Sustainability 11 04959 PDF

sustainability
Article
Techno-Economic and Sensitivity Analyses for
an Optimal Hybrid Power System Which Is
Adaptable and Effective for Rural Electrification:
A Case Study of Nigeria
Jamiu Omotayo Oladigbolu * , Makbul A. M. Ramli and Yusuf A. Al-Turki
Renewable Energy Research Group, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, King Abdul-Aziz
University, Jeddah 21589, Saudi Arabia; mramli@kau.edu.sa (M.A.M.R.); yaturki@kau.edu.sa (Y.A.A.-T.)
* Correspondence: omotayooladigbolu@gmail.com; Tel.: +23-470-3563-4424 or +96-65-5768-3955

Received: 18 July 2019; Accepted: 6 September 2019; Published: 11 September 2019
Abstract: This paper studies in detail a systematic approach to offering a combination of conventional
and renewable energy that is adaptable enough to operate in grid-connected and off- grid modes
to provide power to a remote village located in Nigeria. To this aim, the HOMER pro software
tool was used to model two scenarios from the on-and off-grid systems, evaluating in detail the
techno-economic effects and operational behavior of the systems and their adverse impacts on the
environment. The impacts of varying load demand, grid power and sellback prices, diesel prices, and
solar irradiation levels on system performance were discussed. Results showed that, for both cases,
the optimum design consists of a diesel generator rated at 12 kW, with a photovoltaic (PV) panel of
54 kW, a 70 battery group (484 kWh nominal capacity battery bank), and a 21 kW converter. The cost
of electricity (COE) and net present cost (NPC) were in the range of $0.1/kWh to 0.218 $/kWh and
$117,598 to $273,185, respectively, and CO2 emissions ranged between 5963 and 49,393 kg/year in the
two configurations. The results of this work provide a general framework for setting up a flexible and
reliable system architecture to ensure continuous power supply to consumers under all conditions.
Keywords: hybrid system; photovoltaic (PV); HOMER; techno-economic analysis; net present
cost (NPC)
1. Introduction
Ensuring a continuous and reliable power supply represents a perpetual challenge for the
sustainable economic growth of any country. According to the World Bank, only about 22.6% of the
rural populace has access to electricity in Nigeria. This percentage of electricity access is considerably
lower than that of Morocco and Ghana whose rural electricity access stands at 100% and 65.3%,
respectively [1]. Moreover, world electricity generation increased by 2.8% in 2017 due to the ever-
growing expansion of renewable energy sources (RESs) led by solar (35%, 114 TWh) and wind (17%,
163 TWh), which contributed to about 49% of the entire growth, despite accounting for only 8% of
the total power generated [2]. RESs are essentially useful for sustainable and clean energy power
supply [3]. Besides, problems associated with individual energy sources can be mitigated when several
energy sources are combined to form a hybrid system of renewable and non-renewable energy.
According to ref. [4], Nigeria’s existing power plants have the capacity to generate 12,522 MW of
electricity. However, only about 32% is realized due to high losses, power theft, lack of maintenance
of power facilities, etc. To date, the country continues to face power supply problems with many
customers being exposed to persistent power cuts. This is because the power generated is far below the
electricity needed. This led to the privatization of the country’s generation and distribution companies
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4959; doi:10.3390/su11184959 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 4959 2 of 25
in 2013 [5]. Therefore, the government is seeking to diversify its electricity sources by implementing
RESs for power generation. To this aim, the country has set a target of generating at least 2000 MW
of renewable power by 2020 [5], and achieving 30% of its total power generation from RESs by the
end of 2030 [6]. All potential RESs in the country such as hydro, wind, and solar can be exploited to
meet electricity demand, with investment costs provided by the government, foreign investors, and
the private sector.
A hybrid power system (HPS) is a combination of various energy resources (solar, wind, hydro,
diesel, biomass, etc.) with or without an energy storage system that are used to meet the electricity load
demand. Hybrid systems’ reliability and sustainability can be enhanced when different energy resources
are utilized together. Furthermore, the recent reduction in solar PV and wind power technology costs,
combined with innovative financing approaches, continued innovation in the design and operation
of wind turbines, and financial inducement have attracted many investors to the sector, making PV
and wind power systems quite competitive with conventional energy sources [7,8]. Furthermore,
the costs of energy storage devices have been rapidly reduced [9], making battery/RE systems more
economically feasible for off-grid electricity generation systems [10]. Besides, stand-alone diesel-fueled
power systems, on the other hand, are very expensive to operate and maintain. Their average operation
costs increase marginally at low load levels, especially at less than 40% rated capacity [11].
Hence, PV/wind/battery/diesel generation systems with both off- and on-grid connections can
ensure a continuous power supply with low operating costs, in addition to minimizing atmospheric
pollution levels [3,12]. A renewable energy (RE) system has a high procurement cost when compared to
traditional diesel plants, yet RE systems are finding a niche in many small and mass-scale low- carbon
off-grid applications due to the availability of this energy source in areas where grid power is either
erratic or simply unavailable [8,13]. Furthermore, various RE-based projects have been installed by
government agencies in urban and remote areas primarily for electricity supply, water pumping, street
lighting, and vaccine refrigerators in rural healthcare centers [14,15]. However, most of these projects
are either small hydropower schemes of about 30 MW of total capacity or standalone mini-grid or
off-grid light applications of a few kilo-watts, while off-grid hybrid RE projects are yet to be installed
across the country.
Techno-economic analyses of combined RESs and conventional energy sources have been
conducted in many studies, aiming to improve system reliability and tackle the unpredictable
nature of grid-independent RE systems. Off-grid hybrid renewable electricity systems have been
developed and proposed for a wide range of applications all around the globe. An HPS has been
considered as a viable alternative system, showing a 37% CO2 emission reduction compared to
the conventional diesel system [16]. In addition, a PV/hydro/diesel HPS system revealed a higher
efficiency of electricity supply. However, it has a greater cost than the other HPSs or a diesel-only
power system [17]. A techno-economic viability study of PV with/without diesel generator using a
worst-case user demand approach showed that a PV system of 68, 76, and 61 kW can adequately fulfill
the load requirement of 63,500 kWh/year, with a system availability of 99.2% for selected sites [18].
In another study, the addition of flywheel energy storage to a hybrid PV/diesel system makes it more
economically viable [19]. Adaramola et al. [20] assessed the possibility of employing an HPS for power
generation in semi-urban and rural areas in Jos, Nigeria using HOMER software. Optimal solutions
were obtained at different interest rates and PV system costs using solar energy, a battery bank, and a
diesel generator. Ngan and Tan [21] assessed a wind/PV/diesel hybrid system and revealed that both
diesel/PV and wind/diesel/PV HPS systems have higher net present cost (NPC) and cost of energy
(COE) in comparison to the diesel-alone system.
Numerous studies have been conducted on both grid-connected and off-grid HPSs focusing on
their reliability, cost-effectiveness, technical performance, environmental impact, and many other
aspects. For example, in ref. [22], a suitable renewable based hybrid energy system was evaluated and
compared with high grid extension option, where the former system showed better performance in
terms of NPC, COE, and carbon emissions. In an economic feasibility study for electricity demand in
Iran using either a hybrid diesel/RE or grid/RE system, wind turbine was reported to reduce carbon
emissions by 32%, with only 44% increase in NPC [22]. However, the authors suggested that expanding
a diesel-alone system to the proposed wind/diesel/battery system prior to grid connections would
lower the overall expense. Guler et al. [23] evaluated the feasibility of a hybrid grid/PV/wind system to
meet the energy requirements of a medium-sized hotel in Turkey. The optimum solution was achieved
only in the first scenario. In another study, Kim et al. [24] reported that a PV/wind/battery/converter
system is the optimum and most feasible standalone energy generation system among several options
of grid-connected and off-grid systems considered.
However, most of the previous studies conducted on only a few areas across the country to
investigate the viability of renewable hybrid energy generation system using the HOMER simulation
program and the other techniques were limited to certain system configurations (grid-connected or
off-grid topology) at different locations [25,26]. Moreover, the optimal design used in most of these
studies cannot be effectively realized under both off-grid and grid-connected conditions without
changing the entire system architecture. This demonstrates there is presently no study that has been
performed that investigates a hybrid system capable of adequately functioning with both on-grid
and grid-independent connections. Therefore, a reliable and adaptable hybrid system architecture
is proposed in this work including all the functional parameters associated with the system for on-
and off-grid operations. Besides, according to the literature, no study has been conducted that looks
at developing a comprehensive and general approach to analyzing a common hybrid configuration,
suitable for both on-and off-grid modes.
This study aims to determine an optimal adaptable system configuration for a renewable energy
system and conventional energy system in combination with or without a battery storage system
based on techno-economic and environmental investigation using the HOMER simulation tool for a
residential load in Nigeria’s dry climate region. In this paper, multiple parameters including NPC, COE,
and CO2 emissions, operating cost, renewable fraction, excess electricity, and battery state of charge
were used to analyze system performance and the selection of the appropriate system configuration.
A detailed sensitivity analysis to confirm the adaptability of the proposed system configuration to
associated operational parameters was also conducted. The information in this work will assist
the government and other major energy players in developing, planning, and implementing rural
electrification frameworks.
2. Methodology
This study evaluated a community located in the north-western part of Nigeria at a coordinate
of 11◦ 320 N and 7◦ 130 E. Based on the position of the selected area on the earth’s surface, it is
characterized by a dry (hot semi-arid) climate. The techno-economic analysis and assessment of the
environmental impact were based on solar irradiation levels, wind speed, fuel cost, and daily load
demand. The meteorological data (solar radiation, ambient temperature, etc.) used in this research was
retrieved from the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) satellite database website
by specifying the latitude and longitude of the chosen locations. The proper and accurate selection
of the criteria used in the analysis of the renewable and non-renewable energy model is essential in
evaluating the performance of different frameworks.
The following outlines were employed in this study.
Load profile of the selected areas:
• Temperature and solar resources;

• Wind resource;
• System units;
• Mathematical description;
• Hybrid energy system configuration.
Sustainability 2019, 11,
Sustainability 2019, 11, 4959
x FOR PEER REVIEW 44of
of 26
25
The residential load profile considered in this study was computed based on a realistic electricity
2.1. Load Analysis
consumption level in Nigeria rural areas. A daily energy consumption of a typical rural house during
Theseason
the wet residential load profile considered
(March–October) and the dry inseason
this study was computed based
(November–February) is on a realistic
shown electricity
in Table 1. The
consumption
energy level induring
consumption Nigeria rural
these areas.is A
seasons daily energy
computed basedconsumption
on the power of a typical
ratings rural house
of common rural
during the wet
appliances and season (March–October)
calculation criteria employed and the in dry season
[25,27], (November–February)
which is further expandedistoshown in Table
the overall load 1.
The energy
profile of theconsumption
village. As expectedduring thesemoreseasons
energy is is required
computed basedthe
during on wet
the power
season ratings of common
as compared to the
ruralseason
dry appliances and calculation criteria
(November–February). employed
Electricity from in the
[25,27], which
hybrid is further
system expanded to
was essentially the overall
required for
load profile
power points,of the village.
lighting, and Asother
expected
mediummoreand energy
lowisconsumption
required during the The
loads. wet season
daily loadas compared
demand of to
the dry
this season
village was(November–February).
taken as the hourly load Electricity
in HOMER fromto theobtain
hybrid thesystem
daily was
(24 h)essentially
and monthly required
energyfor
power points,profile
consumption lighting,
for and other medium
the entire year. and low consumption loads. The daily load demand of
this village was taken
The typical hourly as load
the hourly
profileload in HOMER
of the selected to obtainon
village thea daily
day of (24wet
h) and
andmonthly energy
dry seasons is
consumption
illustrated profile 1.
in Figure forObservation
the entire year. of the load profile reveals two important peak demand periods
The typical
between 06:00 andhourly load and
09:00 profile of the
19:00 selected
and 21:00,village
which onare
a day of wet
both dueand todry seasons
normal is illustrated
morning and
in Figure 1. Observation
evening/night activities, of the as
such load profile cooking,
lighting, reveals two important
ironing peak demand
etc. However, periods between
the majority 06:00
of residential
and 09:00
load runs and
only19:00
for a and
few 21:00,
hours which
duringare theboth due to
daytime normal
(i.e., 24 h).morning
Lightingand load,evening/night
for example,activities,
operates
such asduring
mostly lighting,thecooking,
night, while ironing etc. appliance
domestic However, load the majority
runs for onlyof residential
a few hours load runs
[28]. Basedonlyonfor
this,a
few total
the hoursannual
duringaverage
the daytime energy (i.e., 24 h). Lighting
consumption and load,
peak for
loadexample,
for this operates
location mostly during
were found to the
be
night, while domestic appliance load runs for only a few hours [28].
approximately 200 kWh/day and 25.52 kW, respectively, with a load factor of 0.33 for a sample ofBased on this, the total annual
average
20 energy consumption
households. However, 20 and peak load
households werefor sampled
this location were found
to create to be approximately
a reasonable remote rural size 200
kWh/day and
sampling. 25.52and
A daily kW,time-step
respectively,randomwith variability
a load factor of of
15%0.33 for10%
and a sample of 20 households.
was specified to improve However,
system
20 households
reliability and to were sampled
ensure correct to create a reasonable
estimation of the peakremoteloadrural
[29].size sampling. A daily and time-step
random variability of 15% and 10% was specified to improve system reliability and to ensure correct
estimation of the Table
peak1. The
loadelectricity
[29]. consumption of a typical house in the rural community.
Wet (March–October) Dry (November–February)

Table 1. The electricity consumption of a typical house in the rural community.
Load Power
h/day Wh/day h/day Wh/day
description (Watt) Wet (March–October) Dry (November–February)
Television
Load Description 80
Power (Watt) 4 h/day 320
Wh/day 4h/day 320
Wh/day
Lighting (CFL)
Television 120 80 8 4 960320 9 4 1080
320
Ceiling
Lightingfan(CFL) 100 120 18 8 1800
960 0 9 01080
Ceiling
Radio fan 10 100 10 18 1800
120 12 0 1200
Radio
Refrigerator 225 10 24 10 120
5400 2412 120
5400
Refrigerator 225 24 5400 24 5400
DVD
DVD players
players 17 17 3 3 51 51 3 3 5151
Iron
Iron 800 800 1 1 800800 1 1 800800
Other possibleload
Other possible 110 5 550 5 550
110 5 550 5 550
load
Figure 1.
Figure Typical 24-h
1. Typical 24-h load
load profile
profile of
of the
the 20
20 households
households on
on aa day
day of: (a) Dry
of: (a) Dry season;
season; (b)
(b) wet
wet season.
season.
2.2. Solar Radiation and Temperature

The energy output from a PV system depends mainly on the ambient temperature and the amount
of solar irradiation over a specific area at a particular point in time. Hence, the power output is
expected to vary due to the different values for solar irradiation and ambient temperature from one
month to another. The total insolation reaching the surface of the earth depends on sky clarity and
cloudiness
Sustainability conditions,
2019, 11, 4959 which are very unpredictable [31,32]. Solar energy has a huge deposit 5in of 25
comparison to other RESs available in Nigeria [15]. The annual mean solar radiation on a horizontal
surface of the site is 5.78 kWh/m2/day with a sunshine average of 6.5 h per day [14,30]. However, all
2.2.months
Solar Radiation and Temperature
have a radiation intensity above 4.9 kWh/m2/day with the highest intensity recorded during
April. The2monthly
Figure presents average solar irradiation
the changes varies between
in the monthly 4.94 kWh/m
solar irradiation
2/day and 6.56 kWh/m2/day.
data for the selected village as
Based on
obtained this,HOMER
from it can be stated
via thethe study satellite
NASA site exhibits better [30]
database potential
usingsolar
the radiation
coordinatesthanofrequired for
this location.
PV application.
The energy output from a PV system depends mainly on the ambient temperature and the amount
Furthermore, the months of July and August recorded low global solar radiation due to heavy
of solar irradiation over a specific area at a particular point in time. Hence, the power output is
overcast conditions that exist during this period in Nigeria [25]. The ambient temperature, on the
expected to vary due to the different values for solar irradiation and ambient temperature from one
other hand, affects the performance and power production level of PV panels. The influence of
month to another. The total insolation reaching the surface of the earth depends on sky clarity and
temperature on the PV module depends on the mounting configuration and climatic conditions of a
cloudiness conditions, which are very unpredictable [31,32]. Solar energy has a huge deposit in
particular place [33]; hence the need to consider variations in the ambient temperature of this location.
comparison
Figure 3 showsto other RESs available
the monthly in Nigeria
mean ambient [15]. The as
temperature annual mean
retrieved fromsolar
theradiation on a horizontal
NASA database.
surfaceTheof the
meansiteambient
is 5.78 kWh/m 2
temperature/dayperwith a sunshine
month exceedsaverage of 6.5 hMarch
27 °C between per day and[14,30].
April. However,
Moreover, all
months have a radiation intensity above 4.9 kWh/m 2 /day with the highest intensity recorded during
January and August record the lowest monthly average temperatures of below 23.6 °C. However, the
April. Theaverage
monthly average solar irradiation varies between 4.94 kWh/m 2 /day and 6.56 kWh/m2 /day.
annual temperature is approximately 25 °C. By considering available data for the ambient
Based on this, itduring
temperature can besimulation,
stated the HOMER
study siteevaluates
exhibits the
better
cellpotential solarfor
temperature radiation than
each time required
interval andfor
PVtakes
application.
the value into account while computing the output power of the PV system.
Figure2.2.Global
Figure Globalsolar
solarradiation
radiation and clearnessindex
and clearness indexdata
datafor
forDukke
Dukkevillage
village [30].
[30].
Furthermore, the months of July and August recorded low global solar radiation due to heavy
overcast conditions that exist during this period in Nigeria [25]. The ambient temperature, on the other
hand, affects the performance and power production level of PV panels. The influence of temperature
on the PV module depends on the mounting configuration and climatic conditions of a particular
place [33]; hence the need to consider variations in the ambient temperature of this location. Figure 3
shows the monthly mean ambient temperature as retrieved from the NASA database.
The mean ambient temperature per month exceeds 27 ◦ C between March and April. Moreover,
January and August record the lowest monthly average temperatures of below 23.6 ◦ C. However, the
annual average temperature is approximately 25 ◦ C. By considering available data for the ambient
temperature during simulation, HOMER evaluates the cell temperature for each time interval and
takes the value into account while computing the output power of the PV system.
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 26
Figure 3. Average monthly temperature for Dukke village [30].

Figure
Figure3.3.Average
Averagemonthly
monthly temperature for Dukke
temperature for Dukkevillage
village[30].
[30].
2.3. Wind Speed
2.3.2.3.
WindWind Speed
Speed
Electricity is produced from wind energy whenever wind hits a wind turbine’s blades. The rotating
Electricity
bladeElectricity
of a wind is isturbine
produced
produced fromwind
from
converts wind energy energy
energy
the kinetic whenever
whenever wind
wind hits
established hitsbyaawind
wind
air inturbine’s
motion blades.
turbine’s toblades.TheThe
rotational
rotating
rotating blade
blade of of
a a wind
wind turbine
turbine converts
converts the
the kinetic
kinetic energy
energy established
established
energy, by moving a shaft coupled with a generator; electrical energy is thereby generated via by
byair
air in
in motion
motion to rotational
to rotational
energy,
energy, byby movinga ashaft
moving shaftcoupled
coupled withwith a generator;
generator; electrical
electrical energy is thereby generated via
electromagnetism [34]. The monthly averageawind speed displayed energy
in Figureis4thereby generated
was retrieved from via
the
electromagnetism
electromagnetism [34].
[34]. TheThe monthly
monthly average
average wind
wind speed
speed displayed
displayed in
inFigure
Figure 4 was
4 was retrieved
retrieved from
from
NASA database at 10 m above sea level using an anemometer [30].
thethe
NASANASA database
database
The annual atat1010mwind
averaged
mabove
aboveseasea levelusing
speed level
using an anemometer
is 3.74 m/s, an
anemometer [30].
ranging between[30]. 2.96 m/s and 4.31 m/s. Vegetation
The The annual
annual averagedwind
averaged windspeed
speedisis3.74
3.74m/s,
m/s, ranging
ranging between
between 2.96
2.96 m/s
m/sand 4.31
andin 4.31 m/s. Vegetation
cover and topographic features are among the factors that cause variation them/s.
wind Vegetation
patterns
cover
cover and and topographic
topographic features
features are
are among
among the
the factors
factors that
that cause
cause variation
variation inin the
thewind
wind patterns
patterns
observed [35]. Once the average monthly wind speed data is entered, HOMER
observed [35]. Once the average monthly wind speed data is entered, HOMER will create a synthetic
will create a synthetic
observed
hourly [35].
value Once
for afor the
yearafrom average monthly wind speed data is entered, HOMER will create a synthetic
hourly value yearthis datathis
from withdata
four other
with statistical
four other variables, including
statistical variables, the auto- correlation
including the
hourly
factor value for
forcorrelation
1.00 h (taken a year
asfor from
0.85), this data with four other
(k = shape statistical variables, including the
auto- factor 1.00the Weibull
h (taken shapethe
as 0.85), factor
Weibull 2), and the hour
factor ofand
(k = 2), peak thewind
hourspeed
of peakand
auto-
thewind correlation
diurnal patternfactor for
strength 1.00 h (taken as 0.85), the Weibull shape factor (k = 2), and the hour of peak
speed and the diurnalofpattern
15 h and 0.25, respectively
strength of 15 h and 0.25, [36].respectively [36].
wind speed and the diurnal pattern strength of 15 h and 0.25, respectively [36].
Figure4.4.Monthly
Figure Monthlyaverage
average wind
wind speed
speed for
forDukke
Dukkevillage
village[30].
[30].
Figure 4. Monthly average wind speed for Dukke village [30].

2.4. Diesel Fuel

According to the National Bureau of Statistics, the current diesel fuel price in Nigeria is $0.63 per
liter [37]. It is worth noting that variation in the diesel price strongly depends on the foreign currency
exchange rate coupled with the Federal Government of Nigeria’s inconsistent policy on fuel subsidies.
However, diesel prices may likely be higher than the normal price in some parts of the country because
of the poor state of the roads and the distance of these places from fuel depots.
2.5. System Detail and Component Specification

The HPS under study is made up of five major components which are comprised of PV, batteries,
a power converter, a wind turbine, and a diesel generator. All feasible scenarios were adequately
simulated and analyzed. Each system design is made up of two parts: the off-grid design and the
grid-connected system. The renewable energy system serves the load according to the excess electricity
stored in the battery bank, which is useful in the event the RESs are unable to adequately meet
load demand under the off-grid scheme. The diesel generator operates as a back-up power source.
Conversely, in the on-grid scenario, the power supply from the utility grid is responsible for meeting
the load requirements when the RESs cannot meet power load demand, in addition to effectively using
the excess electricity. In both scenarios, the accurate and best integration of system components is
anticipated to discover the necessary and achievable benefits.
The diesel generator is employed in the supply of power to the load whenever the minimum
load ratio is 25% or above, as recommended by the majority of generator manufacturers, in order
to increase the generator’s lifespan, in addition to reducing the number of pollutant emissions [38].
Several parameters were varied in the proposed design in order to ensure the criteria proposed for
flexible configuration were realized, in addition to investigating the operational behavior of the design.
However, the optimal configuration is anticipated to perform better for any variation that arises during
the project’s operational lifetime. Detailed information on input parameters for individual components
along with their lifespan is specified. The model specification and costs of the main components of
the HPS are presented in Table 2. The grid system, on the other hand, is modeled in HOMER as a
component from which the HPS can buy AC power and to which it can sell excess AC power.
The grid power price, which refers to the amount the utility grid charges for purchased energy,
is $0.1/kWh: at US$1 = N360.5 for residential users [5]. The cost of energy in Nigeria is fixed by the
distribution companies.
However, the sell-back price, which represents the price the national grid pays for electricity sold to the
electric grid, is expected to be higher than the grid power price. This increase is a result of government
financial aid and feed-in-tariff policies, which are usually provided to accelerate renewable energy technology
investment. Wind power and solar PV are awarded a lower per kWh price due to their generation cost [39].
According to Nigeria’s renewable energy feed-in-tariff plan (REFIT), the tariff shall be reviewed every three
years. This implies that the resulting price per kWh will either increase or decrease based on the levelized
cost of energy and long-term marginal cost [5]. In this study, two different scenarios, including an off-grid
and grid-connected design, were evaluated in addition to performing a comprehensive sensitivity
analysis to justify the level of adaptability required to achieve an optimum configuration, making
several changes to variables that directly influence system cost and operational behavior.
Table 2. Technical and economic details of different components.
Component Parameters/Reference Specification

1. PV panel [24,29]
Efficiency at standard test condition 13%
Capital cost $1500/kW
Replacement cost $1000/kW
Operating and maintenancecost $10/kW/year
Table 2. Cont.
Component Parameters/Reference Specification

2. Wind turbine [40,41]
Rated capacity 1 kW
Capital cost $1200/unit
Replacement cost $1200/unit
Operating and maintenance cost $110/unit/year
3. Battery [42]
Nominal voltage 6V
Capital cost $1100
Cost of replacement $1100
Operating and maintenance cost $10/year
4. Converter [43]
Cost of replacement $450/kW
Operating and maintenance cost $5/kW/year
5. Diesel generator [25]
Replacement cost $450/kW
Operating and maintenance cost $0.025/kW/h
2.6. System Constraints and Dispatch Strategy

A dispatch strategy is essential for any system that comprises one or more generators and a battery
storage system, which controls the charging of the battery [36]. The dispatch influences the life-cycle
cost via both the battery lifetime and fuel consumption [40]. Two categories of dispatch strategies can
be modeled in HOMER software: load following (LF) and cycle charging (CC). Under the LF strategy,
the wind turbine and PV power source charge the battery while the generator operates to serve the
load. Under the alternative strategy (i.e., CC strategy), the generator runs at its peak rated power to
meet the load demand with surplus energy used for charging the battery. Due to its environmental and
economic benefits [21], the LF strategy was employed in the analysis and system design of parameters
in the present study.
The proposed system’s operating lifetime was taken to be 20 years. Constraints are prerequisites
that must be satisfied by the system, otherwise, HOMER discards those systems that fail to fulfill the
specified constraints. To ensure continuous electricity supply in the event of an unexpected decrease
in renewable power output or a sudden spike in load demand, the operating reserves, which are a
function of both the renewable output and load, were set at 10% of load in current time step, 50% and
25% were specified for the wind and solar power output. The higher reserve specified for renewable
energy output is due to its inherent unpredictability [13]. The maximum unserved load was assumed
to be 0%, while a range of 0% to 100% was considered for the maximum renewable fraction.
2.7. Mathematical Model
2.7.1. PV and Temperature Model

PV panels are made up of solar cells in a series or parallel connection and are utilized in a PV
system to generate and supply power for different applications. In general, the PV system output
power depends on the cell temperature and amount of solar irradiation, as well as the geographical
characteristics of an area [44]. In HOMER, PV output power is calculated as follows [42]
!
GT
PPV = YPV ƒPV [1 + αP (TC − TC,STC )] (1)
GT,STC
where YPV refers to the PV power output under standard test conditions (STC) in kW, ƒPV represents
the PV de-rating factor (%), GT is the solar radiation incident on the PV panel in the current time step
(kW/m2 ), GT,STC refers to the incident radiation under standard test conditions (1 kW/m2 ), αp is the
temperature coefficient of power (%/◦ C), TC is the temperature of the PV cell (◦ C), and TC,STC is the
PV cell temperature at STC (25 ◦ C). The derating factor is the decrease in the output of the PV array
resulting from temperature losses or any other factors that vary the expected output of the PV system
under absolute conditions.
2.7.2. Wind Turbine Modeling

Wind energy is converted into mechanical power via a wind turbine and then transformed into
electrical energy [25]. However, it is necessary to evaluate the past wind power intensity (W/m2 ) to
examine the economic feasibility of a location since the amount of energy captured by the turbine rotor
is determined by the wind speed’s cubic power. The output power of the wind turbine system is thus
calculated as follows [35]: !
ρ
PWTG = .P (2)
ρ0 WTG,STP
where ρ0 refers to the air density at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (1.225 kg/m3 ), and
PWTG,STP is the power output of the wind turbine at STP (kW).
2.7.3. Modeling of Diesel Generator Consumption

Renewable energy sources are highly dependent on environmental conditions, which greatly
influence power generation levels. Hence, they are integrated into a conventional power generation
system to supply continuous power output [43]. A diesel generator functions as an uninterrupted
source of energy in different hybrid energy systems and is characterized by its efficiency and fuel
consumption [19]. In this study, the diesel generator system is expected to feed the load and not to
charge the battery based on the dispatch strategy employed. In HOMER, a fuel curve and linear
correlation are employed while computing fuel consumption. Fuel consumption is the quantity of fuel
utilized to generate electricity and is obtained from [44]:
Fd = (a·Td + b·Pd ) (3)
where Fd , a, Td , b, Pd represent the fuel consumption rate of diesel generator (L/h), the coefficient
of fuel intercept (L/kWh), the diesel generator capacity, the fuel slope (L/kWh), and the generator
output, respectively. However, a and b were taken to be 0.0161 L/kWh rated and 0.2486 L/kWh
output [45], respectively.
2.7.4. Battery Storage System

The battery is a storage system required for storing electric power for reliable and efficient
utilization of unpredictable RE systems. However, in most HPSs, battery energy storage is expected to
start operating and supply energy stored at the time when the power output level of the RE generation
system is low and unable to sufficiently serve the external load demand. The most commonly used
technology for the battery in an HPS is lead-acid batteries. However, lithium-ion batteries are currently
dominating the energy storage device (ESD) market for decentralized RE systems due to their extended
lifecycle and high charge/discharge efficiency [46]. The storage capacity of the battery is computed
based on autonomy days and demand as follows [47]:
EL AD
CBat = (4)
ηinv DODηbat
where EL refers to the average load energy per day (kWh/day), AD represents the autonomy days,
ηinv denotes inverter efficiency (95%), DOD represents the depth of discharge (80%), and ηbat denotes
battery efficiency (85%).
2.8. Economic Analysis and Modeling

Economics plays a fundamental role in HOMER by either minimizing or searching for the system
with the least net present cost (NPC) [36]. Current inflation and interest rates in Nigeria are 11.25% and
13.5% [48], respectively. With regards to this, HOMER applies the equation below to find the annual
real discount rate (or real interest rate):
i0 − f
i= (5)
1 + f
where idenotes real interest rate, ƒ refers to the expected inflation rate, and i’ denotes the nominal
discount rate.
2.8.1. Net Present Cost (NPC)

The NPC consists of the initial capital cost, replacement cost, fuel cost, cost of grid electricity
purchased, as well as the salvage and operation and maintenance costs. NPC proved to be more
reliable as an economic variable due to its mathematical foundation than the levelized electricity cost,
which is somewhat arbitrary [49]. The following equation is used to compute NPC [41]:
Cann,tot
CNPC = (6)
CRF(i, n)
where Cann,tot refers to the total annualized cost ($/year), n refers to the lifespan of the project (year),
i denotes annual real interest rate (%), and CRF, which is a function of i and n, refers to the capital
recovery factor as given in ref [50]:
i(1 + i)n
CRF(i, n) = (7)
(1 + i)n − 1
2.8.2. Cost of Energy (COE)

The COE is the average cost per kWh of effective electricity generated by the system. HOMER
applies the following expression to evaluate COE [36]:
Cann,tot
COE = (8)
Lprim + Ldef + Elgrid,sales
where Lrim and Ldef represent the overall amounts of load served by the system per year (primary and
deferrable load), and Elgrid,sales refers to the quantity of electricity sold per year to the utility grid.
2.9. Environmental Analysis and Modeling

The harmful greenhouse gas emissions in the hybrid generation system result from the quantity
of fuel in-take by the diesel generator and utility grid power consumed. In this study, CO2 emissions
are used to examine the environmental impact of the HPS.
CO2 Emissions Modeling

The total amount of CO2 emitted by any hybrid generation system will depend on whether the
system includes non-renewable energy sources or not. HOMER computes the emissions factor for
individual pollutants before simulation and multiplies this factor by the net annual fuel consumption
to determine the annual emissions of each pollutant at the end of the simulation [35]. The equation for
computing the amount of hybrid system CO2 emissions is given as [12]:
procedure flowchart presented in Figure 5. Different cases were studied with regards to the
techno- economic possibility oftCO the2system.
= 3.667The ×m proposed
f × HVf HPS is expected
× CEF f × Xc to undergo many changes (9)
including RE availability level, load growth, price of diesel, generator minimum load ratio, grid
where mf refers
power to the amount
and sell-back of fuel
prices, and (liter), HV
component costf denotes the fuelperiod
over the project heating value
of 20 (MJ/L),
years. CEFf represents
Furthermore, the
the system
carbonshould
emissions factor
be able (ton carbon/TJ),
to adapt to and operate and, Xc is theunder
effectively oxidized
the twocarbon fraction.
scenarios given, in addition
to any variations in major parameters that directly influence the operational behavior of the HPS.
3. ResultsTheand Discussion
system was analyzed under off-grid mode to determine the optimum combination of
components
The HOMER as well as to evaluate
pro software tool isitsemployed
techno-economic
in this performance and environmental
study to determine impact.
the adaptability of the
Moreover, a sensitivity analysis was conducted on the off-grid hybrid system
HPS operating in both on-and off-grid modes, as well as designing a hybrid system for optimum to assess the effect of
changing load demand, RE availability levels, and fuel price on the optimum configuration. The
use of energy resources as per the study’s location, Dukke village, Nigeria, as detailed in the design
system was equally tested according to the utility grid connection scenario to quantify and investigate
procedure flowchart presented in Figure 5. Different cases were studied with regards to the techno-
the impact of these components on the overall component mix, as well as the working performance.
economic possibility of the system. The proposed HPS is expected to undergo many changes including
A sensitivity analysis was carried out on the optimum solution for the on-grid connection to examine
RE the
availability level, critical
effect of some load growth, price
variables: gridofpower
diesel,andgenerator
sell-backminimum load
prices, diesel ratio,
price, grid
and power and
electricity
sell-back prices,rate.
consumption andThecomponent cost overobtained
final configuration the projectbasedperiod
on theof 20 years.
analysis is anFurthermore,
optimum design thewith
system
should be able totoadapt
the capability serve to and
load operate effectively
requirements under the
on a continuous two
basis in scenarios given,without
both scenarios, in addition
making to any
variations in major parameters that directly
any significant changes to the design configuration.influence the operational behavior of the HPS.
Figure 5. System flowchart technique for the two scenarios.

Figure 5. System flowchart technique for the two scenarios.
The system was analyzed under off-grid mode to determine the optimum combination of
components as well as to evaluate its techno-economic performance and environmental impact.
3.1. Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System

Moreover,
In thisadesign,
sensitivity
the analysis wassystem
standalone conducted on the a
comprises off-grid
diesel hybrid
generatorsystem to assess
(DG), the effectPV
wind turbine, of
changing load demand, RE availability levels, and fuel price on the optimum configuration.
arrays, batteries, and a converter. These components are interconnected together to meet the energy The system
was equally tested
consumption according
requirement to the
of the utility
system as grid connection
the display scenario
in Figure to quantify
6. The simulationandofinvestigate the
four different
impact of these components on the overall component mix, as well
scenarios with various integrations of power sources was performed by HOMER; namely: as the working performance.
A sensitivity analysis
PV/wind/battery was1),
(System carried
PV/DG out(System
on the optimum solution for
2), PV/DG/battery the on-grid
(System 3), andconnection to examine
DG-only (System 4).
the effect of some critical variables: grid power and sell-back prices, diesel
Based on the dispatch strategy employed, the RESs are the main sources of the HPS. The diesel price, and electricity
consumption
generator rate. Theasfinal
is operated configuration
a back-up obtained
generation sourcebased on thethe
whenever analysis
RESs is an optimum
and/or design
the storage with
system
the capability
are incapable to ofserve load the
meeting requirements on a continuous
energy demand basisSeveral
of the load. in both component
scenarios, without making any
combinations are
significant changes to the design configuration.
selected by HOMER as the optimum system regarding NPC and COE, as reported in Table 3. The
result indicates that the optimum configuration (System 3) consists of a 21-kW power converter,
3.1. Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System
54 kW PV, 70 battery group (484 kWh nominal capacity battery bank), and a 12-kW diesel generator.
The In this design,
NPC, COE, the standalone
Operating system
Cost, and comprises
Renewable a diesel generator
Fraction (RF) (DG),
are wind turbine, PV
$259,354–385,555,
arrays,0.323$/kWh,
0.218– batteries, and a converter. These
2292–22,968$/year, components
and 0%–100% are interconnected
respectively, together of
when the capacities to the
meet the
wind
energy consumption requirement of the system as the display in Figure
turbine system, diesel generator, battery storage, and PV panel are 0–1 kW, 0–20 kW, 0–761 kWh, and 6. The simulation of
four different
0–76 scenarios with
kW, respectively. The various integrations
result also shows that of power sources was
the optimum performed
system reducesbyCO HOMER; namely:
2 emissions by
PV/wind/battery
51,123 kg/year in (System
comparison 1), PV/DG
to the (System
diesel-only2), PV/DG/battery
system (System4) (System
used 3),
in and DG-onlysituation
the current (System as4).
Based on
shown in the
Tabledispatch
4. strategy employed, the RESs are the main sources of the HPS. The diesel generator
is operated
To meet as the
a back-up generation source
load requirement, wheneversystem
the generator the RESs and/or
runs the storage
for 1301 h/yearsystem are incapable
and contributes to
of meeting the energy demand of the load. Several component combinations
8.51% (8,152 kWh/year) of the overall production, which leads to fuel consumption of 2278 L/year are selected by HOMER
as thea optimum
with rate of 0.279system
L perregarding
kWh. TheNPC annualandgenerated
COE, as reported
energy of inthe
Table
PV3.isThe result
87,661 kWh indicates that the
with a COE of
optimum configuration
$0.0623/kWh. The monthly (System
energy 3) consists of a 21-kW
distribution of eachpower
energyconverter,
source for 54akW
yearPV, 70 battery
with group
an optimum
(484 kWh nominal
component combinationcapacity battery bank),
is presented and 7.
in Figure a 12-kW diesel generator. The NPC, COE, Operating
Cost,The
andfact
Renewable Fractionenergy
that the surplus (RF) are $259,354–385,555,
produced 0.218–
by the off-grid 0.323$/kWh,
system cannot 2292–22,968$/year,
be sold to the nationaland
0%–100%
utility gridrespectively, when the
poses a serious capacities
challenge for of the wind
off-grid turbine
HPS. system,
In this case,diesel generator,
a small battery
percentage of storage,
excess
and PV panel
electricity are 0–1 kW,
is generated. 0–20 kW, 0–761
It constitutes aboutkWh, and 0–76
6% (5741 kW, respectively.
kWh/year) Theelectricity
of the overall result alsoproduction.
shows that
the optimum
However, the system
systemreduces CO2 emissions
can be connected to thebynational
51,123 kg/year in comparison
grid to sell back excesstoenergy;
the diesel-only system
in this way, all
(System4) used in the current situation as shown in Table 4.
the excess electricity can be consumed, in addition to increasing the system’s earnings.
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Schematic
Schematicdiagram
diagramof
ofan
anoff-grid
off-grid HPS.
HPS.
To meet the load

Table requirement,
3. Summarized the generator
optimization resultssystem runs
of multiple for 1301
optimum h/year and contributes to
configurations.
8.51% (8,152 kWh/year) of the overall production, which leads to fuel consumption of 2278 L/year
Parameters/Components Unit System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4
with a rate of 0.279 L per kWh. The annual generated energy of the PV is 87,661 kWh with a COE
of $0.0623/kWh. The monthly energy distribution of each energy source for a year with an optimum
component combination is presented in Figure 7.
Table 3. Summarized optimization results of multiple optimum configurations.
Parameters/Components Unit System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4

Wind turbine kW 1 0 0 0
Photovoltaic kW 75 28 54 0
Diesel generator kW 0 18 12 0
Converter kW 25 11 21 0
Battery Qty 110 0 70 0
Operating cost $/year 2382 16,461 5172 22,968
Annualized
Sustainability 2019, 11, xcost
FOR PEER REVIEW $ 17,580 19,986 15,861 23,579
13 of 26
Net present cost $ 287,466 326,799 259,354 385,555
Cost of energy $/kWh 0.243 0.275 0.218 0.323
Wind turbine
PV production kWh/yearkW 122,6261 0
46,210 087,661 0 0
Wind turbine Photovoltaic
production kWh/yearkW 22375 280 54 0 0 0
Generator production
Diesel generator kWh/yearkW 00 55,567
18 128152 0 76,369
Average totalConverter
production kWh/yearkW 122,849
25 101,778
11 95,812
21 0 76,369
Average excess electricity kWh/year 30,697 26,886 5741 3477
Battery
Renewable fraction %
Qty 100
110 0
23.7
7088.8 0 0
Operating
Battery storage cost
depletion $/year
kWh/year 2382
223 16,461
0 5172272 22,968 0
Annualized
Average generator hourscost h/year $ 17,580
0 19,986
6570 15,861
1301 23,5798760
Specific fuelNetconsumption
present cost L/kWh $ 0
287,466 0.283
326,799 0.279
259,354 385,5550.286
Cost of energy $/kWh 0.243 0.275 0.218 0.323
Table 4. Pollutant emissions
PV production kWh/year produced by the optimum
122,626 46,210 hybrid system.
87,661 0
Wind turbine production kWh/year
Pollutant Emissions
223 0
Value (kg/year)
0 0
Generator production kWh/year 0 55,567 8152 76,369
Carbon dioxide 5963
Average total production kWh/year
Carbon monoxide 122,849 101,778
37.2 95,812 76,369
Average excessUnburned
electricity kWh/year
hydrocarbons 30,697 26,886
1.64 5741 3477
Renewable fraction %
Particulate matter 100 23.7
0.223 88.8 0
Sulfur dioxide
Battery storage depletion kWh/year 223 0 14.6 272 0
Nitrogen oxides 35.0
Average generator hours h/year 0 6570 1301 8760
Specific fuel consumption L/kWh 0 0.283 0.279 0.286
Figure 7. Monthly average solar PV/diesel generator hybrid-electric production.

Figure 7. Monthly average solar PV/diesel generator hybrid-electric production.
The fact that the surplus energy produced by the off-grid system cannot be sold to the national
utility grid poses a Table
serious
4. challenge for off-grid
Pollutant emissions HPS. Inby
produced this
thecase, a small
optimum percentage
hybrid system.of excess electricity
is generated. It constitutes about 6% (5741 kWh/year) of the overall electricity production. However,
Pollutant Emissions Value (kg/year)
the system can be connected to the national grid to sell back excess energy; in this way, all the excess
Carbon dioxide 5963
electricity can be consumed, in addition to increasing the system’s earnings.
Carbon monoxide 37.2
Details of the NPC of the optimized PV/battery/diesel hybrid system by cost type are illustrated
Unburned hydrocarbons 1.64
in Figure 8. A cost analysis of different cost types as a function of each component is given as follows:
Particulate matter 0.223
Sulfur dioxide 14.6
Nitrogen oxides 35.0
Details of the NPC of the optimized PV/battery/diesel hybrid system by cost type are illustrated
• The initial capital cost of the PV is around 46% of the overall capital cost of the system, closely
followed by battery storage, which constitutes around 44% of the overall capital cost. The converter
and diesel generator contributed about 6.44% and 3.43%, respectively. The total capital cost of the
system is calculated to be $174,792, with the cost of the PV system accounting for most of the cost
in this scenario.
• The total replacement cost of the system is $69,138. The PV system has no replacement cost
since the lifetime of this component is 20 years, which corresponds to the project’s lifetime.
The replacement cost is, however, the sum of the converter, batteries, and diesel generator cost of
replacement, where the storage system contributes to about 84% of the total cost due to its14short-
Sustainability 2019, 11, x FOR PEER REVIEW of 26
term operational lifetime compared to the overall system lifetime. The battery bank expected life
and
short-theterm
diesel generator operational
operational life are 14.3
lifetime compared years
to the and 11.5
overall yearslifetime.
system respectively.
The battery bank
• The overall
expected lifeoperating, salvage
and the diesel and fueloperational
generator costs of thelife
proposed
are 14.3system are estimated
years and 11.5 years to be $28,280,
respectively.
• $36,322,
The overall andoperating,
$23,465, respectively.
salvage and fuel costs of the proposed system are estimated to be $28,280,
$36,322, and $23,465, respectively.
200,000
150,000
Net Present Cost ($)
100,000 PV
Batteries
Converter
50,000 Generator
0
Capital Replacement Operating Fuel Salvage
-50,000
Figure
Figure 8. Net present
8. Net present cost
cost (NPC)
(NPC) details
details of
of the
the optimized
optimized hybrid
hybrid system
system as
as aa function
function of
of cost.
cost.
Battery Storage System

Battery Storage System
The inclusion of battery storage in any off-grid system can increase the renewable penetration rate
The inclusion of battery storage in any off-grid system can increase the renewable penetration
and reduce excess energy at the expense of increasing the COE and capital cost. Furthermore, batteries
rate and reduce excess energy at the expense of increasing the COE and capital cost. Furthermore,
are used to support load requirements during times when the output power of RESs is insufficient,
batteries are used to support load requirements during times when the output power of RESs is
thereby improving system reliability as well as mitigating the variability associated with the RE system.
insufficient, thereby improving system reliability as well as mitigating the variability associated with
Battery autonomy refers to the periods of time (in hours) during which the battery can adequately
the RE system. Battery autonomy refers to the periods of time (in hours) during which the battery
supply the load without needing to recharge. In this paper, one string of battery storage forms 2.49 h of
can adequately supply the load without needing to recharge. In this paper, one string of battery
autonomy with a nominal capacity of 34.6 kWh. In the charging and discharging process of the battery,
storage forms 2.49 h of autonomy with a nominal capacity of 34.6 kWh. In the charging and
the use of a traditional control method leaves some parameters out of the user’s control. This results in
discharging process of the battery,the use of a traditional control method leaves some parameters out
the aging of the batteries in addition to decreasing the battery life cycle thereby causing irreversible
of the user’s control. This results in the aging of the batteries in addition to decreasing the battery life
battery damage. However, the introduction of other control methods such as model predictive and
cycle thereby causing irreversible battery damage. However, the introduction of other control
fuzzy logic controls in battery charging management for renewable energy systems can reduce the
methods such as model predictive and fuzzy logic controls in battery charging management for
charging time, avoid deep discharging through the maintenance of the state of charge (SOC) above
renewable energy systems can reduce the charging time, avoid deep discharging through the
50%, as well as protect the battery from wear and tear [51] The monthly average SOC of the battery
maintenance of the state of charge (SOC) above 50%, as well as protect the battery from wear and tear
[51] The monthly average SOC of the battery system is displayed in Figure 9. It shows that the months
of July through to September recorded the lowest charging cycles due to the low solar irradiation
levels reported in these months.
This reduces the energy penetration of solar; thus, additional energy is expected to be supplied
by the battery to meet the load demand. Conversely, the highest charging cycle was reported in the
system is displayed in Figure 9. It shows that the months of July through to September recorded the
lowest charging cycles due to the low solar irradiation levels reported in these months.
Figure 9. Percentage
Figure 9. ofbattery
Percentage of batterymonthly
monthlystate
stateofofcharge
charge (SOC).
(SOC).
3.2.This reduces
Sensitivity the energy penetration of solar; thus, additional energy is expected to be supplied
Analysis
by the battery to meet the load demand. Conversely, the highest charging cycle was reported in the
In this part, different sensitivity analyses were conducted to investigate system behavior while
months of January through to May. This indicates the system mostly relies on other components to
changing some variables that influence off-grid system performance in order to determine whether
serve the load.
the system would meet load requirements.
3.2. Sensitivity Analysis
3.2.1. Sensitivity Analysis of Generator Parameters
In this part, different sensitivity analyses were conducted to investigate system behavior while
Generator
changing Minimum
some Load
variables thatRatio
influence off-grid system performance in order to determine whether the
systemThewould meet load
minimum ratiorequirements.
of load on the generator set is the least load allowed on it, as a percentage
of its rated output. Specifying a minimum load will simply prevent the generator from running at
3.2.1. Sensitivity Analysis of Generator Parameters
too low a load rather than preventing it from being turned off [35]. This variable is of great importance
as some manufacturers
Generator Minimum Load suggest
Ratio the generator set should be shut off under a certain load. In view of
this, the generator load minimum ratio is assumed to vary from 10% to 40% in order to evaluate its
The minimum
economic ratio of loadimpact.
and environmental on theThegenerator
variationset in
is the
NPC, least load
COE, andallowed on it, as afor
CO2 emissions percentage
different of
itsminimum
rated output. Specifying a minimum load will simply prevent the generator from
load ratios is presented in Figure 10. At 10%, the NPC is $260,634, COE is $0.219/kWh, and running at too
lowCOa2 load ratherare
emissions than
5154preventing it from being
kg/year. However, the NPCturned off [35].by
is reduced This
0.65%variable is ofby
and COE great importance
0.46%, while
asCOsome manufacturers
2 increases by about suggest
41% based theongenerator
a generatorset minimum
should beload shutofoff under a certain load. In view of
40%.
this, theThe results reveal
generator load the direct impact
minimum ratio isofassumed
varying the minimum
to vary load to
from 10% ratio
40%onin
the system
order cost and its
to evaluate
environment,
economic as well as on generator
and environmental impact.working performance.
The variation in NPC,However,
COE, and operating the generator
CO2 emissions for at low
different
load levels
minimum loadforratios
an extended timeincan
is presented impede
Figure 10. Atits10%,
performance.
the NPC isThe most common
$260,634, consequenceand
COE is $0.219/kWh,
CO associated with this is wet stacking, which is a black-oil liquid that can leak from exhaust joints as a
2 emissions are 5154 kg/year. However, the NPC is reduced by 0.65% and COE by 0.46%, while
CO2 increasesgenerator
result of the by about working
41% based under
on alow or no load
generator conditions
minimum loadfor
of long.
40%. This problem can lead to
system failure and decreased the operational lifespan of
The results reveal the direct impact of varying the minimum load the generator [52].ratio on the system cost and
environment, as well as on generator working performance. However, operating the generator at
low load levels for an extended time can impede its performance. The most common consequence
associated with this is wet stacking, which is a black-oil liquid that can leak from exhaust joints as a
result of the generator working under low or no load conditions for long. This problem can lead to
system failure and decreased the operational lifespan of the generator [52].
NPC ($)
COE ($/kWh)
CO2 (kg/yr.)
260800 7500
260600 0.2190
260400 7000
0.2188
260200
260000 6500
0.2186
259800
6000
259600 0.2184
259400
259200 0.2182 5500
259000
0.2180 5000
258800
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Generator minimum load ratio (%)
Figure 10. Effect of generator minimum load ratio on NPC, cost of energy (COE), and CO2 emissions.
Figure 10. Effect of generator minimum load ratio on NPC, cost of energy (COE), and CO2
Generator Fuel Price emissions.
The price Fuel

Generator of diesel
Price continues to fluctuate with exchange rate fluctuations in the global market.
However, remote areas are likely to experience higher and more varied diesel prices, considering the
The price of diesel continues to fluctuate with exchange rate fluctuations in the global market.
cost of transportation and other costs associated with using diesel fuel in such areas. In this regard, the
However, remote areas are likely to experience higher and more varied diesel prices, considering the
fuel price is assumed to range from $0.4/L to $1.2/L in order to investigate its impact on CO2 emissions
cost of transportation and other costs associated with using diesel fuel in such areas. In this regard,
and the
theoverall system
fuel price cost. Ittocan
is assumed be seen
range fromin$0.4/L
Figureto 11 thatinboth
$1.2/L NPC
order and COE increase
to investigate its impactfrom
on CO$210,511
2
to $272,799
emissions and the overall system cost. It can be seen in Figure 11 that both NPC and COE increase to
and from $0.177/kWh to $0.23/kWh, while CO 2 emissions drop from 25,244 kg/year
1692 from
kg/year whentothe
$210,511 fuel price
$272,799 and rises from $0.4/Ltoto$0.23/kWh,
from $0.177/kWh $1.2/L. The variation
while that occurs
CO2 emissions dropwith
fromthese
25,244 due
parameters kg/year to 1692
to rises kg/year
in diesel when
prices can the
befuel price rises
explained fromfact
by the $0.4/L
thatto
the$1.2/L.
hybridThe variation
system tendsthatto rely
occurs with2019,
moreSustainability
on renewable these parameters
energy
11, x due to rises
components
FOR PEER REVIEW in diesel
to meet loadprices can be
demand, explained
thus reducingby the
thefact thatthe
hours thegenerator
hybrid
17 of 26 is
system tends to rely more on renewable energy components to meet
in operation, which directly relates to the low CO2 emissions and high NPC and COE. load demand, thus reducing the
hours the generator is in operation, which directly relates to the low CO2 emissions and high NPC
and COE. NPC ($)
COE ($/kWh)
CO2 (kg/yr)
280000
0.23 25000
270000
0.22 20000
260000
250000 0.21
15000
240000 0.20
10000
230000
0.19
5000
220000
0.18
210000 0
0.17
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Diesel fuel price ($/L)
Figure 11. Impact of fuel price on NPC, COE, and CO2 gas emissions.
Figure 11. Impact of fuel price on NPC, COE, and CO2 gas emissions.
3.2.2. Impact of Load Demand Growth

The electrical energy from a power system depends on the load demand that should be met all
the time. In this section, based on economic and population growth rates in remote rural areas in
Nigeria [53], load demand was assumed to increase by 0.5% per year over the project’s lifetime in
3.2.2. Impact of Load Demand Growth

The electrical energy from a power system depends on the load demand that should be met all
the time. In this section, based on economic and population growth rates in remote rural areas in
Nigeria [53], load demand was assumed to increase by 0.5% per year over the project’s lifetime in
order to investigate its impact on greenhouse gas emissions and overall system cost, as illustrated in
Figure 12. Besides, load demand generally changes from time to time. It is evident from Figure 12
that the NPC and COE increased by 10.7% and 0.9%, respectively, whereas CO2 gas emissions were
reduced by 24.3% when the load demand rose from 200 kWh/day to 220 kWh/day. The result shows
that the higher the load demand of an electricity consumer, the higher the energy production; hence,
the need to update the capacity of different components of the hybrid system in order to raise the
overall electricity generation at the expense of increased NPC. In this case, the PV capacity increases
more than that of the diesel generator due to the high level of global solar radiation at this location,
which explains
Sustainability thex reduction
2019, 11, in CO2 emissions recorded.
FOR PEER REVIEW 18 of 26
NPC ($)
COE ($/kWh)
CO2 (kg/yr)
290000
6000
0.2200
285000
5800
280000 0.2195 5600
5400
275000
0.2190 5200
270000
5000
265000 0.2185 4800
4600
260000
0.2180
4400
255000
200 205 210 215 220
Load growth (kWh/day)
Figure 12. Impact of load demand growth on NPC, COE, and CO2 emissions.
To validate the results, the above parameters need to be simultaneously varied alongside solar
insolation levels to assess their impacts on the overall operational behavior of the system. In the
meantime, the diesel fuel price is varied between $0.1/L and $1.2/L, load demand between 200 kWh/day
and 230 kWh/day, and global solar radiation in the range of 1.5 kWh/m2 /day to 6.5 kWh/m2 /day.
The results of the sensitivity analysis are reported in Figure 13 with variations in the diesel fuel
price against average solar radiation at different load demands (load growth). The results obtained
clearly reveal the potential of the proposed DG/PV/battery design in meeting the load demand despite
changes in some major variables that directly influence hybrid system behavior under standalone
conditions. However, DG/battery and DG/PV hybrid systems are preferred only when the diesel
fuel price reported low values of less than $0.32/L and the average solar irradiation reached at least
2.41 kWh/m2 /day. Otherwise, the hybrid DG/PV/battery generation system, which corresponds to the
optimum solution illustrated in Section 3.2, is preferred over other system combinations throughout
the project’s lifetime. Further increases in the load demand had no significant effect on the optimum
solution as the system demonstrated its potential to meet load demand changes, even during the
extreme condition of fuel scarcity.
0.2180
4400
255000
200 205 210 215 220
Load growth (kWh/day)
Figure 13. Sensitivity

Sensitivity analysis
analysis of
of grid-independent
grid-independent hybrid
hybrid system
system (diesel
(diesel fuel
fuel price against average
solar radiation) at (a) 200 kWh/day; (b) 212 kWh/day; (c) 220 kWh/day;
kWh/day; (d)
(d) 230
230 kWh/day;
kWh/day; and
and above.
above.
3.3. On-Grid Hybrid Systems

The optimum configuration is connected to the utility grid; hence, all component combinations
are expected to remain unchanged to show the level of adaptability of the proposed design, as shown
in Figure 14. Generally, component incompatibility and investment cost are the main factors that
affect the transition that occurs between standalone and grid-connected systems. However, changing
component specifications at the point of inserting an electric grid to an existing off-grid configuration
can lead to a redesign of the entire system, thereby making the system economically and technically
infeasible, as well as hampering the establishment of a rural electrification framework due to the
anticipated changes in the system architecture and overall cost. A sensitivity analysis was conducted
to examine the operational performance of the designed system when changing the key parameters
that directly influence the behavior of any grid-connected system.
component specifications at the point of inserting an electric grid to an existing off-grid configuration
can lead to a redesign of the entire system, thereby making the system economically and technically
infeasible, as well as hampering the establishment of a rural electrification framework due to the
anticipated changes in the system architecture and overall cost. A sensitivity analysis was conducted
to examine the operational performance of the designed system when changing the key parameters
that directly influence the behavior of any grid-connected system.
Figure 14. Schematic diagram of a grid-connected HPS.

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of a grid-connected HPS.
3.3.1. Sensitivity Evaluation
3.3.1. Sensitivity Evaluation
On-grid system operational response to changes in major parameters, including load demand,
On-grid
fuel price, system
as well operational
as grid power and response
sell-backto prices,
changes areinstudied
major parameters,
and elucidated including loadThe
in this part. demand,
effect
fuel
of price, the
varying as well
grid as
powergrid price
power and sell-back
against the average prices, areload
scaled studied
(+0.5% andperelucidated in this sell-
year) at various part.back
The
effect of varying the grid power price against the average scaled load
and fuel prices on various system configurations is presented in Figure 15. The outcome shows the (+0.5% per year) at various
sell- back
impact of and
thesefuel prices on
variables on various systemsystem
the optimum configurations is presented
design. Also, in Figure
our results clearly 15.show
The outcome
that the
shows the impact of these variables on the optimum system design. Also,
optimum system, in this case, consists of PV, a grid, and a diesel generator, which corresponds our results clearly to show
the
that the optimum system, in this case, consists of PV, a grid, and a
optimum solution in the off-grid scenario except that the battery bank is replaced by the grid, mainlydiesel generator, which
corresponds
for economic to the optimum
reasons as well assolution in the
to ensure off-grid
reliable andscenario
continuous except that the
backup battery bank is replaced
operation.
by the grid, mainly for economic reasons as well as to ensure
Furthermore, the on-grid configuration prefers to sell back the surplus power reliable and continuous
to the utilitybackup
grid
operation.
rather than store it in the storage system (batteries) in order to minimize the COE and the investment
cost. Furthermore,
According to the Figureon-grid
15a–c,configuration
two component prefers to sell back the
combinations are surplus
identifiedpower to the utility
as optimal choicesgridby
rather than store it in the storage system (batteries) in order to minimize
HOMER: the PV/Grid and DG/PV/Grid systems. The PV/Grid configuration tends to be the optimal the COE and the investment
cost. According
system choice only to Figure 15a–c,
if the grid twoprice
power component combinations
is less than $0.28/kWhare and identified as optimal
the sell-back choices
and diesel by
prices
HOMER: the PV/Grid and DG/PV/Grid systems. The PV/Grid configuration
rise by up to $0.26/kWh and $0.83/L, respectively, while the average load demand keeps increasing. tends to be the optimal
system
This choiceconfiguration
system only if the grid power
is not price is less
completely than $0.28/kWh
reliable as it is only andanthe sell-back
optimal andwith
choice diesellimited
prices
rise by up
changes in to
the$0.26/kWh and $0.83/L,
major parameters. respectively,
However, the systemwhile the average
depends load part
in a major demand keeps
on the increasing.
optimal hybrid
This system configuration is not completely reliable as it is only
DG/PV/Grid system whenever the sell-back price exceeds the grid power price and the fuel an optimal choice with limited
price
changes in the major parameters. However, the system depends in a major part
increases to more than $0.83/L. Further increases in the fuel, sell-back, and grid power prices have no on the optimal hybrid
significant impact on the optimum system, as the hybrid configuration remains the best choice among
all other hybrid combinations irrespective of any future changes that could affect the system during its
operational lifetime.
Therefore, the optimum design of a grid-connected PV/diesel generator is considered to be the best
choice under all scenarios, in addition to meeting the design criteria by being a flexible configuration
under all operating conditions. This finding underlines the high adaptability of the proposed hybrid
system under grid-connected and off-grid conditions.
all other hybrid combinations irrespective of any future changes that could affect the system during
its operational lifetime.
Therefore, the optimum design of a grid-connected PV/diesel generator is considered to be the
best choice under all scenarios, in addition to meeting the design criteria by being a flexible
configuration
Sustainability under
2019, 11, 4959 all operating conditions. This finding underlines the high adaptability of 20
the
of 25
proposed hybrid system under grid-connected and off-grid conditions.
Figure
Figure Sensitivity
15.15. evaluation
Sensitivity evaluationof grid-connected HPS:HPS:
of grid-connected grid grid
power price price
power against average
against load demand
average load
fordemand
various for
diesel fuel and sell-back prices of (a) $0.63/L, $0.06/kWh; (b) $0.73/L, $0.16/kWh; (c) $0.83/L,
various diesel fuel and sell-back prices of (a) $0.63/L, $0.06/kWh; (b) $0.73/L, $0.16/kWh;
$0.26/kW; (d) $0.26/kW;
(c) $0.83/L, $0.93/L, $0.36/kWh;
(d) $0.93/L,and above. and above.
$0.36/kWh;
3.3.2. Economic
3.3.2. EconomicAnalysis
AnalysisofofNPC
NPCand
andCOE
COE Impact
Impact
The variation
The in the
variation value
in the of electricity
value prices
of electricity (sell-back
prices andand
(sell-back gridgrid
power prices)
power significantly
prices) affects
significantly
theaffects
systemthe system energy cost and total NPC. The effects of changing the grid power price alongsidethe
energy cost and total NPC. The effects of changing the grid power price alongside
sell-back price price
the sell-back are presented in Figure
are presented 16. As
in Figure 16. indicated in this
As indicated figure,
in this increasing
figure, the
increasing thesell-back
sell-backprice
pricefor
thefor
same grid grid
the same power price
power would
price wouldresult in in
result decreased
decreasedNPCNPCandand COE beinggenerated
COE being generatedbyby the
the hybrid
hybrid
system. For example, in the simulation conducted for sell-back prices of $0.04 and $0.1 per kWh, the
COE and NPC are found to be respectively $0.0983/kWh and $0.0133/kWh, and $117,735 and $71,313.
The effect of increasing the grid power price on COE is apparent, as the COE per kWh price increased
by 64.3% when the grid power price increased from $0.1/kWh to $0.5/kWh at the base case sell-back
price ($0.06/kWh). The effect of changing any of these parameters on the overall system behavior is
particularly important to understand and needs to be considered when updating the off-grid system
with utility grid connections.
(a) NPC
COE (b)
NPC
COE
200000 0.12
100000 0.10 200000 0.15
0.08
0
0.06 0 0.10
CO E ($/kW h)
CO E ($/kW h)
-100000
0.04
NP C ($)
NP C ($)
-200000 0.02 0.05
-200000
-300000 0.00
-0.02 0.00
-400000
-0.04 -400000
-500000
-0.06 -0.05
-600000 -0.08 -600000
-700000 -0.10 -0.10
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Sellback price ($/kWh) Sellback price ($/kWh)
NPC NPC
(c) COE (d) COE
400000 400000 0.20
0.15
200000 200000 0.15
0.10
CO E ($/kW h)
CO E ($/kW h)
0.10
0 0
NP C ($)
NP C ($)
0.05
0.05
-200000 -200000
0.00
0.00
-400000 -400000
-0.05 -0.05
-600000 -600000
-0.10 -0.10
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Sellback price ($/kWh) Sellback price ($/kWh)
(e) NPC
COE
400000 0.20
200000 0.15
CO E ($/kW h)
0.10
0
NP C ($)
0.05
-200000
0.00
-400000
-0.05
-600000
-0.10
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
Sellback price ($/kWh)
Figure 16. Effect of changing the grid power price on the COE and total NPC over (a) $0.1/kWh;
(b) $0.2/kWh; (c) $0.3/kWh; (d) $0.4/kWh; (e) $0.5/kWh; and above.
Figure 16. Effect of changing the grid power price on the COE and total NPC over (a) $0.1/kWh;
On$0.2/kWh;
(b) the contrary, increasing
(c) $0.3/kWh; (d) the grid power
$0.4/kWh; price byand
(e) $0.5/kWh; upabove.
to $0.5/Wh increases both NPC and COE.
The effect of increasing the grid power price on COE is apparent, as the COE per kWh price increased
3.3.3. Environmental
by 64.3% Analysis
when the grid power of price
Carbon Emissions
increased from $0.1/kWh to $0.5/kWh at the base case sell-back
price ($0.06/kWh). The effect of changing any of these parameters on the overall system behavior is
Figure 17 displays the amount of CO2 emissions for various sell-back and grid power prices.
particularly important to understand and needs to be considered when updating the off-grid system
From the results, it is obvious that the CO2 emissions increase when the grid power price increases.
with utility grid connections.
For instance, in the case of a sell-back price of $0.18/kWh, the CO2 emissions increased by 96.4% when
the gridEnvironmental
3.3.3. power price increased
Analysisfrom $0.1/kWh
of Carbon to $0.5/kWh. The increase in CO2 is due to the fact that
Emissions
the system prefers to supply the load through the hybrid system (which includes a combination of
Figure
renewable 17conventional
and displays theenergy
amount of CO2rather
sources) emissions for the
than via various sell-back
available and gridOperating
grid system. power prices.
the
From the results,
conventional dieselitsystem,
is obvious thatcase,
in this the CO 2 emissions
will lead to highincrease when the
combustion grid power
of fossil price increases.
fuel, resulting in the
For instance,
emission in the
of tons case of a sell-back
of greenhouse gases price of $0.18/kWh,
that harm the CO2 emissions
the environment; hence theincreased by 96.4%
large quantity of when
CO2
the grid power price increased from $0.1/kWh to $0.5/kWh. The increase
emissions produced. However, a rise in the sell-back price will lead to the system in CO 2 is due to the fact on
relying more that
thegrid
the system prefers
system to supply
to meet its loadthe load through the hybrid system (which includes a combination of
requirement.
renewable and conventional energy sources) rather than via the available grid system. Operating the
conventional diesel system, in this case, will lead to high combustion of fossil fuel, resulting in the
emission of tons of greenhouse gases that harm the environment; hence the large quantity of CO2
emissions produced. However, a rise in the sell-back price will lead to the system relying more on the
grid system to meet its load requirement.
Sell back price =$ 0.06/kWh Sell back price =$ 0.09/kWh

Sell back price =$ 0.12/kWh Sell back price =$ 0.15/kWh
Sell back price=$ 0.18/kWh
60,000
50,000
CO2 Emission (kg/yr)
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35 0.4 0.45 0.5
Grid power price ($/kWh)
Figure 17.
Figure Effect of
17. Effect of different
different grid
grid power
power and
and sell-back
sell-back prices
prices on
on the
the amount
amount of
of CO gas emissions.
CO22 gas emissions.
4. Conclusions
4. Conclusions
In this paper, the design of an optimum hybrid power generation system to meet the load demand
In this paper, the design of an optimum hybrid power generation system to meet the load
of a typical remote village in the northwestern region of Nigeria was analyzed. Several cases for
demand of a typical remote village in the northwestern region of Nigeria was analyzed. Several cases
on-grid and off-grid connections of a wind turbine, PV panel, battery storage, and diesel generator
for on-grid and off-grid connections of a wind turbine, PV panel, battery storage, and diesel generator
were investigated using HOMER software. Through an evaluation of the resources available in this
were investigated using HOMER software. Through an evaluation of the resources available in this
zone and the modeling of various system scenarios, the operational performance of all combinations
zone and the modeling of various system scenarios, the operational performance of all combinations
was quantitatively examined to determine a feasible and optimum flexible system and to analyze the
was quantitatively examined to determine a feasible and optimum flexible system and to analyze the
benefits/drawbacks associated with each configuration.
benefits/drawbacks associated with each configuration.
The key findings of the study can be given as follows:
The key findings of the study can be given as follows:
•• The NPC,
The NPC, COE, Operating
COE, Cost, and
Operating Cost,Renewable Fraction (RF)Fraction
and Renewable of $259,354–385,555, 0.218–0.323$/kWh,
(RF) of $259,354–385,555,
2292–22,968$/year and 0%–100% respectively, are realized
0.218– 0.323$/kWh, 2292–22,968$/year and 0%–100% respectively, are realized with wind turbine, dieselwith
generator,
wind
battery, and PV panel sizes of 0–1 kW, 0–20 kW, 0–761 kWh and 0– 76
turbine, diesel generator, battery, and PV panel sizes of 0–1 kW, 0–20 kW, 0–761 kWh and kW, respectively, for the
off-grid system.
0– 76 kW, respectively, for the off-grid system.
•• The optimal
The optimal system
system based
based on
on minimum
minimum NPC NPC and and COE
COE has
has 54-kW
54-kW PV PVpanels,
panels,aa21-kW
21-kWconverter,
converter,
a 12-kW generator, and a 484-kWh nominal capacity
a 12-kW generator, and a 484-kWh nominal capacity battery bank. battery bank.
•• Adding battery
batterystorage
storagetotothethe
off-grid design
off-grid increases
design the renewable
increases penetration
the renewable rate andrate
penetration reduces
and
the excess energy, in addition to providing continuous power supply at the
reduces the excess energy, in addition to providing continuous power supply at the expense of expense of increasing
the total NPC.
increasing the total NPC.
•• In the on-grid scenario, the grid serves as a reliable back-up source and consumes the excess
electricity generated,
generated,thereby
therebycreating
creatinga means
a means of earnings
of earnings(generated income)
(generated for thefor
income) system, which
the system,
will
which help reduce
will help the overall
reduce theenergy
overallcost. The battery
energy cost. The storage system,
battery in this
storage case, in
system, is eliminated.
this case, is
• eliminated.
The sensitivity analysis results also show that the COE and NPC for both the grid-connected and
• The sensitivity
off-grid system areanalysis results
generally alsothe
within show thatofthe
range COE and NPC
0.1–0.218$/kWh for$117,598–273,185,
and both the grid-connected and
respectively.
• off-grid system are generally within the range of 0.1–0.218$/kWh and
The adverse effect of each design on the environment is studied by considering different sell- $117,598–273,185,
respectively.
back and grid power prices. The majority of the harmful emissions generated are carbon dioxide
• The 2adverse
(CO effect of each
). They accounted design 5963
for between on theandenvironment
49,393 kg/year is of
studied
emissionsby considering
for both on- different
grid and
sell- back and grid power prices. The majority of the harmful emissions generated
grid-independent configurations. This range is subject to the price and quantity of fuel consumed are carbon
dioxide (CO2). They
by the generator accounted
and different gridforpower
between 5963 andprices.
and sell-back 49,393 kg/year of emissions for both
on- grid and grid-independent configurations. This range is subject to the price and quantity of
fuel consumed by the generator and different grid power and sell-back prices.
Overall, the results obtained in this study show that not only does the proposed optimal hybrid
PV/battery/diesel generation system demonstrate great potential in meeting load demand, it is an
environmentally friendly solution as it can reduce the amount of harmful pollutants and greenhouse
gases that are produced on an ongoing basis. Also, it displayed acceptable performance when varying
the major parameters that directly influence system behavior and design under both on- and off-grid
conditions. This work provides a general methodology for establishing and designing a reliable and
flexible hybrid power system to ensure continuous power supply to consumers under all environmental
conditions and with low impact on the environment (pollution).
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.O.O.; Methodology, J.O.O.; Resources, Y.A.A.-T.; Supervision,

M.A.M.R. and Y.A.A.-T.; Writing—original draft, J.O.O.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Acknowledgments: The support of the deanship of graduate studies at King Abdul-Aziz University for
postgraduate scholarship is highly appreciated.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
References
1. Worldbank Rural Electricity Access. Available online: https://data.worldbank.org (accessed on 1 April 2019).
2. Dudley, B. BP Statistical Review of World Energy. Available online: https://www.bp.com (accessed on
9 June 2019).
3. Baneshi, M.; Hadianfard, F. Techno-economic feasibility of hybrid diesel/PV/wind/battery electricity
generation systems for non-residential large electricity consumers under southern Iran climate conditions.
Energy Convers. Manag. 2016, 127, 233–244. [CrossRef]
4. USAID Power Africa. Available online: https://www.usaid.gov/powerafrica (accessed on 26 February 2019).
5. Nigerian Electricity Regulatory Commission Renewable Energy Sourced Electricity and Generation Facilities.
Available online: https://www.nercng.org (accessed on 9 April 2019).
6. Nigeria-PunchNewspaper Renewable Energy Mix. Available online: https://punchng.com/fg-targets-30-per-
cent-in-renewable-energy-mix-by-2030-fashola/ (accessed on 31 March 2019).
7. Amin, A.Z. Renewable Power Generation Costs in 2017. Available online: https://www.irena.org (accessed
on 9 June 2019).
8. Shah, K.K.; Mundada, A.S.; Pearce, J.M. Performance of U.S. hybrid distributed energy systems: Solar
photovoltaic, battery and combined heat and power. Energy Convers. Manag. 2015, 105, 71–80. [CrossRef]
9. Eller, A. Energy Storage Trends and Opportunities in Emerging Markets. Available online: https://www.ifc.org
(accessed on 9 June 2019).
10. Lovins, A. The Economics of Grid Defection. Available online: https://rmi.org/insight/economics-grid-
defection/ (accessed on 4 July 2019).
11. Shaahid, S.M.; El-Amin, I. Techno-economic evaluation of off-grid hybrid photovoltaic-diesel-battery power
systems for rural electrification in Saudi Arabia-A way forward for sustainable development. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 2009, 13, 625–633. [CrossRef]
12. Shezan, S.K.A.; Julai, S.; Kibria, M.A.; Ullah, K.R.; Saidur, R.; Chong, W.T.; Akikur, R.K. Performance analysis
of an off-grid wind-PV ( photovoltaic ) -diesel- battery hybrid energy system feasible for remote areas.
J. Clean. Prod. 2016, 125, 121–132. [CrossRef]
13. Dalton, G.J.; Lockington, D.A.; Baldock, T.E. Feasibility analysis of stand-alone renewable energy supply
options for a large hotel. Renew. Energy 2008, 33, 1475–1490. [CrossRef]
14. Shaaban, M.; Petinrin, J.O. Renewable energy potentials in Nigeria: Meeting rural energy needs. Renew. Sustain.
Energy Rev. 2014, 29, 72–84. [CrossRef]
15. Ohunakin, O.S.; Adaramola, M.S.; Oyewola, O.M.; Fagbenle, R.O. Solar energy applications and development
in Nigeria: Drivers and barriers. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2014, 32, 294–301. [CrossRef]
16. Rohani, G.; Nour, M. Techno-economical analysis of stand-alone hybrid renewable power system for Ras
Musherib in United Arab Emirates. Energy 2014, 64, 828–841. [CrossRef]
17. Das, H.S.; Yatim, A.H.M.; Tan, C.W.; Lau, K.Y. Proposition of a PV/tidal powered micro-hydro and diesel
hybrid system: A southern Bangladesh focus. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2016, 53, 1137–1148. [CrossRef]
18. Akinyele, D. Analysis of photovoltaic mini-grid systems for remote locations: A techno-economic approach.
Int. J. Energy Res. 2018, 42, 1363–1380. [CrossRef]
19. Ramli, M.A.M.; Hiendro, A.; Twaha, S. Economic analysis of PV/diesel hybrid system with flywheel energy
storage. Renew. Energy 2015, 78, 398–405. [CrossRef]
20. Adaramola, M.S.; Paul, S.S.; Oyewola, O.M. Assessment of decentralized hybrid PV solar-diesel power
system for applications in Northern part of Nigeria. Energy Sustain. Dev. 2014, 19, 72–82. [CrossRef]
21. Ngan, M.S.; Tan, C.W. Assessment of economic viability for PV/wind/diesel hybrid energy system in southern
Peninsular Malaysia. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 634–647. [CrossRef]
22. Asrari, A.; Ghasemi, A.; Javidi, M.H. Economic evaluation of hybrid renewable energy systems for rural
electrification in Iran - A case study. Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev. 2012, 16, 3123–3130. [CrossRef]
23. Güler, Ö.; Akdaǧ, S.A.; Dinçsoy, M.E. Feasibility analysis of medium-sized hotel’s electrical energy
consumption with hybrid systems. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2013, 9, 15–22. [CrossRef]
24. Kim, H.; Baek, S.; Choi, K.H.; Kim, D.; Lee, S.; Kim, D.; Chang, H.J. Comparative analysis of on- and off-grid
electrification: The case of two South Korean Islands. Sustainability 2016, 8, 350. [CrossRef]
25. Olatomiwa, L.; Mekhilef, S.; Huda, A.S.N.; Ohunakin, O.S. Economic evaluation of hybrid energy systems
for rural electrification in six geo-political zones of Nigeria. Renew. Energy 2015, 83, 435–446. [CrossRef]
26. Adaramola, M.S. Viability of grid-connected solar PV energy system in Jos, Nigeria. Int. J. Electr. Power
Energy Syst. 2014, 61, 64–69. [CrossRef]
27. Olaniyan, K.; McLellan, B.C.; Ogata, S.; Tezuka, T. Estimating residential electricity consumption in Nigeria
to support energy transitions. Sustainability 2018, 10, 1440. [CrossRef]
28. Soares, A.; Gomes, A.; Ntunes, C.H. Domestic Load Characterization for Demand- Responsive Energy
Management Systems. In Proceedings of the 2012 IEEE International Symposium on Sustainable Systems
and Technology, Boston, MA, USA, 16–18 May 2012; pp. 1–6.
29. Saleh, A.; Faridun, M.; Tajuddin, N.; Ra, M.; Azmi, A.; Ramli, M.A.M. Optimization and sensitivity analysis
of standalone hybrid energy systems for rural electri fi cation: A case study of Iraq. Renew. Energy 2019, 138,
775–792.
30. NASA/SSE. Surface Meteorology and Solar Energy. Available online: https://power.larc.nasa.gov/ (accessed
on 17 April 2019).
31. Shukla, K.N.; Rangnekar, S.; Sudhakar, K. Comparative study of isotropic and anisotropic sky models to
estimate solar radiation incident on tilted surface: A case study for Bhopal, India. Energy Reports 2015, 1,
96–103. [CrossRef]
32. Duffie, J.A.; Beckman, W.A. Solar Engineering of Thermal Processes; John Wiley & Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NJ,
USA, 2006; Volume 53, ISBN 0471698679.
33. Jordan, D.C.; Kurtz, S.R.; Vansant, K.; Newmiller, J. Compendium of photovoltaic degradation rates.
Prog. Photovolt. Res. Appl. 2016, 978–989. [CrossRef]
34. Starcher, V.C.; Nelson, K.L. Wind Energy. Available online: https://epower.com (accessed on 24 April 2019).
35. HOMER Energy LLC HOMER Pro Version 3.7 User Manual; HOMER Energy: Boulder, CO, USA, 2016.
36. Gilman, P.; Lilienthal, P. Micropower System Modeling; John Wiley Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, NI, USA, 2006;
pp. 379–418.
37. National Bureau of Statistics - Nigeria. Available online: https://nigerianstat.gov.ng (accessed on 22 April 2019).
38. Hossain, M.; Mekhilef, S.; Olatomiwa, L. Performance evaluation of a stand-alone PV-wind-diesel-battery
hybrid system feasible for a large resort center in South China Sea, Malaysia. Sustain. Cities Soc. 2017, 28,
39. Kaunda, S. Understanding Electricity Tariffs. Available online: https://www.academia.edu/9365189/
UNDERSTANDING_ELECTRICITY_TARIFFS (accessed on 4 July 2019).
40. Barley, C.D.; Winn, C.B. Optimal dispatch strategy in remote hybrid power systems. Sol. Energy 1996, 58,
41. Aderemi, B.A.; Daniel Chowdhury, S.P.; Olwal, T.O.; Abu-Mahfouz, A.M. Techno-economic feasibility of
hybrid solar photovoltaic and battery energy storage power system for a mobile cellular base station in
Soshanguve, South Africa. Energies 2018, 11, 1572. [CrossRef]
42. Nacer, T.; Hamidat, A.; Nadjemi, O.; Bey, M. Feasibility study of grid connected photovoltaic system in
family farms for electricity generation in rural areas. Renew. Energy 2016, 96, 305–318. [CrossRef]
43. Elhadidy, M.A. Performance evaluation of hybrid (wind/solar/diesel) power systems. Renew. Energy 2002, 26,
44. Maleki, A.; Askarzadeh, A. Optimal sizing of a PV/wind/diesel system with battery storage for electrification
to an off-grid remote region: A case study of Rafsanjan, Iran. Sustain. Energy Technol. Assess. 2014, 7, 147–153.
[CrossRef]
45. Rahman, M.M.; Khan, M.M.U.H.; Ullah, M.A.; Zhang, X.; Kumar, A. A hybrid renewable energy system for a
North American off-grid community. Energy 2016, 97, 151–160. [CrossRef]
46. Willy, T. The Batteries Report 2018 Content Recycling. Available online: https://www.rechargebatteries.org
(accessed on 9 June 2019).
47. Ramli, M.A.M.; Bouchekara, H.R.E.H.; Alghamdi, A.S. Optimal sizing of PV/wind/diesel hybrid microgrid
system using multi-objective self-adaptive differential evolution algorithm. Renew. Energy 2018, 121, 400–411.
[CrossRef]
48. Trading-Economics Economic Rates. Available online: https://tradingeconomics.com (accessed on 18 April 2019).
49. Haghighat, A.; Alberto, S.; Escandon, A.; Naja, B.; Shirazi, A.; Rinaldi, F. Techno-economic feasibility of
photovoltaic, wind, diesel and hybrid electrification systems for off-grid rural electrification in Colombia.
Renew. Energy 2016, 97.
50. Aziz, A.S.; Tajuddin, M.F.N.; Adzman, M.R.; Ramli, M.A.M.; Mekhilef, S. Energy management and
optimization of a PV/diesel/battery hybrid energy system using a combined dispatch strategy. Sustainability
2019, 11, 683. [CrossRef]
51. Banguero, E.; Correcher, A.; Pérez-Navarro, Á.; Morant, F.; Aristizabal, A. A review on battery charging and
discharging control strategies: Application to renewable energy systems. Energies 2018, 11, 21. [CrossRef]
52. Jabeck, B. The Impact of Generator Set Underloading; Cater. Inc.: Peoria, IL, USA, 2014.
53. Ohiare, S. Expanding electricity access to all in Nigeria: A spatial planning and cost analysis. Energy. Sustain. Soc.
2015, 5, 8. [CrossRef]
© 2019 by the authors. Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

Sustainability 11 04959 PDF

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Sustainability 11 04959 PDF

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

sustainability

Sustainability 2019, 11, 4959; doi:10.3390/su11184959 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

• Temperature and solar resources;

Wet (March–October) Dry (November–February)

2.2. Solar Radiation and Temperature

Figure 3. Average monthly temperature for Dukke village [30].

Figure 4. Monthly average wind speed for Dukke village [30].

2.4. Diesel Fuel

2.5. System Detail and Component Specification

Table 2. Technical and economic details of different components.

Component Parameters/Reference Specification

Component Parameters/Reference Specification

2.6. System Constraints and Dispatch Strategy

2.7. Mathematical Model

2.7.1. PV and Temperature Model

2.7.2. Wind Turbine Modeling

2.7.3. Modeling of Diesel Generator Consumption

Fd = (a·Td + b·Pd ) (3)

2.7.4. Battery Storage System

2.8. Economic Analysis and Modeling

2.8.1. Net Present Cost (NPC)

2.8.2. Cost of Energy (COE)

2.9. Environmental Analysis and Modeling

CO2 Emissions Modeling

Figure 5. System flowchart technique for the two scenarios.

3.1. Off-Grid Hybrid Energy System

To meet the load

Table 3. Summarized optimization results of multiple optimum configurations.

Parameters/Components Unit System 1 System 2 System 3 System 4

Figure 7. Monthly average solar PV/diesel generator hybrid-electric production.

Battery Storage System

259200 0.2182 5500

The price Fuel

3.2.2. Impact of Load Demand Growth

3.2.2. Impact of Load Demand Growth

280000 0.2195 5600

265000 0.2185 4800

Figure 13. Sensitivity

3.3. On-Grid Hybrid Systems

Figure 14. Schematic diagram of a grid-connected HPS.

Sellback price ($/kWh) Sellback price ($/kWh)

Sellback price ($/kWh) Sellback price ($/kWh)

Sellback price ($/kWh)

Sell back price =$ 0.06/kWh Sell back price =$ 0.09/kWh

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, J.O.O.; Methodology, J.O.O.; Resources, Y.A.A.-T.; Supervision,

S-ar putea să vă placă și