DIRECT STATOR FLUX AND TORQUE CONTROL OF AN INDUCTION MOTOR:

THEORETHICAL ANALYSIS AND EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Giuseppe Buja*, Domenico Casadei**, and Giovanni Serra**

(*) Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Padova, Via Gradenigo 6a, 35 131 Padova, ITALY
(**) Department of Electrical Engineering, University of Bologna, Viale Risorgimento 2, 40 136 Bologna, ITALY

Abstract - Direct Stator Flux and Torque Control (DSFTC) In detail, Section 2 reviews the operation of an IM and of
is a novel technique for the control of a voltage inverter-fed an inverter using the space vector theory. Section 3
Induction Motor (IM). It carries out a precise and quick introduces the DSFTC concept. Section 4 presents the
control of the stator flux and the electromagnetic torque of DSFTC strategy termed Switching Table (ST) and reports
an IM without calling for coordinate transformation, speed
simulated and experimental results to illustrate the overall
measurement, and stator current control. In principle,
moreover, DSFTC operation requires only the knowledge of performance of a ST-based IM drive (flux and torque
the stator resistance. responses, losses, switching frequency and so on). Section
The tutorial starts by reviewing the operation of an IM 5 investigates the sensitivity of the drive behavior,to errors
and of a voltage inverter using the space vector theory. Then in the control system. Section 6 discusses solutions which
the concept of DSFTC is introduced, illustrating the action improve the torque characteristic and the low-speed
of an inverter supply on the stator flux and the performance of the drive. Sections 7 and 8 describe the
electromagnetic torque of an IM. Afterwards, DSFTC strategy termed Direct Self Control (DSC) and
implementation of DSFTC according to the Switching Table that one based on the Space Vector Modulation (SVM),
(ST) strategy is focused. Different STs are considered and
respectively. Section 9 concludes the tutorial.
their influence on the torque response is shown by means of
calculated and experimental data. The relationships between
the drive performance, such as losses and switching 11. THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
frequency, and the amplitude of the hysteresis bands of the A ) IM U ,h,c-phase equations
flux and torque controllers are given. Sensitivity to errors in
the control system is also investigated. Solutions which Consider a three-phase symmetrical IM with distributed
improve the torque characteristic and the low-speed windings on the stator and a squirrel cage on the rotor.
performance of the drive are presented. Finally, the DSFTC Since the squirrel cage is equivalent to a distributed three-
strategy termed Direct Self Control and that one based on phase winding, an IM can be represented as in Fig.2.1,
the Space Vector Modulation are described, explaining how
where a two-pole pitch is drawn and the windings are
they can be interpreted as either a particular case or an
extension of the ST strategy. schematized by coils located along their magnetic axes. In
Fig.2.1 and in the sequel of the paper, the counter-
clockwise direction is taken as the positive direction for
I. INTRODUCTION the rotational quantities (angles and speeds) and the motor
i
torque. Moreover, motor-related angles and speeds are
In recent years, the application of field-oriented (FO)
expressed in electrical units.
induction motor (IM) drives has greatly increased,
including steel and paper industry, machine tools. and so
on [ 11. In parallel. a number of studies has been developed
to carry out alternative techniques for the control of an IM
with two objectives, namely i) achievement of an accurate
and fast response of flux and torque like in the FO drives,
and ii) reduction in the complexity of the control system of
the FO drives.
Among the various proposals, Direct Stator Flux and
Torque Control (DSFTC) has found wide acceptance [2]-
[6] and commercial drives employing DSFTC are on the
market since a few years [7]. Differently from the FO Fig.2.1.Two-pole pitch of a three-phase IM (&e: rotor position).
control, DSFTC does not tend to duplicate the
Under the assumption of no hysteresis, eddy currents
electromechanical behavior of a dc motor drive but is and saturation of the magnetic circuit, the equations of an
aimed at a complete exploitation of the flux and torque- IM are
producing capabilities of an IM fed by an inverter. In this
sense, DSFTC can be viewed as a novel control technique (2. la)
Vkg = Lkg,hf ihf
of the IM drives. k.h=u.h,c; g , f = s . r
This tutorial is concerned with the theory of DSFTC and
the performance of the IM drives controlled with DSFTC.

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 In a reference frame t with the axis cl, dsplaced from
v k g = Rgikg+--d Pk,.: k = u,b,c; g = s,r (2.lb)
clt that of the phase U, of eddtAug , the space vector is defined
I as

. .
(2.5)
&mug ( i k g ,6 ~ )
T=p ='~b,c; g = s ~ r (2.1d) Eq. (2.5) applies even if a relative movement occurs
#me
between t and g. and BdZ is a function of the time.
where vkgis the flus linkage, L is the phase inductance, R The axis of the phase a, is usually taken to be the
is the phase resistance, the subscripts k and h denote the reference axis for the angular displacements as illustrated
phase (a,b,c), the subscripts g and f denote the phase in Fig.2.2. Therefore, for the space vector of the stator
location (s for stato:r and r for rotor), ik, and vkg are the variables, g is equal to s and BdtAug to
phase current and vcdtage ("ks is zero for the rotor phases),
wmagis the magnetic: energy stored in the motor, T is the
electromagnetic torque. and p is the pole-pair number. Odt %g = (2.6)
Under the additional assumptions of sinusoidal
distribution of the sl:ator and rotor windings, and unitary whilst for the space vector of the rotor variables, g is equal
stator-to-rotor turn ratio, the winding inductances are to r and 6'df to
given by

where L,, is the magnetizing inductance of the phase

windings (i.e. the inductance associated with the flux
produced by any motor winding, crossing the air gap and
linking the stator at; well the rotor windings), L , is the
leakage inductances of tlie stator windings, and L , is the Fig 2.2. Angular displacements (ame:
rotor speed).
leakage inductances of the rotor windings.
C y Space vector IM equutions
B) ,Space vector
The IM equations can be conveniently wntten by using
Consider a three-)phase winding located on g and an
the space vector notation for the flux, current and voltage
associate set of variables x,,, x b g , and x,, with no zero-
variables [8] If the space vectors are referred to the frame
sequence component The space vector is a compact and
t and it rotates at the speed U, with respect to the stator,
powerful representalion of xas, xbg,and xCsin a two-axis
the IM equations in (2 1)become
(d q ) reference framr:
If the reference frame is fixed to g and has the axis cl
aligned along that of the phase ug (such a reference frame & = L.sFi + LmT: (2.8a)
is designated with g ; ~the
, space vector is defined as @; = L,,,i-i + Lrr;
2n
dFt
xug + x ! , ~J ~- 3? + xcge Fi = R$: +S + .jw,
(2.3) fit (2.8b)
0 = RrT,! + -+ , / ( U , - mme)@,!
where the superscri~itand the subscript of X denote the clt
reference frame anll the three-phase winding location,
respectively, and K is a coefficient which is set to 2/3 wmug = 1y 3 --f :f -f
~ ( P .ISs + P r
:t
'lr) (2.8~)
(amplitude-invariant definition). The space vector can be
split into its coinponents along the axes d,q as follows: (T:
hmug H,,,,) 3 ;
;
2

(2.8d)
T=p
(2.4) a m e
:Y = + jx&
where the inductances in (2.8a) are given by

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 3 If the space vectors are referred to a frame fixed to the
L,s = - L,,,
2
+ I,, stator and with the axis d aligned along the phase a, (such
3 a reference frame is termed stationary and is designated
L, = - L,n,
2
+ L, with s), the flux equations of an IM have the same form of
(2.8a) but the superscripts, which are s, whilst the voltage
3
L, = - L" equations can be obtained from (2.8b) by equating wt to
2
zero and the superscripts to s, i.e.
and the symbol 0 in ( 2 . 8 ~ stands
) for the scalar product.
Manipulation of ( 2 . 8 ~ )and (2.8d) leads to the following
(2.15a)
torque expression:

(2.10)
(2.15b)
which can be calculated as

3
T=-
2
pL,i, i, sin #7t
Is
.t (2.11)
AIr
0)Inverter voltage space vectors
A three-phase voltage inverter can be schematized as in
where i,s and i, are the amplitude of the space vectors of Fig.2.3, where E is the dc link voltage, and So,S,,and S,
the stator and rotor currents and #7tA-t is the angle from are the states of the upper switches (S=l means switch on,
Is Ir
S=O switch off). The states of the lower switches are the
[i
i;' to . Since all these quantities are independent of the opposite of the upper ones to prevent short-circuit of the
reference frame, the same is valid for the motor torque in dc supply. Therefore the possible inverter configurations
accordance with the physical understanding. are 23=8
Substitution of the stator and/or rotor current in (2.1 I) ---7

as a function of the rotor and/or stator flux yields i 1

alternative expressions of the motor torque. Those of 1
I
interest are

T = -p(ls
3 7 0 jFs)
(2.12a)
7

Fig.2.3.Three-phase voltage inverter.

(2.12b)
When the inverter supplies a symmetrical IM with no
neutral connection, the phase voltages generated by the
where o = 1 - L i I' LsLr is the total leakage coefficient of inverter fulfil the condition
the motor and the superscripts of the space vectors have
been omitted because the expressions are independent of vm + v'hs + v , = 0 (2.16)
the reference frame, provided that the space vectors are
referred to the same frame. and, in terms of Sa,S,, and S,, are expressed as
By (2.8a), the stator flux can be written as a function of
the rotor flux and the stator current as follows: vas =
zs, - s, - s, E
3
(2.13)
-so i- 2Sb - s, E (2.17)
Vhs =
3
vcs =
-su - s, + 2Sc E
and, by (2.8a) and (2.8b), the rotor flux can be written as a 3
function of the stator flus as follows:
In the stationary frame. the space vector of the phase
L,, voltages in (2.17) becomes
-f L, -t
(2.14)
Pr = 1+ SO?, + ,/(ut 2n
P S
- w,,,)cT7,
(2.18)
3
where 2, = L, / R, is the rotor time constant. Eq. (2.14)
skm~s that the rotor flux tracks the stator flux with a delay
of 0 7 , .
and takes the 8 values vk
(k=0,1,...,7) shown in Fig.2.4.
They are termed the inverter voltage space vectors. The

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space vectors with k=1,2,..., 6 have an equal amplitude of - -
v2 ,. a, +a7 = 1 -a, -a2
a, =-=- (2.20)
(2/3)E and a phase of (k-l)n/3, and are commonly called a] = ’,VI
- v,
active vectors. The remaining two space vectors (k=0,7)
are zero vectors.
and the inverter voltage space vectors v
k with k=1,2,0,7
9s t are applied for
yolo) ~ V p )
k i f Tk = akTqm k = 1,2,0,7 (2.21)
\\ ~ /
’\ ! /
by commanding the switches as illustrated in Fig.2.6

111. DSFTC CONCEPT

Consider a fluxed, no-loaded IM at a standstill, and
apply to it an inverter voltage space vector for a short
space of time At. By ignoring the voltage drop on the
stator resistance, the stator voltage equation in (2.15b)
Fig.2.4. Inverter voltage space vectors.
becomes
E) STM _ n

SVM is a PWM technique intended to synthesize a (3.1)

demanded space vector of voltage V: at the output
terminals of an inverter. It operates by decomposing VAS Integrating (3.1) in At gives
into a weighted sum of the two adjacent active inverter -s -s
voltage space vector!; and of zero space vectors, and by Aps ;VI At (3.2)
applying them for a fraction of the modulation period T,,,
equal to their weight If -for instance- V$’ is as in Fig.2.5, Eq. (3.2) shows that the change in the space vector of the
it is decomposed into stator flux the same direction as Gf, and an amplitude
proportional to this vector and to the time interval of its
application.
If the motor is referred to the stationary frame SO of
Fig.3.1, which has the axis d aligned along the stator flux
at the time to of application of i:,the change in the d,q
components of the stator flux are

Fig.2.5. V: decomposition. (3.3b)

7-7
. -
--r __?

The amplitude of the stator flux at to+At is thus

.;*, I - !

(3.4)

: 2 2 2 2 2 2 simplified in
y------ U
m

SVM

Fig.2.6. SVM switch commands

Eq. (3.5) shows that the change in the stator flux
-3-
\jS = a I c + az(i? + a& +a& (2.19) amplitude is given by AV: and, according to (3.3a), is
produced by the component of the inverter voltage space
where vector aligned along the direction of the stator flux at the
time to.

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 During At the rotor flux space vector does not vary
because of (2.14) and, by (2.12b), the torque developed by
the motor is
(3.6)
taking into account that in a no-loaded IM the rotor flux
has the same direction as the stator flux. Eq. (3.6) shows
that the change in the motor torque is proportional to
Apif and, according to (3.3b), is produced by the
component of the inverter voltage space vector orthogonal
to the direction of the stator flux at the time to
Fig.3. I . Change in the stator flux
The change in the phase of the stator flux space vector
from to to to+At is
Dividing (3.7) by At gives the angular speed of the stator
flux. It coincides with the slip speed of the stator flux
sirice the motor is at a standstill and, due to the inertia,
remains in this condition during At. It is
(3.8)
If in (3.7) Ap;: is neglected with respect to yso and the
tangent is approximated with its argument, (3.8) can be
rewritten as
(3.9)
Eqs. (3.6) and (3.9) confirm the well-know fact that the
torque production in an IM is associated to the
establishment of a slip in the speed of any electrical
variable.
DSFTC is based on the results (3.1)-(3.6) which can be
summarized as follows:
- the motor is solicited only through the inverter voltage
space vectors,
- the amplitude of the stator flux is affected by the
component of the inverter voltage space vectors along
the same flux.
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- the motor torque is affected by the component of the
inverter voltage space vectors orthogonal to the stator
flux,
- the zero space vectors do not affect the space vector of
the stator flux. In practice, this vector undergoes a small
change due to the voltage drop on the stator resistance.
When the motor is loaded or rotates, the results found
above can be extended as follows:
- for a loaded motor. the rotor flux space vector is
displaced from the stator flux and both the components
of A@,;' contribute to the torque. By (2.12b), the torque
equation becomes
for a rotating motor, whether loaded or not. an emf is
induced in the motor and must be subtracted from the
inverter voltage to determine the net voltage altering the
stator flux The stationary frame SO is here obtained by
sainpling at the time t o -and holding during At- a frame
rotating in synchronism with the stator flux and having
the axis d aligned along it Note that at to the space
vector of the induced emf is directed along the axis q of
SO and its amplitude is wpso pso
The basic block diagram of an IM drive controlled with
DSFTC is drawn in Fig. 3.2. The difference between the
reference of stator flux amplitude and its actual value
(stator flus error signal) is processed by the Flux
Fig. 3.2. Basic DSFTC IM drive block diagram.
Controller (FC) to deliver the voltage demand (v*,). In a
similar way, the Torque Controller (TC) processes the
torque error signal and delivers the voltage demand ( v ' ~ ) .
The Estimator (ES) operates in the stationary frame. First
it integrates the stator voltage equation in (2.15b) to
obtain the stator flux space vector
(3.10)
and then calculates the amplitude of @,: the motor torque
by means of (2.12a), and the sector S of the d.q plane
where ij; lies according to the partitioning of Fig.3.3.
The Voltage Calculator (VC) is entered by the dc link
T54
voltage E and the inverter switchmg states So, S’b, and Sc,
and calculates the space vector of the stator voltage i7: ;
the Current Calculat’x (CC) is entered by the sensed stator
currents i,,y and ihs. finds out i,,s by
i,,y = -ia,y - i,,
and calculates the s,pace vector of the stator current <;.
The SElector (SE) block chooses the inverter voltage
space vector to apply to the motor from the voltage
demands and the stator flux sector. and generates the
switching states for the Voltage Inverter (VI).
Fig.3.3. Stationary plane sector partitioning.
IV. ST STRATEGY
A ) S’T set-up
The block diagram of an IM drive controlled with the
ST strategy is as in Fig.3.2, where the flux and torque
controllers are of hysteresis type and SE updates its output
every time either the stator flux error signal or the torque
error signal or both go out from the hysteresis bands of the
controllers.
Let the stator flux space vector be located in the k-th
sector (k=1,2,3,4,5,6) of the d q plane as drawn in Fig.4.1.
In order to increase the amplitude of the stator flux, the
inverter voltage space vectors vk, Vki-1, Vk-lcan be applied the torque according to whether the stator flux has to be
to the motor. Conve:rsely, to decrease its amplitude, Vk+2, reduced or increased. Each solution influences the drive
Vk-?,vk+3can be applied.
‘k+3
.c
Fig.4.1.Inverter voltages and corresponding stator flux
variations.
The inverter voltage utilized for the control of the stator
flux amplitude acts also on the motor torque. From the
previous Section, it turns out that the inverter voltage
0-7S03-4503-7/98/110.00 1998 IEEE
space vectors which cause an increase in the slip speed of
the stator flux produce a torque increase. The converse is
true for the space vectors which reduce the slip speed of
the stator flux.
Tab. I summarizes the combined action of each inverter
voltage space vector on both the stator flux amplitude and
(3.11) the motor torque. In the table, a single arrow means a
small variation, whereas two arrows mean a larger
variation. As it appears from the table, an increment of
torque (‘P) is obtained by applying the space vectors v k + l
and vkL2, irrespective of the motor speed direction.
Conversely, a decrement of torque (\L) is obtained by
applying Vk-, or Vk-?.The space vectors V,, Vk+3and the
zero voltage space vectors alter the torque in accordance
with the motor speed direction as specified in Tab.1.
With hysteresis controllers having a two level output,
there are four conditions regarding the stator flux and the
motor torque voltage demands. For each condition it can
be found at least one inverter voltage space vector which
acts in the way of reducing the error signals. This
demonstrates that a voltage inverter is able to regulate in a
direct manner the stator flux amplitude and the motor
torque of an IM or to force them so as to track any
reference.
TARLEI - STAT( )R FLUX AM)TORQUE VARIATIONSD I E TO THE APPLIED
INVERTER VI-)LTAGESPACE VECTORS
Several switching solutions can be employed to control
behavior in terms of torque and current ripple, switching
frequency, and two- or four-quadrant operation capability.
In Tab.11 four switching solutions are given. Upon each
solution, a ST can be built and implemented in the block
SE of Fig.3.2. The ST inputs are the two-level demands of
stator flux and torque, and the stator flux sector, whlst the
ST output is the inverter voltage space vector for the
motor.
Figs. 4.2 and 4 . 3 report the torque responses to a pulse
in the reference from IS to -18” for S.Sms, as obtained
from an experimental prototype with ST-A and ST-D,
T55
respectively [9]. The motor under test is a 4 kW, 220V, Eq. (4.1) can be discretized by means of the small-signal
50H2, 4 pole standard IM, and is loaded with a large method when At is small. Thus the stator and rotor flux
inertia so as to keep its speed practically constant during space vectors at tkTlcan be calculated as
the torque pulse.
Fig.4.2 differs from Fig.4.3 in the motor speed which is
low in Fig.4.2 and high in Fig.4.3. The results clearly (4.2a)
document the influence of both ST and the working speed
on the torque response. In particular, the response is
sluggish at low speed when the zero space vectors are
(4.2b)
utilized, i.e. with ST-A, while it is quick with ST-D. On
the contrary, at high speed the torque response is quick
and almost identical with the two STs. This explains why Substitution of (4.1) into (4.2) yields
ST-D is convenient for four-quadrant operation while ST-
A (as well as ST-B, ST-C) is suitable for two-quadrant
operation.
To give a theoretical assessment to the torque responses
in Figs.4.2 and 4.3, the relationship between the
incremental motor torque and the corresponding voltage
applied to the stator has to be formulated.
i Eq. (4.3) are the discrete-time equations of an IM. Note
~~ I that in (4.3b) the stator voltage Fik does not appear

I explicitly. meaning that Vik acts on the rotor through the

stator flux.
By (2.12b), the electromagnetic torque at tk+lis

Substituting (4.3) into (4.1) and neglecting the terms

Fig.4.2. Torque response to a pulse in the reference from +I 8 to proportional to the square of At, the torque at tk+, can be
- 18” for 8.8ms.Motor speed: mlI,=20 radlsec. Top trace: ST- expressed as
D; bottom trace: ST-A.
i Tk+I = ATk
i- (4.5)
I1 /”zyr”ylr’
1:

FZ7,
where two terms contribute to ATk , i.e.
4
‘i ~~~~~~ ATk = ATkl + A T k , (4.6a)

Jr (4.6b)

;
r
‘w
Fig.4.3. Torque response to a pulse in the reference from +18 to
- 18” for 8.8ms. Motor speed: aIn= 100 radsec. Top trace: ST-
D bottom trace: ST-A. The term ATk1 has opposite sign of Tk and then reduces

B) Motor torque-stator voltage relationship
The equation describing the action exerted by the stator
voltage on the motor torque is found by discretizing the
IM equations over a sampling period At. In the state-space
form (2.15) becomes
the torque; its value is proportional to the stator and rotor
resistances and to the torque at tk, and is independent of
Gfk and the motor speed. The term AG7 is due to the
stator voltage and depends on the operating conditions
(i.e. the motor speed and the torque angle between

and q’‘k ). This relationship is illustrated by the diagram

of Fig.4.4, where the stator flux @$: is assumed lying on

the axis d, the dashed lines are parallel to qrLand that

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one crossing the axis q at the ordmate omek
psk is bold-
I 1 Figs 4.5 and 4.6 point out the influence of the motor
speed. In particular they show that along some directions
the same stator voltage produces positive variations of
faced. The latter line represents the locus of Ti‘ which
motor torque at low speed and negative variations at high
produces a zero value of ATk7 as it can be realized from
speed. This effect should be taken into account when
defining ST and can lead to the use of a speed-dependent
the fact that (V.& - - , j ~ , , , ~ p is
, ~parallel
~
--s 1
to @” when

the tip of Tik is on. such a line. The dashes lines are the
‘k
loci of V:k which produce a constant value of ATk7 .
ST, f.i. ST-A at high speeds and ST-D at low speeds. The
advantages of this solution are: better torque response over
the whole speed range and reduction in the torque ripple.

tq-axis 1 q-axis
2 Nm
4 .. , .
+--,
~

ATkz )i 0 ~ -
I -..
i
AT., = 0

I
ATk2 .’ 0

-
~

I
t
d-axis

Fig.4.4. Diagi-am of the torque variation ATk2

A graphical repre:sentation of A q , useful to visualize

the effects of the applied stator voltage space vector on the Fig.4.6. Torque variations at rated speed (rated torque)
motor torque, is drawn in Fig.4.5 (for zero motor speed)
C) Influence of the lysteresis hand amplitudes
and in Fig.4.6 (for rated motor speed). The graphs have
been calculated for The amplitudes of the hysteresis bands have a
significant impact on the drive performance [lo]. In

I I particular, the harmonic current distortion, the average

inverter switching frequency, the torque pulsation and the
drive losses are strongly influenced by the amplitudes of
these bands. As an example, Figs.4.7 and 4.8 give the
AT, > 0

THD
0.30

0.20
ATk < 0

0.10

0.00 t-----0.04
---0.06
?, o.io
-7
Fig.4.5. Torque variations at zero speed (rated torque). o.00 0.02 0.08 0.12 0.14
A@/%
the motor used in Section IV and for a sampling period of
Fig.4.7 THD factor as a function of the hysteresis band
50ps. Figs.4.5 and 4.6 report the torque variation ATk amplitudes.
produced by a stalor voltage space vector of constant
amplitude (rated value) and for several values of its Total Harmonic Distortion (THD) factor of the stator
displacement with r1:spect to the stator flux. The segments current and the average switching frequency of the
have a length proportional to the torque variation and the inverter, respectively. as a function of the band
same direction as the stator voltage space vector. The ones amplitudes.
in the upper pan. of the figures represent positive The results of Fig.4.7show that the hysteresis band of
variations of the torque while those in the lower part the stator flux mainly influences the stator current THD
represent negative variations. and hence the associated copper losses, giving rise a

0-7803-4503-7/98/!610.001998 IEEE T57

significant increase of THD when enlarging its amplitude.
On the other hand, the results of Fig.4.8. show that the
hysteresis band of the torque mainly influences the *
switching frequency and hence the associated switching T = T -AT (5.3b)
losses. In case that the motor parameters and the inverter
the drive is at steady-state. This assumption, together
switching characteristics are known, a possible criterion in
with (5.2), implies that the electrical variables are
designing the band amplitudes consists in minimizing the
sinusoidal.
sum of the harmonic copper losses and the switching
- the value of the stator resistance utilized in the estimator
losses.
( E s )is the cold one. Then AR, is negative during the
drive operation because of the motor heating.

Substitution of Es into (3.10) gives

where

o
0.00
t -
0.w
7
004
I
0.06
I
0.08
,
o.io
, -
0.12 0.14
A@/@,
Eq. (5.5) shows that the space vector of the stator flux
Fig.4.8.Average inverter switching frequency as a function error is orthogonal to Fx and that its amplitude is directly
of the hvsteresis band amplitudes.
proportional to the error in the stator resistance and
inversely proportional to the stator angular frequency w,,
V. SENSITIVITY ANALYSIS tending to infinity when this frequency tends to zero. The
error on the amplitude of the stator flux changes with the
Reliable operation of a ST-based drive depends on how
torque angle 6..sA-s as illustrated in Fig.5.1 By (5.2a)
closely the estimations of the stator flux amplitude, the 2s PS
motor torque, and the stator flux sector approximate their and Fig.S.l, the relationship between the reference of the
actual values. This is related to the accuracy in the stator flux amplitude and its actual value is
quantities processed by the estimator, namely the stator
currents, the dc link voltage, and the stator resistance.
Here the sensitivity to the stator resistance is analyzed.
Let us designate with a generic quantity affected by
error, whether it is an estimated variable or the stator
resistance. It is indicating that the actual amplitude is smaller than the
reference for motoring operation ( > 0 ) and greater
2s Ps
for generating operation ( < 0 ).
2s PJ
where q is the actual value of the quantity and dq is the
error. The latter is introduced by the estimation process in
the variable and by a mismatch in the stator resistance.
The following assumptions are made throughout the
analysis:

- the flux and torque controllers are ideal so that the

estimated values of the stator flux amplitude and of the
motor torque are equal to their references, i.e.
Fig.5.1.Stator flux error in motoring operation ( ARs < 0 ).
(5.2a)
Substitution of (5.4) into (2.12a) and (5.2b) give

T* = (5.2b) T*=T+AT (5.7)

By (5.1) and (5.2), the actual values of qs and T differ where
from their references by the error introduced by the
estimation process, i.e.
(5.8)

0-7803-4503-7/98/$10.00 1998 IEEE T58

 ~

is the error in the motor torque. Eq. (5.8), together with

(5.2) and (5.7),indicates that the actual motor torque is
smaller than the reference for both motoring and
generating operation, and that the error in the torque
tends to infinity when ostends to zero, like in the stator where
flux amplitude. Note that both (5.6) and (5.8) depend on
the sign of dR,, yielding to opposite results if dRs were @,le = 0 s - @me (6.2)
negative.
is the angular slip speed. Note that (6.la) is valid also
The error in thl: stator flux space vector yield an during transients. By (6. I), the torque characteristic of an
inaccurate information on the stator flux sector which
IM under constant rotor flux operation increases linearly
reflects on the drive behavior. To simplify the analysis,
with osle, and the maximum torque is constrained by the
consider the ST-A strategy and assume that the
displacement from the estimated stator flux to the actual maximum current allowable for the inverter. On the
one is small. For .U,< 0 , the worst working condition contrary, the torque characteristic under constant stator
flux operation exhibits a maximum value at an angular
occurs when the estimated stator flux lies in the sector Sk slip speed which depends on the machine parameters.
while the actual one lies in the sub-sector of Sktl located This suggests to control the amplitude of the rotor flux
between the border of Skand the half-line, as drawn instead of that of the stator flux in order to increase the
in Fig.5.2. In this mb-sector &+, reduces the stator flux overload torque capability of a ST scheme [ 111.
amplitude in acco1,dance with the demand while 5+2 By (6. la), (2.12b), and (2.14), rewritten in a reference
frame rotating in synchronism with the rotor flux and
produces an increases of the stator flux amplitude instead having the axis d aligned along it, the space vector of the
of a decrease. Moreover both q+l 5+2
and increase the stator flux can be expressed as
motor torque in accordance with the demands. On the
other hand, the zero space vectors still reduce the stator
flux amplitude and the motor torque. This entails that the
drive behavior remains stable, even if the amplitude of the
stator flux can surpass the reference in response to a load
Its amplitude furnishes the reference for the stator flux
torque application If AR, were negative, the worst
amplitude needed by a ST scheme, as a function of the
working condition occurs when the estimated stator flux rotor flux and torque references (Fig.6.1). Under constant
lies in the sector Sk while the actual one lies in the sector rotor flux operation, it is
In this sector both T;k+l and G+2reduce the stator
flux and the same does the zero space vectors. Therefore
for dR,> O the motor loses its magnetization and the
drive operation is unstable.

Fig.6.1. Stator Flux Generator (SFG) with control of the rotor

flux amplitude.

Fig.5.2. Sector error. B) Improved stator flux estimator

The sensitivity analysis in Section V has established that
VI. IMPROVEMENTOF THE ST SCHEME the performance of a ST scheme deteriorates at low speed
PERFORMANCE owing to the inaccuracy in the quantities processed by the
estimator. The experimental work teaches that the most
A ) Rotor flux amplitude control important sources of error are the variation in the stator
From the IM equ,3tions, the following expressions of the resistance and the offsets in the sensed stator currents.
electromagnetic torque can be found at steady-state as a Three tests which reveal the poor operation at low speed
function of either the rotor flux or the stator flux: of an ST scheme have been simulated on a computer and
the calculated traces are reported with a dashed line in
Figs.6.2-6.4. The simulations refer to an ST scheme where
(6. la) the rotor flux amplitude is controlled, the motor is loaded
with the rated torque and its speed is Irads. In Fig.6.2 the

0-7803-4~03-7/98’$10.00 1998 IEEE T59

stator resistance in the estimator is suddenly decreased of calculated by processing the stator voltages and currents,
10% while the motor was running at steady-state. The and by compensating the result with a term given by the
trace shows that the rotor flux oscillates for a long time difference between the estimated amplitude of the rotor
before settling. The same occurs for the stator flux, flux and the reference, i.e. by
causing torque fluctuations and acoustic noise in the
motor. Fig.6.3 is obtained by suddenly increasing of 10%
the stator resistance in the estimator; the trace of the rotor
flux indicates that the scheme is unstable. Fig.6.4 is
abtained by suddenly introducing an offset in the sensed
where I; = Kd i,jKq is the compensation gain.
stator currents; the trace of the rotor flux indicates that the
current offsets also make the scheme unstable. Introducing in (6.5) the rotor-induced emf E : , defined as

and setting K,=O yield

Extraction of F; from (6.7) and replacement of & with -

Fig.6.2. Rotor flux transients due to a sudden underestimation in 112 furnish the equation of the rotor flux estimation in the
the stator resistance of 10%. usual form

A block diagram of a ST-based IM drive with the

Improved stator flux Estimator (IES) and the control of
the rotor flux amplitude is drawn in Fig. 6.5. The low-
speed performance of the drive depends on the parameter
z. An appropriate value of z greatly improves the dynamic
robustness of the scheme, as proven by subjecting the
04 -l+-w----vT1---7-mT--i-? drive to the three tests considered above. The calculated
0 I 3 4 5
T i m e (s) traces are reported with a continuous line in Figs.6.2-6.4
and show that the rotor flux does not recovery from the
Fig 6 3 Rotor flux transients due to a sudden overestimation on
the stator resistance of 10% flux error at steady-state, if any, but exhibits stable
transients in all the three tests.

0.63

e
h

t--
v
0.62

0.61
x
.- 0 (io
r*

g0 59
+
0.18
Fig.6.5. Block diagram of a ST-based IM drive with improved
0.57 stator flux estimator and control of the rotor flux amplitude.
2 3 4 5 6
Time ( s )
Fig.6.4. Rotor flux transients due to the sudden application of an VII.DSC STRATEGY
offsetin the sensed stator currents of 0.0 IA. In high power electrical drives the semiconductor
devices can not be switched at high frequency. As a
In order to maintain good performance at low speed, consequence, a precise control of both the stator flux
improved stator flux estimators have been devised [ 111, amplitude and the motor torque is not achievable.
[12]. That presented here, first determines the space The DSC strategy [3] is aimed at minimizing the
vector of the rotor flux and then goes back to that of the inverter switching in each supply period to the detriment
stator flus by (2.13). The rotor flux space vector is of the control of the stator flux amplitude. As a matter of

0-7803-4503-7/98/$10.00 1998 IEEE T60

fact, this strategy commands the stator flux space vector
every sixty degrees of the supply period so as to move it
along an hexagon. The motor torque, instead, is controlled
in a precise way by means of an hysteresis controller like
in the ST strategy.
The block diagram of an IM drive controlled with DSC
is drawn in Fig.’7.1. The DSC-Estimator (DSC-ES)
calculates the instantaneous values of the stator phase
fluxes pas, phs,yc,r and the motor torque. The fluxes are
entered into the threshold Comparators (CO) together
with the reference tp: of the peak amplitude of the stator
phase flux. The thresholds within COS are set at +pz .
I< I
The signals vmV.v pb, I’ delivered by COS are entered
into the DSC-SElector (DSC-SE) block and determine the
inverter voltage space vector according to the principle of
operation outlined i:n Fig.7.2.
Fig.7.1, DSC IM drive block diagram.
Fig.7.2. DSC principle
In the figure the stator flux space vector moves towards
point A due to the inverter voltage T’J.
(010). As soon as
the stator flux space vector reaches point A, the
instantaneous value of vccsgoes below -y,: and S,
commutes. DSC-SEI detects the commutation and applies
(011) to move the stator flux from A to B, and so on.
Note that is obtained from 5 by switching Sc from 0
to 1. Accordmg to this mechanism, DSC-SE can be built
upon the following rule: when the stator flux of an IM
phase goes below the lower threshold ( - y: ). the state of
the corresponding switch is set to 1 whilst when it exceeds
the upper threshold ( + y,: ) the state of the corresponding
switch is set to 0. Unfortunately, the usage of the phase
0-7803-4503-7/98/$10.00 1998 IEEE
stator fluxes leads to a departure of the stator flux space
vector from the hexagon when the flux reference
increases. To prevent this occurrence, three fictitious
phases are introduced in the motor by shifting the original
ones by 7c/6 in the counter-clockwise direction, as drawn
in Fig.7.3. The comparisons are now carried out on the
components of the stator flux space vector along the new
axes a i , h i , c: and using -t (A/ 2 ) ~ :as thresholds. It
can be verified that with this solution the stator flux space
vector stays on the hexagon under any working condition.
The terminology “Direct Self Control” is connected with
the stator flux control and indicates that the switches of
the inverter are directly controlled by the time integral of
the phase voltages generated by the inverter itself.
The motor torque is kept within the hysteresis band of
the torque controller by DSC-SE, which chooses for the
motor an inverter voltage zero vector every time the error
in the torque exceeds the upper limit of the hysteresis
band.
Fig.7.3. DSC implementation.
At steady-state,the hexagon of the stator flux is included
within the two circles of Fig.7.4. The difference between
. d’
‘s
-
Fig.7.4. DSC as a particular case of DSFTC
their radii can be interpreted as the maximum deviation
AV*, in the amplitude of the stator flux with respect to a
reference value yosgiven by the half-sum of the two radii.
From the geometry of Fig.7.4. it is Ay*,=0.13y7*,.This
T6 1
suggests the hypothesis that the behavior of a DSC scheme
can be reproduced by a ST scheme where the hysteresis
band of the stator flux controller is set at 0.14p*,. The
hypothesis is confirmed by Fig.7.5 which reports the
trajectory of the stator flux space vector and the stator
current waveform as obtained from an ST drive with such
a stator flux controller.
drawn in Fig.8.2 and consists of a FeedForward Controller
(FFC), a Dead-beat Controller (DC) and two Integrators
(Is). FFC provides the stator voltage space vector demand
at steady-state and is built upon the stator equation in
(2.8b) where the stator flux derivative is equated to zero

Fig.8.2. PC blockdiagram
Fig. 7.5. Stator flux space vector trajectory and current waveform
of a DSFTC scheme with ApJ=O. 14p*, . The block DC together with Is accomplishes the feedback
action. DC provides the stator voltage space vector
demand during transients, due for instance to a variation
VIII. SVM-BASED DSFTC STRATEGIES in the references, and is designed by means of a dead-beat
In a ST scheme the inverter is switched at a variable approach, assuming that Tsmf is short. A finite analysis of
rate, causing the flow of current harmonics of the IM stator voltage in (2.8b)> the torque equation
unpredictable frequency. To avoid this phenomenon, (2.12a), and the flux relationship (2.13) from kTsW to
(k+l)Tsw gives
DSFTC strategies have been proposed which command
the inverter at a constant rate [131-[15]. Essentially, they
rely on either conventional PI regulators or predictive
controllers to calculate the stator voltage space vector to
apply to the motor, and synthetizes it by means of SVM.
The strategy presented here [15] is arranged around the
block diagram of Fig.8.1 and calls for a Predictive
Controller (PC): a Reference Voltage Rotator (RVR), the
SVM Generator (SVMG), and an Augmented Estimator
(AW.
bearing in mind that the rotor flux space vector does not
vary during T s ~ By . manipulating (8.2b) and (8.2c),
and replacing the changes in the motor torque and in the
stator flux amplitude with their respective error signals,
the stator current space vector required for zeroing the
error signals is found Its d,q components are

Fig 8 I SVM-bared DSFTC IM block diagram

(8.3a)
PC is a time-dlscrete controller which operates in a
reference frame obtained by sampling at the beginning of
TSVM(the SVM period) a frame rotating in synchronism
with the stator flux and having the axis d aligned along it (8.3b)
Such a frame is designated with pskand rotates in a step-
wise manner every TSIW The block diagram of PC is

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Substitution of (8.3)and (8.2~)into (8.2a) yields the stator regulation in spite of the large changes in the motor
voltage space vector demand during transients a function torque and speed.
of the error signals. This demand is designated with E and
its d,q components are

-30 1-I-_. , , .
0 0.04 0.08 0.120.16
t [SI
The blocks I get ride of the inaccuracies in the DC and Fig.S.4a).Torque response (test 1).
FFC actions. The sum of their outputs, (8.1) and (8.4)
gives the total stator voltage space vector demand.
The block RVR rotates the stator voltage demand from
the frame p to the stationary frame. AES operates in
Sk
the stationary frame: like ES of Fig.3.2 and estimates, in
addition to the stator flux amplitude and the motor torque,
the angular position and the speed of the stator flux space
vector. The angular position is the phase of the space
vector whilst its angular speed is calculated from the ' ; 0 4 ' !
following relationship: 0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
t [SI
Fig.8.4b).Motor speed (test 1).

(8.5)

Extraction of the time derivative of the stator flux

components from (2.15b) and their substitution into (8.5)
Os ol=--:
[WI 0.4

:
0.3
74
i
i
yield the speed equation implemented in AES 0.2 1 I

1 i
0.1 1 1
oL -
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
t [SI
Eq. (8.6)can be arranged as in Fig.8.3, where N and D Fig.8.4~).Stator flux (test 1).
are the numerator and the denominator of the fraction in
(8.6),and I is an integrator which helps in filtering the Then a speed loop control is set up around the torque
inverter voltage [8]. control and a step is applied to the speed reference from -
100rads to 100/rads. The traces of the motor speed and
torque, and of the stator current are reported in Figs.8.5.
They substantiate the good dynamic behavior of the drive
and, moreover, show its smooth operation at steady-state.

Fig.8.3. Stator flux angular speed calculator

The performance of the SVM-based DSFTC IM drive

has been tested by simulation using a 2.3kW, 190V, 50Hz,
4 pole standard IM and a SVM frequency of 5kHz. First a
torque reference alternating between f the rated value is
applied to the drivc: while keeping the reference of the -!
stator flux amplitude at its rated value. The traces of the - 1 5 0 0 L ~ - - o ~ 0 : 3 0:4 0.5
motor torque and speed, and of the stator flux amplitude t [SI
are reported in Figs.8.4 and show the good torque Fig.8.5a).Speed response (test 2).
response of the drive and the equally good stator flux

0-7803-4503-7/98/!~10.00 1998 IEEE T63

 REFERENCES

[ 11 B.K.Bose, Power electronics and variable frequency drives,

IEEE Press, New York, 1996.
[2] 1.Takahashi and T.Noguchi, “ A new quick-response and
high-efficiency control strategy of an induction motor”,
IEEE Trans. on Industry Applications, Vol. 22, No. 5 ,
Sept/Oct 1986, pp. 820-827.
[3] M.Depenbrok, “Direct Self-Control (DSC) of inverter-fed
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 induction machine”, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics,
t [SI Vol. PE-3, No. 4, Oct. 1988, pp. 420-429.
Fig.8.5b). Motor torque (test 2). [4] 1.Boldea and S.A.Nasar,“Torque Vector Control (TVC) - A
class of fast and robust torque speed and position digital
Controller for electric drives”, EMPS, vol. 15, 1988, pp.
135-148.
[5] T.Ohtani, N.Takada, and K.Tan&a, “Vector control of
induction motor without shaft encoder”, IEEE Trans. on
Industry Applications, Vol. 28, No. 1 , Jan./Feb. 1992, pp.
157- 164.
[6] D.Casadei, G.Grandi, and G.Serra, “Study and implementa-
i tion of a simplified and efficient digital vector controller for
-101 j I /j I
induction motors”, Cor$ Proc. of 1993 IEE-EMDC., pp.
Lj \; I
- . 0 2 - ! 196-201.
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 [7] P.Tiitinen, P.Pohkalainen,and J.Lalu, “The next generation
t [SI inotor control method : Direct Torque Control (DTC)”, EPE
Fig.8.5~).Stator current (test 2). Jounzal, VO1.5, NO.1, March 1995, pp. 14-18.
[SI G.Buja, D.Casadei, and G.Serra, “DTC-based strategies for
induction motor drives”, Cor$ Proc. of I997 IEEE-IECON
IX. CONCLUSIONS Con$, 1506-15 16.
The concept of the Direct Stator Flux and Torque [9] D.Casadei, G.Grandi, GSerra, and A.Tani, “Switching
Control (DSFTC) technique of an IM has been analyzed strategies in direct torque control of induction machines”,
Conf Proc. of I994 ICEM, pp. 204-209.
by means of physical considerations, analytical
1107 D.Casadei, G.Grandi, GSerra, and A.Tani, L‘Effectsof flux
developments, experimental results and simulations, and torque hysteresis band amplitude in direct torque
demonstrating how the stator flux amplitude and the control of induction machines”, Cor$ Proc. of 1994 IEEE-
motor torque can be kept under control through the IECON, pp. 299-304.
application of the voltage space vectors generated by an [I 11 D.Casadei, G.Grandi, and G.Serra, ”Rotor flux oriented
inverter. torque-control of induction machines based on stator flux
From the analysis, the following merits of DSFTC are vector control”, Proc. of 1993 EPE Con$, Vol. 5 , pp. 67-72.
emerged: [12] C.J.Bonanno, L.Zhen, and L.Xu, “A direct field oriented
induction machine drive with robust flux estimator for
- no need of current loops, position sensorless control”, Conf Rec. of 1995 IEEE-IAS,
pp 166-177.
- no need of variable transformations, with the exception
of the SVM-based strategies, [13] Y.Xue, X.Xu, T.G.Habetler, and D.M.Divan, “A stator
- no need of a speed sensor for implementing the stator flux-oriented voltage source variable-speed drive based on
flux and torque control, dc link measurement”, IEEE Transactions on U ,vo1.27,
No.5, pp.962-969, September/October 1991.
- no need of the IM parameters, apart from the stator
resistance for the ST and DSC strategies and of the [ 141D.Casadei, G.Grandi, and A.Tani, “Constant frequency
operation of a DTC induction motor drive for electric
stator resistance and the total leakage inductance for the
vehicle”, Proc. of 1996 ICEh4 CO?$, Vol. III,pp.224-229.
SVM-based strategies.
[15] G.Buja and R.Menis, “A direct torque control scheme for
SVM inverter-fed induction motor drives”, Con$ Proc. of
As in any sensorless IM drive, the performance of a
1998 CESAB, pp. 21-26.
DSFTC drive deteriorates a1 low speed. However, it has
been illustrated that the use of an improved flux estimator
gives the drive good performance even at low speeds.

0-7803-4503-71981$10.00 1998 IEEE T64