate roadway drainage.
Because of the nature of the surfacing materials used and surface irregularities, unpaved surfaces as
earth, gravel or crushed stone need an even greater cross slope on tangents to prevent the absorption
of water into surface. Cross slopes greater than 2 % may be used on these types of surfaces. Where
roadways are designed with outer curbs, the lower values in the ranges of cross slopes shown in table
36 are not recommended because of the likelihood of there being a sheet of water over a substantial
part of the travelled way adjacent to the curb. For any rate of rainfall, the width of travelled way that
is inundated with water varies with the rate of cross slope, roughness of gutter, frequency of discharge
points and longitudinal grade. Table 36 shows the AASHTO-suggested normal travelled way Cross
Slope.

Figure 10: Typical Cross-Section, Normal Crown

Figure 11: Typical Cross Section, Super-Elevated

Table 126: Ranges in cross slopes rates (AASHTO)
Recommendations
It is recommended that a minimum cross slope of 4 % be used for unpaved feeder roads
2.4.2 Lane width

The lane width of the roadway influences the confort of driving, operational characteristics, and, in
some situations, the likelihood of crashes. Lane width of 2.7 to 3.6 m are generally used. Although
the wider 3.6 m lane provides desirable clearances between large commercial vehicles traveling in
opposite directions on two-lane, two-way rural highways when high percentages of commercial
vehicles are expected, the lane width to be used on Feeder road will be limited by the Right-of-Way
as adopted by the national Road Act. Table 37 and 38 show cross section dimensions from the
Tanzanian Road Standards and the Britsh Overseas Road Notes Standards respectively. It can be
seen from the Tanzanian road standards that Class DC6 roads have 3 m wide lanes, and 1.0 m wide
sloulders for both gravel and paved runways, Class DC7 is a gravel road with a 2.75 m wide lanes
and 1.0 m wide shoulders, while Class DC8 is a gravel or earth road with one single lane 4-m wide
and 1m-wide shoulders. Table 38 on the other hand gives lower values of road-way widths which
are function of the traffic flow. The present widths of rural feeder roads in Rwanda vary from 3-4
meters in mountainous sections to more than 7 meters in some urban areas. Roadway width remains
a sensitive issue. The Official Gazette mandates a width of 7.0 meters for all National and District 1
roads, and 6.0 meters for District 2 (feeder) roads. Reference has also previously been made to the
required width for the passing of two WB-40 size vehicles, dictating that the absolute minimum width
for two lanes should be 5.5 meters.

Table 127 : Cross Section Dimensions of the Road Design Classes / Tanzania
Source : Tanzanian Road design manual 2012
Table 128: British Overseas Road Notes Standards
Table 39 summarizes comparison of lane widths for various countries. It can be seen that for minor
and local roads, the lane widths vary from 2.5 to 3.65 m.

Table 129: Lane Widths Comparison for Different Countries
Recommendation
In line with the EAC adopted lane widths for access roads feeder roads and in line with the
Rwanda road act, the lane width for Feeder roads District roads class 2 shall be 3 m. Note that
in very difficult terrain where cut and fill operations might require substantial amount of
earthwork, demarcation from the standard lane width might be considered. The same shall be
done for need of enlargement especially in curves however the lanes width shall remain in the
range of the proposed EAC width of 2.5 to 3.5 m for access roads Feeder roads‐District class 2
roads . In some circumstances it may be advisable to consider the construction of a single lane
road, with periodic turn‐outs to allow to opposing vehicles to pass. Such circumstances are
largely confined to existing 3‐4 meter wide roads in side hill cuts in mountainous terrain. In such
locations, earthwork cost would be prohibitive to construct a two lane width, and slope stability
could be affected. Engineering judgment should be employed in making the decision to use a
single lane facility in low traffic volume areas.
2.4.3 Curve widening

The pavement is often widened at sharp curves to accommodate off-tracking, whereby the rear
wheels, particularly of larger vehicles, do not follow precisely the same path as the front wheels
when the vehicle negotiates a horizontal curve or makes a turn. The amount of off-tracking, and
therefore the amount of widening needed on a curve depends on the characteristics of the design
vehicle and the radius of curvature negotiated.
But AASHTO also states that: “Widening is costly and very little is actually gained from a small
amount of widening...11” The USAID Draft Standards suggests that for low volume gravel roads, no
curve widening should be employed.
11
Ibid, p. 214.
2.4.4 Shoulder widths
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the accommodation of
stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and pedestrians;
emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses. The
shoulders on minor rural roads with low traffic volume serve essentially as structural lateral support
for the surfacing and as an additional width for the travel way. This permits drivers meeting or
passing other vehicles to drive on the edge of the roadway without leaving the surfacing thus making
use of the shoulder itself.
As noted by the USAID draft standard on Feeder Roads for MINAGRI, the distinction between lane
widths and shoulder widths is rather meaningless for a gravel-surfaced road. If, without much
thought, a shoulder width of 1.0 meters is selected as a standard, and 3.0 meters is the lane width, in
actuality the result would be a gravel road of 8.0 meters wide. This is a very wide gravel road which
has an increased potential to experience deterioration of the normal crown and drainage issues
relating to rutting and potholing. The USAID draft standards on Feeder roads does however advocate
an inclusion of a gravel shoulder to better accommodate pedestrian and bicycle traffic, and parked
vehicles, in built-up areas, and the width employed in such limited areas is 1.0 meters for each
shoulder. It is however to be noted that that this is often not possible, and the clear distance between
existing buildings does not allow for such widening without the demolition of the very same
buildings and businesses which benefit from the road improvement. Often there are existing lined
ditches in place in such built-up areas, and in such conditions the shoulder width should be selected
to allow the roadway to fit between the ditches.
Figure 12 : Graded and Usable Shoulders

When roadside barriers, walls, or other vertical elements are present, it is desirable to provide a
graded shoulder wide enough that the vertical elements will be offset a minimum of 0.6m from the
outer edge of the usable shoulder. On low-volume roads, roadside barriers may be placed at the outer
edge of the shoulder however, a minimum clearance of 1.2 m should be provided from the travelled
way to the barrier.
2.4.5 Shoulders cross sections

The following table gives shoulder values compiled by Hall et al. (1995). The table shows clearly
that there is no international consensus on this issue.
Table 130: Typical Shoulder Widths Design Values

On the other hand, Table 41 of the EAC harmonization document below compare the shoulder width
design values for the EAC partner State members where it can be seen that Burundi and Rwanda use
the French standards.
Table 131: Comparison of Shoulder Width Design Values (m) (EAC-Road Standards Harmonization)
Recommendation
It is suggested that shoulders for roads in rolling and mountainous terrain should be 1.0‐1.5 m
wide while for access road classes feeder roads‐ district class 2 roads , shoulders should be
0.6m to 1.0 m. wide. Generally, a minimum shoulder width of 0.6 m should be considered for
low‐volume highways. For the feeder roads, a shoulder width of 0.6 to 1.2 m shall be provided
depending on the terrain conditions.
2.4.6 Normal Cross Fall

A cross slope is used on traffic lanes to promote drainage of surface water. Table 42 below gives
typical lane slope design values for different countries.
Table 132: Typical Shoulder Widths Design Values

For gravel wearing surfaced roads, a 2 percent cross slope will create issues with ponding and eventual
runoff in the wheel ruts. Conversely, a 4 percent cross slope is difficult for heavy trucks to navigate,
especially when combined with a steep gradient. Such steeper cross slopes are generally limited to roads
of a narrow width, in essence “single lane” roads, where the truck traffic on lightly travelled roads tends
to utilize the center of the road and hence the effective cross slope for the truck is flat.
The USAID draft standard on feeder roads suggests a cross slope of 3 percent for gravel wearing
course. This is the same cross slope suggested by AASHTO for low volume local unsealed roads.
Recommendation
The EAC harmonization committee adopted Tanzania and Kenya’s normal cross fall gradient of
4% for gravel roads. For the Rwandan terrain witch tend to be more demanding as compared to
the surrounding countries, a cross slope of 3 percent shall be adopted for mountainous terrain.
For the sake of harmonization, a cross‐slope of 4 percent shall be used in flat and rolling terrains
for gravel and earth roads.
2.4.7 Slopes in shoulders

Shoulders should be flush with the roadway surface and abut the edge of the travelled way. Any type
of shoulder construction has a bearing on the cross slope and the two should be determined jointly.
Gravel and crushed rock shoulders should be sloped from 4 to 6% (AASHTO). When curbs are used
on the outside of shoulders, the cross slope should be appropriately designed with the drainage
system to prevent ponding on the travelled way.
Recommendation
Normally, the shoulder should have the same slope as the carriageway 4% . However, to allow
faster drainage a rounding off of the shoulder edge to a steeper grade say 6% It is
recommended that the same value be used for gravel and Earth roads on the Rwandan terrain.

2.4.8 Side Slope and Back Slope

Side Slopes and Back Slopes are designed to ensure roadway stability and provide reasonable
opportunity for recovery for an out-of-control vehicle. Three main regions of the side slopes are
important to safety: the top of the slope (hinge point), the fore slope and the toe of the slope. Slope
and soil data are used in combination to approximate the stability of the slopes and the erosion
potential. Effective erosion control, low-cost maintenance, and adequate drainage of the subgrade
are largely dependent upon proper shaping of the side slopes. Overall economy depends not only on
initial construction cost but also on the cost of maintenance, which is dependent on slope stability.
The USAID draft Standards for feeder roads suggests slopes of 1V: 1H on the following ground:
The steepness of both cut and fill slopes should be determined by the characteristics of the
surrounding soil. The formula for the determination of the failure plane is:
Ɵ = 45º + φ’/2
Where
Ɵ = failure plane angle (º)
φ’ = drained angle of friction (º), or angle of repose
Geotechnical investigations indicate predominately clay soils in Rwanda. Washington State

Department of Transportation (DOT)12 uses angle of friction values for clay soils at 27-29º. A
reference from British Steel13 uses 45º for moist clay; 30º for dry clay, and 15º for wet clay.
Following construction, the clay will eventually stabilize as moist clay with a lowering of the water
table due to the cut. Using the most critical value for wet clay,
Ɵ = 45º + 15º/2 = 52.5º
This indicates that the slope through such soils is stable at an angle of 45º, or 1:1. In the interests of
economy, the side slope for fill sections is 1:1 H:V. The side slope for cut sections is set at 1.5:1
H:V from the road edge to the ditch bottom, to better enable recovery of an errant vehicle from the
ditch. From the slope stability point of view however, this is not a strong enough argument as no
consideration is given to other factors causing instabilities like erosion for instance.
Normally, backslopes should be 1V: 3H or flatter, to accommodate maintenance equipment: Ideally,

slopes of 1V: 3H- 1V:4H should be used. In developed areas, sufficient space may not be available
to permit the use of desirable slopes. In such cases, backslopes steeper than 1V:3H should be
evaluated with regards to soil stability and potential crash severity. Retaining walls should be
considered where space restrictions would otherwise result in slopes steeper than 1V: 2H.
With some type of soils, it is essential for stability that slopes be reasonably flat. Soils that are
predominantly clay are particularly susceptible to erosion, and slopes of 1V: 3H or flatter should be
used. Design slopes for rock vary widely, depending upon the materials. A commonly used slope
for rock cuts is 2V:1H but can be as steep as 6V: 1H in good rock. .
12
Washington State Department of Transportation, Geotechnical Design Manual, January 2010, p. 5-24.
13
www.civl.port.ac.uk/britishsteel/media/BSCM_html dos/angleofrepose.html
Recommendation

Adopt slopes of 1V: 3H to 1V:4H, and for slopes less than 1V: 3H, provide road side barriers and
evaluate slope stability as well as traffic safety. In such cases, fill slope should not be steeper than
1V:1H and cut slopes not steeper than 1V:1.5H with additional safety provisions retaining walls,
barriers etc… .
2.4.9 Right-of-Way
According to the Road Act, a ROW of 22 m will be used for District 1 and 2 roads. It is assumed that
the ROW is approximately centered on the existing roadway centrelines. Note that improvements
will generally consist of shifts of usually no more than 3-4m from the existing centreline, such
that the works would remain well within the ROW if it is in fact 22 meters, but may pose some
problems with narrow adjacent property infringements of the ROW. The entire route lengths
will require ROW removal of approximately 1.0 meters on each side of the narrow existing roads to
obtain the required roadway width and provide for longitudinal drainage.

Recommendations
While all efforts will be directed towards the implementation of the ROW requirements an
engineering judgement shall be required to balance the economic issues linked to expropriations
with the needs to provide sufficient travel way with proper functioning drainage systems.
2.4.10 Clear Zones
Clear zone area is provided beyond the edge of the roadway for the recovery of errant vehicles. It
may include any shoulders or auxiliary lanes and is related to speed, volume, embankment slope and
horizontal geometry. The need for clear zone increases with speed and curvature. The recommended
values in the case of Feeder roads (District class 2 roads) are as given in the table below. Note that
for lower speeds, no value is given.
Table 133 : Clear Zones
2.4.11 Safety barriers

Guardrails will not be used on gravel roads. They will however be added at bridge approaches and,
as directed by the Engineer, may be placed at electric pole locations where these occur within the
roadway shoulder, assuming they cannot be removed prior to completion of construction.

2.4.12 Signage
Given the general lack of road signs on unpaved roads within Rwanda, signage shall be treated
separately in standard.
2.4.13 Headroom and lateral Clearance

A minimum of 5.5m headroom under a bridge structure, 7.0 m headroom under a high-power cables
and 6.0 m headroom under low-power cables shall be provided; The minimum lateral clearance width
of 0.6 m on each side of a bridge for traffic volume of less than 400 veh/day, 1.0-1.2 m on each side
of a bridge for traffic volume of 400 to 2000 v/day and increase the value by 1 m for bridges of more
than 30 m span.
Table 134: Typical Cross Section Dimensions (EAC Road Standard Harmonisation)
Access 22 8 6 2 3 1 4 4
roads class
5 (feeder)

2.5 Drainage design (Tanzania road design manual, USAID
Draft standard, AASHTO)
Drainage is the most important factor in determining the technical performance of a road. When
roads fail, it is often due to inadequacies in drainage. Failure can happen suddenly as the case of slip
failure (parts of cutting or embankment breaking off), or more slowly, as when water penetrates into
the road pavement and sub-grade, weakens them to the extent they are no longer strong enough to
support traffic. Drainage problems can be grouped into two general categories: surface and
subsurface.
Proper drainage design is thus an essential feature of overall highway design and planning. In
drawing up a drainage plan information concerning the following factors is essential.
 Hydrological consideration such as maximum rainfall and intensity rate of runoff and nature
and amount of stream flow;
 Characteristics of the drainage basin (area to be drained) such as size, shape, general slope,
nature and type of vegetation and land use (existing and future;
 Nature and type of basin soils including their permeability and tendency to erode.
2.5.1 Longitudinal drainage

Water is drained from the carriageway and shoulders by virtue of the cross-fall or transverse slope
and longitudinal grade. Such water is either allowed to flow down the face of the side slope (for small
embankments) or collected at the edge of the shoulder by the use of kerbs, dykes or paved ditches
and carried longitudinally for disposal at a convenient place. The water from the roadway and
surrounding areas is drained away by use of roadside ditches, mitre drains or cut-off drains. These
usually carry the water for disposal at a convenient place or to a bridge or culvert inlets.
2.5.2 Roadside ditches

Drainage ditches are constructed along the edge of the roadway to receive the runoff from the
pavement surfaces and water from subsurface drains. Where the surrounding area is sloping toward
the roadway, these ditches also serve to intercept and carry away water which would otherwise reach
the roadbed.

Figure 14: Road Side Ditches (source: Tanzania Manual of Roads Design)
With open drains, the slope next to the road should not be steeper than 1:4, so as to avoid the risk of
severe damage and injury when errant vehicles fall into the drain.
Generally trapezoidal shape ditches with side slope of 1 in 1 to 1 in 4 (depending upon soil type) and
bottom width of 0.6 to 2.5m (depending upon excavation method) are used. In rolling to hilly terrain
where space is limited, V-shaped drains can be used. The capacity of drainage ditch can be increased
by widening or deepening the channel. Widening is preferred to limit potential scouring.
The minimum depth of ditches should be 0.5m measured from the bottom of the ditch to the
formation level.
Maximum velocity of the water in the ditch, which will cause erosion or scour depends on the
material of the ditch. An average value of 1 metre/second for loam or fine sand and 2
metres/second for coarse gravel will not cause erosion. However, in cases when velocities are
expected to exceed 2 metre/ second a lining shall be used.
To assure flow, ditches should have minimum longitudinal slope of 0.5 percent if unpaved and
0.3 percent if paved. Key points to consider in the design of safe side drains are:
 There should be sufficient discharge points and culverts to ensure that the drain never
gets very deep;
 With open drains, the slop next to the road should as much as possible be flat enough to
reduce the risk of errant vehicles overturning;
 In built-up areas channel drains deeper than 500mm should be covered or under-drain
system be used for the safety and convenience of both pedestrians and vehicles;
 The drain should terminate or discharge in a satisfactory manner without risk of causing
erosion or other problems; and,
 The drain should be capable of being cleaned and maintained easily.
The USAID draft standards on feeder roads suggests a modified v-ditch configuration whereby the
front ditch slope, i.e.- the one facing the traffic lane, has a slope of 1.5:1 H:V. This will allow vehicles
and pedestrians to resume travel if they enter the ditch. The ditch back slope is made steeper in the

interests of reducing the right-of-way take, and is set at a slope of 0.67:1 H:V. The ditch shall have
a depth of 0.6m. Ditches on gradients steeper than 7% shall be lined (mortared) ditches.
2.5.2 Median drains

Median drains not only drain the median but also, in the case of a horizontal curve, prevent water
from the higher carriageway flowing in a sheet across the lower carriageway. The transverse slopes
should be in the range of 1:4 to 1:10. Unlike side drains, median drains, are generally constructed
with a shallow V-profile with the bottom gently rounded.
2.5.3 Median drains

Chutes are intended to convey a concentration of water down a slope which, without such protection,
would be subject to scour. They may vary in size from large structures to half-round precast concrete
product, but they are all open channels. Flow velocities are high, so that stilling basins are required if
down-stream erosion is to be avoided. An example of the application of chutes is the discharge of
water down a fill slope from an edge drain. The entrances to chutes require attention to ensure that
water is deflected from the edge drain into the chute, particularly where the road is on a steep grade.
The chutes and stilling basins should be such that these drainage elements do not present an excessive
risk to errant vehicles. Generally, they should be as shallow as is compatible with their function.
Depths in excess of 150 mm should be viewed with caution
2.5.4 Mitre drains

The water which is collected on side drains must be disposed of by diverting the drains away from
the road before it has become too long and collected too much water. If there is no stream or river
into which it can be diverted, mitre drains with small check bends should be constructed pointing
away from the road and running down hill. Thus, putting up large size culverts is avoided. If it is not
possible to construct mitre drains because the surrounding ground is sloping towards the road, then
it will be necessary to provide a culvert to take the water across the road away on the other side
2.5.5 Catch-water drains

Where the surrounding area consists of higher ground, as in a cut or where the highway runs along
the side of a hill, additional drains known as catch water cut-off or interceptor drains should be
provided. These are effective in preventing erosion of the slope and consequent blocking of the side
drain.

Catch-water drains
Figure 15: Roadside Ditches (Source: Tanzania Manual of Roads Design)
Catch-water drains are constructed at the back of the top of the cut or on benches in the cut slope.
The practice of providing catch-water drains along the top of the cutting may sometimes cause a
slope failure. Therefore, when it is necessary, it should be provided behind a line at 45 degrees
through the toe of the cutting and at least 6 m away from the top of the cutting.
2.5.6 Subsurface drainage

The road base must be designed either to exclude water completely or alternatively to permit egress
of water which has entered. When impermeable bases such as stabilized soils or densely graded
bituminous concrete are used, drainage of base is not necessary. When permeable and porous base
materials are used, particular attention must be paid to the drainage of the base layer. The base and
sub-base should extend the full width across the roadway and the surface of the sub-base layer given
adequate cross fall to assist drainage.
Drainage of the pavement layers is described in subchapter 3.3 in the Pavement and Materials Design
Manual, Ministry of Works (1999).
2.5.7 Subsurface drainage

The purpose of capillary cut off is to collect and lead to drains any water which may pass through
the road surface (from top) or rising into the pavement from below by capillary action as shown in
Figure 16: Capillary Cut-off

Capillary cut-off can either be a layer of porous materials such as sand or gravel, or an impervious
membrane such as layer of primer, tar felt or polythene
The cut-off should be located at least 0.6m below top of subgrade. It is should also be at least 0.15m
above the general ground level or stagnant water level
2.5.8 Control of seepage flow

There are two methods of dealing with condition of seepage flow. If the seepage zone is narrow and
within 0.6 to 1.0m from the surface then the usual procedure is to install an intercepting drain in the
impermeable strata underlying the seepage zone as shown in Figure 5-8.
Figure 17: Interception drain for the Seepage Zone
If the seepage zone is wider or the impermeable strata is at a considerable depth below the surface,
it is generally impracticable to construct the drainage trench sufficiently deep to intercept all the
seepage water. In this case, the intercepting drain is usually well above the impervious strata, leading
to a partial interception of seepage zone.
Where a road is on sloping ground, longitudinal drains may not be capable of intercepting all the
seepage water. In such cases it may be necessary to install transverse intercepting drains too.
2.5.9 Control of seepage flow

A high water table can be lowered by the installation of a drainage system similar to the system
displayed in Figure 17, above. It is desirable that the water table should be maintained at a depth not
less than 1.2m below the formation level. The actual spacing and depth of drains to achieve this
requirement will depend on the soil conditions and the width of the road formation. In the case of dual
carriageway, drains may be necessary under the median as well as under the edges of the formation.

2.5.10 Cross Drainage Structures
Cross drainage structures comprise a wide range of measures from major bridges to drifts and minor
culverts. The major structures that are most commonly used for passing water from one side of a road
to the other can be slabs, beam/composite, box girders, trusses, frames, arches and cable bridges.
Collection of water from the roadway should be properly channeled to the bridges to avoid erosion
of abutments. Culverts in various shapes and materials are used to convey water from streams below
the road and to carry water from one side ditch to the other. Culverts should have inlet headwalls on
the upstream side and outlet headwalls on the downstream side. Wing walls on the upstream are
intended to direct the flow into the culvert and provide transition from the culvert to normal or regular
channel on the downstream. Both help to protect the embankment from flood water.
An example is shown in Figure 18 below:
Figure 18: Example of a Pipe Culvert

2.5.11 Drainage design (USAID draft –feeder roads standards)
2.5.11.1 The rational method
Runoff calculations shall be undertaken using the Rational Method. The rational method is usually
confined to smaller catchment areas, and other methods, such as unit hydrographs and stream gauges
are used to determine peak flows for larger catchment areas. However, as such data, with one
exception, is not available for larger streams; the rational method shall be used for all catchment
areas. Usually, this will result in flood values above the actual values, as peak rainfall intensities
will vary locally within the larger catchment area. However, elsewhere, project personnel have found
a good correlation for results with large catchments using the rational method.
Design Frequency. The design flood value chosen varies depending on the type of structure
constructed. Desirable design storm frequencies are as follows:
Longitudinal Ditches 1 in 2 years

Pipe culverts 1 in 10 years
Box culverts 1 in 25 years
Bridges 1 in 50 years
Rational Formula.
The Rational Formula is:
Q = 0.00278 C I A (Formula 1)
Where:
Q = Peak Runoff in cubic meters per second (m3/s)
C = Runoff Coefficient representing a ratio of runoff to rainfall.
I = Rainfall Intensity in mm/hr
A = Catchment Area in hectares
The formula is modified through multiplication by a factor Cf, when design frequencies of greater
than 10 years are specified. For a 25-year frequency, Cf, = 1.1; for 50-year, Cf, = 1.2.
Most drainage areas will be found to be too small to be measured using a GIS 1:20,000 scale map
series. For such areas, it is usually safe to assume that a pipe culvert of 100mmØ will suffice to
discharge the flood flow.
Catchment Area. Catchment areas can be determined by application of the appropriate scale factor
to the areas from the GIS 1:20,000 Scale Maps, which include contours at 25m increments. As most
catchment areas are too small to be discernible at this map scale, only the larger catchments need be
shown.
Catchment Slope. The first step is to determine the change in elevation, ΔH, by subtracting the
elevation at the structure, H1, from the highest elevation of the catchment, H2. This is then divided
by the length of the path of the runoff, L. For instance, when the elevation for a catchment drops
from 973 to 720 meters (= 253 meters) over a length of 2860 meters, this gives a slope of 253/2860,
or 8.8%.
Hydrological Soil Group. Soil properties influence the relationship between runoff and rainfall
since soils have differing rates of infiltration. Permeability and infiltration are the principal data
required to classify soils into Hydrologic Soils Groups (HSG). Based on infiltration rates, the Soil
Conservation Service (SCS) has divided soils into four hydrologic soil groups as shown in Table 19.
Hydrologic soil group D is used for clay soils, which are the most prevalent Hydrological Soil Group
occurring in Rwanda. This soil group also gives the highest runoff rates, and is therefore the safest
group to use to ensure that the runoff can be conveyed by the selected structure.
Table 135: Hydrological Soil Groups
Group Description
Group A Sand, loamy sand or sandy loam. Soils having a low runoff potential due to
high infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of deep, well-drained
sands and gravels.
Group B Silt loam, or loam. Soils having a moderately low runoff potential due to
moderate infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of moderately deep
to deep, moderately well to well drained soils with moderately fine to
moderately coarse textures.
Group C Sandy clay loam. Soils having a moderately high runoff potential due to
slow infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of soils in which a layer
exists near the surface that impedes the downward movement of water or
soils with moderately fine to fine texture.
Group D Clay loam, silty clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay or clay. Soils having a high runoff potential
due to very slow infiltration rates. These soils primarily consist of clays with high swelling
potential, soils with permanently-high water tables, soils with a claypan or clay layer at or
near the surface, and shallow soils over nearly impervious parent material.
Source: Hydrology, FHWA, HEC No. 19, 1984
Runoff Coefficient. This value is obtained from FHA Hydrology “Recommended Runoff
Coefficient C for Pervious Surfaces by Selected Hydrologic Soil Groupings and Slope Ranges,”
attached as Table 24. For instance, if terrain is mountainous (6-15%), and the Hydrologic Soil Group
is Group D (see above), a clay loam soil, this table gives a “C” of between 0.28 and 0.38. A value
between these extremes can be determined through interpolation using the actual cross terrain slope
of the catchment area. For the example at 8.8% mentioned in the above text, C= 0.31.

Table 136: Recommended Runoff Coefficient C for Pervious Surfaces by Selected Hydrologic Soil
Groupings and Slope Ranges
Soil Type
A B C D
Terrain Type
Flat, <2% 0.04-0.09 0.07-0.12 0.11-0.16 0.15-0.20
Rolling, 2-6% 0.09-0.14 0.12-0.17 0.16-0.21 0.20-0.25
Mountain, 6-15% 0.13-0.18 0.18-0.24 0.23-0.31 0.28-0.38
Escarpment, >15% 0.18-0.22 0.24-0.30 0.30-0.40 0.38-0.48
Source: Hydrology, FHWA, HEC No. 19, 1984
Time of Concentration (TC). The determination of Rainfall Intensity first requires a determination
of the Time of Concentration, TC.
The Time of Concentration formula is the formula used in the DPWH Guidelines:
Tc = (0.87 * L3/H)0.385 (Formula 2)
Where
Tc = time of concentration (hr)
L = length of catchment area (km)
H = height of catchment (m)
In the above example, a catchment area measuring 2860 meters long with a drop of 253 meters would
result in
Tc = 0.38 hrs or 23 minutes
Rainfall Intensity, I. The two local references mentioned above provide information for a sufficient
number of years to develop Specific Discharge Curves: a Rainfall Intensity-Duration-Frequency
Curve, Isohyet of Probable 1- Day Rainfall.” In fact, the Uramutse gives such a curve using the
Kigali Kanombe data.
The Service Meteorologique reference provides additional synoptic data for two other stations in the
country: at Butare and at Kamembe. Using this data, additional Rainfall Intensity-Duration-
Frequency Curves were created for Butare and Kamembe. The rainfall station closest to the road
project should be chosen for hydrological design for that project.
However, even the Kigali curve only gives values up to a 10-year storm event, and for a 90 minute
occurrence. For larger structures such as box culverts and bridges, a 25-year, 50-year, and/or 100-
year event is usually selected. Further, for larger catchment areas, the Tc is large and hence storm
duration of greater than 90 minutes is required.
The Uramutse graph was used and estimating techniques were applied to extend the graph to include
25-year, 50-year, and 100-year storm frequencies. The graph was also extended out to a maximum
storm duration of 230 minutes. The results are shown in Appendix B of the USAID-PARSONS
Draft document.

The figure shows that for the above example of Tc = 0.38 hrs or 22 minutes, the 25- and 50-Year
Rainfall Intensity I is:
I25 = 87 mm/hr
I50 = 94 mm/hr
Peak Runoff Q. Assuming a catchment area of 650 ha, and entering all the above values into
Formula 1 gives:
Q25 = 0.00278 (0.31)(87)(650)(1.1) = 53.6 m3/s
2.5.11.2 Minor Runoff Areas
If the catchment area is too small to be measured on a 1:50,000 scale map, then it will have a Q10
flow of less than 3 m3/s, which means that a single barreled 1000 mmØ pipe culvert can handle the
flow.
Often such small catchments are already addressed by more than one cross drain, which further
divides the flow into smaller areas, especially at intervals down a gradient.
2.5.11.3 Spacing of Cross Drains on Steep Gradients
For long steep road gradient segments, i.e.- those of over 7% gradient, it is desirable to transport the
runoff out of the longitudinal side ditch, through cross drains, at regular intervals. This will prevent
the side drains from overflowing, which otherwise would result in a diversion of a portion of the
flow onto the gravel surfacing, and a loss of the surfacing. The side ditch is not only carrying run-
off flow from the roadway, but from the adjacent hillside. Rather than performing very tedious
calculations to determine this flow, spacing can be selected at which the ditch flow is channeled
through a cross drain culvert pipe. The suggested spacing is once every 100 meters of distance.
2.5.11.4 Verification of Stream Channel Peak Flow Using Manning’s Equation
It is generally advisable in analyzing major catchment areas to check the flood flow values obtained
through the use of the Rational Method against flood flow values obtained from historic flood height
observations. These are obtained through interviews with local residents. The claimed flood height
is then checked against a topographic survey to determine the required parameters such as flow area
and petted perimeter, and used in the Manning’s Equation to obtain flood flows, as described below.
This double check is especially valid given the uncertainty mentioned above in extending the
intensity-duration-frequency curves beyond the range of available data. Manning’s Equation to
obtain flood flows, as described below.
Manning’s Equation –For a given depth of flow in a channel with a steady, uniform flow, the
mean velocity, V, can be computed with Manning’s equation:

V = (1/n)R2/3S1/2
Where
V = velocity, m/s
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient
R = hydraulic radius = A/P, m
P = wetted perimeter, m
S = slope of the energy gradeline, m/m (note: for steady uniform flow, S = channel slope,
m/m)
Manning’s Equation can also be written as:
Q = (1/n) AR2/3 S1/2

Where:
Q = discharge, m3/s
A = cross-sectional area of flow, m2
The selection of Manning’s ‘n’ is generally based on observation.
2.5.11.5 Pipe Culvert Design
A nomograph developed by the Bureau of Public Roads (1963) is shown in Appendix B: figures of
the USAID-PARSONS Feeder Road Draft Standards. All pipe culverts are assumed to be in inlet
control due to the steepness of the slopes at the culverts.
A pipe culvert should have a minimum cover from the top of the culvert to the finish grade line of
600mm, inclusive of embankment and wearing course.
2.5.11.6 Side Ditches (longitudinal drains)
Side ditch flow can be accommodated through a various range of ditch configurations, including
rectangular u-ditches, trapezoidal ditches, and triangular v-ditches.
Rectangular ditches are not recommended as they can be unsafe for vehicles. If an errant vehicle
leaves the roadway and enters the ditch, damage will be done to the undercarriage of the vehicle that
will likely render it inoperable. Because of this, drivers tend to stay away from the ditch or drive
more towards the centerline of the road, creating an unsafe condition for oncoming traffic. A vehicle
entering the ditch is “unrecoverable,” which means that it will not be able to get out of the ditch and
resume operations.
At places where a shoulder exists, drivers will tend not to use the shoulder for its intended purposes
of accommodation of stopped vehicles and emergency use, fearing that they may misjudge the
distance to the ditch. Hence they will remain partially in the travel lane, creating further safety issues.
Rectangular ditches are unsafe for animals and pedestrians. The vertical drop of more than 0.5 meters
would cause serious injuries. Rectangular ditches are disease vectors. Water and mud that collect in
the flat bottom are a breeding ground for mosquitoes.

Debris and waste that collects in the flat bottom pose adverse health effects for someone who falls
into the ditch. V-ditches, lacking a flat bottom, do not have the same magnitude of health issues.
The USAID –PARSONS feeder roads draft standards suggests a modified v-ditch configuration
whereby the front ditch slope, i.e.- the one facing the traffic lane, has a slope of 1.5:1 H:V. This will
allow vehicles and pedestrians to resume travel if they enter the ditch. The ditch back slope is made
steeper in the interests of reducing the right-of-way take, and is set at a slope of 0.67:1 H:V. The
ditch shall have a depth of 0.6m. Ditches on gradients steeper than 7% shall be lined (mortared)
ditches.
2.6 Materials Investigation (USAID Draft manual on feeder

roads)
2.6.1 General
A road pavement structure is usually composed of several layers of different materials overlying the
ground (subgrade). The design of the pavement considers two major variables: 1) the bearing
capacity and stiffness of foundation soil (subgrade) beneath the pavement, which may be variable,
changing with soil type, dry density and ground water conditions; and 2) the applied load due to
traffic, which is variable, dynamic and repetitive.
2.6.2 Existing Road Condition: Subgrade Strength

The design of a road pavement dictates that the layer(s) of pavement and the sub-grade foundation
should be capable of sustaining the stresses applied to them by repeated vehicle loading without
suffering damaging permanent deformation. When a vehicle wheel load is applied to a road surface,
the resulting stresses are distributed through the pavement layers to the ground and the load is spread
over an increasing area as it is transmitted downwards. The pavement structure must be sufficiently
thick over the sub-grade soil to ensure that the soil is not overstressed. The greater the strength of
the soil, the thinner the pavement layers need to be. Hence, the load carrying capacity of the sub-
grade is a principal factor in determining the required pavement thickness.

To complete the design process, material investigations of the existing road surface should be
undertaken to better determine the properties of the existing pavement and subgrade. A dynamic
cone penetrometer (DCP) can be used to rapidly obtain an in-situ measurement of the structural
properties of the gravel layers, and sub-grades after an excavation is made through the surface layers.
The DCP is a simple apparatus that can characterize the ground conditions in and beneath an unsealed
road quickly and with accuracy appropriate to the requirements of the design. In its use, a steel cone
(20 mm diameter with a 60ºangle) is driven into the ground under a fixed energy (an 8 kg mass falling
through 575 mm). The rate of penetration into the gravel or soil material (DN mm/blow) has been
found to be a reasonably good predictor of the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) at the prevailing in-
situ moisture and density conditions using the correlations determined by the American Society for
Testing and Materials (ASTM) as shown in Table 48.
2.6.3 Laterite Wearing Course

It can be anticipated that most borrow pits occurring along the extent of the gravel roads will be
comprised of laterite materials. Typical laterite is shown in Photo 3. In Africa and parts of Asia,
laterite (called murram in East Africa) soils are used to build dirt roads. Laterites are soil types rich
in iron and aluminum, formed in hot and wet tropical areas. Nearly all laterites are rusty-red because
of iron oxides. They develop by intensive and long-lasting weathering of the underlying parent rock.
Tropical weathering (laterization) is a prolonged process of chemical weathering which produces a
wide variety in the thickness, grade, chemistry and ore mineralogy of the resulting soils.
Table 137: Tabulated Correlation of CBR vs. DCP
Source:
Laterite performs well when compared with roads using stone or other stabilized material as a base
or wearing course. However, laterite varies considerably in gradation. It ranges from hard gravel to
a softer earth embedded with small stones. Not all laterite roads are therefore strictly gravel roads.
Laterite which contains a significant portion of clay can become very slippery when wet, and in the
rainy season, it may be difficult even for four-wheel drive vehicles to avoid slipping off highly
cambered roads. As it dries out, laterite can become very hard.
All of the above dictate that while laterite does not conform to any accepted specifications, a
supplemental technical specification can be written for laterite which addresses gradation and other
performance indicators such as plasticity index, liquid limit, and CBRs.
Photo 1: Laterite Gravel (source: USAID draft standard)
2.7 Pavement Design
2.7.1 Pavement Design

As pointed out in the EAC road standard harmonization document, pavement design methods can be
grouped into two broad categories: empirical and analytical. Empirical methods are those that have
evolved from observation of the performance of experimental pavements laid either on public roads
and hence subjected to normal road traffic or on test tracks where loading was strictly controlled.
The majority of current methods of flexible pavement design fall under the empirical category. In
the analytical pavement design, it is assumed that pavements deteriorate due to repetitions of stresses,
strains and deflections generated by traffic loads, ultimately reaching a terminal condition that
necessitate strengthening. Performance models attempt to relate those parameters associated to a
particular mode of deterioration to the number of repetitions of these that can be sustained before a
terminal condition is reached.
As stated in a Report on Gravel Road Performance Study14, “the gravel road design process generally
does not focus on cumulative axle loads, fatigue or a target life expectancy….This is because the
gravel road seldom fails as a result of punching into the subgrade (i.e. shear failure of either the
wearing course or the subgrade material). Failure is typically either the result of continued slippage
of the vehicle tires against the soil (gravel) when a high moisture content prevails (lack of frictional
resistance leading to plastic failure) resulting in settlement of the tire into the material, or shear failure
of the upper portion of the wearing course with lateral displacement.” That report also notes that
“unlike paved roads, motorcycles can cause stress to a gravel road due to kick-out of gravel, and loss
of fines.”
It should be noted that, conversely, AASHTO does focus on axle loads and material strengths.
14
Nyquist, M. S., Report on Gravel road Performance Study, USAID GEM2 Project, Philippines, January 2008.
2.7.2 Traffic volume and Axle Loads
2.7.2.1 Design life of Pavements

For a gravel surfaced road, an appropriate design life is 7 years. In this context, “design life” does
not mean that at the end of the period the pavement will be completely worn out and in need of
reconstruction; it means that towards the end of the period, the pavement will need to be strengthened
through the placement of additional surfacing materials so that it can continue to carry traffic
satisfactorily for a longer period.
2.7.2.2 Estimation of traffic

In 2010, a nationwide, a traffic count study was conducted on the entire paved road network.15 While
this has little bearing on what can be expected for traffic on gravel roads, it does provide an indication
of what future counts and traffic composition may be anticipated as the road develops over time.
ITEC Engineering Ltd. conducted a traffic count which covered all unpaved National and District 1
roads, in 2012.16 Counts were conducted for seven consecutive days in September, and included a
24-hour count on market day.
2.7.2.3 Traffic (Load) Equivalence Factors (LEF/TEF)

Although it is not difficult to determine a wheel or axle load for an individual vehicle, it is more
complicated to determine the number and types of wheel/axle loads that a particular pavement will
be subject to over its design life. The approach is to convert damage from wheel loads of various
magnitudes and repetitions ("mixed traffic") to damage from an equivalent number of "standard" or
"equivalent" loads. The commonly used equivalent load is the 18,000 lb (80 kN) equivalent single
axle load, normally designated Equivalent Single Axel Load (ESAL).
Traffic Equivalence Factors (TEFs) are used for various sizes of trucks and buses to relate the fleet
to the equivalent loads. However, the nature and composition of Rwanda’s truck traffic is unknown
and hence has to be assumed. Such load assumptions are presented in the following table:
Table 138: Traffic Equivalence Factors (TEFs) from Various Studies
Vehicle Type TEF
Light Vehicles 0.01
Buses 0.50
Heavy trucks 1.00
Source: USAID –Draft standards of Feeder roads
15
Traffic Count on Rwanda National Paved Roads Network (2010), Egis/BCEOM Intl, for Ministry of Infrastructure,
Republic of Rwanda, Project 9.ACP.RW.012-1 European Development Bank.
16
ITEC Engineering Ltd., Consultancy Service for Traffic Count on Rwanda National Unpaved Roads: Final Report,
for Ministry of Infrastructure, Republic of Rwanda.
As a rule-of-thumb, the damage caused by a particular load is roughly related to the load by a power
of four (for reasonably strong pavement surfaces).
For example:
1. For a 18,000 lb (80 kN) single axle, LEF =1.0

2. What is the TEF for a 30,000 lb (133 kN) single axle?
3. Using the fourth power rule-of-thumb:
AXLE LOADS
Axle loads are estimated by taking an average of the present ADT and the future ADT by vehicle
class, dividing by two to account for the traffic volumes per direction or lane, and multiplying by the
equivalence factor. An assumption is that the ratio of buses to trucks is 50/50.
2.7.2.4 DPWH (Philippines) Design

According to DPWH, “feeder roads with light traffic and a low number of commercial vehicles shall
be designed for gravel surfacing.”17 Designs based on standard DPWH practice call for the
placement of a gravel wearing course at 150mm thickness on a prepared subgrade where the subgrade
CBR value is greater than 7%. Where the CBR is between 4 and 7, the gravel wearing course is
increased to 200mm in thickness. Instances where the CBR is less than 4 are considered special
cases which may require an additional layer of 50mm of sub base material.
This same text is modified, and takes into account traffic volume, through application of the table
49:18
Table 139: Recommended Thickness of gravel Layers to the Placed on the Subgrade of the Gravel
Traffic (AADT) Subgrade Soil Recommended Total
in both directions Minimum Thickness
of Gravel*
<200 A1, A2, A3 soils or if CBR 150mm
>7
A4, A5, A6, A7 soils or if 200mm
3<CBR<7
>200 A1, A2, A3 soils or if CBR 200mm
>7
A4, A5, A6, A7 soils or if 250mm
3<CBR<7
Notes: if drainage is bad (water table less than 600mm below subgrade formation) use additional 50mm gravel. if
CBR of soil is less than 3%, add 50mm of gravel to recommended minimum thickness
17
Design Guidelines Criteria and Standards for Public Works and Highways, Volume II: Highways, Bridges and
Airport, Ministry of Public Works and Highways, Manila, 2004.
18
Note however that there is a conflict between the text and the table at CBR = 3 to 4. We use the more conservative
values of the two.
2.7.2.5 EAC Member States Design
Kenya design manual recommends gravel roads pavements where reported initial daily number of
commercial vehicles is greater than 150 (up to 500) for gravel roads class 1 and less than 150 for
gravel roads class 2. Tanzania recommends gravel roads pavements for roads where AADT is less
than 300, same value for Uganda for AADT at the time of construction.
Recommendations
Since the vast portion of feeder roads District roads class 2, class 1, national roads class 2 are
gravel or earth roads in Rwanda, it is suggested that gravel roads pavement laterite be
considered for AADT of equal or less than 400. However, the decision to keep a road as a gravel
road or upgrade it to paved surface should be based on the comparison of the cost of maintaining
a gravel road with the cost of upgrading and maintaining a paved surface. This analysis can be
modified to address local conditions.
2.7.2.6 Subgrades
Design depth:
The EAC harmonization suggested subgrade depths of paved roads of 0.8 m for normal traffic and
1.2 m for heavy traffic. In case of unpaved roads, Tanzania suggests 0.6 -1.0m for normal loads to
heavy loads and Uganda suggests minimum subgrade depth from 0.250 m to 0.600 m. For Rwandan
terrain in the context of feeder roads, subgrade depths varying from 0.3 m to 0.6 m shall be considered
depending on the CBR. Note that soils with CBRs less or equal to 3 shall be improved or replaced.
Centerline Soil Surveys:

A minimum of 1CBR strength testing per km for other than trunk roads and a minimum of 1 CBR
strength testing per 2 km for gravel roads as a minimum material CBR testing frequency for EAC
Partner States is required.
Characterization of the subgrade Strength Design value
The statistical approach of estimating subgrade CBR design value for a section which takes the 90%-
ile CBR test value for a homogeneous section has been adopted as the CBR design value by the EAC
Road standards harmonization committee. The same values are recommended for Rwanda.
Comparison of subgrade classes and CBR design values in three of the EAC countries
The following table gives classes of subgrade with corresponding CBR ranges for Kenya, Uganda
and Tanzania. It can be seen that Kenya values are overlapping and sometimes can cause confusion.
Tanzania suggests that all subgrades be brought to a minimum of 15%, while Kenya requests
improvement on S1 to S3 (i.e to a minimum of 13%). Uganda suggests improvement to 15 % (on
S1, S2, S3 and S4).

Table 140: Comparison of Subgrade Classes and CBR Design Values in Three of the EAC Countries
(Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda)
The EAC standards harmonization committee recommends the adoption of three classes of
subgrades:
 S3 is natural gravel/soil with nominal CBR value of minimum 3,
 S7 is natural gravel/soil with nominal CBR value of minimum 7;
 S15 is natural gravel/soil with nominal CBR value of minimum 15.
 It is recommended that improvement be done on subgrades with strength values S3 and S7
only.
 For gravel roads, the materials for improved subgrade layers should meet the requirements
for class G15 and G7.
Recommendation
We recommend using the same classification for classes of subgrades in Rwanda. However it
shall be emphasized that use of subgrades with CBR value less than 7 shall be used with care and
good engineering judgment. Use of extra thickness shall be balanced against the option of
upgrading to higher material strength.
2.7.2.7 Gravel Wearing Course (GW)
There are two conflicting requirements to be met by materials for gravel wearing course:
 The need for a sufficient cohesion to bind the particles and prevent the surface from travelling
and becoming corrugated in dry seasons;
 Limiting the amount of fines and the plasticity so as to avoid the occurrence of a slippery
surface in wet weather.
Recommendation:
It is recommended that the governing material properties for fully engineered gravel wearing
course are CBR, gradation, shrinkage product, grading coefficient, and field density and the
gravel wearing course should meet the requirements for the same properties.

2.7.2.8 Earthworks Compaction requirements
Table 141: Compaction Requirements for Earthwork (EAC Harmonization)
The EAC- harmonization committee recommends the following requirements in Table 52 for fill and
improved subgrade layers for earthworks. We propose to follow the same recommendation for
Rwanda application.

Table 142: Requirements for Fill and Improved Subgrade Layers (EAC Harmonization)
2.7.2.9 Unbound materials
Table 53 shows the EAC harmonization committee recommendations of code designation for
unbound materials:
Table 143: Code Designation for Unbound Materials
Pavement layers of natural gravel materials

As suggested by EAC partner states, the following materials requirements for gravel wearing
course, base and sub base layers, are also adopted for Rwanda:


Table 144: Material Requirements for Gravel Wearing Course (EAC-Harmonisation)
The table 55 below gives the suggested grading requirements for G80 and G60 materials as per BS
1377: part 2 and shall be adopted for the Rwandan standards.
Table 145: Grading Requirements for G80 and G60 Materials (BS 1377: part 2)
G60
2.7.2.10 Crushed aggregate base course

The 1986 specifications for Kenya recommend requirements of particle strength (LAA and ACV),
Cleanliness (SSS), particle shape (FI) and CR for crushed stone classes A, B and C materials
depending on where the materials are to be used (subbase or base course). Specifications for Tanzania
and Uganda report requirements of Attemberg limits, grading, particle strength and shape and
compaction for crushed stone or quarried rock (CRS) materials and crushed, fresh, quarried rock
(CRR) materials. For a crushed rock to be viable as a pavement material, it must be available,
workable and give satisfactory field performance at the lowest possible cost. The final in-place cost
should take into account supply and cartage costs, cost of repair to road during cartage, spreading
and compaction costs and preparation of surface costs. The tables below give requirements for
crushed aggregate base course materials as adopted by the EAC harmonization committee. The
requirements of this table shall be adopted for the Rwandan case.

Table 146: Crushed Aggregate Base Course Requirements
2.7.2.11 AASHTO Design Method
Unlike DPWH or several other sources, AASHTO states: 19
“Because the primary basis for all rational pavement performance prediction methods is
cumulative heavy axle load applications, it is necessary in this Guide to use the 18-kip
equivalent single axle load (ESAL) design approach for low-volume roads, regardless of how
low the traffic level is or what the distribution is between automobiles and trucks.”
The design process includes computation of the traffic volume, and conversion into ESALs using a
traffic growth rate. The design subgrade CBR values are determined based on estimated 85th
percentile CBR values, and conversion into the Effective Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (K-value).
The pavement design is accomplished through reference to the catalog table in the AASHTO
Pavement Manual, entitled “Aggregate Surfaced Road Design Catalog: Recommended Aggregate
Base Thickness (in inches) for the Six U.S. Climatic Regions, Five Relative Qualities of Roadbed Soil
and Three Levels of Traffic.”20 The pertinent portions of this table are presented in Table 57 below.
Note that thickness has been converted to metric, and only U.S. Climatic Region I is represented
(Florida, Gulf Coast), as that region is closest to the Rwanda climate:
19
“AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, 1993,” GPO, Washington, DC, p.II-69.
20
“AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, op. cit, p. II-86.
Table 147: Recommended Aggregate Thickness Vs. Roadbed Soil Quality and Traffic
Relative Quality of Traffic Aggregate
Roadbed Soil Level* Thickness
Very Good High 200mm
(K-value >550 pci) Medium 150mm
Low 100mm
Good High 275mm
(K-value 400-550) Medium 200mm
Low 100mm
Fair High 325mm
(K-value 250-400) Medium 275mm
Low 150mm
Poor High **
(K-value 150-250) Medium **
Low 225mm
Very Poor High **
(K-value < 150 pci) Medium **
Low 275mm
* High = 60-80,000 ESALs; medium = 30-60,000 ESALs; low = 10-30,000 ESALs
** higher type of pavement design recommended
The soil quality is fair. As the traffic volume in ESALs is low (100,000 ESALs/year), a thickness of
150mm is recommended. For any higher traffic volumes, the table indicates that “a higher type of
pavement design is recommended.”
2.7.2.12 Other Design Agencies
It is informative to show gravel thicknesses derived from agencies other than DPWH or AASHTO.
For instance, in marked contrast to AASHTO, and in agreement with the Philippines, the British
Transport and Road Research Laboratory (TRRL) states:21
“Gravel roads are rarely designed in the structural sense.”
TRRL further states:22
“Usually a fixed thickness of gravel is used irrespective of climate, subgrade strength or traffic
loading conditions, and this is replenished periodically as it is worn away.
Where traffic volumes are high, total vehicle operating costs will rise rapidly as the road
deteriorates and rates of gravel loss will be correspondingly large. Under these circumstances,
there may be some justification for increasing the gravel thickness, but it is often cheaper to provide
a surface dressed road.”
21
Overseas Road Note 5, A Guide to Road Project Appraisal, TRANSPORT AND ROAD RESEARCH
LABORATORY. Crowthorne, UK 1988.
22
Overseas Road Note 5, A Guide to Road Project Appraisal, op. cit.
Table 58 shows gravel thickness as a function of subgrade CBR values (without consideration of
traffic volume), obtained from TRRL (UK), US Army Corps of Engineers, and Australian Road
Research Board (ARRB) sources.23 In this table, gravel wearing course thickness includes the
thickness of all gravel layers:
Table 148: Other Sources- minimum Thickness for Gravel Wearing Course
Subgrade Thickness (mm)

soaked
CBR TRRL USCE ARRB*
2 520 490 210
3 400 380 210
5 290 275 150
9 200 190 105
15 145 140 100
30 100 100 100
*Aust. RRB add subgrade layer 100mm
And comparing all different design methods using the example which indicates a CBR of 8 gives:
Table 149: Gravel Thickness Comparison, all Sources

Minimum Aggregate Minimum Minimum Minimum
Gravel Thickness Gravel Gravel Gravel
Thickness AASHTO Thickness Thickness Thickness
DPWH TRRL USCE ARRB
150mm 150mm 200mm 190mm 205mm
2.7.2.13 Design for Annual Gravel Loss
The formulae used in the determination of DPWH and AASHTO design methods give a measure of
the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive strain in the subgrade. As was
mentioned elsewhere, this can be further enhanced through a determination of the extra thickness
needed to compensate for the gravel loss under traffic during the period between re-gravelling
operations. Note that for the DPWH-based design,24 “the above design assumes that re-gravelling
will be done regularly every year (particularly at the end of the rainy season), in addition to regular
maintenance of re-grading, re-shaping and re-compaction.”
23
Information Note from International Focus Group on Rural Road Engineering, see www.ifgworld.org
24
Design Guidelines Criteria and Standards for Public Works and Highways, Volume II, op.cit.
It is unlikely that re-gravelling will occur at that frequency. Further, TRRL states that “re-gravelling
becomes urgent when the thickness of remaining gravel is reduced to 75mm.25” Both of these facets
indicate that the design should include an additional thickness.
An annual gravel loss based on a TRRL formula developed in Kenya26, a variation of which is
referred to as one of three formulae in AASHTO, is:
Gravel Loss = f(T2/T2 + 50)(4.2 + 0.092T + 3.5 R2 + 1.88 VC) [Eq. 1]
Where Gravel Loss= annual gravel loss in mm
f = a constant for various types of gravel:

lateritic gravels 0.94
quartzitic gravels 1.10
volcanic gravels 0.70
coral gravels 1.50
T = annual traffic volume in both directions (in thousands) = ADT x 360/1000
R = annual rainfall in meters
VC = vertical curvature: meters of rise and fall per kilometre
Equation 1 compares estimates obtained by other means, shown in Table 60, and is based similarly
on loss due to traffic volume, rainfall and terrain type:
Table 150: Normal Gravel Loss
Traffic (AADT) Normal gravel loss (mm

per year)
0-50 15 mm
50-100 20 mm
100-200 25 mm
200-400 30 mm
>400 35 mm
Correction Rainfall (mm per year) Type of Terrain
0 <1250 Flat
+10% 1250-1500 Hilly
+20% 1500-2500 Mountainous
+30% >2500 Exceptional
Based on author’s sources from TRL, South African research, and AASHTO sources
The result is a Gravel Loss = 20mm/year.
Other than the quote appearing above, DPWH is silent on the issue of mitigation for annual gravel
loss. AASHTO uses a formula to place an additional thickness which is equivalent to approximately
25
Road Building in the Tropics. State-of-the-Art Review No.9. TRANSPORT RESEARCH LABORATORY (1993).
Crowthorne, UK.
26
“The Kenya Road Transport Cost Study- Research of Road Deterioration,” TRRL Laboratory Report 673.
one half of the estimated loss over the performance period, if aggregate loss is significant.27 The
AASHTO suggestion would add 50mm (1/2 x 20mm/yr x 5 yr) to the gravel thickness.
Recommendations
It is recommended that re‐gravelling be considered whenever a gravel loss of 30 mm /year is

encountered. This would mean that, using the AASHTO formula, an addition of 75 mm would be
required 1/2 x 30mm/yr x 5 yr is re‐gravelling is planned in five years. Rather than having to
add a such thickness, methods of stabilizing the wearing course should be investigated.
2.8 Seismic considerations

According to the OCHA (United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs), Rwanda is
located in an earthquake intensity zone identified as “Degree VII” on the Modified Mercalli Scale originally
developed in 1956.
The Mercalli intensity scale is a seismic scale used for measuring the intensity of an earthquake. It measures
the effects of an earthquake, and is distinct from the moment magnitude Mw usually reported for an earthquake
(sometimes described as the obsolete Richter magnitude), which is a measure of the energy released. The
intensity of an earthquake is not totally determined by its magnitude.
The scale quantifies the effects of an earthquake on the Earth's surface, humans, objects of nature, and man-made
structures on a scale from I (not felt) to XII (total destruction). Values depend upon the distance to the earthquake,
with the highest intensities being around the epicentral area.
The Zones indicate where there is a probability of twenty percent (20%) that degrees of intensity shown on the
map will be exceeded in fifty (50) years. This probability figure varies with time; i.e., it is lower for shorter
periods and higher for longer periods. Table 3 indicates the approximate relationship between the two (2) scales.
Table 151: Earthquake Reporting Scales
Source: Earthquake Risk in Africa: Modified Mercalli Scale
Given Rwanda’s relatively high rating on both scales, it behooves practioners to include seismic considerations
in the project’s bridges and those locations where slope stability issues warrant close examination.
27
“AASHTO Guide for the Design of Pavement Structures, 1993,” op. cit.
2.9 Other design considerations
2.9.1 Demographics
Appropriate design approaches must be introduced in populous areas to mitigate the effects of dust and improve
the safety of road users, i.e., additional road widths, seal surfacing, parking, bus lay-bys, etc. and appropriate
drainage systems.
2.9.2 All-Weather Access

An essential consideration in the design of LVURs is to ensure all-weather access most of the time. This
requirement places particular emphasis on the need for sufficient bearing capacity of the pavement layer’s
structure and the providing of drainage and sufficient earthworks protection in flood or problem soil areas.
2.9.3 Surface Performance

The performance of the LVUR’s surface material primarily depends on its physical properties and qualities,
location, and the volume of traffic. LVURs passing through populated areas in particular require materials that
do not generate excessive dust in dry weather. Steep gradients place particular demands on LVUR pavement
layer materials, which must not become slippery in wet weather or erode easily. Consideration should therefore
be given to the type of LVUR pavement layer materials to be used in particular locations such as towns or steep
sections. Annual LVUR surface loss rates of approximately 25-mm thickness per year per 300 VPD (Vehicles
per Day) is expected, depending on rainfall and materials properties, particularly its plasticity.
Roughness should be maintained between 3.5 mm/m and 8.5 mm/m to satisfy road users and keep the vehicle
operating costs low at a maximum vehicle speed of 50 km/hour on LVUR pavement surface as shown below.
Figure 19: IRI vs Speed vs. Road Types

Source: Rough Roads Ahead, American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials 2009

In addition to the forgoing parameters the LVUR’s design engineering must focus on eliminating
these deficiencies:
 Slick or slippery sections owing to the lack of a gravel layer on the road surface;
 Water-logged or muddy sections due to the lack of adequate drainage;
 Water running down the road account faulty side ditches and the lack of adequate drainage
facilities which contributes to the slippery conditions;
 Overly-steep sections that exceed the 12 to 15 percent maximum horizontal gradient, or more
occasionally, which makes it difficult for a fully-laden truck to pass Poorly constructed culverts (pipe
or box) and/or inadequate numbers of such drainage features per kilometer;
 Existing drainage structures that cause out flow erosion outside of and adjacent to the road
reserve;
 The overly-narrow sections of some existing LVURs that is exacerbated by the failure, i.e., slippage of
the natural, insitu materials excavated for inside slopes;
 Poor surfacing which slow vehicles or damage them as they pass;
 Failing or inadequately constructed bridges and causeways that traverse streams and wet-
lands;
 The overall lack of signage or traffic control devices which adds to wearing issues and traffic
safety problems;
 Occasional sections where traffic speed and lateritic surfacing cause air pollution – dust –
problems in populated areas; and
 The overall lack of maintaining LVURs which, in general, exacerbates all of the foregoing.
2.9.4 .Bridge design

Long bridges are typically not found on LVURs. Hence for these guidelines a small bridge or culvert is defined
as a structure having individual or multiple spans of total length no greater than twelve meters (12 m). Small
bridges are an essential part of all highway networks and they are far more numerous than larger
structures.
The recommended load consists of 20 tons loading with four wheels 8 tons in front axle and 12 tons in rear
axle in 4.27 m distance in the first type of loading. In the second type of loading, in the same class of loading
has 21.2 tons loading consisting of six wheels 4.2 tons in front axle, 8.5 tons in intermediate and rear axles.
The distance between the front and intermediate axle is 3.96 m and the intermediate to the rear axle is 1.22
m. The spacing between successive vehicles can be assumed to be 30 m. (Source: Journal of the
Institute of Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 1, pp. 1-5, © TUTA/IOE/PCU,All rights reserved. Printed in
Nepal Fax: 977-15525830)
2.9.4.1 Bridge planning
The planning process for bridges encompasses the collection of site information, general positioning and
alignment, materials analysis, evaluation of design alternatives, and economic analysis.
Generally speaking, a bridge’s positioning and alignment is subordinate to general traffic alignment.
Sometimes, planners tend to strive for a bridge to cross a stream or a wash at right-angles simply to lower the
cost. Since the primary purpose of a road network is for the safety and comfort of the motorist, changing the
position of the bridge to lower its cost may result in turns at the approaches and a tortuous alignment. In turn,
this could cause perception problems for motorists and result in more accidents.
Thorough planning must be given to the list of site data to be collected. It is more time consuming to skip the
collection of site data until later in the design phase, i.e., having a complete set of data in hand for the planning
phase ensures the most economical preliminary design. Having to make additional trips to the site to collect
missing data during later stages simply slows down the entire process.
Because the design of bridges is more involved than it is for geometrics and drainage, the bridge design
engineer should be available to devote time during the planning process in order to advise and assist the
planners in this important phase of the project’s total design.
2.9.4.2 Bridge design process

Because the design phase can become involved, a well thought out design schedule is important. It should be
prepared by the responsible individual and reviewed with the Project Engineer at the onset of this phase.
Frequently, projects with many structures can be seriously delayed because there are not enough designers
assigned to the bridge design team.
It is also necessary to identify beforehand exactly which steps along the design path will require the submission
of calculations and schematics to higher levels for review and approval. Sufficient time for the review of these
design submissions must be allowed for in the overall project design schedule.
Although it may be possible to adapt a stock design to a particular site — after giving due consideration to
proper alignment — the hydrologic and hydraulic analysis must be approached as unique for each site. Too
often, generalized assumptions about these issues are made when there are numerous structures of similar size.
Sometimes this can be false economy because the catchment area for one stream is often larger or smaller than
an adjacent structure. The hydrologic and hydraulic engineering for each structure should be documented with
its own set of calculations.
The choice of structure (i.e. between culverts or a conventional bridge) will be the results of both hydrologic
and hydraulic engineering for each structure and geotechnical investigations. The methodology of design will
not differ from that of other bridges except for the particular cases of creek crossings, storm water discharges,
scours etc…
The Project Engineer should also establish a procedure for internal peer review of calculations to prevent costly
assumptions and/or mistakes from being discovered closer to the end or the phase.
Finally, it cannot be stressed enough that the final plans and specifications must be thoroughly reviewed from
the standpoint of the constructability and inspection. Is there any confusion as to dimensions, the materials to be
used, or the required tolerances? Even the smallest problem in interpreting the plans can create havoc on the job
site under the pressure of the completing the works. If the bridge designer expects the structure to be built in
accordance with the approved design, then the plans and specifications must be accurate and explicit.
2.9.4.3 Bridge Design references

The detailed design of small bridges is beyond the scope of this these guidelines. There are many textbooks and
publications that provide detailed theory and analysis for the structural design of bridges. The reader is, therefore,
directed to these two (2) bridge design references:
(1) Overseas Road Note 9, A Design Manual for Small Bridges, 2nd Edition. 2000. Transport
Research Laboratory. Department of Transport. Crowthorne, United Kingdom.
(2) Low Cost Structures for Rural Roads, A Review of Existing Books, Manuals and Design Guides.
Paul Larcher. MART Working Paper No. 13. Institute of Development Engineering, Loughborough
University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU.

Overseas Road Note 9 is the internationally accepted standard reference work for the design of small
bridges and culverts. Low Cost Structures for Rural Roads is a comprehensive bibliography of reference
works for the design of small bridges.
2.9.5 Safety
Vehicle and pedestrian safety has been stressed as a key consideration in earlier design elements. In previous
design sections of these guidelines, considerations about safety were fundamental in the design of such
elements as sight distance and passing areas, skid resistance, drainage and others. These all play an important
but rather passive role in building in the safe characteristics of a road project. The safety features are there but
not many people notice them.
In this section the traffic safety elements are designed into the project so as to play a more positive role toward
safety. They need to be given careful attention. They are the means of communicating information and warnings
to vehicle operators, motor cyclists, and pedestrians.
Throughout Sub-Saharan Africa, states recognize the poor road safety record in the area and the resulting
social and economic impacts of road accidents on society. Throughout the process of designing safety
elements, the designer must keep in mind the relationship of vehicles and pedestrians. Neither should lose
track of the presence of the other. The designer should consider the possibility that frequent reminders on
both sides may be necessary in certain cases.
2.9.5.1 Key Principles for Designing Safer Roads

The SADC Guidelines on Low-Volume Sealed Roads indicates that adherence to several key design
can considerably improve the safety of LVURs as summarized below:
(1) Design for All Road Users

This includes non-motorized vehicles, pedestrians, etc. and has implications for almost all aspects of road
design including carriageway width, shoulder design, side slopes, and side drains.
(2) Provide Clear and Consistent Message to the Driver
Roads should be easily “read” and understood by drivers and should not present them with any
sudden surprises.
(3) Encourage Appropriate Speeds and Behavior by Design

Traffic speed can be influenced by altering the “look” of the road, for example, by providing
clear visual clues such as changing the shoulder treatment or installing prominent signing.
(4) Reduce Conflicts
Conflicts cannot be avoided entirely but can be reduced by design, i.e., by staggering junctions or by using
guard rails to channel pedestrians to safer crossing points.
(5) Create a Forgiving Road Environment
This requires the designer to establish an environment that forgives a driver’s mistakes or vehicle
failure, to the extent possible without significantly increasing costs, which ensures that demands are not
placed upon the driver which are beyond his or her ability to manage.
The Government of Rwanda continues to identify areas of safety hazards, evaluate effective solutions, and
program available funds for their most effective safety use. This reference will be updated as the improved
safety features are developed. A systems approach to thinking about road safety is indicated in Figure 20.

Figure 20: System Approach to Road Safety
Source: T. Chelliah, Sheladia Associates, Inc.

2.9.6 Environmental Impact Assessment (RRFD-program)
Along with road construction engineers, it is crucially essential to deploy an Environmental
Engineer who can assess the conditions of the existing physical and social environments and
identify and quantify environmental impacts of the RRFD program interventions and propose
mitigating measures and / or plan to avoid or minimize negative impacts of the RRFD works. The
following materials and equipment may be necessary.
 Satellite imageries of acceptable resolution and period

 Topographic sheets of appropriate scale
 Instant field survey analysis test kits
 Pit measurements
 On- site composite water quality sampler
 Altimeter, Binocular, Clinometers, Mirror and pocket stereoscope
The major EIA study activities include:

 Ascertaining that the environmental impact of RRFD-PIU project interventions is
minimal (if not none)
 Describing the existing environmental conditions such as land use/cover, climate, soil
erosion etc.
 Establishing environmental baseline for the particular proposed project area
 Preparation of background information
 Notification and involvement of concerned agencies advisors and interested parties and
collection of their view and alternative proposals
 Meeting between the proponent an decision maker in order to determine the scope of EIA
 Undertaking necessary environmental sampling (water quality, salinity, health etc.)
 Identification of necessary environmental impacts and measures to mitigate them
 Summarizing and analyzing impact / findings
 Preparation of Environmental impact statement (EIS).
The EIA expert is required to collect all the necessary information and make description on
the following:
1) Physical environment

 Topography , geology and soils
 Climate and hydrology
 Ground and surface water
 Sedimentation and water quality
2) Biological Environment
 Terrestrial environment
 Wildlife
 Riverine communities
 Socio c-cultural environment
 Endangered flora and fauna
 Population and demographics

 Villages, towns and settlement
 Ethno-cultural background
 Public health
 Archaeological, religious and historical resources
 Aesthetics and tourism
 Feeder-road and other Infrastructure
 Land use and farming practices
 Impact on indigenous communities (if any)
3) Socio- cultural environment

Three stages are vital in the EIA work. Each is described with sub-activities that need to be
addressed under each stage.
1. preliminary assessments
 Identify project requirements in terms of land inputs, water etc. and feasible
alternative sites.
 Assemble readily available data concerning the proposed development and the
environment
 Assemble expertise requirements
 Initial impact identification using matrix or checklist method
 Preliminary environmental assessment
2. Scoping
 Identify significant environmental impacts
 Reach agreement on major issues
 Discussion of alternatives
 Develop appropriate study method
 Identify the necessary data requirements and prepare site specific terms of reference
3. Detailed assessment
 Establishing environmental baseline
 Impact identification and confirmation
 Impact prediction according to their intensity extent duration, reversibility directions and
cumulative effects.
 Impact evaluation through rating ranking quantitatively and qualitatively
 Propose mitigation measures / plan
 Plant monitoring and auditing program
During the detailed EIA work, it is necessary that the EIA expert makes the following 6
categories of environmental considerations
1) location aspect
 Short and long term impacts on population / human settlement in the sauntered and
watershed area.
 Impact on flora and fauna in the vicinity area
 Impact on wild life
 Impact on natural parks and other sanctuaries (both existing and potential)
 Impact on site of movement of historical cultural and religious significant
 Impact on forests, agriculture, fishery, recreation and tourism
2) physical aspects
 Land slide on the periphery of the reservoir

 Siltation or sedimentation expected in the reservoir
 Identification of critical areas susceptible to erosion and methods of possible
treatment
 Ground water recharge assessment
 Expected water quality changes over time and their effects on the river ecosystem both
impoundment and downstream

 Land use pattern and practice in the vicinity of watershed that would affect aquatic
vegetation growth pattern
 Favorable aspects of impoundment on project area
3) Reservoir linked aspects
 Determine the environmental gain and loss due to reservoir location
 Compatibility of dams construction and operation with the present of planned

development of the region/area
 Effects on resident and migratory ton and other aquatic life and assessment of new
fishing potential
 Test for irrigation water quality.
4) Socio- Cultural aspects
 Asses the need for population reallocation requirements

 Identification of educational and educational training program
 Resettlement area planning for housing and other amenities of community life (if
any)
5) Socio-cultural aspects
 Asses the need for population reallocation
 Adequate public health planning to create facilities for migrant construction
workers and immigrant inflows
 Design measures to control contamination of surface and ground water
6) Cost analysis for the proposed remedial and mitigating measures (compensatory
reforestation, restoration of land, control of aquatic weeds, public health control measure
etc)
Before the end of the 8-years program, 16,239 km of those listed feeder-categories would have
already served four years and require periodic repair and maintenance. The time period that these
feeder-roads are 4 years old and the size of the corresponding feeder-roads is indicated in Table
7. The same table also shows the budgetary requirement on a yearly basis.

2.9.7 Quality control- minimum requirements for the repair and
maintenance of the 16,239km of the Feeder road network– from
RRFD report
Therefore, the feeder roads envisioned under this program would have to meet certain quality
standards. Few of these quality standards are discussed as follows.
 There must be good drainage of the sub-grade (natural soil under the road surface). Most
soils lose their bearing strength as moisture content increases.
 Therefore, if there is a possibility that the water table moves into the sub-grade of a road,
drainage tile with unrestricted outlet must be used.
 Precipitation percolating through the road surface will have a short path to drain-away
from the sub-grade by constructing road ditches on either side of the road with bottom
of the drainage ditch at least 45cm below the top surface of the sub-grade. The banks of
the road ditch would have to be no steeper than 4:1 horizontal to vertical ratio.
 To encourage good surface drainage, the laterite surface in the center of the road would
have to be crowned (cumber drainage) with a surface slope of 4-8%.
 The road surfacing material would have to contain: 40 - 80% uniformly graded 6mm to
7 cm diameter hard stone, 20 – 60 % sand smaller than 6mm, 8 - 15% fine clays of
<0.06mm clay.
 The road sub-base is designed to spread the wheel load over a larger area of the sub-
grade surface and to allow water to move to the road ditch before percolating into the
sub-grade. Therefore, the sub-base material would have to be well-graded gravel/laterite
(2 – 7 cm) with 0- 10% fines. It is good that both the sub-base and the sub-grade have
cumber-drainage of 4 – 8% to maintain uniform road-base thickness. Since efficient
transportation on the farm requires maintaining strong foundation and water
management, aligning the basic-access farm road network along with the lower side of
the cut-off-drain would be critical.
 The in situ soil CBR range recommended in the USAID-PARSONS Draft standards is
between 5 –15 for all the feeder-roads that are proposed. However, the basic-access farm-
roads, may have gravel/laterite surface of 17 cm after compaction for low rainfall
(<1400mm/year) and 20 cm gravel/laterite post-compaction thickness for high rainfall
(>1400 mm/year) agro-climatic zones.
 The non-basic access rural feeder-roads that accommodate medium traffic, or which are
equated to traffic up to 100 motor vehicles per day including up to 20 medium (10t) goods
vehicles, the recommended laterite thickness after compaction would be 27 cm for low
rainfall areas and 32 cm for high rainfall areas. Reference is made to the size of feeder-
roads which will have to be constructed under these two categories of agro climatic zones
in Table 1 of the RRFD report.

 The thickness-ranges, which are chosen for rural feeder-roads in Rwanda would have to
allow for 2cm wear (for low rainfall areas) and 5 cm wear (for high rainfall areas), before
re-gravelling will be carried out. The chosen basic-access farm-road would have roadway
width of 3m and formation width of 5.0 meters with side-drain embankment of at least
30 cm depth. All their roadway surfaces will be surfaced with laterite/gravel.
Nota: The CBR is indication of the resistance of the subgrade, (i.e. the layer of naturally
occurring material upon which the road is built), to deformation under the load from vehicle
wheels. Even more simply put, "how strong is the ground upon which the road is going to be
built". This can be easily measured at site level with Mexe Penetrometer. The Penetrometer is a
robust hand held penetrometer which can "indicate" CBR measurement quite accurately on site.
It is simple to use and will produce good results related to on site CBR. Indirectly it can also be
used to check cohesive soil compaction, i.e. poorly compacted soil will have a low resistance to
penetration, and so show as a low CBR value though to a relatively shallow depth, approx. 300
cm.

3.0 MAINTENANCE METHODS
Rwanda’s road network is grouped into classified and unclassified roads. According to the road
maintenance strategy, the Classified Road network in Rwanda is categorized into two classes: National
roads and District Roads. These can be paved or unpaved. The functional concept of feeder roads being
to link consumers to producers, a typical circuit of goods from the producers to the consumers might
consist of all categories of roads. Since the big majority of feeder roads will fall in the category of
District class 1 and 2 roads and unclassified roads, the current standards will cover only the national
class 1 and 2 (unpaved roads),
3.1 Condition assessment

In order to facilitate the funding program decision-making process for LVURs, it is useful to determine a set of
guidelines, or overall objectives that can be used to prioritize funding decisions in, and between, communities.
Within the framework of a Road Asset Management System, a basic public-use road management tool – the
Road Inventory and Condition Assessment (RICA) has been put in place and provides a benchmark from which
public agencies can document the status, condition, funding needs, and improvements of the public roads. The
condition of the inventoried roads and the related geo-spatially based data is collated for use with a GIS
(geographic information systems) and is available for use by the GOR.
3.2 Typical Unpaved Roads Defects

(source: Gravel roads design, maintenance and repair, Technical recommendations for Highways – TRH-20, South
Africa)
In order to construct a sound database for better decision-making in maintenance strategies and prioritization,
typical defects identification and characterization on many unpaved roads is essential. Following are typical
defects which may affect unpaved roads; many of which have a direct effect on the road roughness and
safety:
 dustiness,
 potholes,
 stoniness,
 corrugations,
 ruts,
 cracks,
 ravelling (formation of loose material),
 erosion,
 slipperiness,
 impassability and;
 loss of surfacing or wearing course.
The causes of each of these modes of distress and possible remedial actions are discussed in turn.

3.2.1 Dustiness
Dust is the fine material released from the road surface under the wheels of moving vehicles and the
turbulence caused by vehicles. Silt-sized particles (2 – 75 µm) are the predominant elements in dust
and the quantity of dust generated by a vehicle is a function of its aerodynamic shape, speed of travel
and the surfacing material properties.
Dust is undesirable from a number of points of view:
 Safety – Dust affects visibility significantly and can result in highly unsafe following and
passing conditions (especially during peak traffic periods).
 Comfort – Excessive dust can result in significant discomfort to drivers and passengers,
especially in the hotter areas of southern Africa where it is impractical to keep all windows
closed.
 Health – Although no positive evidence of the detrimental effects of dust on the health of road
users has been produced locally, the problem has been investigated in the United States. Certain
materials such as asbestos and silica dust, which may occur in some wearing course gravels,
can certainly be considered undesirable from a health aspect.
 Vehicle damage – Dust can significantly increase the rate of wear of moving parts of vehicles,
under both dry and wet conditions, when it acts as a grinding paste.
 Vegetation – The effects of dust on roadside vegetation and crops is difficult to estimate, but
may be significant in certain areas, especially where intensive agriculture or stock and game
farms are found.
 Environmental – Excessive dust generation often results in air pollution, this being particularly
prevalent in deep valleys during winter. Temperature inversions result in thick blankets of dust
being suspended in the air.
 Economic – The loss of wearing course material in the form of dust results in a change in the
properties of the wearing course gravel. Materials which initially had adequate plasticity have
been observed to form corrugations as the fines are lost. This should be borne in mind during
regular grader maintenance.
Dust is generally considered by the travelling public to be unacceptable when it totally obscures
vehicles behind a moving vehicle, either following vehicles or those passing from the opposite
direction, especially near road junctions.
The potential dustiness of a material is very difficult to predict. Although material composition is the
major characteristic affecting dustiness, aspects such as the vehicle volume, mix and speeds of vehicles,
moisture content of the road, looseness of the material, maintenance frequency and wind all affect the
apparent dustiness.
Nearly all materials are dusty and research has shown that the probability of the dust being acceptable
is highest when the Shrinkage Product (Sp; product of bar linear shrinkage and percentage passing
0,425 mm sieve) is restricted to values between 100 and 240 (Paige-Green, 1989a).
In many cases it may be necessary to apply dust palliatives in order to bind the dust particles. A number
of dust palliatives are commercially available but each one has to be tested individually in order to
identify its suitability and cost-effectiveness for the material under consideration.
Common dust palliatives may be bitumen- or tar-based, inorganic compounds (magnesium and calcium
chlorides being the most popular), ligno-sulphonate (a product of the sulphate timber pulping process)
and various commercial products of variable effectiveness. These are fully summarised by Paige-Green
(1989c) and research into dust palliatives for local conditions is in progress.
3.2.2 Potholes
Potholes play a significant role in the development of roughness on unpaved roads and may cause
substantial damage to vehicles if they are allowed to develop and increase in size. The effect of potholes

on vehicles depends both on the depth and diameter of the pothole. The potholes which affect vehicles
most are those between 250 mm and 1 500 mm in diameter with a depth of more than 50 to 75 mm.
Potholes may arise from the following processes:
 poor road shape and drainage;
 poor grader operation practice, e.g. plucking of oversize material and destruction of the
crown;
 compaction of material behind oversize stones under wheel loads;
 enlargement of corrugation troughs;
 deformation of weak subgrades and wearing courses;
 subsidence of animal and insect burrows;
 disintegration of highly cracked roads (i.e. excessive plasticity);
 disintegration of soft oversize material;
 dispersive soils;
 poor compaction;
 material and moisture variability.
Once pothole formation has been initiated (irrespective of the cause), the drainage deteriorates, water
ponds in the depressions and the potholes are enlarged by traffic. Particular attention should be given
to maintaining adequate cross-fall on such sections. The enlargement occurs through compaction and
remolding of the weakened material (in the wet state) and removal of the material from the hole by
wheels and splashing. Materials with a low soaked strength are thus likely to develop larger and deeper
potholes in shorter periods. The influence of drainage on pothole formation is clearly manifested by the
general absence of potholes on grades. Potholes are usually worst at the bottom of sag vertical curves
in the alignment, on level road sections with poor shape, and near bridges.
Potholes are difficult to repair, very few being successfully repaired by routine grader maintenance or
by manual filling behind grader. The only successful way to repair them is by enlarging the hole
overfilling it with moist gravel and compacting it (in layers, if necessary). Many potholes have been
recorded in the same place for over two years, gradually becoming wider and deeper despite routine
grader maintenance. It may be necessary in certain areas where a particularly pothole-susceptible
material is common to have a team specifically for patching potholes.
3.2.3 Stoniness
Stoniness is the relative percentage of material in the road which is larger than a recommended
maximum size (usually 37,5 mm). This is one of the few defects of unpaved roads which can usually
be controlled. Excessively stony roads result in the following problems:
 unnecessarily rough roads;
 difficulty with grader maintenance;
 poor compaction of areas adjacent to stones (leading to potholes and raveling);
 the development of corrugations;
 thick loose material is necessary to cover the stones.
Many geological materials, particularly shale and hornfels, produce flaky or sharp stones under
crushing or grid rolling. These can cause extensive damage to tyres and affect the safety of the roads
significantly. Consequently, use of materials exhibiting these characteristics should be avoided where
possible. Some mudrocks may, on exposure to the atmosphere, deteriorate rapidly from a hard material
to a soft, fine-grained “soil”, causing significant problems.
3.2.4 Corrugations
Corrugations are one of the most disturbing defects of unpaved roads causing excessive roughness and
poor vehicle directional stability. Their cause has been debated for decades but consensus has now been
reached on the “forced oscillation theory” (Figure 1) as the predominant mechanism. Recent research

in South Africa has produced evidence to confirm this (Paige-Green, 1989a). The theory is based on
initiation of wheel bounce by some irregularity in the road (or possibly even worn suspension
components such as shock-absorbers). The process results in kick-back of non-cohesive material,
followed by compression and redistribution of the wearing course as the wheel regains contact with the
road.
Corrugations can be either “loose” or “fixed” (Figure 2). Loose corrugations consist of parallel crests
of loose, fine-sandy material at right angles to the direction of travel. Fixed corrugations on the other
hand consist of compacted, parallel crests of hard, fine-sandy material. The troughs are compacted by
the force of the wheel regaining contact with the ground. Loose corrugations are easily removed by
blading, whereas fixed corrugations need cutting or even tining with the grader before the material is
respread. The wavelength of the corrugations is dependent on the modal speed (i.e. most frequently
occurring speed) of the vehicles using the road, with longer wavelengths formed by faster traffic.
Numerous observations from all over southern Africa indicate that the wavelength of the corrugations
in centimetres is approximately numerically equal to the modal speed of the vehicles in km/h.
Long wavelength (2,5 to 3,0 metres) fixed corrugations (or undulations) at an angle of 45º to the direction
of traffic are found on some roads. These are caused by graders and, once formed, are not removed by
normal grading. The best way to remove them is by rotating the grader blade through 90º or extending
the blade from the side of the grader and keeping the grader on the shoulder or an uncorrugated portion
of the road.

Figure 21: (a)-Forced Oscillation Theory for the Formation of Corrugation; (b)- Typical Corrugation
(uncompacted and Compacted Crests)
3.2.5 Ruts
Ruts are parallel depressions of the surface in the wheel tracks. They may form as a result of deformation
(compaction) of the subgrade, compaction of the wearing course or loss of gravel from the wearing

course. Under local conditions rutting is usually insignificant in terms of the overall unpaved road
performance. The probable reason for this is the typically strong, free-draining, sandy subgrade
prevalent over much of southern Africa, as well as the deep water tables.
Ruts pose potential problems as they tend to retain rain water which softens the wearing course and
allows deformation under traffic. Routine blading of unpaved roads replaces gravel in the ruts and
simultaneously compensates for any subgrade deformation which may have occurred. The material
graded into the ruts is generally compacted only in a moist condition. However, after grading, no
definite wheel tracks are visible and ruts often begin to form at a slight distance from the previous ones.
This allows time for rehabilitation.
The main cause of rutting in southern Africa is the raveling of low-cohesion material under traffic
movement. A secondary cause is the deformation of highly cohesive wearing course materials under
traffic. Both of these require a different gravel if the rut formation is such that maintenance becomes
excessively costly.
Excessively wide roads lead to the formation of definite ruts in both directions which tend to be deeper
than those on roads of normal width. The probable reason is that no lateral movement of vehicles is
necessary when they pass from both directions and all the vehicles travelling in each direction thus
consistently travel in the clearly demarcated ruts.
3.2.6 Cracks
Cracks per se are not a major problem on unpaved roads but bad cracking may lead to the formation of
potholes. Cracking of the wearing course (which usually occurs only during the dry season) is the result
of the plasticity being too high or the material being very fine-grained (e.g. dolomitic wad). The
materials which crack badly also tend to become slippery when wet and could be avoided by following
the guidelines in section 3.3.1.
Certain highly cracked roads with 100 to 150 mm diameter cracked blocks were found to break up
under traffic and to form potholes.
3.2.7 Raveling
The generation of loose gravel under traffic, termed ravelling, is a significant economic and safety
problem. Loose gravel may be distributed over the full width of the road but more frequently is
concentrated in windrows between the wheel tracks or alongside the travelled portion of the road. The
major problems with roads susceptible to ravelling are:
 the windrows are a safety hazard;
 stones from the loose gravel may damage vehicles or windscreens;
 the rolling resistance of the vehicle is increased by loose material with concomitant
increases in fuel
 consumption and vehicle operating costs;
 problems with lateral drainage of the road may be caused by windrows of loose material
Ravelling is mainly caused by a deficiency of fine material (and hence cohesion), a poor particle size
distribution (e.g. skip grading) in the wearing course gravel and inadequate compaction. Materials with
a grading coefficient (Gc: product of the difference in percentage passing 26,5 mm and 2,0 mm sieves
and the percentage passing the 4,75 mm sieve expressed as a percentage) in excess of 34 and/or a
shrinkage product (Sp) of less than 100 are particularly prone to ravelling. Ravelling is generally worse
in the dry season than in the wet season when capillary suction results in some “cohesion”.
Fine material can often be blended with the gravel to increase cohesion. A good degree of moist
compaction can also be used to cut down ravelling.

3.2.8 Erosion
Erosion (or scour) is the loss of surfacing material caused by the flow of water over the road. The ability
of a material to resist erosion depends on the shear strength (equal to the cohesion, as the normal stress
is zero) under the conditions at which the water flow occurs. If the shear strength of the material is less
than the tractive forces induced by the water flowing over the material, grains will become detached
and erosion will occur. Finer grained materials with minimal coarse aggregate (grading coefficient less
than 16) are particularly susceptible to erosion. However, those with a relatively high plasticity (which
will usually become slippery when wet) may resist erosion.
The result of erosion is runnels (run-off channels) which, when occurring transversely, result in extreme
roughness and dangerous conditions, and when occurring longitudinally (on grades) form deep “ruts”.
Associated with this road defect is a significant loss of gravel. Much of this gravel is deposited in drains
and culverts necessitating extensive labour intensive maintenance.
Erosion can be prevented by:
(a) Increasing the shear strength of the wearing course material by improving the grading of the
material and ensuring a well-graded, cohesive mixture with adequate gravel up to 26,5 mm in size.
Good compaction also increases the shear strength by improving the granular interlock and
decreasing the permeability of the material.
(b) Decreasing the shear stresses induced by the flow of water by retarding the rate of flow. This is
best done by decreasing the grade and the cross-fall and ensuring that the length of the flow path
of the water is minimised. The cross-fall should be greater than the longitudinal grade (up to a
maximum of 5 per cent) in order to remove the water to the side and prevent it from flowing down
the full length of the grade and building up speed. For longitudinal grades in excess of 5 per cent,
the shear strength of the wearing course requires improvement. Erosion can be expected on most
roads with grades or cross-falls greater than about 5 per cent, unless precautions are taken.
Erosion of the weathering course results in a change in the properties of the material as various fractions
of the material are selectively removed during erosion.
Research into the problem of erosion and erosion protection measures is presently being carried out at
the Division of Roads and Transport Technology (DRTT).
3.2.9 Shape
Poor cross-sectional shape of the road usually results in bad drainage which accelerates the formation
of potholes and ruts as well as erosion. Routine maintenance of unpaved roads should be carried out
timeously to retain the crown of the road and to ensure adequate cross-fall. Excessive deterioration of
the road prior to maintenance results in difficulty in achieving the required shape.
On vertical grades the development of ruts can be a major problem as they form drainage channels
during storms and erode rapidly. Special attention should thus be paid to the elimination of ruts on
grades during maintenance.
3.2.10 Slipperiness
Slipperiness of the surface of an unpaved road is a significant safety problem. In wet weather,
slipperiness is caused by excessively fine or plastic material in the wearing course. Even materials with
adequate coarse aggregate may become slippery if the fine silt and clay fraction becomes concentrated
near the surface. Special care should be taken with the use of certain mudrocks which are susceptible
to slaking on exposure to the atmosphere. An initially granular material can soon become a fine clayey
mud.
In dry weather, unpaved roads may become slippery if an excess of loose, fine gravel (between 2 and
7 mm in diameter) accumulates on the road surface through ravelling under traffic or poor blading

practices. This layer behaves like a layer of ball bearings and the skid resistance is reduced practically
to zero. This is especially a problem on corners. The materials used in properly constructed “sand-
blankets” (section 5.3.3.1) is generally too fine and too thin to lead to significant slipperiness.
Materials with a shrinkage product (Sp) greater than 365 tend to be slippery in wet conditions.
The only cure for roads which are slippery when wet is to regravel with a better gravel (i.e. having a
lower shrinkage product), and for those which are slippery when dry to improve the blading operation.
Warning signs should be prominently displayed on slippery roads. The practice of adding a gravel or
sand to the existing material is recommended in some manuals but this does not avoid the possibility
of the fine material migrating to the surface. A significant quantity of gravel is usually required to
reduce the percentage passing the 0,075 mm sieve sufficiently to affect the shrinkage product.
3.2.11 Impassability (trafficability)

The primary objective of importing a wearing course gravel during the construction of an unpaved road
is to provide an all-weather surface. This objective is not met if the material becomes impassable in wet
weather. This is often a particular problem with earth roads where in situ materials are used.
It is generally considered that an adequately high material strength (in terms of the California Bearing
Ratio (CBR)) will provide a trafficable surface under all conditions. Values for the CBR recommended
in specifications vary from a soaked value of 15 at 95% Proctor compaction (probably about 40 at Mod
AASHO effort) up to a value of 60 at 98% Mod AASHO compaction (Netterberg and Paige-Green,
1988). Very little evidence for the failure of unpaved roads caused by inadequate material strength at
depth has been observed.
The passability is, however, a function of the shear strength in the top layer of the wearing course. As
with erosion, if the tractive stresses exerted by the rotating wheels exceed the shear strength (or
cohesion) of the material at the surface, shearing will result. Repeated shearing (churning) will result
in the road becoming impassable in that area.
Local experience has indicated that a modified CBR of 15 at the expected field density and moisture
condition is adequate to prevent well-shaped roads from becoming excessively churned up, except in
those regions where long spells (up to 7 days) of wet weather occur and under excessive heavy traffic.
Sufficient coarse gravel in the upper layers assists with the interlock of the material and provides this
strength. It must however, be noted that gravel coarser than 19 mm was excluded from the CBR test
material during this project (crushing of the plus 19 mm material according to Method A7 (NITRR,
1979; 1986) results in a totally unworkable grading for typical wearing course materials) and the result
obtained is therefore often not a true reflection of the in situ material strength.
3.2.12 Gravel Loss

Although the loss of the wearing course material from the road surface under traffic and climatic
conditions (rain and wind) is inevitable, the replacement of this lost material is the most costly
maintenance operation. Material which ravels is most likely to result in a high gravel loss.
Although the major contributor to the gravel loss is the traffic, significant reductions in gravel loss can
be obtained by selecting material with a suitably high plastic factor (PF greater than 500) and
percentages passing the 26,5 mm sieve. Well-graded and well-compacted gravels resist gravel loss
better than materials deficient in either fine or coarse fractions.
Erosion should be reduced as far as possible to avoid excessive gravel loss on longitudinal grades.
3.2.13 Excessive Loose Material

Excessive loose material in the form of non-compacted material across most of the road width or thick
windrows next to the trafficked portion of the road or between the wheel-tracks results in increased

road user costs and unsafe driving conditions. This problem is typically a symptom of inadequate or
ineffective grader maintenance and may be exacerbated by materials which are particularly susceptible
to ravelling (Section 2.7).
As pointed out by PARSONS on Designing Low-Volume Unpaved Roads (USAID-GOR -Feeder Road
Improvement Program), a major problem of LVURs built on steep alignments is the efficient removal of surface
water to the side drains. As the gradients increase, the problem becomes more acute irrespective of any increase
in the road’s cross-fall. The problem of gulley erosion along the LVUR’s center is exacerbated as vertical gradients
increase above the value of the cross-fall.
A frequent problem of both paved and unpaved roads is shoulder deformation, which often precipitates the
pavement layer’s structural failure. In many cases, this is the result of vehicles, particularly heavy trucks, standing
off the road due to breakdown or overnight stop; and sometimes as a result of passing vehicles straying off the
edge of the road. It can also occur as a result of water leaving the road surface, but staying on the shoulder because
of insufficient cross-fall.
Corrugations are one of the most disturbing defects of LVURs. Localized areas of the pavement layer have
slightly lesser cohesion than adjacent areas, and a result is that the wheel displaces this material towards the back,
at the same time compressing the remaining material at the contact point. Continuing actions eventually result in
the wheel losing contact with the road. When the wheel regains road contact, the result is a magnification of the
effects.
3.3 Existing Maintenance Management of other member states of the

EAC community
Table 62 gives intervention levels for unpaved roads in Tanzania.
Table 152 : Intervention Levels for Unpaved Roads in Tanzania

S/n Condition Description Intervention
1 Very Good Shape condition of the surface in the ‘as built Routine Maintenance
condition. IRI less than 4 m/km
2 Good Positive camber or crossfall with no ponding of Light grading capable of
water, with low frequency of defects of low maintaining surface
severity. The camber or crossfall will usually be condition). IRI 4 – 6 m/km
greater than 4%.
3 Fair Camber or crossfall at minimum required to shed Light grading capable of
water. Insignificant ponding of water with low restoring surface condition
frequency of defects with medium severity, or unless extensive potholing
medium frequency of defects with low severity, IRI and concave shape exists,
6 to 9 m/km otherwise heavy grading
required to restore surface
condition.
4 Poor Camber or crossfall insufficient to shed water and Reprocessing suitable under
water ponding in ruts or areas of concave shape most conditions, otherwise
up to 150 mm deep. Medium frequency of defects light or heavy reshaping
with low severity or high frequency of defects with required
medium severity, IRI 9 – 15 m/km

5 Very Poor Substantial loss of camber or crossfall and water Light or heavy reshaping
ponding in ruts or areas of concave shape in essential to restore shape
excess of 150 –300 mm. High frequency of
defects with high severity, IRI greater than
15m/km
Uganda has introduced the Level of Services concept (LOS) using factors like traffic volumes, road user
costs and maintenance costs.
The EAC roads standards harmonisation committee recommends that:
(1)- In all partner states, the road and bridge maintenance policy should reflect the customer (road users)
needs.
The policy should include inter alia, the following goals:
 Support the socio-economic goals at national and EAC level;
 Provide a minimum level of Services to the road users across EAC partner states;
 Provide safe roads;
 Minimise the sum of road agency and user costs;
 Minimise damage to the environment
Follow the guiding principles in collecting data:

 Collect the only required data;
 Collect data at the lowest level of all detail sufficient to make appropriate decisions;
 Collect data only when they are needed.
 Follow the proposed data collection regime for Road maintenance
Table 153: Data Collection Regime and Frequency of Road Maintenance
S/N Assessment/ Data Item Frequency Responsibility

Purpose
1 Road Inventory Road Network Once-off exercise Executive Agency
Physical Elements (updated when there are
changes-verification after)
2 Rideability Roughness Annually Executive Agency
(Serviceability)
3 Functional Evaluation Surface Distress Annually Executive Agency
4 Structural Mechanical Every 3 years Executive Agency

Capacity Properties
5 Usage (Traffic) Traffic Volume Annually Executive Agency
Traffic Loading Every 3 years Executive Agency
(2)- Surface conditions and structural evaluation should be done through roughness measurements using
vehicle Mounted Bump Integrator and Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP) measurements, respectively.
Manual classified traffic counts and axle load measurements should be carried out regularly.
(3)- Road surface intervention levels shall be based on economic analysis and aiming at keeping the
road network in good condition with specified target roughness of not more than 4.0m/km IRI. Beyond
this roughness level, the riding starts becoming uncomfortable at operating speeds of around 80 km/hr.

(4)- On paved roads, assessment of structural capacity should be based on maintaining strong pavements
with specified minimum modified structural number of 3.0 (considered as the critical level of structural
capacity for roads carrying heavy traffic).
(5)-The road maintenance management system (RMMS) should be based on economic analysis (Life
Cycle Cost Benefit Analysis) aiming at minimising the sum of agency and road user costs while
maintaining a certain minimum level of service to the road users. Economic based methods result into
improved road network condition, over time, at a relatively low budget.
3.4 Existing Maintenance Management in Rwanda

The existing maintenance management system in Rwanda relies upon the fact that the condition surveys
of the classified road network which is carried out periodically shall form the basis of the road
maintenance management system. The road condition surveys on the feeder road network (Particularly
district roads class 1 and class 2) are normal ongoing operations that are carried out by the district
infrastructure management units and help in forecasting maintenance activities ahead. In the current
maintenance program, poor roads are not maintained (except for Emergency maintenance), until
rehabilitation has taken place.
 Emergency maintenance is carried out as and when required on all classified roads irrespective
of their importance or current conditions;
 Routine maintenance is carried out on all Paved and Unpaved national Roads which are in good
or in fair conditions;
 Recurrent maintenance is carried out on all paved national roads which are in good condition.
Recurrent maintenance is carried on all unpaved National roads according to priority and
availability of funds based on traffic, condition and population data.
 The strategy specifies that for feeder roads, traffic surveys will be carried out every 2 years and
will be 12 hour classified traffic counts.
 The current road Maintenance Strategy provides an overall intervention levels as presented in
the table below:

Table 154: Condition Definition and Type of Intervention
S/n Condition Description Intervention
2 Good Allowable vehicular speed Routine grading and spot repairs
at 40 km/hr
3 Fair Allowable vehicular speed at 20- Immediate periodic maintenance and only after
40 km/hr this has been carried out will they be scheduled
for routine, recurrent and periodic maintenance.
Emergency maintenance can be carried out
before periodic maintenance if required
4 Poor Allowable vehicular speed Reconstruction and major drainage works
at 20 km/hr
The substantial proportion of Rwanda’s road network is currently unpaved. These roads need to be continuously
regravelled utilizing naturally occurring gravels which are finite, often scarce, and non-renewable resources. Figure 1
graphically portrays the deterioration of an LVUR’s crushed aggregate wearing course over time. Figure 2 graphically
portrays the effects of periodic maintenance on LVURs. Both show how the lack of regularly scheduled maintenance
quickly leads to the total loss of the financial and materials investment as well as to all-weather access
for the communities these roads serve.
Figure 22: Deterioration of Low-Volume Unpaved Roads

The broad definitions imply that road asset management is to manage a road network to facilitate the delivery of
community benefits such as accessibility, mobility, economic development, safety, the equitable distribution of
resources and social justice at the least cost over a long period of time. The Figure 2 above shows how timely
maintenance can save costs. At Fair condition 40% pavement is consumed at 75% of the lifecycle time. At this
point pavement can be preserved spending about $ one per meter squared to return to an excellent or good
condition. At very poor condition 80% pavement is consumed at 87% of the lifecycle time. At this point pavement
can be rehabilitated spending about $ four per meter squared to return to an excellent or good condition. 40%
pavement is consumed at 12% of the lifecycle time taking the pavement condition from Fair to Very poor and the
cost from $ one per meter squared to $ four per meter squared as .shown on the Fig 21 and Fig. 22.

Delivering the right work, in the right place, at the right time in order to keep the road system fully functional for
the least amount of dollars over time is impossible without a functioning Asset Management system. Fully
functioning Asset Management system can save 30% to 40% of the maintenance and operating costs presently
being consumed by the Districts.
Figure 23: Periodic Maintenance of Low-Volume Unpaved Roads

Source: T. Chelliah Performance Based Contracting (PBC) - Why it Works and Doesn’t Work
3.5 Scheduled Maintenance in Rwanda

In accordance with the RLDSF’s RFR Maintenance Module, three (3) types of maintenance
are adopted:
3.5.1 Recurrent/Routine Maintenance

It is carried out on a regular basis once or more frequently per year on a section of a road, particularly
before and after the rainy seasons. Tasks include:
 Grass cutting and vegetation control
 Removing small landslips
 Cleaning/re-shaping of side drains
 De-silting of culverts and channels
 Repairing potholes
 Maintenance of signs and traffic safety
 Uprooting of vegetation from roadway across bridges
 Clearing of flood debris, etc.

3.5.3 Periodic Maintenance
It is recommended to be scheduled every 3 years (at intervals of 1 to 5 years according to
RLDSF’s RFR Maintenance Module). Periodic Maintenance involves more comprehensive
and costly activities such as:
 Reshaping or re-gravelling of the road surface
 Repair of culverts,
 Re-surfacing and major repair or reconstruction of cross-drainage structures.
 May require additional design
 Specific form of periodic maintenance is spot maintenance: works are carried out
on short sections (typically 1 km or less) of roads in order to ensure a reasonable level
of passability.
Occasionally required on a section of road after a certain period. Normally larger scale,
requires specialist equipment and skilled resources, and usually need the temporary
deployment of these resources on the particular road section.
3.5.4 Emergency/Urgent Maintenance

Emergency Maintenance is only mandatory in response to a particular unforeseeable event,
e.g. floods, land slips or other emergencies. The work required varies in accordance with the
event but is usually required immediately to re-open immediately the road, which would have
become impassable, to normal traffic.
The following factors affect the composition and costs associated with the maintenance of
the road network:
 topography,
 weather,
 volume of traffic,
 level of service standards, and;
 age of the infrastructure.
When traffic increased up to more than 200 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT), it is
necessary to pave the roads.
3.5.5 District Role in Rural Feeder Roads Maintenance

Districts are the implementation institution for routine maintenance of National and
District Class 1 roads in their jurisdictions using community association under RTDA
management funded by RMF. Revenues from fuel levy and road toll levied on foreign
registered vehicles are collected by Rwanda Revenue Authority (RRA) and transferred into
the RMF account held in the National Bank of Rwanda (NBR).
The maintenance of these roads is carried out based on yearly renewable performance based
contracts between the community association and the District. The field inspection and
verification of the completed maintenance tasks are done by the Sector Agronomist under the
supervision of the District Engineer 15 or Engineer in charge of Infrastructure.

Periodic and emergency maintenance are carried out by road construction contractors under
the direct supervision of RTDA using by RMF. No funding is provided for District Class 2
and unclassified roads maintenance from RMF.
Districts receive budget support from RLDSF (with no earmarked budget line for RFR
maintenance). Districts are responsible for the maintenance of RFR (District Class 2 or
unclassified roads) within their jurisdictions. It is up to the District, through the District’s
Counsel to decide the allocation of funds. At this point in time, RFR maintenance rank low
among Districts’ priorities. For the fiscal year 2012-2013, Districts will start receiving
earmarked budget for RFR maintenance from RLDSF who will assist them in programming
and planning.

3.6 Maintenance of gravel roads (source: Gravel roads design,
maintenance and repair, Technical recommendations for
Highways –TRH-20, South Africa)
Maintenance management systems should provide answers to the following questions:
 What budget is required?

 How many graders and staff are required?
 How often should each road be bladed?
 What is the resultant level of serviceability?
 What volume of gravel needs to be replaced annually?
 Which roads and when it should be upgraded to bituminous standard?
For any road management system it is necessary to develop and regularly update an inventory of the
important parameters influencing the performance and maintenance requirements. Generally
computer-based data-bases are the only effective way to do this on a network basis.
Whichever maintenance management system is selected or devised, the main objective is to rank
scientifically the maintenance requirements of the links making up the network on the basis of
economics, levels of serviceability available funding, labour and equipment and the skill levels of the
staff.
3.6.1 Level of Serviceability

Maintenance requirements and costs are based almost entirely on the required level of serviceability
which should be appropriate to the traffic. A level of serviceability acceptable for a remote, rural
unpaved road with low traffic would generally be unacceptable for an unpaved feeder road to a
densely populated developing area. TRH-20 (south Africa) suggest the following levels of
serviceability based on performance criteria (Table 63):
The maximum roughness is generally used to determine the grader blading frequency in maintenance
management systems and can be programmed into the maintenance management system.
The level of serviceability should be adapted to the primary use of the road. Important tourist routes
or a farm access road over which a fragile product sensitive to extremely rough roads (such as eggs)
is to be transported, may be maintained at a level of service higher than that which the traffic dictates,
for obvious reasons.
Table 155: Definition of Levels of Serviceability
Level of Required standards
Serviceability Max Roughness a Dustiness b Impassability
1 200 5 Frequently
2 150 4 < 5 days/yr
3 120 4 Never
4 100 3 Never
5 80 3 Never
aa QI (Counts/km) over 10 per cent of
the link b See Paige-Green (1988b)

3.6.2 Practical Aspects of Maintenance
Despite all the programming and time spent on maintenance it is not worth doing if it is not done
cost-effectively. The importance of sufficient maintenance carried out by experienced and
conscientious machine operators and back-up staff cannot be overemphasized. Once the condition of
a road deteriorates beyond a certain point, restoration of the road to an acceptable condition can
seldom be achieved with routine maintenance and requires a considerable mechanical and labour
input.
The following maintenance categories are considered:
 roadside maintenance;
 drainage maintenance;
 surface maintenance.
3.6.2.1 Roadside Maintenance

The roadside is defined (Hudson et at, 1987) as the first 3 m (10 feet) adjacent to the edge of the
shoulder or pavement. For local conditions it is considered prudent to define the roadside as the full
road reserve (National Research Council, 1979). This should be the case for the Rwanda as well.
 The main maintenance activity affecting the roadside is bush clearing and grass cutting. This
procedure is carried out mainly for safety reasons but also to avoid damage to vehicles from
vegetation overhanging the pavement edge and to reduce the fire hazard in some areas. The
frequency of this maintenance depends on the relevant level of serviceability and should be
adapted for the district under consideration. Areas with a high rainfall and short-radius
horizontal and vertical curves (i.e. short sight distances) will require considerably more
vegetation control than long straight roads in arid areas.
 Vegetation control on unpaved road reserves is best carried out manually although
mechanized control may be cost-effective in some areas.
 Collection of litter should also be programmed periodically, especially near built-up areas
and on more heavily trafficked and tourist routes. Debris from car accidents, discarded car
parts (e.g. exhaust pipes and silencers) which periodically litter the road and dead animals
should be removed as soon as possible.
 Another roadside maintenance activity which should not be neglected is the repair and
prevention of erosion affecting cut and fill slopes and ditches. The most cost effective way of
preventing this erosion is the establishment of vegetation. Cuts and fills should be constructed
at suitable batters to allow the establishment of vegetation (preferably less than 1 vertical :2
horizontal) with a cut-off drain or catch water bank just behind the crest of the cut or fill.
Should erosion occur, the erosion channels should be back-filled with rocks and grouted if
possible? The erosion of drains could also be prevented by a rock lining and some form of
obstacle (e.g. rock dams, vegetation) to retard the speed of water flow. Care should be taken
with vegetation as the siltation often results in vigorous growth and eventual filling of the
drain.
 Erosion of culvert inlets and outlets is a common problem and control structures, e.g. rock
rip-rap or concrete wing-walls may be considered at problem sites. With time the erosion
protection measures themselves may require significant maintenance.
 Most of the roadside maintenance is labor intensive and great scope exists for the contracting
of this type of work to local residents in developing rural areas.

3.6.2.2 Drainage Maintenance
Drainage is often the source of problems affecting both paved and unpaved roads in Rwanda. Many
of these can be overcome by improved drainage maintenance. No matter how adequate the drainage
system can be, drains often become eroded with time and/or silted up and free drainage of water from
the road is impeded.
 The first significant problem is to remove the bulk of the rain-water from the road surface
without causing erosion of the gravel wearing course. For this to occur effectively the surface
of the road should be well maintained with a good shape (definite crown), no potholes, deep
corrugations or ruts and an adequate cross-fall. Experience from South Africa shows that a
cross-fall of about 4 or 5 per cent is the optimum which allows adequate run-off without
erosion while longitudinal slopes and cross-falls steeper than about 5 per cent are prone to
erosion.
 The important drains which require maintenance are the side drains and mitre drains. These
should be designed with widths and side-slopes (1:2 or 1:3) which permit ready access of a
motorized grader so that maintenance can be carried out during the routine pavement surface
maintenance. Graders are, however, adaptable implements and the extension and angles of
their blades can be adjusted for most purposes. The grader operators should ensure that all
drains have an adequate fall with no low spots where water may accumulate. It is important to
ensure that routine grader blading does not leave windrows blocking the entrance to mitre
drains.
 Deep V-shaped side drains are difficult to maintain (even manually), not always effective and
are often unsafe, even for lightly trafficked roads.
 In many cases it is cost-effective to clean drains of their silt and excessive vegetation manually.
Drain maintenance should endeavor to retain the grass cover which reduces the erosion
potential. This is especially necessary during manual clearing around culverts and drains. It is
important that silt excavated from drains is removed as far as possible from the drains and
should under no circumstances be used to patch or repair the road surface as the material is
usually uniformly graded (i.e. single-sized particles) and the material is generally non-plastic.
 Excessive silting of drains is indicative of inadequate water flow velocities while erosion is
indicative of excessive velocities. An ideal drain should be graded to provide the optimum
velocity with no siltation or erosion.
 The maintenance of culverts is necessarily a labour intensive operation and should be carried
out regularly to avoid damage to the culvert and surroundings, should they become blocked
and flooding occur. It is important once again that the material removed from the culverts is
not used to maintain the road and is disposed of as far as practically possible. Cleaning of the
outlet of culverts to ensure free-flow conditions on the downstream side should not be
neglected.
3.6.2.3 Surface Maintenance

The maintenance of the surface of unpaved roads is the major cost factor in the maintenance
programme. Grader blading may be carried out at anything from a one week to six-monthly interval
depending on the climate, traffic and required level of serviceability while gravelling is necessary at
intervals of between five and ten years depending on the traffic.

Grader blading
 The standard procedure for surface maintenance is grader blading. A grader is run across the
surface of the road with the blade set to smooth and shape the surface. After grading, no
potholes, corrugations, excessive loose material, large boulders, ruts or erosion channels
should be present and straight portions of the road should have a definite crown and cross-fall
while curves should have an adequate super-elevation for safety. Experience has, however,
shown that cross-falls and super-elevations greater than about 5 per cent result in excessive
erosion. A balance is required for the super-elevation not to result in erosion but to be
adequately safe.
 Blading should be carried out during periods of average moisture when the material is most
easily cut, moved and compacted. In fact, practice has shown that during the dry season the
hard upper crust or “blad” should not be cut. Blading can be classified as either light or heavy.
 Light blading consists of a light trimming of the road surface on a routine basis. During the
dry season, the surface loose material should be moved towards the side of the road, while
during the wet season the loose material should be graded towards the centre of the road
(TRRL, 1981). It must be remembered, however, that the fine material is slowly lost from the
road surface in the form of dust and the repeated return of the loose surface material which is
deficient in fines may lead to the formation of corrugations. "Sand blankets" are usually placed
during light grading.
 Heavy blading should be carried out when inspection reports indicate excessive defects. The
road surface is scarified and cut to the bottom of the deformations and reshaped (TRRL, 1981).
This should only be done when the material is moist and more than 75 mm of surfacing
aggregate remains. Heavy grading is often necessary when “fixed corrugations" have formed.
These corrugations may need initial tinning or deeper cutting to break them up before being
graded and recompacted.
 Grading can make some roads rougher, especially those which are slightly “self-cementing"
and form a crust or "blad", or those with large stones as they often tend to be torn up under the
grader. Spot re-gravelling is usually required to patch these (TRRL, 1981). Excessive large
stones cause problems with grader blading, as the stones are plucked out and dragged along
the road causing long, deep gouges. They also cause excessive wear to the grader blades.
 Loose material is a significant problem on unpaved roads. Many single vehicle accidents on
unpaved roads are caused by windrows of loose material on the roads. These windrows
interfere with the directional stability of the vehicles which may eventually overturn; the
higher the vehicle speed, the greater the interference. It is important that these windrows be
not permitted to become higher than 50 mm. In addition to the vehicle handling aspect, high
windrows often conceal large stones which can cause extensive damage to the tyres and
underparts of vehicles (especially modern compact cars with ground clearances of less than
150 mm).
 A common problem caused by poor grading practices is damming of water on the roads by
windrows left at the edge of the road. Often the material deposited at the end of the grader
blade during the last run forms a bank which retains water. This should not be permitted and
should either be removed by the grader, or manually after grading. Some grader operators
leave a windrow like this at the edge of the prism and blade it onto the road when it is damp
and will bind with the existing surface i.e. not create a loose layer. Periodic openings should
be constructed in these windrows to allow the escape of surface water. Excessive grader
maintenance with the production of banks often results in the level of the road-being below
the adjacent shoulders. Heavy grading and reshaping should be carried out in this case to avoid
canalisation of the water along the road surface.
 It is a common practice to spread a thin layer of fine sandy material (“sand blanket”) over the
road, ostensibly to protect the surface. A thin "blanket" over a well-developed “blad" is
certainly beneficial, though it often causes dust and may cause slipperiness for certain materials
when dry. However, many grader operators place a thick layer of mixed material (sand, gravel
and boulders) over the entire road. This results in damage to vehicles (windscreens in
particular), decreased safety, increased rolling resistance of the vehicles (and hence fuel
consumption), the quicker development of corrugations (as the fine material has usually been
removed), the rapid development of windrows of loose material (affecting lateral drainage)
and an overall poorer riding quality and safety. The use of these thick “sand blankets” or "sand
duvets” should be avoided. If "sand blankets" are used, the maintenance gang should ensure
that no stones larger than 25 mm are incorporated in the “sand blanket” or obscured by it. If
such stones are obscured by the “sand blanket” it is too thick.
 The development of ruts should be controlled during grader maintenance. Grading should occur
before ruts have become deeper than about 25 mm, with the ruts being filled with loose
material. Prolonged rut development results in channeling of run-off and subsequent erosion
and loss of shape of the road. On excessively wide roads (more than 8 m) the vehicles tend to
hollow out the centre of the road and the crown is totally destroyed. Particular care should be
taken to restore and maintain this crown during grader blading.
 The use of selective maintenance of certain links or even sections of a link is often appropriate
and economically justifiable.
 Instances have been observed where permanent corrugations with a 2,5 to 3 m wavelength
occur in the road. These have been caused by bouncing of the grader during blading and once
formed cannot be removed by the same grader without tinning as their wavelength is the same
as the distance between the front wheels of the grader and the blade. A grader with a different
wheel-blade length can be used to cut them.
 A less expensive method of blading is to use underbody blades mounted beneath trucks or
towed graders but these do not give as good a finish as a grader.
 Proper training of grader operators is the basis of good grader maintenance practice. Although
experience is extremely important, it is recommended that all grader operators be given high
quality training in the theoretical and practical aspects of unpaved road maintenance and
regular refresher courses. Bad maintenance habits (e.g. "sand duvets”, windrows along the
edge of the road, etc) should be explicitly treated.
 For labour intensive maintenance and in developing areas, use of simple devices such as
“camber boards” should be encouraged to raise the overall standard of the maintenance.
Re-gravelling
Re-gravelling is the most expensive single maintenance procedure for unpaved roads. It is carried out
when the imported gravel on the road has been almost totally lost through erosion by rain and wind
or abrasion by traffic, or when inappropriate material exists in the road. Re-gravelling should take
place before the subgrade is exposed in order to avoid:
(a) deformation which will necessitate reconstruction; and
(b) loss of the strength which has been built up in the subgrade by traffic molding over time.
 Improvements to any drainage deficiencies should be made prior to re-gravelling. The quality
of the new gravel should comply with the required specifications (Section 4.3).
 It is recommended that a full re-gravelling programme be drawn up for each district each
financial year. This is extremely important for accurate budgeting.
 The re-gravelling process should follow the same procedure as the construction process with
respect to the winning, hauling, spreading and compaction of the material (Section 4.2).
Spot gravelling
 Spot re-gravelling is carried out to replace the gravel over areas where it has become
excessively thin or worn through and for filling potholes, ruts, erosion channels and even
corrugations. Although spot re-gravelling is the most common re-gravelling strategy in the
United States (Visser, 1981), full re-gravelling should be the norm for Rwanda with spot re-
gravelling only being used for patching and repair of limited lengths of road.
 Since it is limited to small areas, spot re-gravelling is predominantly a manual operation in
restricted to potholes and subgrade failures. It should make use of the same material as the
wearing course gravel. Potholes should be cleaned out, the loose material removed from the
sides, moistened with water, and then back-filled with moist gravel in 50 to 100 mm layers.
Each layer should be compacted (a hand rammer is adequate) until the hole is filled to about
one centimeter above the surrounding road.
 It is useful during the re-gravelling process to stockpile small supplies of wearing course
aggregate in the borrow pit, at the maintenance camp or along the road at strategic places for
maintenance purposes.
Reworking and compaction

 It is sometimes necessary to rework the existing gravel, breaking down or removing oversize
material, perhaps blending in some fines, adding moisture and re-compacting. This is
especially necessary when an adequate thickness of gravel exists on a road but the roughness
becomes excessive under increased traffic or for a different traffic mix.
3.6.3 Safety Aspects

 Poor safety conditions are likely to occur on unpaved roads during maintenance operations.
The roads are dusty, a windrow exists along the road, labourers are on and off the road, the
grader moves at a low speed, potholes often occur and boulders may lie on the road during the
operation.
 It is thus important that the section being maintained is fully signposted with the correct
warning signs. Many of the signs used are often in a poor condition, as they are used under
fairly severe conditions of dust, flying stones, and exposure to the elements. The quality and
condition of the signs should therefore be closely controlled and the signs timeously repaired
where possible or replaced. The grader should be clearly visible over adequate distances with
a high quality rotating warning light which must be kept clean and operating.
 Windrows left temporarily on the road should not be allowed to become too high (greater than
100 mm) and should be left for as short a time as possible. Under no circumstances should a
road be left partly graded overnight. An effective way of improving safety with respect to the
presence of windrows is for the graders to work in tandem or even “tridem” (three in line).
Caution must be exercised to ensure that the crown is retained (See 4.3.3).
 Labourers should all be supplied with high visibility safety clothing which should be kept in
an acceptable state of cleanliness. Wearing of these during maintenance should be made
compulsory.
3.6.4 Rehabilitation and Upgrading

Some confusion exists with the definition of rehabilitation when applied to unpaved roads. The
rehabilitation of paved roads is defined in TRH 12 (NITRR, 1984) as the “measures used to improve,
strengthen or salvage existing deficient pavements so that these may continue, with routine
maintenance, to carry traffic with adequate speed, safety and comfort”. This process usually takes
place towards the end of the design life of a paved road or earlier if premature failure occurred due
to inadequate design or excessive traffic loading.
 The routine maintenance of unpaved roads (usually grader blading) is carried out at an interval
of anything between one week and five or six months. However, this restores the riding surface
to an improved condition and is generally necessary when the road surface has deteriorated to
a condition which is excessively rough or unsafe. Conditions which may be described as

failure, e.g. subgrade deformation, are usually corrected by routine grader maintenance
although this could be construed as rehabilitation from the TRH 12 (NITRR, 1984) definition.
 A loss of the imported wearing course gravel under the action of traffic and natural processes
(erosion by wind and rain) necessitates periodic gravelling (about every six or seven years on
average). This is the most expensive maintenance procedure and probably equals the
overlaying of paved roads or strengthening of the existing structure. (Both process
theoretically protect the subgrade and provide an improved riding surface.) The fundamental
difference between the two types of roads is the dynamic thickness variation (and consequent
variation in load supporting capacity) of unpaved roads and the static thickness (with dynamic
load supporting capacity due to fatigue of the layer) in paved roads.
 Hudson et al (1987) consider maintenance as reactive work performed when a noticeable
deterioration of the roadway has occurred which can be easily corrected. Rehabilitation on the
other hand refers to a more extensive action which is taken to correct a roadway which has
deteriorated to some minimum acceptable level (Hudson et al, 1987).
 Grader maintenance, re-gravelling and periodic labour intensive maintenance (drain clearing
and spot re-gravelling) can be considered as maintenance activities;
 Upgrading (realignment, raising of the formation, improved drainage) is considered as a
rehabilitation procedure. The decision for upgrading is based on high traffic counts, improved
safety requirements or political decisions.
3.6.5 Financial Aspects (from USAID-PARSONS DRAFT Document)

Gravel is a sacrificial layer and its replacement has a high cost:
 25- to 100-mm can be lost per annum;
 Construction/rehabilitation costs may vary from USD 50,000 to USD 130,000 per kilometer.
 For planning on-going maintenance costs, ten percent (10%) of a project’s initial cost – USD 7,000 to
USD 13,000 - must be available for each year of the road’s operation.
 Regravelling operations cost USD 3,500 to 9,100 per/km/year;
 Periodic maintenance costs USD 1,500 to $3,900/km/year; and
 Continuous regravelling is a significant recurrent financial burden. These
maintenance costs are indicated in Table 61.
Table 156: Cost Estimates for Works on Unpaved Roads
Source: RLDSF Operations and Maintenance Manual Module on road maintenance 2012
Table 67 gives estimated maintenance costs from the SADC guidelines Maintenance costs for low
volume sealed roads as a measure of comparison.

Table 157: Estimated Maintenance Costs per Kilometre

4.0 Summary Feeder Roads Design Standards
Table 158: Summary of Feeder Roads Design Standards
Item Description Feeder Roads Remarks
No.
(400-1500) shall be considered for
1 Traffic (ADT) 400 national roads class 2 and District
roads class 1.
 Flat  0-10 five(5) meter contour per
km (natural ground slopes
 Rolling perpendicular to the ground
contour < 3%);
 Eleven (11) to twenty-five (25) five
 Mountainous (5)-meter contours per km. The
Terrain classes
natural ground slopes perpendicular
2 to the ground contours are between
three (3) and 25%.
 Escarpment  Twenty-Six (26) to fifty (50) five
(5)-meter contours per km. The
natural ground slopes perpendicular
to the ground contours are generally
above twenty-five percent (25%).
3 Design life 7 years  For unpaved and regularly re-
4 Design Speed (km/hr) 50 /40 /25 Flat / Rolling / Mountainous
 For District Class 2 for all types
D of terrains;
 For District Class 1 and national
5 Level of Services roads Class 2 in mountainous
terrain;
C
 For District Class 1 and National
Cl 2 f R l l l d d
 Wheelbase: 12.19 m (3.96+8.23);
 Front: 1.22 m;
 Rear : 1.83 m;
6 Design vehicle WB-12
 Overall length: 15.24 m;
 Width: 2.59 m,
 Height: 4.12 m,
7 Assumed ESA 1 If axle load surveys are not possible
(Equivalent
standard axle)
of commercial
vehicle
8 Passenger Car Flat / Rolling / Mountainous
Equivalent Unit  Passenger car; /
(PCU)  Light goods vehicles 1.0 / 1.0 / 1.5 /
 Medium goods vehicles; 1.0 / 1.5 / 3.0 /
 Heavy good vehicles; 2.5 / 5.0 / 10.0 /
 Buses; 3.5/ 8.0 / 20.0 /
 Motorcycles, scooters; 2.0 / 4.0 / 6.0 /
 pedal cycles 2.0 / 4.0 / 1.5 /
0.5 / 0.5 / NA /

9 Design Hourly  0.15 x ADT  For Rural highways
Volume (DHV)  0.10 x ADT  For Urban roads
10 Design Speeds Flat / Rolling/Mountainous/Steep

(km/h)  EAC Class 4 (km/h)
 EAC Class 5 80/60/40/40
11 Brake reaction  2.5 second s (Nota, deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s
time (s) 2)
12 Braking As a function of the speed in
Reaction  13.9/30.9/27.8/34.8/41.7/48.7 (km/h)
Distance (m) 20/30/40/50/60/70
13 Braking As a function of the speed in
distance on  4.6/10.3/18.4/28.7/41.3/56.2 (km/h)
Level (m) 20/30/40/50/60/70
14 Design As a function of the speed in

Stopping Sight  20/35/50/65/85/105 (km/h)
Distance 20/30/40/50/60/70
15 Effect of grade
on Stopping
Sight Distance As a function of the speed in
 3%  20/32/50/66/87/110 (km/h)
downgrade 20/30/40/50/60/70
 19/31/45/61/80/100 ,,
 3% upgrade
 20/35/50/70/92/116
 6% ,,
downgrade  18/30/44/59/77/97
 20/35/53/74/97/124 ,,
 6% upgrade
,,
 9% upgrade  18/29/43/58/75/93
16 Decision sight
distance as a
function of the
avoidance
maneuver type
 A 70/95/115 As a function of the speed in
(km/h)
 B 155/195/325
50/60/70
 C 145/170/200 ‘’
 D ‘’
170/205/235
‘’
 E 195/235/275 ‘’
‘’
17 Object height 0.60/0.60/1.08 In terms of stopping sight distance
value /Decision sight distance/ Passing
sight distance
18 Passing Sight Assumed speeds for passed vehicle
Distance for 200/270/345/410/485 29/36/44/51/59
two lanes Assumed speeds for passing
highway vehicle
44/51/59/66/74
19 Side friction 0.35 at 20 km/h to 0.15 at 70 km/h For speeds from 20 km/h to 70
factor km/h
20 Running speeds 20/30/40/47/55/63/70 20/30/40/50/60/70
versus design
speeds (km/h)

21 Normal Cross 3%
Slope
22 Superelevation Limit to a maximum of 8%

rates Provide normal crown for favorable terrain
conditions
23 Maximum @ superelevetion of 4% @ superelevation of 4%
Total side 0.39/0.32/0.27/0.23/0.21/0.19 As a function of design speeds
friction in terms 20/30/40/50/60/70
of design speed As a function of the radius
and 8/22/47/86/135/203/280
corresponding
radius As per @ superelevation of 6% @ superelevation of 6%
AASHTO 0.41/0.34/0.29/0.25/0.23/0.21 As a function of design speeds
20/30/40/50/60/70
As a function of the radius
8/21/43/79/123/184/252
@ superelevation of 8% @ superelevation of 8%
0.43/0.36/0.31/0.27/0.25/0.23 As a function of design speeds
20/30/40/50/60/70
7/20/41/73/113/168/229
24 Maximum @ superelevetion of 4% @ superelevation of 4%
Total side 0.21/0.21/0.20/0.19/0.18 As a function of design speeds
friction in terms 30/40/50/60/70
of design speed As a function of the radius
and 22/47/86/135/203/280
corresponding
radius As per @ superelevation of 6% @ superelevation of 6%
EAC 0.23/0.23/0.22/0.21/0.20 As a function of design speeds
30/40/50/60/70
21/43/79/123/184/252
@ superelevation of 8% @ superelevation of 8%
0.25/0.25/0.24/0.23/0.22 As a function of design speeds
30/40/50/60/70
20/41/73/113/168/229
24 Straight Less or equal to 20 x Vd Vd is the design speed.
A minimum of 6 x Vd to be provided between
circular curves following the same direction.
25 Minimum radius 100 / 75 / 50 Flat / Rolling / Mountainous

of horizontal
curve (m)
26 Minimum 300 mm As per EAC

length of curve
27 Maximum 1000 mm As per EAC
length of curve

28 Minimum In terms of radius
acceptable
length of 12/15/20/25/30/35/45 30/50/60/75/100/125/150 and more
Circular Arc
(m) on turning
29 d
Minimum 20/20/30/35/45/55/60 In terms of radius
Desirable length
of Circular Arc 30/50/60/75/100/125/150 and more
(m) on turning
roadways as a
function of
radius
30 Tangent-to- Maximum relative gradient (%) As a function of the design speeds:
curve transition 0.75/0.70/0.65/0.60/0.55 30/40/50/60/70
Equivalent Maximum Relative Slope”

1:133/1:143/1:154/1:167/1:182
31 Portion of 0.80 For speeds between 20-70 km/h

runoff located And one rotated lane
prior to the
Curve
32 Minimum Equal to the length required for super -elevation
length of spiral runoff
transition
33 Maximum As a function of the speed
radius for use of 24/54/95/148/213/290 20/30/40/50/60/70
the spiral curve
transition
34 Desirable length Spiral length (m) As a function of speed
of spiral
11/17/22/28/33/39 20/30/40/50/60/70
35 Limiting the As a function of speed
super -elevation 3.7/5.2/6.5/7.5/8.3/8.9/ 20/30/40/50/60/70
rate
36 Tangent runout  @ 2% superelevation As a function of speed
length for Spiral 11/17/22/28/33/39 20/30/40/50/60/70
Curve
Transition  @ 4% superelevation 30/40/50/60/70
Design (m) 8/11/14/17/19
 @ 6% superelevation 40/50/60/70
7/9/11/13/
 @ 8% superelevation 60/70
8/10/
37 Shoulder width 0.6-1.2 / left and right Short length within channelized
or lateral intersections
clearance 1.2 to 3.0 left
outside of 1.8 to 3.6
travelled way Intermediate to long length or in cut or
length on fill

38 Passing lane @ One-Way Flow Rate (veh/h)
length as a 0.8 100-200
function of the 0.8-1.2 201-400
one-way flow
rate (km)
39 Minimum @ design speeds of

length of 60/60/65/85/105 30/40/50/60/70
turnouts
40 Gradient The minimum shall at least be 0.5% and
the maximum shall be
4%
4-8%
7-12 % For flat terrains
12-18 % For rolling terrain
For Mountainous
For steep terrains
41 Cross slope 2-6% For unpaved roads
rates (4%)- to be adopted.
42 Width of
travelled way 6.0/3.0*/2 x 1.0/22 *- Special circumstances shall be
/lane/shoulder/ considered where existing roads are
ROW of 3-4 m width are in very steep
terrain where earth work costs
would be prohibitive and slope
stability problematic, in these cases,
derogation from the standards shall
be allowed.
43 Shoulder slopes 6%
44 Extra Widening (m) 0.5 m

45 Elevation of road 500mm Sub grade formation level (HFL:
formation above HFL Highest Flood Level)
46 Embankment side 2H:1V* - Grass or rock protection
slope 3H:1V- 4H: 1V
*- in developed areas, slopes steeper
than 2H: 1V might be used. In such
cases, retaining walls shall be
47 Head room Minimum of :
 5.5 m headroom under a bridge structure;
 7.0 m under a high power cable; and 6.0 m
under low power cable;
48 Lateral clearance  Minimum lateral clearance of 0.6 m on

each side of a bridge for traffic volumes
of less than 400 veh./day;
 Minimum lateral clearance of 1-1.2 m on
each side of a bridge for traffic volumes
between 400 and 2000 veh./day;
 Increase by 1 m for bridges of more
than 30 m span.
49 Base Width of Side 500mm Trapezoidal shape with side slope

50 Roadside ditches  Slopes on the side of the road should
not be steeper than 1V:4H for open
drain for security of errant vehicle
 Trapezoidal shape ditches with side

slope of 1 in 1 to 1 in 4 (depending
upon soil type) and bottom width of
0.6 to 2.5m (depending upon
excavation method) are used.
 In rolling to hilly terrain where space

is limited, V-shaped drains can be
used. The capacity of drainage ditch
can be increased by widening or
deepening the channel. Widening is
preferred to limit potential scouring;
 The minimum depth of ditches should

be 0.6m measured from the bottom of
the ditch to the formation level.
51 Maximum velocity of  An average value of 1m / sec for loam Maximum velocity above which
the water in the ditch or fine sand; lining shall be provided
 An average of 2m/sec. for coarse gravel
52 Minimum longitudinal  0.5% Minimum longitudinal slope for

slope of ditch unpaved to insure flow
53 Maximum longitudinal  7% Steeper ditches shall be lined

slopes of ditches
54 Slopes of median  1:4 to 1:10 Generally constructed with a
drains shallow V-profile with the bottom
gently rounded
55 High water table  The water table shall be maintained at a The actual spacing and depth of
depth not less than 1.2 m below the drains to achieve this requirement
formation level will depend on the soil conditions
and the width of the road
formation.
56 Design life of  7 years Re-gravelling expected after 7
pavement years
57 Minimum Sub Grade 3% - 8 % Gravel /Laterite aggregate
CBR % compacted at 93% of Maximum
Dry Density
58 Design Traffic  100,000 EASLs/year Comparable to the Florida Gulf
Volume Coast

59 CBR classes  S3-CBR=3  Use subgrades with CBR
equal or greater than 7;
 S7- CBR = 7;  Materials for
improvement of
subgrade layers should
 S15- CBR = 15 meet the requirements of
G15 and G7;
 Use of extra thickness to
be balanced against
upgrading to higher
60 Crushed aggregate  150 mm minimum  Based on 100,000
base course thickness EASLs, a CBR of 8 and
a soil of fair quality.
 Based on 30 mm loss of
aggregate per year and
lack of maintenance for
maximum four years.
 40 to 60 mm Gravel
/Laterite aggregate
compacted at 98% of
Maximum Dry Density
61 Embankment 150 mm  Minimum layer thickness
construction, depends on 2.5 maximum
maximum layer size of the 40mm to
thickness(compacted) 60mm Gravel /Laterite
aggregate compacted at
93% of Maximum Dry
Density to achieve CBR
= 8%
62 Thickness of Gravel 100 - 200 mm  40 to 60 mm Gravel
Sub Base /Laterite aggregate
compacted at 95% of
Maximum Dry Density
63 Thickness of Gravel 100 - 200  40 to 60 mm Gravel /Laterite
Base mm aggregate compacted at 98%
of Maximum Dry Density
64 Thickness of subgrade 300 – 600 mm Depending on the CBR (8 %-
3%)
65 Annual gravel loss 30 mm  75 mm additional

thickness to the minimum
values to cover for the
annual gravel loss
66 Roughness IRI range 3.5 – 8.5  Roughness levels should
mm/m be maintained for
maintaining optimum
safety levels to satisfy the
road users and keep the
vehicle operating costs
low at a maximum vehicle
speed of 50 km/hour on
LVUR pavement surface.
Pavement design
methodology is based on
an average terminal rut
depth of about 20 mm, and
a terminal roughness of

67 Maximum Bridge 20/12/6 tons  The recommended load
Loading per vehicle/ consists of 20 tons loading
axel/wheel with four wheels 8 tons in
front axle and 12 tons in
rear axle in 4.27 m
distance in the first type of
loading. In the second type
of loading, in the same
class of loading has 21.2
tons loading consisting of
six wheels 4.2 tons in front
axle, 8.5 tons in
intermediate and rear
axles. The distance
between the front and
intermediate axle is3.96 m
and the intermediate to the
rear axle is 1.22 m. The
spacing between
successive vehicles can be
assumed to be 30 m.
68 Seismicity Degree VII on modified Mercalli Scale (5.0- Note: to be implemented

5.9 Moment magnitude on the Richter in the design process
Scale)

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 Overseas Road Note 31, 4th Edition: A Guide to the Structural Design of Bitumen Surfaced
Roads in Tropical and Sub-Tropical Countries. 1993. TRL Limited. Crowthorne, United
Kingdom.
 Overseas Road Note 40: A Guide to Axle Load Surveys and Traffic Counts for Determining
Traffic Loading on Pavements. 2004 TRL Limited. Crowthorne, United Kingdom.
 Pavement and Materials Design Manual. 1999. Ministry of Works. Dar es Salaam, United
Republic of Tanzania.
 Portance des Sols pour Ie Dimensionnment des Chaussees a Faible Trafic; Determination
de L'indice Portant d'un Materiau a Partir de L'essai de Famille de Sols (LPC). 1984. P.
Autret, PhD, Chef du SERI (Service des Eludes el Recherches Inlernalionales); Laboratoire
Central des Ponts el Chaussées. Paris, Republic of France.
 Programmatic Environmental Assessment. 2011. Final Draft. Rural Feeder Road Improvement
Program. Parsons Government Services, Inc. Kigali, Republic of Rwanda.

 Project Development and Design Manual. April 2011. U. S. Department of Transportation.
Federal Highway Administration. Washington, D. C.
 Road Design Manual; Roads Department Operational Guidelines Volume 3. November
1995. Ministry of Works and Construction. Mbabane, Kingdom of Swaziland.
 Road Design Manual; Volume 3 Pavement; Part III Gravel Roads. September 2006. Ministry
of Works, Housing, and Communications. Kampala, Republic of Uganda.
 Rural Feeder Road Improvement Program: Scope of Work Section C.2.2, Task 2 – Preparation of
Technical Designs. United States Agency for International Development. Kigali, Republic of
Rwanda.
 Rural Feeder Roads Improvement Project; The Implementation of Task 1.2, Conduct RICA
(Road Inventory and Condition Assessments). 30 November 2011, 31 December 2011;
Parsons Government Services, Inc.; Kigali, Republic of Rwanda.
 SADC Guidelines On Low-Volume Sealed Roads. July 2003. Southern African Development
Community. Gaborone, Republic of Botswana.
 Steward, J. E., R. Williamson, and J. Mohney. Guidelines for Use of Fabrics in Construction and
Maintenance of Low Volume Roads. Forest Service Report PB-276 972 (also published as Report
FHWA-TS-78-205), USDA, Forest Service, Portland, Ore., 1977.
 Tingle, J. S. and Webster, S. L., Corps of Engineers Design of Geosynthetic-Reinforced
Unpaved Roads. 2007. Transportation Research Record 1849 _ 193 Paper No. 03-4103.
Transportation Research Board. Washington, D. C.
 Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC) - Engineering Use of Geotextiles UFC 3-220-08FA. 16 Jan-
uary 2004. Department of Defense. Washington. D. C.
 Water Measurement Manual. 2001. Bureau of Reclamation. U. S. Department of the In-
terior. Washington, D. C.

5.0. APPENDIXES
5.1 Appendix A1 - Traffic Considerations
Introduction
The deterioration of paved roads caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and
the number of times these loads are applied. It is necessary to consider not only the total number of vehicles that will
use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience, the axle loads) of these vehicles. Equivalency factors are
used to convert traffic volumes into cumulative standard axle loads.
The deterioration mechanism of LVURs differs from that of paved roads and is directly related to the number of
vehicles using the road rather than the number of equivalent standard axles. The traffic volume is therefore used in the
design of unpaved roads, as opposed to the paved roads which require the conversion of traffic volumes into the
appropriate cumulative number of equivalent standard axles.
Design Period
Determining an appropriate design period is the first step towards pavement design. Many factors influence this decision,
including budget constraints. The practioner should, however, follow certain guidelines in choosing an appropriate
design period, taking into account the conditions governing the project. Some of the points to consider include:
 Functional importance of the road;
 Traffic volume;
 Location and terrain of the project;
 Financial constraints; and
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic.
Problems in traffic forecasting may also influence the design. When accurate traffic estimates
cannot be made, it may be advisable to reduce the design period to avoid costly over-design.
Traffic Volumes
Vehicle Classification
Vehicle classification is an essential aspect of traffic volume evaluation (as well as evaluation of equivalent axle loads).
The types of vehicles are usually defined according to the following breakdown:
 Cars;
 4-Wheel Drive Vehicles;
 Small Buses;
 Medium and Large-size Buses;
 Small Trucks and Pickups;
 Medium Trucks; and

 Large, 2-Axle Truck.
The break-down can be further simplified, for reporting purposes, and expressed in the five (5) classes
of vehicles (with Vehicle Codes 1 to 7) indicated in Table A1-1.
It is most often in terms of volumes, i.e., AADT (Annual Average Daily Traffic) in each of the five (5) classes that
the traffic data will initially be available to the designer. It is noted that motorcycles and small cars do not contribute
significantly to the structural damage of roads.
Table 159- A1-1: Vehicle Classification
Source: Ethiopian Road Authority Part B Design Manual For Low Volume Roads (April 2011).
Initial Traffic Volumes
The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by 365. It is usually obtained
by recording actual traffic volumes over a shorter period from which the AADT is then estimated.
The estimate of the initial traffic volume should be the AADT currently using the route or, more specifically, the AADT
expected to use the route during the first year the road is placed in service, classified into the five (5) classes of vehicles
indicated in Table 1. Adjustments will usually be required between the AADT based on the latest traffic counts and the
AADT during the first year of service. These adjustments can be made using the growth factors discussed herein.
Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the AADT can produce estimates which are
subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have large daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. In order
to reduce error, it is recommended that traffic counts to establish AADT at a specific site conform to the following
practice:
 The counts are for seven (7) consecutive days.
 The counts on some of the days are for a full 24 hours, preferably with at least one 24-hour count on a
weekday and one during a weekend. Sixteen (16)-hour counts should be sufficient for the remaining days.
These should be extrapolated to 24-hour values in the same proportion as the 16-hour/24-hour split on
those days when full 24-hour counts have been undertaken.

 Counts are to be avoided at times when travel activity is abnormal for short periods due to the payment of
wages and salaries, public holidays, etc. If abnormal traffic flows persist for extended periods, for example
during harvest times, additional counts need to be made to ensure this traffic is properly
included.
If possible, the seven (7)-day counts should be repeated several times throughout the year.
Traffic Growth
Future traffic falls into the following three (3) categories:
(1) Normal Traffic
Traffic which would pass along the existing road or track even if no improvements or rehabilitation
new pavement were provided.
(2) Generated Traffic
Additional traffic which occurs in response to the improvement of the road.
(3) Diverted Traffic
Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the project road because of the improvements, but
still travels between the same origin and destination.
Cumulative Traffic
In order to determine the cumulative number of vehicles during the first year the road is placed in
service, the following procedure should be followed:
(1) Determine the initial traffic volume (AADT0) using the results of the traffic survey and any other
recent traffic count information that is available.
(2) Estimate the annual growth rate “i” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the anticipated number of
years “x” between the traffic survey and the opening of the road.
(3) Determine AADT1 the traffic volume in both directions on the year of the road opening by:
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i)x Equation A1-1
Source: Uganda Road Design Manual; Volume 3 Pavement; Part III Gravel Roads.
Pavement Layer Structural Design

For structural pavement design, i.e., the LVUR’s wearing course, the cumulative traffic loading of each of the
motorized vehicle classes over the design life of the road in one (1) direction is required. For a given class, m, this
is computed by the following equation:
T(m) = 0.5 x 365 x AADT(m)0 [(1+i/100)N – 1]/(i/100) Equation A1-2

Where

 T(m) = the cumulative traffic of traffic class m;
 AADT(m)0 = The AADT of traffic class m in the first year; N = the design period in years;
and i = the annual growth rate of traffic in per cent.
The cumulative traffic for each class of vehicle is multiplied by the average number of equivalent standard axles
of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of equivalent standard axles over the life of the
road.
Equivalence Factor
The Equivalence Factor (per axle) is defined as the pavement damaging effect of an axle in relation to
the damage created by a standard axle which has a load of 8.16 tonnes. It can be calculated using the
equation:
EF = (axle load in tonnes/8.16)4.5 Equation A1-3
Source: Overseas Road Note 40: A Guide to axle load surveys and traffic counts for determining traffic
loading on pavements (April 2011).
Equivalent Standard Axles

ESA (Equivalent Standard Axle) is a standard axle load of 8.16 metric tonnes (or 80kN). All axle loads are converted
to an equivalent number of standard axle loads (ESAs) and pavement design is usually based upon the total
cumulative ESAs that the pavement will have to carry over it's design life.
The number of equivalent standard axles (ef) of an axle is related to the axle load as follows:
ESA = (P/8160)n (for loads in kg) Equation A1-4
or ESA = (P/80)n (for loads in kN) Equation A1-5
Where
 ESA = number of equivalent standard axles;
 P = axle load (in kg or kN); and
 n = damage exponent (n = 4 for LVRs).
The sum of the individual EF values for each axle of the vehicle gives the equivalence factor for the vehicle as a
whole, EF(m). Guidance on the likely average EF(m) for different vehicle classes derived from historical data is given
in Table 2. However, data from any recent axle load survey on the road in question or a similar road in the vicinity is
better than using countrywide averages.
The cumulative ESAs over the design period for each vehicle class is obtained by multiplying EF(m) by the
cumulative traffic, T(m). The total number of cumulative standard axles for all vehicle classes is then obtained by
adding together the values of EF(m) x T(m) for all the classes.

In some cases there will be distinct differences in each direction and separate vehicle damage factors for each
direction should be derived. The higher of the two directional values should be used for design.
Table 160: A1-2: Average Equivalency Factors for vehicle Classification
*Vehicles that have no back-haul; hence likely to be empty.

Table 161: A1-3: Estimated Vehicle Classification Table for Rwanda
Source: T.Chelliah Sheladia Associates

On narrow roads the traffic tends to be more channelized than on wider two-lane roads. In such cases the effective
traffic loading is greater than that for a wider road and the design traffic loading (ESAs) is calculated using the
relationships indicated in Table A1-4.

Table 162: A1-4- Factors for Design traffic Loading
Construction traffic can also be a significant proportion of total traffic on LVURs, sometimes 20 to 40% of total traffic,
and should be taken into account in the design of the wearing course.
For very low-volume roads, i.e., <25 VPD, a detailed traffic analysis is seldom warranted because environmental rather
than traffic loading factors generally determine the performance of roads.
References
 Road Design Manual; Volume 3 Pavement; Part III Gravel Roads. (September 2006).
 Ministry of Works, Housing, and Communications. Kampala, Republic of Uganda.
 Design Manual For Low Volume Roads, Part B. (April 2011). Ethiopian Road Authority.
 Addis Ababa. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
 Ministry of Works, Housing, and Communications. Kampala, Republic of Uganda.
 Design Manual For Low Volume Roads, Part B. (April 2011). Ethiopian Road Authority. Addis
Ababa. Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia.
 Overseas Road Note 40: A Guide to Axle Load Surveys and Traffic Counts for
 Determining Traffic Loading on Pavements. 2004. TRL Limited. Crowthorne, United Kingdom.
 Ministry of Works, Housing, and Communications. Kampala, Republic of Uganda

5.2 Appendix A2- Sub-Grade Design Strength
Homogenous Sections
Identification of sections deemed to have homogenous sub-grade conditions is carried out by studies of appropriate
documentation such as geological maps, followed by site reconnaissance that includes excavation of inspection pits
and initial indicator testing for confirmation of the site observations. Due regard for localized areas that require
individual treatment is an essential part of the site reconnaissance. Demarcation of homogenous sections should be
reviewed and changed as required when the CBR test results of the centerline soil survey are available.
It is thus recommended, as a first step, to conduct compaction tests and to measure the CBR on samples molded at
100% MDD (Maximum Dry Density) and OMC (Optimum Moisture Content), to guide in the selection of
homogeneous sections of a road project. Following this selection, each typical soil is subjected to a more detailed
testing involving three levels of compaction. The design CBR is then obtained by interpolation.
Each CBR value is determined by laboratory measurement carried out for a minimum of three (3) density values to
establish a CBR/Density relationship for the material. The CBR value is determined at the normal field density
specified for the respective operation, i.e., the minimum in-situ density of 95% of the MDD determined in
accordance with the requirements of AASHTO T 180. This method enables an estimate to be made of the sub-
grade’s CBR at different densities and allows the effects of different levels of compaction control on the structural
design to be evaluated.
The design sub-grade strength, together with the traffic data, are then used to determine the wearing
course’s thicknesses.
Material Requirements for Improved Sub-Grade Layers

For existing pavements, test pits represent one of the common methods of investigation to determine the thickness and
type of the various pavement layers and to assess the sub-grade. Samples from each pavement layer and sub-grade can
be collected for visual inspection and subsequent laboratory testing. As a guideline, one test pit every one (1) KM,
alternating on either side of the roadway is recommended.
The DCP (Dynamic Cone Penetrometer) testing is designed for the rapid in-situ measurement of the structural
properties of existing road pavements and sub-grades. The DCP test results can be compared with the laboratory
test results. DCP testing frequency is usually every 100 meters but a testing interval of 200 meters can be adequate.
Practitioners are referred to the TRL’s Overseas Road Note 8, A Users Manual for A Program to Analyse Dynamic
Cone Penetrometer Data, for an extended discussion of analyzing data obtained from DCP testing. The DCP is
illustrated in Figure A2-1.
Using DCP-derived pavement layer thickness and CBR data to determine pavement layer thickness is
indicated in Figure A2-2.

Figure 24: A2-1: The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer
Source: Adapted from SADC Guidelines On Low-Volume Sealed Roads.
Figure 25: A2-2: Empirical DCP-Based Pavement Design Thickness

Pavement Layer Reinforcement

Geotextile Reinforcement
In the most common reinforcement applications, the geotextile interacts with the soil through frictional or adhesion
forces to resist tensile or shear forces. To provide reinforcement, a geotextile must have sufficient strength and
embedment length to resist the generated tensile forces, and the strength must be developed at sufficiently small
strains, i.e., high modulus, to prevent excessive movement of the reinforced structure. To reinforce embankments
and retaining structures, a woven geo-textile is recommended because it can provide high strength at small strains.
Separation
Separation is the process of preventing two (2) dissimilar materials from mixing. In this function, a geotextile is
most often required to prevent the undesirable mixing of fill and natural soils or two different types of fills. A
geotextile can be placed between a LVURs sub-grade and base course to prevent contamination and resulting
strength loss of the base course by intrusion of the sub-grade soil. In constructing roads over weak soils, a geotextile
can be placed over the weak sub-grade, and then crushed aggregates or latritic materials can be placed on the
geotextile. The geotextile prevents mixing of the two (2) materials.
Moisture Barrier
Both woven and nonwoven geotextiles can serve as moisture barriers when impregnated with bituminous,
rubber-bitumen, or polymeric mixtures. Such impregnation reduces both the cross-plane and in-plane flow
capacity of the geotextiles to a minimum. This function plays an important role in the use of geotextiles in
pavement layer systems. In such systems, the impregnated material seals the existing pavement layer and reduces
the amount of surface water entering the base course and sub-grade. This prevents a reduction in strength of these
components and improves the performance of the pavement system.
Design Examples
The use of geotextiles for reinforcing gravel-surfaced roads is generally limited to use over weak, cohesive soils
(CBR <4). One procedure for determining the thickness requirements of aggregate above the geotextile was
developed by the U. S. Forest Service (Steward, et al. 1977).
Determine the required aggregate thickness without geo-textile reinforcement.
From Figures A2-3 below and A2-4, where the AADT = 300, the ESA = 1,181,189, and the sub-grade
CBR = 2, the required crushed aggregate thickness is
Figure 26: A2-3: Sample Feeder Road Pavement

Figure 27: A2-4: Pavement Design Chart
Source: Source Book for Australian Roads. 3rd Edition.
Determine the required crushed aggregate thickness with geotextile reinforcement.

From Figures A2-3 and A2-4, where the AADT = 300, the ESA = 1,181,189, and the sub-grade CBR = 2, the
required crushed aggregate thickness is equal to 438-mm, which is thirty percent (30%)* less than 642-mm. Figure
A2-5 graphically indicates the benefits of using geotextiles to enhance the sub-grade’s strength.
Figure 28: A2-5: Layered Pavement Model for Geo-textile Reinforcement


Cost-Benefit Comparison
Even with nearby, economical crushed aggregat sources, the use of a geotextiles usually is the more economical
alternative for constructing LVURs over soft, cohesive soils. Additionally, it results in a faster completion time
after the geotextiles have been delivered to the site.
Design Methodology
The required pavement thickness is computed:
(1) Determine the minimum thickness necessary to avoid excessive compressive strain in the sub-
grade (D1).
(2) Determine the extra thickness needed to compensate for gravel loss under traffic during the pe-
riod between regravelling operations (D2).
(3) Determine the total gravel thickness required by adding the above two (2) thicknesses: D1+ D2.
Minimum Thickness Required

Gravel-surfaced roads are different with respect to paved roads. For gravel roads a relatively thick layer of gravel is
required to provide a structural layer that is sufficiently thick to protect the subgrade from traffic as well as being
sufficiently thick to tolerate some of the gravel being worn away over time while still performing reasonably well.
Defects are corrected by routine maintenance and re-gravelling is carried out periodically to replace the lost gravel.
Moreover, it is necessary to limit the compressive strain in the underlying sub-grade to prevent excessive permanent
deformation of the road’s surface.
Thickness design is not normally used for gravel surfacing. The ARRB (Australian Road Research Board) suggests
the following equation for computing the design thickness:
T = [219 – 211(log CBR) + 58(log CBR)2] log N/120 Equation A2-1
Source: Austrailian Road Research Board.

Where
N = No. of Standard 80 KN Axles;
T = Thickness of Granular Material in
mm; CBR = Subgrade CBR (%)
Thickness Selection
The thickness of gravel layers depends upon the quality of available materials and the expected traffic loads. The
Rwanda Road Act mandates that the nation’s LVURs shall be six (6) meters wide. While not defined in the Act,
good engineering practice provides a pavement layer that is fully graveled with a post-compacted layer that is
fifteen (15)-cm thick. Additionally, the LVUR’s 0.25-M shoulders should be graveled for protection against
erosion. The LVUR’s camber is maintained at 5%, the same as its sub-grade.
The measurements of strength made during the LVUR’s improvement, and confirmed through material sampling
and laboratory testing carried out as a part of the detailed design, will provide the sub-grade design strength.

CBR Correlation
Figure 6 indicates how CBR is correlated to shear strength (horizontal stress). Also shows why the top 125-mm
road layer has to have 80% CBR and beyond 150-mm shear strength requirement is negligible but needs to resist
vertical stress of at least 30 CBR.
Base and Sub-Base
Figure A2-7 indicates Base and Sub-Base layer thickness for different traffic AADT and Sub-Grade
CBR.
Figure 29: A2-6-: CBR- Shear Strength Correlation
Fig. A2‐7: Pavement Design Calculations

Figure 30: A2-7: Pavement Design Calculations
Extra Thickness Required
According to TRL Laboratory Report 673, an estimate of the annual gravel loss is given by the following
equation:
GL = f T2 / (T2 + 50) (4.2 + 0.092 T + 3.50 R2 + 1.88V) Equation A2-2
Source: T. Uganda Road Design Manual; Volume 3 Pavement; Part III Gravel Roads.
Where:
 GL = the annual gravel loss measured in mm;
 T = the total traffic volume in the first year in both directions, measured in thousands of vehicles;
 R = the average annual rainfall measured in m;
 V = the total (rise + fall) as a percentage of the length of the road;
 f = 0.94 to 1.29 for lateritic gravels;
 f = 1.1 to 1.51 for quartzitic gravels;
 f = 0.7 to 0.96 for volcanic gravels (weathered lava or tuff);
 f = 1.5 for coral gravels; and
 f = 1.38 for sandstone gravels.
The predicted annual loss of gravel is evaluated using the relevant values of annual traffic, annual rainfall, vertical
gradient, and gravel constants in the equation.
The interaction between traffic and rainfall contributes significantly to the loss of material from a gravel-surfaced
road. Erosion is frequently manifested in the form of longitudinal gullies along the surface of steep roads with
gradients higher than about five percent and this is especially the case in high rainfall areas.
Annual gravel loss on LVURs will vary between 10-mm and 30-mm per 100 VPD and will be dependent on
climate and road alignment. These rates of gravel loss probably only hold for the first phase of the deterioration
cycle lasting possibly for two (2) or three (3) years. They should not be considered to have validity over a long
period of time. As the pavement layer is reduced in thickness, other developments such as the formation of ruts
will affect the loss of gravel material. However the rates of loss given above can be used as an aid for planning
future re-gravelling.
The total loss of gravel from LVURs in developing countries is increasing annually because of the expanding road
network and the sources of good, road-making gravel continue to dwindle. Already, haulage distances of up to 80
km for gravel exist in many African states and, generally, haulage distances for materials are lengthening.
Total Thickness Required

The wearing course of a new gravel road shall have a thickness D calculated from:
D = D1 + N. GL Equation A2-3
Source: T. Uganda Road Design Manual; Volume 3 Pavement; Part III Gravel Roads.

Where:
D1 is the minimum thickness from Figure 6.2;
N is the period between re-gravelling operations in years; and GL is the annual gravel loss.
Re-gravelling operations should be programmed to ensure that the actual gravel thickness
never falls below the minimum thickness D1.
Improved Sub-Grade Layers

In General the use of improved sub-grade layers has the following advantages:
 Provision of extra protection under heavy axle loads;
 Protection of underlying earthworks;
 Provides running surface for construction traffic;
 Assists compaction of upper pavement layers;
 Provides homogenous sub-grade strength;
 Acts as a drainage filter layer; and
 More economical use of available materials.
Treatment of Expansive Formations

The treatment operations described hereunder should be applied on expansive formations for LVURs whose
AADTdesign is greater than fifty (50) VPD and which are fully engineered LVURs:
Remove the expansive soils.

1. Where the finished road level is designed to be less than two (2) meters above the existing ground level, remove
the expansive soil to a minimum depth, which may be specified by the Engineer, over the full width of the road,
or where the finished road level is designed to be greater than two (2) meters above the existing ground level,
remove the expansive soil to a depth, which may be specified by the Engineer, below the ground level in the
area where the LVUR’s structure will be located; or
2. Where the expansive soil does not exceed one (1) meter in depth, remove it to its full depth.
Stockpile the excavated material on either side of the excavation for subsequent spreading on the embankment
slopes so as to produce as flat a slope as possible.
The excavation formed as directed in paragraph (A) should be backfilled with a plastic, non-expansive
soil of CBR value 3—4 or better, and compacted to a density of 95% AASHTO T 180.
After the excavated material has been replaced with non-expansive material in 150-mm lifts and compacted to 95%
AASHTO T 180 density, bring the road to finished level in approved materials, with a side slope of 1:2, and ensure
that pavement criteria are complied with. The previously stockpiled expansive soil excavated as directed under (1)
should then be spread over the slope.
Do not construct side drains unless they are absolutely essential to stop ponding. Where side drains are necessary,
they should be as shallow as possible and located as far from the toe of the embankment as possible.
Ideally, construction over expansive soil should be done when the in-situ moisture content is at its highest,
i.e. at the end of rainy season.
The treatment operations described hereunder may be applied on expansive formations for LVUR’s whose AADT
design is less than fifty (50) VPD, i.e., LVURs which are not fully engineered:

 Remove 150-mm of expansive topsoil and stockpile conveniently for subsequent use on
shoulder slopes;
 Shape the roadbed and compact to 90% AASHTO T 180; and
 The excavation formed as directed in paragraph (A) should be backfilled with a plastic, non-expansive
soil of CBR value 3 — 4 or better, and compacted to a density of 95% AASHTO T 180 in each 150-
mm layer; the sub-grade material may be plastic but non-expansive.
Pavement Layer Performance Characteristics

The materials for crushed aggregate or lateritic pavement layers should satisfy the following requirements
that are often somewhat conflicting:
(1) They should have sufficient cohesion to prevent raveling and corrugating (especially in dry
conditions); and
(2) The amount of fines (particularly plastic fines) should be limited to avoid a slippery surface
under wet conditions.
References
 AASHTO T 180, Standard Method of Test for Moisture-Density Relations of
Soils.American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C. 20001
 Overseas Road Note 8: A User’s Manual for A Program to Analyse Dynamic Cone
Penetrometer Data. 1990. TRL Limited. Crowthorne, United Kingdom Philippines.
 SADC Guidelines On Low-Volume Sealed Roads. July 2003. Southern African
Development Community. Gaborone, Republic of Botswana;
 Tingle, J. S. and Steve L. Webster. Corps of Engineers Design of Geosynthetic-Reinforced
Unpaved Roads. 2003. Transportation Research Record Paper No. 03-4103. Transportation
Research Board. Washington, D. C. 20418.
 Steward, J. E., R. Williamson, and J. Mohney. Guidelines for Use of Fabrics in
 Construction and Maintenance of Low Volume Roads. Forest Service Report PB-276 972 (also
published as Report FHWA-TS-78-205), USDA, Forest Service, Portland, Ore., 1977.
 Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC). Engineering Use of Geotextiles UFC 3-220-08FA. January
2004. Department of Defense. Washington. D. C.
 Tingle, J. S. and Webster, S. L., Corps of Engineers Design of Geosynthetic-Reinforced
 Unpaved Roads. 2007. Transportation Research Record Paper No. 03-4103. Transportation
Research Board. Washington, D. C. 20418.
 Lay, M. G., Source Book for Australian Roads. 3rd Edition. 1985. Australia Road
 Research Board. Vermont South, Commonwealth of Australia.
 Guyer, J. P., An Introduction to Geotextiles in Pavement and Drainage Applications.
 2000. ©J. Paul Guyer. PDH Online. Fairfax, Virginia 22030.
 Lay, M. G., Source Book for Australian Roads. 3rd Edition. 1985. Australia RoadResearch
Board. Vermont South, Commonwealth of Australia.
 Road Design Manual; Volume 3 Pavement; Part III Gravel Roads. September 2006. Ministry of
Works, Housing, and Communications. Kampala, Republic of Uganda

5.3 Appendix A3 - Geometric Design Considerations –source (LVUR-
USAID Feeder Roads draft).
1. Road Reserve
Article 2: Definitions of Terms, of Law No. 55/2011 of 14/12/2011 Governing Roads in Rwanda, states,
in part:
“5° road reserve: the surface of the ground occupied by the carriageway and all the dependencies essential to its
function namely the surface, the drainage ditches and the slopes, as well as the whole of spaces or ways necessary
for its maintenance or its exploitation.
The road reserve is defined as the space within which all of the road’s improvements is restricted. The internationally
recommended minimum width is fifteen (15) m from center line of the road on either side – thirty (30) m total width.
This recommended road reserve width is neither recommended nor possible for most LVURs in Rwanda due to the
existing road reserves being approximately nine (9) m wide.
Article 16: Width of national roads, Districts and City of Kigali roads and those of other urban areas -
Class 2, states:
“The minimum width of the roadway in Districts and City of Kigali roads and other urban areas - Class 2, not
including drainage ditches and embankments shall be six (6) metres.
“In suburbs and at the entrances of towns, grouped settlements and agglomeration, the width of a road may be increased
when it is deemed necessary.
“In addition to such width, each road must have a large piece of land for drainage ditches, embankments, dumps and
sidewalks on embankments, dumps and sidewalks on all integral parts of the road.”
Hence, at the time the USAID-Guidelines were prepared it was assumed that where ever possible, the
maximum width will be six (6) meters.
2. Carriageway
Table 1 indicates the minimum internationally recommended carriageway cross-sectional width.
Table 163: A3-1: Carriageway Widths
Source: T. Chelliah, Sheladia Associates, Inc. and TRL Low Volume Rural Road Standards and
Specifications SEACAP 3 2008

Shoulder
Shoulders (verges) are effectively merged on LVURs. Their function includes:
 Providing lateral structural support to the LVURs pavement layer;
 Providing a safe margin between the carriageway and the embankment’s side slopes;
 Enhancing visibility and safety;
 Providing space for stopping in an emergency; and
 Allowing wide vehicles to pass safely on single-lane LVURs.
The LVUR’s shoulders should be completely free of any obstructions or obstacles such as culvert headwalls,
sign posts, poles, etc., and should provide a continuous road-side refuge for any vehicle to pull over in
emergency.
In mountainous areas it is sensible to reduce or eliminate shoulders in appropriate circumstances, so long as
adequate drainage provisions are made and vehicle-passing places are provided at regular intervals.
These features are based on a review of international practices, the practicality of construction, the consideration
of local experience, and physical and traffic characteristics in Rwanda. The recommended shoulder width for each
side of the carriageway is one (1) meter, which can be reduced from space constraints, i.e., in mountainous terrain.
Horizontal Alignment
Horizontal Curves
The horizontal alignment of a road is usually a series of tangents and circular curves connected by transition
curves. For the LVURs, curves in the same direction with differing radii without an intervening tangent
should be avoided. The Minimum radius of Horizontal Curves for LVURs according to international
practice and suitable for Rwanda are indicated in Table 2.
Table 164: A3-2: Minimum Curve Radius (m)
Source: T. Chelliah, Sheladia Associates, Inc. and TRL Low Volume Rural Road Standards
and Specifications SEACAP 3 2008
These should however only be used in conjunction with the maximum super elevation of seven
percent (7%).

Cross-Fall
Cross-fall should be sufficient to provide adequate surface drainage while not being so great as to be hazardous
by making steering difficult on slippery or loose surfaces. The ability of a surface to shed water varies with its
smoothness and integrity. On LVURs, the minimum acceptable value of cross-fall should be related to the need
to carry surface water away from the pavement structure effectively, with a maximum value above which erosion
of material starts to become a problem.
Internationally accepted practice and experience and referring to other documents such as Overseas Road Note
No. 6, the minimum cross-fall, also known as camber has been established to be five percent (5%) for the
carriageway in general, with a site-specific maximum value of seven percent (7%).
Extra Widening
Widening is required for two (2) reasons:
 A vehicle traveling on a curve occupies a greater width of pavement than it does on a straight line as the
rear wheels at low speeds track inside the front wheels, and the front overhang reduces the clearance
between passing and overtaking vehicles.
 Vehicles deviate more from the center-line of a lane on a curve than on a straight line. The amount
of widening required depends upon:
o the radius of the curve;
o the width of a lane on a straight road;
o vehicle length and width; and
o vehicle clearance.
For LVURs, the carriageway width should be widened by 0.5 meters for curves of radius of curvature less than
100 to 150 meters. The extra widening should be tapered off in a distance of ten (10) meters beyond the end of
the curve. Widening should be applied on the inside of a curve and be gradually introduced over the length of
the transition.
Vertical Alignment
The longitudinal profile of a road consists of a series of straight grades and vertical curves. Vertical curves are
used to smooth the passage of a vehicle from one grade to another. These curves increase the sight distance over
crests at the junction of the grades. They should be simple in application and should result in a design that is safe,
comfortable in operation, pleasing in appearance and adequate for drainage. For simplicity, the parabolic curve
with an equivalent vertical axis centred on the vertical point of intersection is used.
Convex vertical curves are known as summit or crest curves, and concave vertical curves as sag curves.
The two (2) major aspects of vertical alignment are vertical curvature, which is governed by sight distance and
comfort criteria, and gradient, which is related to vehicle performance and level of service.
Gradient
The minimum longitudinal gradient along the LVUR’s center-line of two percent (2%) is desirable for adequate
drainage. Where this minimum gradient cannot be achieved, severe drainage problems may result as it is very
difficult to lead the drainage water away from the road. The only solution may be very long mitre drains, i.e.,
turnout drains. That, however, often causes trouble because the flow of water will be insufficient to take away
all the silt in the run-off water. In these cases it is necessary to allow for the cost of regular silt removal as part
of the routine maintenance activities.
At the other extreme, for LVURs the desirable maximum longitudinal gradient lies between eight percent (8%)
and ten percent (10%) and steep gradients, i.e., > ten percent (10%), should not exceed a length of one-hundred
(100) meters. Most loaded vehicles are not able to climb gradients steeper than ten percent (10%) on a

LVURs. The maximum gradient for all types of LVURs in Rwanda, if possible, should not
exceed 10%.
Stopping Sight Distance

The assumed values of reaction time and coefficient of longitudinal deceleration enable a notional stopping
distance to be calculated from a given initial speed. If the design speed is used as the initial speed, the stopping
distance would be covered by a vehicle traveling at the design speed for the road section whose driver elected to
stop after perceiving a hazard on the road ahead. This distance is considered to be the minimum sight distance that
should be available to a driver. Stopping sight distances for the rural roads are as follows:
Table 165: A3-3- Stopping Sight Distance (m)
Source: T. Chelliah, Sheladia Associates, Inc. and TRL Low Volume Rural Road Standards
and Specifications SEACAP 3 2008
Vertical Curves
The rate of change of grade to successive points on the curve is a constant amount for equal increments of horizontal
distance, and equals the algebraic difference between the intersecting tangent grades divided by the length of curve
or A/L in percent per metres. The reciprocal L/A is the horizontal distance in metres required to effect a one percent
(1%) change in gradient and is a measure of curvature. This quantity (L/A), termed ‘K’, is used in determining the
horizontal distance from the beginning of the vertical curve to the apex or low point of the curve. The ‘K’ value is
also useful in determining the minimum lengths of vertical curves for the various design speeds.
Table 166: A3-4 : Vertical Curve K-values
Source: T. Chelliah, Sheladia Associates, Inc. and TRL Low Volume Rural Road Standards and
Specifications SEACAP 3 2008

Broken-back profiles consisting of two (2) or more vertical curves in the same direction separated by short
tangents should be avoided. Such profiles are disjointed and look unsightly, especially in sag situations and
should be replaced by single, longer vertical curves. Reversed vertical curves can be designed to have common
vertical tangent points and such practice produces pleasing, flowing grade lines which are more likely to be in
harmony with the natural landform.
In order to achieve a reasonably smooth and aligned road surface without necessary ups and downs it is necessary
to control the levels. Levels have to be finalized keeping in view the HFL (Highest Flood Level), and during
vertical design of the new road, it has to be ensured that the subgrade is at least 0.5 meters up than the HFL.
Considering the present exceptional flood situation over the country, the HFL would be very high, some places
in the range of two (2) to three (3) meters, with respect to the present road level. Therefore to make the design
cost effective, HFL may not be considered, instead previous high flood level from local inquiry would be
considered.
Embankments would have a side slope of 2H:1V to 3H:1V, depending upon the slope stability. However in
case of rehabilitation project where existing pavement crust has to be utilized to the maximum extent possible
to reduce the cost of the rehabilitation work, the final road level has to be raised by 0.3 m from the existing level,
and the material used to do so would have the specification standard of base course. This is considered as
material is lost from the gravel road surface due to the action of rain, traffic wear and dry season dust, which
may occur at the rate of 2-5 cm of thickness per year.
Design-By-Eye
Conventional approaches to design involve precise engineering surveys over the total length of the road as a
basis for producing horizontal and vertical alignments and cross-sections on working drawings from which
quantities are normally calculated. The cost of this approach, which is normally justified for relatively high-
volume standard roads, can hardly be justified for LVURs. Design-by-eye is a relatively simple approach to
design which is intended primarily for the upgrading of existing Low volume roads where the geometry is
adequate. In this approach, the route alignment is chosen “by eye” at the time of construction by experienced
site staff who are aware of the economic, operational and safety consequences of geometric design.
The advantages of the design-by-eye approach include:
 Enables the engineer to fit the alignment to the terrain so that it causes minimum disturbance to
any existing facilities and the adjacent physical environment.
 Obviates the need for a conventional topographic survey of the existing road and
normal plan and profile drawings do not need to be prepared.
 Obviates the need for a conventional topographic survey of the existing road and
normal plan and profile drawings do not need to be prepared.
 Allows the geometry of the road to be described on a simple road location straight-line plan
showing roughly the horizontal alignment with kilometre stationing and possible improvements indicated,
such as sight distances.
 Minimizes earthworks, increases speed of construction and reduces preparatory costs
and, ultimately, construction costs by 10 - 20 per cent.
Can result in a finished product of at least similar quality to the conventional approach.

References
 Law No. 55/2011 of 14 December 2011 Governing Roads in Rwanda.
 Government of Rwanda. Kigali, Republic of Rwanda, 2011..
 SADC Guidelines On Low-Volume Sealed Roads. July 2003.
 Southern Africa Development Community. Gaborone, Republic of Botswana.
5.4 Appendix A4- Bridge Design Checklist

The checklists presented herein are intended to assist managers and designers to review all of the details
that comprise the planning, design, and construction of bridges be they simple structures for LVURs
(Low-Volume Unpaved Roads) or signature-type super-spans of several thousand meters length. The
emphasis in this guideline is, however, towards simple spans whose length does not exceed twelve (12)
meters. Practitioners are referred to the TRL’s Overseas Road Note 9, A Design Manual for Small
Bridges, Second Edition, for an extended discussion of designing low-cost structures for LVURs.
Using these concisely formatted checklists, the design engineer has an at-hand reminder which will assure
that the highest possible quality of design is achieved as well as facilitating the efficient and timely
approval of a bridge’s design. Finally, the designer has the responsibility to assure that there are no errors
and omissions or the possibility of misinterpretations by the construction contractor.
Preliminary Study and Structural Report
The preparation of a bridge’s design is initiated by the collection of site data, soils reports, and hydraulic reports.
These data are the basis upon which the structure is hydraulically and geometrically proportioned.
The preliminary study’s end product is the Structural Report. Generally speaking, there should be one (1)
report for each of the project’s structures unless the Project Engineer may otherwise have authorized. Each
report normally includes the bridge’s type, size, and location. It should document the general plan and
elevation of the structure and general descriptions and treatment of the basic components. The bridge designer
or the Project Engineer should complete the items indicated in the checklists to prepare the Structural Report.
General
 Check all correspondence files and reports to assure the proposed plan agrees with existing
reports.
 Check that the structure fits the current site conditions.
 Pertinent structural dimensions of the existing bridge should be checked if it is to be
incorporated into a new structure.
Design Loads
 Bridges should be designed to ensure that they have adequate structural capacity to
support the heaviest anticipated vehicle or posted for load limits.
 Bridges have to be strong and rigid (without undue flexibility or deflection) to withstand the fol-
lowing forms of loading:

Vertical Loading
 Dead loading from the weight of the bridge itself; and
 Live loading from the users of the bridge.
The vertical design load is the combination of dead load and the highest live load anticipated from the
users of the bridge. The dead load is the distributed weight of the superstructure including decking and
can readily be evaluated. The highest live load is more difficult to estimate and is discussed below.
Live loads
Two (2) aspects of live loading need to be considered:
 The point load applied to the bridge deck by a person’s or animal’s foot or the wheel
of a vehicle, to check the strength of the decking; and
 The load transferred from the decking to the structural members of the superstructure which then
transfer it to the bridge supports. These loads will act as a series of short distributed loads or as a
continuous distributed load spread along the longitudinal members that support the decking.
Side Loading
 From wind pressure;
 Due to users leaning on or bumping against the safety railings; and
 From the possibility of debris carried by the river/stream impacting against the bridge. Note: that
it is only feasible to design against relatively light impacts. If heavy impacts are possible from larger
objects in fast flowing water then the deck clearance should be increased to reduce the risk of impact and
damage.
Wind Loading
Side loading to be considered in the design is wind loading acting on the exposed side faces of the
bridge members and loads applied by users leaning on or bumping against the safety rails and support
posts. Significant impacts from debris will not occur if there is adequate clearance below the bridge.
Plan and Elevation Views
 Provide span lengths, beam types and depths, abutment spacing, skew angle, clearance
and overall dimensions.
 Show the drainage and elevations on the gradient (profile).
 Show the roadway and shoulder dimensions and/or channel widths.
 Show the location and minimum height of vertical clearance and indicate the important
horizontal clearances.
 Show the location of all boreholes and test pits as well as the results of all sampling tests.
 Show the outline(s) of all existing structures, if applicable.
 Show all pipe culverts, drainage structures, etc., near the bridge.
 Show all piers, abutments, wing walls, and retaining walls with appropriate details.
 Show the proposed footing elevations, pile types with load capacities, and the design batter and
bearing pressures allowable for the bridge’s foundations.
 Show high water elevations and the appropriate design year.
 Provide sections at the water table that indicate slope walls and/or slope protection.

Cross-Sections
 Check that the bridge width is correct for the proposed road type.
 Dimension the bridge’s roadway, shoulders, deck, stringers, vertical clearances, etc.
 Show deck drains.
Abutment and Pier Sketches

 Show the type of bridge to be used.
 Show the approach slab and expansion joints.
 Show the type and numbers of bearing assemblies.
 Show the correct number of columns.
 Show any select backfill materials, perforated pipes, and geosynthethic materials that are
proposed for use in or near the abutments and approach slabs.
A l i g n m e nt
 Show the location and drainage, grades, curve data, and elevations of all change points.
 Show the profiles for all roads including those over and under the bridge.
Design Stresses
 Show all field units and precast units.
 Show loads and wearing surfaces.
 Show the design specification notes and seismic data for category and acceleration
coefficients.
Final Drawings
General Plans and Elevations
 Check for conformance with the approved Structural Report.
 Check limits of select backfill materials, pipe drains, and geosynthetic materials at the
abutments and approach slabs.
 Inclusion of applicable general notes.
 Show all slope walls and slope protection.
 Show the limits of temporary sheet piling indicating the top and bottom elevations and lengths.
 Show the bridge’s construction limits.
Footing Layout and Staged Construction Details

 The bridge’s footing layout must be shown.
 Show sketches stage construction and stage as well as the limits of removing the existing
substructure.
 Show the location of temporary barriers and bridge railings.
 Are all non-standard items properly accounted for either by notes on the drawings or in
the project’s special specifications?
 Is the suggested sequence of construction shown when necessary?
Elevations and Details
 Check the fillet details.
 Check the load deflection diagram.
 Check the layout of elevation lines.

 Are the cross sectional dimensions shown correctly?
 Are the crown, steel reinforcement clearances, slab thickness, and grade line location shown on
the cross-sections?
 Check the specification and location of the reinforcement lapping. Show notes for the
epoxy coating of bars.
 Show expansion joint requirements and details.
 Show drainage system and details.
Parapets and Railings

 Show parapet details at the top of the roadway and curbs, joint locations, curb joints,
and expansion joint treatments.
 Show only approved and tested railings.
Framing Plan and Stringer Details

 The framing plans for steel structures must show the spacing for stringers, diaphragms, and cross
frames.
 Stringer sizes must be checked for the strength and constructability design requirement.
 Show weld sizes, flange transitions, shear studs, diaphragms, cross-frame details, and
splice designs and locations.
 Show the bearing details and camber diagrams for the stringers.
 Show the framing plans for reinforced and pre-stressed concrete beams.
 Pre-stressed concrete beams must be evaluated to assure economical design has been
achieved.
 For pre-stressed concrete beams, show the strand layout, tendon draping details, drain
inserts, and steel reinforcement lists, details, and notes.
Abutment Details
 Design the piles or spread footings for the site’s design loading conditions and show
dimensions and reinforcement for these.
 Elevations must be to two (2) decimal places.
 Show pile capacity, length, number and pile test requirements.
 Show step and bottom of cap elevations.
 Show wing wall details.
 Quantify the structural excavation for each abutment.
 Check pile capacities and lengths and soil pressure against the foundations.

Pier Details
 Detail stage construction.
 Are the piles and/or spread footing soil pressure for the allowable loadings?
 Is the design of footing sizes, steel reinforcement, columns, and caps adequate for the
applicable loads?
 Check shear requirements. Investigate the need for cofferdams at stream crossings and high water
tables.
 Details of pile capacity and lengths, or soil pressure should be shown in accordance with
recommendations.
 Quantify the structure excavation to be shown for the individual pier.
 Are epoxy coated bars used throughout?
References
 Overseas Road Note 9, 2nd Edition: A Design Manual for Small Bridges. 2000.
TRLLimited. Crowthorne, United Kingdom.
 Footbridges: A Manual for Construction at Community and District Level
RuralAccessibility. Technical Paper (RAPT) Series No. 11. 2004. International Labour
Office, Geneva, Switzerland.
 Keller, G. and Shearer, J., Low-Volume Roads Engineering, Best Management
 Practices Field Guide. July 2003. USDA Forest Service, for the United States Agency
for International Development, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University.
Blacksburg, Virginia.
5.5 Appendix 5: Lao’s Low Volume Rural Road design

approach
Table 167: A5-1: Lao's Terrain Classification
Terrain Number of 5 Description

Metre
Level or gently rolling terrain with largely
Flat 0-10 unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment.
Rolling 11-25 Rolling terrain with low hills introducing moderate
levels of rise and fall with some restrictions on
i l li
Mountainou >25 Rugged, hilly or mountainous terrain with substantial
s restrictions on both horizontal and vertical alignment
It is appreciated that there will be some severe constraints on horizontal and vertical
geometry for some basic access alignments in mountainous terrain and that some relaxation
of standards may be required in specific cases where alternatives of high embankment or
deep cut are neither practicable nor economically appropriate.

Unsealed road sustainability
Engineers have traditionally relied on the use of unsealed natural gravel/laterite as a rural
road surface, due to its initial low costs and simplicity of construction. However recent
regional research confirms the serious problems relating to maintenance and sustainability
of such surfaces in many road environment situations common in South East Asia. There
are also health and environmental concerns regarding the widespread use of gravel as a
road surface.
Gravel is a ‘wasting’ surface and as such material is lost from the surface of the road due
to the erosive actions of traffic, flooding and rainfall. Unsealed gravel should ideally only
be used for rural road surface applications in situations where sustainability conditions are
fulfilled. These are summarized below:
 Adequate maintenance is guaranteed – Gravel is a high maintenance surface requiring
both routine reshaping/grading and expensive periodic re-gravelling. The regular
maintenance of cross-sectional shape is a particular requirement that must form part of
routine maintenance programmes.
 Gravel quality adequate – Gravel should comply with grading and plasticity
requirements and not break down under traffic, otherwise it will be lost from the surface
at a high rate. Gravel quality varies substantially within each pit location. Great care is
essential to ensure that only suitable material is selected, and that mixing in of
marginal/unsuitable material is avoided.
 Adequate gravel deposits are available – Gravel is a natural and finite resource,
usually occurring in limited quantities. Once deposits are used up, subsequent
periodic re-gravelling will involve longer hauls and higher maintenance costs.
 Compaction and thickness is assured – Poorly compacted gravel will be less durable.
Supervision arrangements should ensure that the full specified compacted thickness is
placed.
 Haul distances are short – Hauling gravel for construction and periodic maintenance
causes damage or further maintenance liabilities to the haul routes.
 Low to moderate rainfall – Gravel loss is related to rainfall and may be excessive
with intense storms or where annual precipitation is greater than 2000mm.
 No dry season dust problems – Long dry seasons can allow the binding fines to be
removed from the surface by traffic or wind. This is a particular problem where
communities live beside the road or their crops and property are regularly coated in
dust. Inhalation of road dust is unhealthy and there are also safety-visibility issues.
 Low traffic levels – Gravel loss is related to traffic flows. It is unlikely that a gravel
surface will be cost-effective at traffic flows of more than 200 motor (2 or more axles)
vehicles per day.
 Low Longitudinal Gradients – Gravel should not be used in on gradients more than
6% (LVRR Standards and Specifications Part I: Table 3). In medium to high rainfall
areas (1500-2000mm/yr) gravel loss by erosion will be high on gradients more than
4%.

Even in simple combinations of some of the above factors, gravel can be lost from the road
surface at more than 30mm per year, leading to the need to re-gravel at very frequent
intervals. The funding, resources and capacities are usually not available to achieve this
and the surface will invariably deteriorate and revert to an earth surface.
Traffic and traffic growth

The proposed LVRR pavement design process utilizes a simplified division of traffic
impacting within the road design life, into Traffic Group A and Traffic Group B, with the
former being essentially light traffic with an esa of up 10,000 and the latter incorporating
slightly larger vehicles (up 4.5T axle load) with an esa up 100,000. Although the road
designer is therefore left only with the task of deciding into which of these two groups his
road falls, there still remains a number of important decisions involving the following:
 The volume and make-up of traffic on an existing road
 The estimated traffic for a new road
 The increase in traffic and change in traffic mix within the designated
design life
 The risk of axle loads above 4.5T
The measurement of existing traffic is a standard and straightforward process that should
be carried out, where possible, prior, to any detailed design process.
The risk of high axle loads can probably best be assessed on the basis of local knowledge
of, for example, likely logging or quarrying operations that could involve heavy truck
operations.
Detailed alignment assessment

Some form of investigation or assessment of the condition of the existing road or proposed
LVRR alignment will be necessary to provide required information for the detailed design
of the pavement, drainage and any required earthworks. Data sets that should be collected
include the following:
 Condition of any existing pavement or road surface
 Subgrade strength – the worst case soaked condition measured by in situ testing
or by fully representative sampling and laboratory testing
 Existing or required side drainage
 Existing or required cross drainage
 Water table information including likelihood of flooding
 Terrain as it impacts on horizontal or vertical geometry
 Detailed construction material properties
Typical standard forms and outline procedures are included in Appendices F (Road
Environment Assessment.

Unsealed Gravel
The structural design of the LVRR unsealed gravel roads has been based on the work
carried out by the research station of the United States Army Corps of Engineers. For the
armed forces the traffic carrying capacity of a soil is critical. An army needs to know
whether a soil will carry vehicles for long enough for all of its equipment to pass through
a critical point or whether a strengthened road needs to be built. Much of the knowledge
concerning the relationship between soil strength, wheel loads, tire pressures, and traffic
carrying potential of soils and aggregates derives from this research. The latest
publication on this subject is entitled ‘Aggregate surfaced roads and airfield areas’ and
was published as part of the Unified Facilities Criteria (UFC 3-250-09FA) in 2004.
The thicknesses derived from this procedure do not take account of gravel that is lost
during use and therefore an additional thickness is required to ensure that the subgrade is
protected throughout the life of the surfacing before re-gravelling is carried out. Table1 in
Part II of the LVRR Standards and Specifications has included an allowance of 100 mm
and the gravel layer has been divided into a surfacing component and a capping layer.
Furthermore, the subgrade categories have been combined for practical purposes. This
means, in effect, that for subgrade strengths greater than the minimum in each subgrade
class, there is a small safety margin. If the thicknesses of gravel that are selected exceed
the values in Table 1 in Part II, then the road will not require to be graveled so soon.
TRAFFIC ASSESSMENT
General
For pavement design we are interested in the number of commercial vehicles only. These
are the small and medium trucks with up to about 4.5Tonnes on the rear axle. Heavy
vehicles have been excluded from this standard. We are also interested in the smaller
commercial vehicles as well. They add volume and some loading to the road.
The traffic loading is determined by summing the AADT traffic in each of the two classes
(small and medium trucks) in the design period and applying growth and loading factors. It
should be remembered that these are single-lane roads and the traffic is expected to be
channeled. This means that the AADT is used, instead of the loading in the most heavily
loaded direction, and the result is increased further to account for the channeling. Finally the
sum of the traffic in the small and medium truck classes is summed to obtain the number to
enter into the pavement design chart.
Table 168: A5-2: Calculation for Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Loading, ESA
Loading
AADT Traffic Channeling Factor Total
Growth (esa/vehicle) esa’s
Total of small
trucks (<1.8m Apply Multiply x 1.5 0.01 Result
body width). growth factor
and obtain
Total of total for
medium trucks design period Multiply x 1.5 0.1 Result
( >1.8m body (12 years)
width)
Total for pavement Sum of
selection the above
two
results

In the calculation for the design traffic, lighter 4-wheeled vehicles are ignored in the
calculation (as shown in the table above) because they do not contribute significantly to
pavement loading.
If necessary the traffic can be calculated more accurately by applying the commonly used
equation to determine the cumulative axle loading, namely
esa for an axle = (measured axle load/8.16T)4.5
This process should be carried out if significant overloading is suspected.
ROAD ENVIRONMENT ASSESSMENT
Road Environment Data Sheet

Road Environment Data Sheet that should be completed as part of the road walk-over
survey on candidate roads. The basic sheet may be modified to meet specific project
requirements, however the key data sets are:
 Junctions (roads, dykes, canals etc)
 Location of existing bridges, culverts
 Location of buildings likely to be effected by road construction
 Existence of any side ditches.
 Existing road widths
 Existing shoulder width
 Existing pavement material type
 Existing sub-grade material
 Existing pavement or sub-grade strength (see following section)
 Estimate of existing access conditions : (index).
 Excellent, 2-Wheel Drive car in all weather
 Good, 2WD car in dry season
 Fair, 4WD in all weather
 Poor, 4WD in dry season only
 Failed, Not passable by 4WD.
 Description of any road damage
 Earthworks – is road in cut or on embankment
 Indication of potential or existing borrow areas or quarries
 Current alignment gradient
 Estimation of groundwater level (eg observation of rice field, river, pond, lake)
 Flooding: estimation of depth and how often this happens

Sampling should be in line with the following guideline:
 Small soil samples at every section: about 2kg.
 5 kg sample for clay, sandy clay. (Check enough for grading and plasticity)
 15kg sample for gravel, sand
 Large bulk soil sample when sub- 1. Handle 2. 8kg Hammer

grade laboratory CBR testing required. 3. Hammer shaft 4. Coupling
5. Handguard 6. Clamp ring
7. Standard shaft 8.1m rule
9. 60 degree cone
Subgrade Strength –In situ Testing by 1

Dynamic Cone Penetrometer (DCP)
When available the DCP may be used to estimate
the sub-grade conditions along the road. The DCP
2
values correlate well with CBR values. If DCP
equipment is not available then obvious areas of
possible weak sub-grade should be identified.
3
The DCP is an instrument designed for the rapid
in-situ measurement of the structural properties of
existing road pavements constructed with 4
unbound materials (Figure F1). Continuous
strength measurements can be made down to a 5
depth of approximately 850 mm or, when
extension shafts are used to a recommended 6
maximum depth of 2 metres. Where pavement
layers have different strengths the boundaries can
be identified and the thickness of the layers 7
determined. Correlations have been established
between measurements with the DCP and CBR
(California Bearing Ratio) so that results can be 8
interpreted and compared with CBR specifications
for pavement design. A typical test takes only a 9
few minutes and therefore the instrument provides
a very efficient method of obtaining information.
DCP readings should normally be taken every Figure 31: A5-1: The Assembled DCP
250m (2 at each chainage sunk at least 500mm or
refusal). This spacing may be increased to 500m in
cases where there is no change in terrain,
earthworks or general environment. Samples
should be taken for examination and possible
testing at DCP section locations.
The design of the DCP uses an 8Kg weight
dropping through a height of 575mm and a 600.
cone having a diameter of 20mm.
After assembly, the first task is to record the zero
reading of the instrument. This is done by standing
the DCP on a hard surface, such as concrete,
checking that it is vertical and then entering the
zero reading in the appropriate place on the test
sheet (Form F2).
The DCP needs three operators, one to hold
theDCP instrument, one to raise and drop the
weight and one to record the results. The
instrument is held vertically with the weight just
touching the handle, but not lifting the instrument.
The operator then lets it fall freely. If during the
test the DCP leaves the vertical, no attempt should
be made to correct this as contact between the
bottom shaft and the sides of the hole will give
rise to erroneous results.
It is normal practice to take a reading after a set
number of blows. It is therefore necessary to
change the number of blows between readings
according to the strength of the layer being
penetrated. For good quality granular bases
readings every 5 or 10 blows are normally
satisfactory but for the weaker sub-base layers and
sub-grade readings every 1 or 2 blows may be
appropriate. There is no disadvantage in taking too
many readings, but if too few are taken, weak spots
may be missed and it will be more difficult to
identify layer boundaries accurately hence
important information will be lost.

Little difficulty is normally experienced with the penetration of most types of granular
materials. It is more difficult to penetrate granular materials with large particles and very
dense, high quality crushed stone. The instrument has been designed for strong materials and
therefore the operator should persevere with the test. Penetration rates as low as 0.5mm/blow
are acceptable but if there is no measurable penetration after 20 consecutive blows it can be
assumed that the DCP will not penetrate the materials. If only occasional difficulties are
experienced in penetrating granular materials it is worthwhile repeating any failed tests a short
distance away from the original test point.
If the DCP is used extensively for hard materials, wear on the cone itself will be accelerated.
The cone is a replaceable item and it is recommended by many authorities that replacement
be made when the diameter has reduced by 10 percent. However other causes of wear can also
occur hence the cone should be inspected before every test. Typically the cone will need
replacing after about 10 holes in hard material and in the absence of damage other than
shoulder wear this is the recommended practice
The results of the DCP test are usually recorded on the field test and the results can then
either be interpreted by hand calculator or transferred to a standard EXCEL-type spread-
sheet and processed by computer, Figure F2. Alternatively, there is now available a DFID
funded TRL computer programme that can now be used to calculate not only layer depths
and CBRs but other related relationships and plots. This programme may be downloaded
via www.transport-links.org,
The boundaries between layers are easily identified by the change in the rate of penetration.
The thickness of the layers can usually be obtained to within 10mm except where it is
necessary to core (or drill holes) through materials to obtain access to the lower layers. In
these circumstances the top few millimetres of the underlying layer is often disturbed
slightly and appears weaker than normal.
Several similar relationships between the DCP readings and CBR have been obtained; the
one currently used by the TRL is as follows:
TRL, Overseas Road Note 18 (60o cone) Log10(CBR) = 2.480 – 1.057
Log10(mm/blow)
Agreement is generally good over most of the range but differences are apparent at low
values of CBR, especially for fine grained materials. It should be remembered that DCP-
CBR figure refers to a specific index strength for specific in situ conditions of moisture and
density and great care needs to be taken in relating this to laboratory based CBR values.
Therefore if precise values are needed, it is advisable to calibrate the DCP for the materials
in question. Nevertheless, if the testing is undertaken at worst case soaked (rainy season)
conditions it will give a reasonable representative picture of existing actual pavement or
sub-grade strength conditions.
Laboratory CBR Testing

Laboratory testing of samples from the alignment will index strength values related to
particular moisture-density conditions, rather than existing in situ conditions. The subgrade
of a potential subsection should be sampled at initially, say, 0.5km intervals and near to the
boundary of every visible soil change. At every test location remove topsoil and take
individual samples of each layer that is visually different. The test pits will never be less
that 0.3m depth and more usually 0.5m depth. Classification compaction and soaked CBR
tests should be carried out on each sample.
From at least three CBR results within any selected section, compare the results of the
classification and compaction tests to confirm on that the materials are similar. Then select
the lowest soaked CBR value as the subgrade CBR for pavement design. If they are not
similar then reassess and change the selection of the sub-sections along the alignment, obtain
more samples for laboratory testing as necessary, and repeat the process.

Table 169: A5-2 Standard DCP Field Sheet
SITE/ROAD DATE
TEST NO
SECTION NO/CHAINAGE DCP ZERO READING mm
DIRECTION TEST STARTED AT
WHEEL PATH
No OF TOTAL READING No OF TOTAL READING No OF TOTAL READING

BLOWS BLOWS mm BLOWS BLOWS mm BLOWS BLOWS mm

Table 170: A5-3 - Hue-DCP Field Sheet
Site/Ro
ad Phu Loc Road Date 19/11/2002
Test No. PL.07 Operator Ph1m Gia TuÊn
Site Location Zero Reading (C0) 107.0
Test Location RS Depth of Start 0.0

Total Total Total
No.Blo Blo Penetration Corrected ΔPen Pen/blow LogP No CBR
w w (mm) Penetration
a b c d e f g h j
107
2 2 174 67 67 33.5 1.5250 0.8680 7.4
3 5 259 152 85 28.33333 1.4523 0.9449 8.8
5 10 406 299 147 29.4 1.4683 0.9280 8.5
5 15 570 463 164 32.8 1.5159 0.8777 7.5
3 18 750 643 180 60.0 1.7782 0.6005 4.0
2 20 890 783 140 70.0 1.8451 0.5297 3.4
Formulas for Excel
a b c d e f g h i
Blow s CBR %
0 5 10 15 20 h=2.48-
Input bn=an+an-1
Input
dn=cn-c 0 e25n=dn-dn-1 f = e/a 0
g=log 2
10(f)
4 6
1.057*g
8 10
i=10*h
0 0
100 100
200 200
300 300
400 400
Depth(mm)
Depth(mm)
500 500
600 600
700 700
800 800
900 900
Figure 32: A5-2- Typical Excel Calculations Sheet and Plots for DCP Data

Useful Equipment
The following equipment is recommended for an alignment survey:
 Camera
 DCP
 GPS
 Shovel, hoe, trowel,
 Tape-measure 50m,
 Straight edge 2m, spirit level (?)
 Small plastic bags (2kg).
 Big plastic bags (5kg, 15kg).
 Pens, papers for sample cards.
 Forms (Survey, DCP, traffic)
 Bulk sample jute bags.
 The map of road location
Figure 33: A5-3: Typical Water Impacts on Mountainous Road Section
Water runs down Rain falling on fill

cut slope and portion permeates
across cut half of through the soil
road bench mass Uncompacted fill is
also liable to surface
erosion or mass
Steep cut slope: slumps
increased risk of
slope failure
Half road bench cut

in original ground
(more consolidated,
less permeable) Half road bench
formed in fill (less
consolidated and
more permeable)
Fill tipped on unbenched
Potential failures
slope: original surface forms a
hydrologically active plane
Water flows and may act as a slip plane

PAVEMENT DESIGN ISSUES
Objective
This Appendix provides some background to the LVRR pavement design matrices presented in Part
II and elaborated in Part III of the LVVR Standards and Specifications.
Gravel Wearing Course Design Approach

As noted in Section 4.2 of the main document, the structural design of gravel roads has been based
on the work carried out by the research station of the United States Army Corps of Engineers
(USACE). The design procedure in their research consists of five steps,
 Defining the class of road based on overall traffic volume,
 Deciding on the category of traffic that will use the road based on traffic
composition i.e. the types of vehicles, their weights and their percentage in the traffic stream,
 Combining (a) and (b) into a design ‘index’,
 Estimating the subgrade strength

 Using (c) and (d) in a design chart that determines the gravel thickness
directly
The class of road used in the USACE research is defined in Table A5-4
Table 171 : A5-4- USACE Road Classes
Road Class AADT

A 10,000
B 8,400-10,000
C 6,300-8,400
D 2,100-6,300
E 210-2,100
F 70-210
G < 70
The USACE traffic categories based on composition are divided into three Groups, but more
importantly, also into four categories as shown in Table A5-5. Finally the design ‘index’ is selected
from Table A5-6 and the thickness from Figure A5-4.

Figure 34:-A5-4, USACE Design Chart

Table 172: A5-5: USACE Traffic Categories
Traffic Group Category Description

1 Cars and pick-ups
2 2- axled trucks
3 3, 4 and 5-axled trucks
I Mainly Group 1. Less than 1% Group 2
II Mainly Group 1. Less than 10% Group 2
III As much as 15% Group 2 and <1% Group 3
IV As much as 25% Groups 2 and 3 but < 10% Group 3
IVA > 25% Groups 2 and 3 or >10% Group 3
Table 173:A5-6- USACE Design Index
Road Class Category I Category II Category III Category IV

A 3 4 5 6
B 3 4 5 6
C 3 4 4 6
D 2 3 4 5
E 1 2 3 4
F 1 1 2 3
G 1 1 1 2
Table 174: A5-7- USACE Gravel Roads Minimum Thicknesses
Subgrade CBR Index 1 Index 2

2 240 300
3 190 230
4 155 190
5 135 165
6 115 145
7 105 130
8 100 120
9 100 115
10 100 110
>12 100 100
The traffic categories representing the traffic composition on the rural roads in Lao are categories
I, II and III. The basic design indices are therefore ‘1’ and ‘2’. The resulting thicknesses are shown
in Table A5-7 If the thicknesses fall below these levels then the subgrade will deform and more
extensive deterioration will occur. The thicknesses in Table A5-7 are the basis, together with an

additional “wearing allowance”, for the LVRR recommended unsealed gravel thicknesses in Part II
of LVRR Standards and Specifications.
Gravel Wearing Course (GWC) Loss in Service

SEACAP regional research has indicated the variable levels of in-service gravel loss that are likely to
be experienced in Lao. This loss has to be made-up by appropriate re-gravelling during the life of an
unsealed road if the minimum wearing course thickness is to be maintained.
As discussed in Section 4.2 of the main text, a standard additional of 100mm of wearing course has
been allowed for over and above the minimum required thickness. The amount and frequency of
required re-gravelling is dependent on the rate of gravel erosion and Table G5 presents a summary
potential gravel loss based on SEACAP research in Vietnam (Cook and Petts, 2005).
When the residual thickness state of the gravel road is reached, it will then very rapidly deteriorate
both at the surface by punching into the capping layer and at the subgrade. Therefore, if the anticipated
gravel loss is unlikely to be matched by appropriate re-gravelling, then consideration should be given
to an initial thickness of construction greater than the minimum recommendation of 200mm.While it
is expected that rates of gravel loss in Lao will be similar to the Vietnam experience, Table A5-8, it
should be noted that an additional gravel loss may arise from the regional factor if marginal materials
are used in the GWC.
Table 175: A5-8- LVRR Gravel Loss Matrix
Terrain Region River plain River Plain Flat Rolling small Hilly and
Subject to Minimal hills mountainous
flood flood
1. Basic Gravel 40 25 30 20 35
Loss (mm/year)
2. Key Marginal Marginal Marginal Gradient Sheet erosion

Region material material material (See Note 1)
al
Factor Add 15mm/year add 5 add 10 2-4%: add 5 A: add
mm/year mm/year mm/year 5mm/year
Adjustment to
Basic Loss for 4-6%: add10 B: add 15
Regional mm/year mm/year
Factor
Gradient C: add 30
above 6% not mm/year
recommended
Note 1. Sheet A = Gradient <2% subject to Sheet flooding means that water covers the road surface
erosion minor sheet flooding due to flooding from surrounding ground and not just the
rainwater that falls directly on the road surface.
B = Gradient 2-4% subject to
regular sheet flooding
C = Gradient >4% subject to

regular sheet flooding
3. Additional loss of +15% for Traffic Group B

5.6 Appendix A6- Method of distribution of super-elevation
and side friction (AASHTO)
Five methods of distribution have been developed in the AASHTO policy on geometric
Design of highways and Streets. Of the five methods, the 5th. method is the most
representative and is developed hereafter.

Figure 35: A6-1- Procedure for development of Method for Superelevation Distribution
From this procedure, the following set of curves for different elevations are obtained:

Figure 36 : A6-2- Superelevation as a Function of radius of Curvature (m), emax= 4% (AASHTO)
Figure 37: A6-3- Super-elevation as a function of radius of Curve (m), emax= 6% (AASHTO)

Figure 38: A6-4: Super-elevation as a function of Radius of Curve (m), emax: 8% (AASHTO)
Figure 39: A6-5- Super-elevation as a Function of Radius of Curve (m), emax=10% (AASHTO)

5.7 Appendix A7 - Design super-elevation tables (AASHTO)

Determine e given VD=80 km/h and emax= 8%
Table 176: A7-1- Mininimum Radii for Design Superelevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax= 4%
(AASHTO)

Table 177: A7-2- Minimum Radii for Design Super-elevation rates, Design Speeds and emax= 6% (AASHTO

Table 178: A7-3- Minimum Radii for design Super-elevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax= 8%
(AASHTO)

Table 179: A7-4- Minimum Radii for Design Super-elevation Rates, Design Speeds and emax=10%
(AASHTO

5.8. Appendix A8- Off-tracking (AASHTO)
Design values for widening on horizontal curve
Lateral clearance of a vehicle
The width of overhang

Figure 40: A8-1- Track Width for Widening of Travelled Way on Curves (AASHTO)

Figure 41: A8-2- Front Overhang for Widening of Traveled Way on Curves (AASHTO)
The width of the rear overhang
The extra width allowance

Figure 42: A8-3- Extra Width Allowance for Difficulty of Driving on Travelled Way on Curves (AASHTO)

5.9 Appendix A9- Travelled way widening for Horizontal curves
(AASHTO)

Figure 43: A9-1- Widening Components on Open Highway Curves (Two-Lanes Highway, One-Way or Two-
Way)- (AASHTO)

Table 180: A9-1- Calculated and Design Values for Travelled Way Widening on Highway curves (Two-Lane
Highways, One-way or Two-Way, AASHTO)

Table 181: A9-2- Adjustments for Travelled Way Widening Values on Open Highway Curves (Two-Lane
Highways, One-Way or Two-Way, AASHTO)

5.10 Appendix A10 – Turning Roadway Widths (AASHTO)

Table 182: A10-1- Design widths of Pavements for Turning Roadways (AASHTO)

Table 183: A10-2- Design Vehicle Combinations for Values Calculations in Table 92:A10-1
Table 184: A10-3- Design Vehicle Combinations for Values Calculations in Table 92: A10-1 with Variations
as stated in preceding paragraph (AASHTO)

5.11 Appendix A11- General Controls for horizontal Alignment
(AASHTO)

5.12 Appendix A12- General Controls for vertical Alignments

Combination of horizontal and vertical alignment
General design control

6.0 INDEX
Definitions and term (Source: from Low Volume Roads Best Management Practice)
I. ROAD COMPONENTS
Figure 44: I1- Terms Used to Define Low Volume Roads (Cross-Section)
Base Course - See Section II below.
Berm - A ridge of rock, soil, or asphalt, typically along the outside edge of the road shoulder, used to
control surface water. It directs surface runoff to specific locations where water can be removed
from the road surface without causing erosion.
Buttress - A structure designed to resist lateral forces. It is typically constructed of large riprap rock,
gabions, or drained soil to support the toe of a slope in an unstable area.
Cross-Section - A drawing depicting a section of the road sliced across the whole width of the road
(See Figure I.2 above). Can also apply to a stream, a slope, or a slide.
Cut Slope (Back Slope or Cut Bank) - The artificial face or slope cut into soil or rock along the inside
edge of the road.
Cut-and-fill - A method of road construction in which a road is built by cutting into the hillside and spreading the
spoil materials in adjacent low spots and as compacted or side-cast fill slope material along the route. A
“balanced cut-and-fill” utilizes all of the “cut” material to generate the “fill”. In a balanced cut-and-fill
design there is no excess waste material and there is no need for hauling additional fill material. Thus cost
is minimized.
Ditch (Side Drain) - A channel or shallow canal along the road intended to collect water from the road and
adjacent land for transport to a suitable point of disposal. It is commonly along the inside edge of the
road. It also can be along the outside edge or along both sides of the road.
End Haul - The removal and transportation of excavated material off-site to a stable waste area (rather
than placing the fill material near the location of excavation).
Embankment (Fill) - Excavated material placed on a prepared ground surface to construct the road
subgrade and roadbed template.
Fill Slope (Embankment Slope) - The inclined slope extending from the outside edge of the road shoulder to
the toe (bottom) of the fill. This is the surface formed where material is deposited to build the road.
Full Bench Cut and End Haul - A method of road construction in which a road is built entirely by cutting
away the slope, and the excess material is hauled away (end hauled) to an off-site disposal area.
Grade (Gradient) - The slope of the road along its alignment. This slope is expressed in percent - the
ratio of elevation change compared to distance traveled. For example, a +4% grade indicates a gain of 4
units of measure in elevation for every 100 units of measure traveled.
Low-Volume Road - A type of transportation system typically constructed to manage or extract resources from
rural or undeveloped areas. These unique systems are designed to accommodate low traffic volumes with
potentially extreme axle loads. They are commonly defined as having less than 400 ADT (Average Daily Traffic).
Natural Ground (Original Ground Level) - The natural ground surface of the terrain that existed
prior to disturbance and/or road construction.
Plan View (Map View) - View seen when looking from the sky towards the ground. A drawing with
this view is similar to what a bird would see when flying over a road.
Reinforced Fill - A fill that has been-provided with tensile reinforcement through frictional contact with the
surrounding soil for the purpose of greater stability and load carrying capacity. Reinforced fills are comprised of
soil or rock material placed in layers with reinforcing elements to form slopes, walls, embankments, dams or other
structures. The reinforcing elements range from simple vegetation to specialized products such as steel strips, steel
grids, polymeric geogrids and geotextiles.
Retaining Structure - A structure designed to resist the lateral displacement of soil, water, or any other
type of material. It is commonly used to support a roadway or gain road width on steep terrain. They are
often constructed of gabions, reinforced concrete, timber cribs, or mechanically stabilized earth.
Right-of-Way (ROW) - The strip of land over which facilities such as roads, railroads, or power lines are
built. Legally, it is an easement that grants the right to pass over the land of another.
Road Center Line - An imaginary line that runs longitudinally along the center of the road.
Roadbed - Width of the road used by vehicles including the shoulders, measured at the top of subgrade.
Roadway (Construction Limits or Formation Width) - Total horizontal width of land affected by
the construction of the road, from the top of cut slope to the toe of fill or graded area.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS: xiii
Side-Cast Fill - Excavated material pushed on a prepared or unprepared slope next to the excavation
to construct the roadbed. The material is usually not compacted.
Slope Ratio (Slope) - A way of expressing constructed slopes as a ratio of horizontal distance to vertical
rise, such as 3:1 (3 m horizontal for every 1 m vertical rise or fall).
Shoulder - The paved or unpaved strip along the edge of the traveled way of the road. An inside
shoulder is adjacent to the cut slope. An outside shoulder is adjacent to an embankment slope.
Subgrade - See Section II below.

Surface Course (Surfacing) - See Section II below.
Fill Slope (Embankment Slope) - The inclined slope extending from the outside edge of the road shoulder to
the toe (bottom) of the fill. This is the surface formed where material is deposited to build the road.
Full Bench Cut and End Haul - A method of road construction in which a road is built entirely by cutting
away the slope, and the excess material is hauled away (end hauled) to an off-site disposal area.
Grade (Gradient) - The slope of the road along its alignment. This slope is expressed in percent - the
ratio of elevation change compared to distance traveled. For example, a +4% grade indicates a gain of 4
units of measure in elevation for every 100 units of measure traveled.
Low-Volume Road - A type of transportation system typically constructed to manage or extract resources from
rural or undeveloped areas. These unique systems are designed to accommodate low traffic volumes with
potentially extreme axle loads. They are commonly defined as having less than 400 ADT (Average Daily Traffic).
Natural Ground (Original Ground Level) - The natural ground surface of the terrain that existed
prior to disturbance and/or road construction.
Plan View (Map View) - View seen when looking from the sky towards the ground. A drawing with
this view is similar to what a bird would see when flying over a road.
Reinforced Fill - A fill that has been-provided with tensile reinforcement through frictional contact with the
surrounding soil for the purpose of greater stability and load carrying capacity. Reinforced fills are comprised of
soil or rock material placed in layers with reinforcing elements to form slopes, walls, embankments, dams or other
structures. The reinforcing elements range from simple vegetation to specialized products such as steel strips, steel
grids, polymeric geogrids and geotextiles.
Retaining Structure - A structure designed to resist the lateral displacement of soil, water, or any other
type of material. It is commonly used to support a roadway or gain road width on steep terrain. They are
often constructed of gabions, reinforced concrete, timber cribs, or mechanically stabilized earth.
Right-of-Way (ROW) - The strip of land over which facilities such as roads, railroads, or power lines are
built. Legally, it is an easement that grants the right to pass over the land of another.
Road Center Line - An imaginary line that runs longitudinally along the center of the road.
Roadbed - Width of the road used by vehicles including the shoulders, measured at the top of subgrade.
Roadway (Construction Limits or Formation Width) - Total horizontal width of land affected by
the construction of the road, from the top of cut slope to the toe of fill or graded area.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS: xiii
Side-Cast Fill - Excavated material pushed on a prepared or unprepared slope next to the excavation
to construct the roadbed. The material is usually not compacted.
Slope Ratio (Slope) - A way of expressing constructed slopes as a ratio of horizontal distance to vertical
rise, such as 3:1 (3 m horizontal for every 1 m vertical rise or fall).
Shoulder - The paved or unpaved strip along the edge of the traveled way of the road. An inside
shoulder is adjacent to the cut slope. An outside shoulder is adjacent to an embankment slope.
Subgrade - See Section II below.

Surface Course (Surfacing) - See Section II below.
Traveled Way (Carriageway) - That portion of the road constructed for use by moving vehicles
including traffic lanes and turnouts (excluding shoulders).
Through Cut - A road cut through a hill slope or, more commonly, a ridge, in which there is a cut slope
on both sides of the road.
Through Fill - Opposite of a through cut, a through fill is a segment of road that is entirely composed of fill
material, with fill slopes on both sides of the road.
II. ROAD STRUCTURAL SECTION AND MATERIALS
Figure 45: I2- Road Structure Section and Materials
Base Course (Base) - This is the main load-spreading layer of the traveled way. Base course material normally consists
of crushed stone or gravel or of gravelly soils, decomposed rock, sands and sandy clays stabilized with cement, lime
or bitumen.
Borrow Pit (Borrow Site) - An area where excavation takes place to produce materials for earthwork,
such as a fill material for embankments. It is typically a small area used to mine sand, gravel, rock, or soil
without further processing.
Quarry - A site where stone, riprap, aggregate, and other construction materials are extracted. The material often
has to be excavated with ripping or blasting, and the material typically needs to be processed by crushing or
screening to produce the desired gradation of aggregate.
Raveling - A process where coarse material on the road surface comes loose and separated from the
roadbed because of lack of binder or poor gradation of material. The term also applies to a slope where
rock or coarse material comes loose and falls down the cut or fill slope.

Sub-Base - This is the secondary load-spreading layer underlying the base. It normally consists of a material that
has lower strength and durability than that used in the base, e.g. unprocessed natural gravel, gravel/sand or
gravel/sand/clay.
Subgrade - The surface of roadbed upon which sub base, base, or surface course are constructed. For
roads without base course or surface course, this portion of the roadbed becomes the finished wearing
surface. The subgrade is typically at the level of the in-place material.
Surface Course (Surfacing) - The top layer of the road surface, also called the wearing course. Rock,
cobblestone, crushed aggregate and paving, such as Bituminous Surface Treatments and Asphalt Concrete, are
types of surfacing used to improve rider comfort, provide structural support, and weatherproof the road surface
for wet season use.
Washboarding (Corrugations) - A series of ridges and depressions across the road caused in soil and aggregate
road surfaces by the lack of surface cohesion. This is typically a result of the loss of fines in the road surface
caused by dry conditions or poorly graded material. These conditions worsen with excessive vehicle speeds and
high traffic volumes.
Wearing Course (Wearing Surface) –The top layer of the road surface that is driven upon. It should be
durable, may have a high resistance to skidding, and it typically should be impervious to surface water.
Wearing surfaces may be the native soil, aggregate, seal coats, or asphalt.
III. SURFACE DRAINAGE
Figure 46: I3- Road Surface Drainage

Armor - Rocks or other material placed on headwalls, on soil, or in ditches to prevent water from eroding
and undercutting or scouring the soil.
Catch Water Ditch (Intercept Drain) - A flat-bottomed excavation or ditch located above a cut slope
that is designed to intercept, collect and drain away surface runoff water before it goes over the cut slope,
to protect the cut slope and roadway from erosion.

Check Dam (Scour Check, or Dike) - A small dam constructed in a gully or ditch to decrease flow
velocity, minimize channel scour, and to trap sediment.
Cross-Drain (X-Drain) - Installed or constructed structures such as culverts and rolling dips that move
water from one side of the road to the other.
Crown - A crowned surface has the highest elevation at centerline (convex) and slopes down on both
sides. Crown is used to facilitate draining water off a wide road surface.
Debris - Organic material, rocks and sediment (leaves, brush, wood, rocks, rubble, etc.) often mixed,
that is undesirable (in a channel or drainage structure).

Figure 47: I4- Rolling grade with Rock -Armored Rolling Dips
Drainage Structure - A structure installed to control, divert, or move water off or across a road,
including but not limited to culverts, bridges, ditch drains, fords, and rolling dips.
French Drain (Underdrain) - A buried trench, filled with coarse aggregate, and typically placed in the
ditch line along the road, which acts to drain subsurface water from a wet area and discharge it a safe and
stable location. French drains may use variable sizes of rock but do not have a drain pipe in the bottom
of the trench.
Inside/Outside - Reference to a feature on the inside of the road, which is typically the cutslope (back
slope) side of the road/ Reference to a feature on the outside of a road, typically on the fill slope side.
Inslope - The inside cross-slope of a road subgrade or surface, typically measured in percentage.
Inslope is used to facilitate the draining of water from a road surface to an inside ditch. An insloped
road has the highest point on the outside edge of the road and slopes downward to the ditch at the toe
of the cut slope, along the inside edge of road.
Lead-Off Ditches (Turnouts, Outside Ditch, or Mitre Drains) - Excavations designed to divert water
away from the ditch and roadway (at a point where this doesn’t occur naturally) in order to reduce the
volume and velocity of roadside ditch water.
Outslope - The outside cross-slope of a road subgrade or surface, typically measured in percentage.
Outslope is used to facilitate the draining of water from a road directly off the outside edge of the road. An
outsloped road has the highest point on the uphill or inside of the road and slopes down to the outside edge
of the road and the fill slope.
Riprap - Well-graded, durable, large rock, ideally with fractured surfaces, sized to resist scour or
movement by water and installed to prevent erosion of native soil material.
Rolling Dip (Dip, Broad-Based Dip) - A surface drainage structure, with a constructed break
in the road grade, specifically designed to drain water from an inside ditch or across the road
surface, while vehicles travel speed is somewhat reduced (see lower photo on the cover of this
Guide).
Underdrain (Subsurface Drain) - A buried trench, filled with coarse aggregate, coarse sand, or
gravel, and typically placed in the ditch line along the road, which acts to drain subsurface water from
a wet area and discharge it a safe and stable location. Underdrains may use a uniform size of rock, be
wrapped in geotextile, and have a perforated drain pipe in the bottom of the trench.
Waterbar - A frequently spaced, constructed drainage device, using soil mounds in the road
surface, that interrupt the flow of water and that diverts water off the road surface. They may be
drivable by high clearance vehicles or impassable.

LOW-VOLUME ROADS BMPS: xvii
IV. CULVERTS AND DRAINAGE CROSSINGS
Figure 48: I5- Culvert Components
Figure 49: I6- Natural Drainage Crossing with Culvert

Apron - An extension of the head wall structure built at ground or stream level and designed to protect the
stream bottom from high flow velocities and to safely move water away from the drainage structure.
Bankfull Width (Ordinary High Water Width) - The surface width of the stream measured at the bankfull stage.
This flow, on average, has a recurrence interval of about 1.5 years. The bankfull stage is the dominant channel-
forming flow, and is typically identified as the normal upper limit of stream channel scour, below which perennial
vegetation does not occur.

Bedload - Sediment or other material that slides, rolls, or bounces along the streambed or channel
bottom due to flowing water.
Catch Basin - The excavated or constructed basin at the inlet of a culvert cross-drain pipe, used
to store water and direct it into the culvert pipe.
Culvert - A drainage pipe, usually made of metal, concrete, or plastic, set beneath the road
surface, to move water from the inside of the road to the outside of the road, or under the road.
Culverts are used to drain ditches, springs, and streams that cross the road. The invert is the
floor or the bottom of the structure at its entrance.
Drop Inlet - A masonry or concrete basin, or a vertical riser on a metal culvert inlet, usually of the same
diameter as the culvert, and often slotted, to allow water to flow into the culvert as water flow rises around
the outside. Drop inlets are often used on ditch relief culverts where sediment or debris would plug the
pipe. A drop inlet also helps control the elevation of the ditch.
Flood Plain - A level or gently sloping area on either side of a river or stream active (main) channel that
is submerged at times during high water or periods of flooding. Silt and sand are deposited and accumulate
in this area along the main channel.
Freeboard - The additional height of a structure above design high water level to prevent
overflow or overtopping. Also freeboard, at any given time, is the vertical distance between the
water level and the bottom of the bridge slab, girders, or structure.
Headwall - A concrete, gabion, masonry, or timber wall built around the inlet or outlet of a
drainage pipe or structure to increase inlet flow capacity, reduce risk of debris damage, retain the
fill material and minimize scour around the structure.
High Water Mark - The line on a bank or shore established by the highest level of the water. This is
usually identified by physical evidence such as a natural impression (small bench) on the bank, changes in
the character of soil, destruction of most vegetation, or presence of litter and debris.
Inlet - The opening in a drainage structure or pipe where the water first enters the structure.
Metal End Section - A manufactured headwall/wing wall, usually made from the same type
of metal as the culvert, to enhance inlet flow capacity.
Outlet - The opening in a drainage structure or pipe where the water leaves the structure. The
outlet is usually lower than the inlet to ensure that water flows through the structure.
Outlet Protection - Devices or material, such as a headwall or riprap, placed at the outlet of pipes or
drainage structures to dissipate the energy of flowing water, reduce its flow velocity, and prevent channel
or bank scour.
Perennial Stream - A stream that typically has running water all year long.
Piping - The movement of fine soil under a pipe, embankment, or structure, caused by seepage
forces and moving water, that can cause a structure to be undermined and fail.
Rootwad - The ball of tree roots and dirt that is pulled from the ground when a tree is uprooted.
Scour - Erosion or soil movement in a stream bed, stream bank, channel, or behind a structure,
typically caused by increased water velocity or lack of protection.

Stream Barb (Jetty) - Typically low rock sills that project away from a steam bank and out
into the stream channel to redirect flow away from an eroding bank.
Wing Walls - Masonry or concrete structures built onto the side of culvert inlet and outlet headwalls,
designed to retain the roadway fill and direct water into and out of the drainage structure while protecting
the road and fill from erosion.
V. FORDS AND LOW-WATER CROSSINGS
Figure 50: I7- Ford and low water crossings
Figure 51: I8- Improved , Vented Ford
Ford (Low-Water Crossing) (Drift); Simple - A rock or other hardened structure that is built
across the bottom of a swale, gully, or stream channel that is usually dry, to allow improved
vehicle passage during periods of low water or no flow.

Ford (Low-Water Crossing) (Drift); Simple - A rock or other hardened structure that is built
across the bottom of a swale, gully, or stream channel that is usually dry, to allow improved
vehicle passage during periods of low water or no flow.
Ford (Low-Water Crossing) (Drift); Improved - A masonry, concrete, gabion, or other hardened
surface structure built across the bottom of an intermittent or live stream that improves vehicle passage
during low flow periods and minimizes channel disturbance or sediment production.
Vented Ford - A structure designed to allow normal or low water flow in a stream channel or
watercourse to pass safely through the structure (e.g., culverts) below a hardened or reinforced
roadway surface. During periods of high water or flooding, the flow passes over the structure and
typically prevents vehicle passage.

VI. EROSION CONTROL
Figure 52: I9- Use of vegetation, Woody materials and Rock for Erosion Control for Erosion Control
Figure I10: Biotechnical Erosion Control Measures‐A Wall with Live

Stakes
Biotechnical Erosion Control - A combination of vegetative and structural measures used to prevent
erosion or stabilize slopes and stream banks. The term “biotechnical” describes several methods of
establishing vegetative cover by embedding a combination of live, dormant, and/or decaying plant
materials into banks and shorelines in a structure-like manner or in conjunction with riprap or physical
structures such as cribs or gabions.

Brush Barrier - A sediment control structure created using live brushy vegetation or slash piled
at the toe of a fill lope, on contour along a slope, along the road, or at the outlet of culverts,
leadoff ditches, dips, or water bars to trap sediment.
Brush Layers - The biotechnical practice of digging shallow terraces into the surface of a slope, laying
in layers of a vegetative cuttings that will resprout, and backfilling (burying) the cuttings with soil.
Cuttings are placed perpendicular to the slope contour.
Erosive Soils - Soils that are relatively prone to erosion and movement by rain drop impact and surface
runoff. Fine granular, non-cohesive soils, such as fine sandy sand derived from decomposed granite,
silts, or fine sands, are known to be very erosive.
Erosion - The process by which the surface of the earth is worn away and soil moved by the
actions of wind or water in the form of raindrops, surface runoffs, and waves.
Erosion Control - The act of reducing or eliminating on-going erosion caused by raindrop
impact, rilling, gullying, raveling, and other surface processes.
Erosion Prevention - Preventing erosion before it occurs. Erosion prevention is typically less
expensive and more effective than erosion control. Erosion prevention is intended to protect a road,
including its drainage structures, cut and fill slopes, and disturbed areas, and to protect water quality.
Live Stakes - Sections of woody plants that are cut into lengths (stakes) and placed or driven into the
slope. The plant material is installed during the fall or spring when the original plant (and consequently
cuttings from it) is dormant. The plant materials used for stakes are usually hardy species which will
root from cuttings easily and eventually grow into mature woody shrubs that reinforce the soil structure
of the slope.
Mulch - Material placed or spread on the surface of the ground to protect it from raindrop, rill, and
gully erosion, and to retain moisture to promote the growth of vegetation. Mulches include cut
vegetation, grasses, wood chips, rock, straw, wood fiber, and variety of other natural and synthetic
materials and mats.
Mulching - Providing a loose covering on exposed soil areas using materials such as grass,
straw, bark, or wood fibers to help control erosion and protect exposed soil.
Native Species - Occurring or living naturally in an area (indigenous), such as locally grown native
plants.
Physical Erosion Control Measures - Non-vegetative measures used to control erosion, such as
armoring the soil with riprap, building silt fences, using woven mats, using gabions, spreading or
windrowing logging slash or woody material, etc., and controlling water with settlement ponds, armored
drainage ditches, etc.

Scarification - The act of ripping or stripping the forest floor or a road surface and mixing it with mineral soil,
typically with mechanical equipment, to loosen the soil, reduce compaction, and prepare the area for planting
with grasses or trees.
Sedimentation (Sediment) - Soil, most commonly clay, silt and sand, which is eroded from the land or
poorly constructed roads and reaches a stream or water course, commonly reducing water quality in
rivers, streams and lakes.
Sediment Catchment Basin - A constructed basin designed to slow water velocity and trap
sediment as it settles out of the water.
Slash - Any treetops, limbs, bark, abandoned forest products, windfalls or other debris left on the ground
after timber or other forest products have been cut.
Silt Fence - A temporary barrier used to intercept sediment-laden runoff from slopes. It is typically
made of porous geotextile material.
Vegetative Erosion Control Measures - The use of live cuttings or stakes, seed, sod, and transplants to
establish vegetation (grass, brush, trees) for erosion control and slope protection work.
Vegetative Contour Hedgerow - Rows of trees and shrubs, typically planted on contour across slopes,
that form a border and can provide erosion control protection against sheet flow, as well as provide food
and cover for wildlife.

Rwanda Feeder Roads Standards RFRS/Vr_14/05/07
Vetiver Grass - Any of several varieties of a non-invasive, large bunch grass widely used for erosion
control and moisture conservation. When planted as a contour hedgerow, it slows runoff and filters
sediment. The curtain-like root system helps anchor soil and competes minimally with adjacent crop
roots.
Wattles (Live Fascine) - Long bundles of brush or branch cuttings, bound together into sausage
shaped structures, which are buried or staked on contour along a slope, preferably to sprout, and
form a sediment trap or break up sheet flow on the slope.
Windrow - Logging debris and woody vegetation that has been piled in rows to trap
sediment, as well as decompose or eventually be burned; the act of building windrows.
VII. MISCELLANEOUS TERMS

Angle of Repose - The maximum slope or angle at which a granular material, such as loose
rock or soil, will stand and remain stable.
Best Management Practices (BMPs) - Practical guidelines that can be used to reduce the
environmental impact of roads and forest management activities (such as the construction of roads,
skid trails and log landings) and protect water quality. BMPs address the key planning, location, design,
construction, and maintenance aspects of roads or other activities that can cause adverse environmental
impacts and suggest methods to prevent those impacts.
Buffer Area - A designated zone along a stream or around a water body or area with sufficient width to
minimize the entrance of forestry chemicals, sediment, or other pollution into the water body or protect
the area.
Contour - Lines drawn on a plan that connect points having the same elevation. Contour lines
represent an even value, with the contour interval being selected consistent with terrain, scale,
and intended use of the plan. Contours are level.
Environmental Impact - An action or series of actions that have an effect on the environment. An
Environmental Impact Assessment predicts and evaluates these effects, both positive and negative, and
the conclusions are used as a tool in planning and decision-making.
Gabions - Baskets (usually made of wire) filled with rocks (or broken pieces of concrete) about 10-
20 cm in size, used for building erosion control structures, weirs, bank protection, or retaining
structures.
Geotextile (Filter Fabric) - Textile made from synthetic “plastic” fibers, usually non-biodegradable, to
form a blanket-like product. Geotextiles can be woven or non-woven and have varying degrees of
porosity, open area, and strength properties. They are used as moisture barriers, for separation or
reinforcement of soils, filtration, and for drainage.
Habitat - The natural environment that forms a home for native plants and animals. For example,
riverbanks are habitat for insects that are the primary source of food for many fish.
Logging (Harvesting) - Logging is the process of harvesting timber from trees. This includes
felling, skidding, loading, and transporting forest products, particularly logs.
RFRDS‐V0‐13‐11‐26‐BL Page 282

Rwanda Feeder Roads Standards RFRS/Vr_14/05/07
Landing (Log Deck) - Any place on or adjacent to the logging site where logs are assembled
after being yarded, awaiting subsequent handling, loading, and transport. This is typically a
relatively flat area, commonly about 20 to 50 meters in diameter.
Mitigation - The act of or a specific item used to reduce or eliminate an adverse environmental impact.
Native Soil - Natural, in-place or in-situ soil that has formed on site and has not been artificially
imported to the site.
Reclamation (Rehabilitation) - Activities that reclaim, repair, or improve part or all of an
existing road, borrow pit, or disturbed area and restore it to its original or some desired final
condition.
Road Closure (Temporary) - Closing vehicular access to a road through the use of barricades
such as gates, log barriers, earthen mounds, or other temporary structures. The end result is to
restrict the use of the road for some period of time.
Road Decommissioning - Permanently closing a road through techniques that include blocking the
entrance, scattering limbs and brush on the roadbed, replanting vegetation, adding waterbars, removing
fills and culverts, or reestablishing natural drainage patterns. However the basic road shape, or template,
is still in place. The end result is to terminate the function of the road and mitigate the adverse
environmental impacts of the road.
Road Obliteration - A form of road closure that refills cut areas, removes fills and drainage structures,
restores natural contours, revegetates the area, and ultimately attempts to restore the natural ground shape
and condition. Thus, most adverse environmental impacts of the road are eliminated.
Road Management Objectives - Objectives that establish the intended purpose of an
individual road based on management direction and access management objectives. Road
management objectives contain design criteria, operation criteria, and maintenance criteria.
Skid Trail (Skidding) - A temporary, nonstructural pathway over forest soil used for dragging
felled trees or logs to a log landing.
Streamside Management Zone (SMZ) - The land, together with the vegetation that grows there,
immediately in contact with the stream and sufficiently close to have a major influence on the total
ecological character and function of the stream. It is a buffer area along a stream where activities are
limited or prohibited.
Upgrading - The process by which the standard of an existing road is improved or altered
to allow for increased capacity and safe use by a greater volume of traffic.
iii
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REPUBLIC OF RWANDA

Rwanda Transport Development Agency

Rwanda Feeder Roads (Unpaved roads- District

Figure 9: Schematic View of Sight Distance at Undercrossing ................................................112

Figure 10: Typical Cross-Section, Normal Crown ...................................................................116

Figure 11: Typical Cross Section, Super-Elevated ...................................................................117

Figure 12 : Graded and Usable Shoulders ................................................................................121

Figure 13: Designation of Roadside regions .............................................................................124

Figure 15: Roadside Ditches (Source: Tanzania Manual of Roads Design).............................131

Figure 17: Interception drain for the Seepage Zone .................................................................132

Figure 18: Example of a Pipe Culvert .......................................................................................133

Figure 19: IRI vs Speed vs. Road Types ...................................................................................154

Figure 20: System Approach to Road Safety ............................................................................158

Figure 22: Deterioration of Low-Volume Unpaved Roads ......................................................176

Figure 23: Periodic Maintenance of Low-Volume Unpaved Roads .........................................177

Figure 24: A2-1: The Dynamic Cone Penetrometer .................................................................208

Figure 25: A2-2: Empirical DCP-Based Pavement Design Thickness .....................................208

Figure 26: A2-3: Sample Feeder Road Pavement .....................................................................209

Figure 27: A2-4: Pavement Design Chart .................................................................................210

Figure 29: A2-6-: CBR- Shear Strength Correlation ................................................................212

Figure 30: A2-7: Pavement Design Calculations ......................................................................212

Figure 31: A5-1: The Assembled DCP .....................................................................................230

Figure 33: A5-3: Typical Water Impacts on Mountainous Road Section.................................236

Figure 34:-A5-4, USACE Design Chart ...................................................................................238

Figure 36 : A6-2- Superelevation as a Function of radius of Curvature (m), emax= 4%

Figure 39: A6-5- Super-elevation as a Function of Radius of Curve (m), emax=10%

Figure 45: I2- Road Structure Section and Materials ...............................................................270

Figure 48: I5- Culvert Components ..........................................................................................275

Figure 49: I6- Natural Drainage Crossing with Culvert ...........................................................275

Figure 50: I7- Ford and low water crossings ............................................................................277

Figure 51: I8- Improved , Vented Ford .....................................................................................277

These recommendations were based on:

Road classification as per the Road Act N0: 55/2011

• District Road Class One:

• District Road Class Two:

Main focus of the Rural Feeder Road Development Program

RRFD program technical coverage

(1)-Existing rural feeder-roads requiring upgrading and total overhauling

(2)-Basic Access farm-roads /2nd group of rural feeder-roads/

(3) New feeder roads totaling 12,900 km

Need for comprehensive standards for feeder (unpaved) roads

Content of the current draft standards for feeder (unpaved) roads

 Feeder road functional classification;

Projection for future demand

Table 4- Guidelines for Selection of Design Levels of Service (AASHTO)

Table 5: EAC-harmonized design levels of service for access roads

Table 7: Design VehicleWB-12 (WB-40)

Passenger car equivalent unit (PCU)

Table 8: Passenger Car Equivalent Unit

Brake reaction time

Effect of grade on stopping

Table 13: Decision Sight Distance

Where avoidance manoeuvers A to E are defined in the relevant subsection.

Object height design value

Passing Sight Distance

Table 15: Passing Sight Distance for two-lane Highway

Side friction factor f:

Relationship between the design speed and the running speed

Normal Cross Slope

Normal cross slope need to be adapted to the design of drainage system.

Table 20: Other countries practices on Straights:

Kenya Straights not to have lengths greater than 20 x Vd;

The minimum length of super-elevation runoff