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features
You Need /r/ /ee / /d / to Read One for All. All for One?
Reading is a human invention, something our Surprising many in education circles, particularly
brains don’t learn to do automatically. So how do considering the long tradition of state and local
we figure out what to do with the squiggles we control over schools, the country looks like it is
call letters and the words they make? A look at moving ahead with common education standards.
what it takes to get emerging readers reading. Critics worry about creativity and a one-size-fits-all
approach. Supporters say the move is long overdue.
a click away
stories and links found only online
www.gse.harvard.edu
16 6 What do
children’s
authors think
of the literary
Look for this logo
throughout the
world they’ve magazine to high-
helped create? light related videos,
EdCasts, web
In October,
stories, and more.
a panel of
experts,
prominent authors, and
the creators of a new documentary, Library of
10
the Early Mind, met in an Askwith Forum to talk
about story telling, the impact of digital media,
and why the picture book isn’t dead.
38 48
49
Recess
Investing
raise awareness about
the importance of arts in
education and the role of
48
arts educators, including
directing seventh-graders in a Shakespeare play.
events www.gse.harvard.edu/news_events/events
twitter www.twitter.com/hgse
facebook www.facebook.com/harvardeducation
youtube www.youtube.com/harvardeducation
flickr www.flickr.com/photos/harvardeducation
scribd www.scribd.com/harvardeducation
What’s this?
Called a QR code, this two dimensional
barcode used in Ed. is readable by
senior writer/editor contributing writers illustrators
mobile phones with cameras or scanners
Lory Hough Matt Corby Roger Chouinard
and takes readers directly online.
lory_hough@harvard.edu Katy Kroll Daniel Vasconcellos
Greg Esposito, Ed.M.’10
production manager/editor Brooke McCaffrey, Ed.M.’07 copyeditor
Marin Jorgensen Mark Robertson, Ed.M.’08 Abigail Mieko Vargus
marin_jorgensen@harvard.edu Mary Tamer
David McKay Wilson © 2011 by the President and
designer Fellows of Harvard College.
Paula Telch Cooney photographers Ed. magazine is published
paula_telch@harvard.edu Aimee Corrigan, Ed.M.’11 three times a year. Third-class
Caroline Fleming-Payne postage paid at Burlington, VT To read Ed. online, go to
Director of Communications Briget Ganske, Ed.M.’10 and additional offices. www.gse.harvard.edu/ed.
Michael Rodman Elena Gormley
michael_rodman@harvard.edu Tanit Sakakini POSTMASTER: Send address changes to:
Martha Stewart Harvard Graduate School of Education,
Communications intern Office of Communications, 44R Brattle
Matt Corby Street., Cambridge, MA 02138
I was delighted to read the article on
David Ticchi (“Cane, Able”) in the fall 2010
edition of Ed. David and I taught junior
high school English in Newton, Mass.,
during the 1971–72 school year. I left
the following year to teach in Zurich,
Switzerland, but I well remember him
as a bright, enthusiastic, and creative
colleague. How shameful to read
about his early struggles to secure a
teaching job despite his intelligence and
credentials; and how wonderful to read
about the great success he has enjoyed
over the past 40 years. To use a tired but
apt cliché, he is a credit to his profession.
— Barbara Doughty, Ed.M.’82
David Ticchi and I are longtime friends ten with white letters on black. I assume Disabilities Education Act and then not
who attended public school together in this was because people with low vision bother to even think of captioning a
a small town that valued education and often find white-on-black easier to read video of this type is inexcusable.
children. As the article mentioned, we than black-on-white. — Robert Menchel, Ed.D.’95
graduated before any kind of educa- — Sondra Wieland Howe, M.A.T.’61
tional legislation for the disabled. In my piano teacher who teaches music Braille Editor’s note: Robert is right, which
opinion, positive attitudes and persis- is why we have since added a written
tence on the part of parents, students, Editor’s note: Yes. Our designer pur- transcript of the video, which can be
and the community are much more posely chose a black background with read online at www.gse.harvard.edu/ed/
important than legislation. white text because the sharp contrast extras. We are also working on a strategy
At our high school graduation, I re- makes it easier to read for some people so that all of our future content will be
member that David was recognized for with limited vision. accessible. Stay tuned!
perfect attendance during all 12 years
of public school from first through It is outrageous that the latest issue of
twelfth grade. While he was not able Ed. magazine focused on the Education Long Way to Go
to play varsity sports, he assisted the for All Handicapped Children Act It is great to see this article (“Long
coaches with equipment preparation and did not think about deaf people Way to Go,” fall 2010). It will be even
and worked out with several teams. at all. As the first, and perhaps only, better to see curricular and extracur-
I also recall that he had a temporary deaf graduate of HGSE, I was
job as our town police/fire dispatcher really upset when I went to view
(pre-911). People trusted David would the video of the interview with
do what it took to get the messages David Ticchi and found that it
through, and he did. was not captioned for deaf and
— Chris Read hard of hearing people like me.
This is a common oversight that
I was first puzzled about the braille on happens time and again; we are
the issue of Ed. and then enjoyed the left out of and overlooked by so-
article about David Ticchi’s teaching. ciety, which in many cases leaves
The dots came through the mail just us feeling invisible. However, for
fine! In the explanation under “Dot the Harvard Graduate School of
Dilemma,” I’m surprised the magazine Education to publish a magazine
didn’t explain why the article was writ- focused on the Individuals with
ricular attention paid to this issue in the which is very much considered to be in
HGSE community. The large number “the South.” In my work as a mental
of educators and educators-in-training health counselor, I have seen an odd
briget ganske
“
the appian way
It is a bit
like Netflix
for kids —
lecturehall Assistant Professor James Kim but books,
J ames Kim, Ed.M.’98, Ed.D.’02, had to pound the pavement — hard. At some point, most
professors do when they’re trying to find funding for a research project, but for Kim, the stakes
were higher than usual. Kim was a finalist for one of the U.S. Department of Education’s
not movies.”
recent Investing in Innovation (i3) grants. If he wanted the $12.7 million being offered, he had to scramble to raise 20 percent
in matching funds. This past September he did, which allowed him to begin phase one of Project READS (Reading Enhances
Achievement During the Summer), a reading intervention program for low-income children in North Carolina. The project gives
books and lesson cards to students to read during summer vacation. The hope is that it will prevent them from falling behind
academically. As research shows, and as Kim saw when he was teaching seventh-grade history in the mid-1990s, almost all
students backslide a bit when they’re away from school for that long, but the gap between middle- and low-income students is
especially wide.
“In our district, kids learned about U.S. history from the colonial era to the Civil War in sixth grade and Reconstruction to
the present in seventh grade,” he says. “In September, it was clear to me that many of my students forgot what they had
learned and had not read much in the summer. So we’d spend a few weeks on review materials.”
In graduate school, he continued learning about “summer loss,” as it’s known, and started creating a model for preventing
it. After running two reading experiments, he and his team realized that simply getting kids to read over the summer wasn’t
enough: In order to improve on comprehension, kids needed a mix of books they enjoyed, companion teacher-created les-
sons, and parent participation. In October, Kim spoke to Ed. about motivation, parents, and why the i3 grant was critical.
How many books prevent summer loss? they complete their books — this is the and implement. Our work underscores
In the READS program, children typi- real-time measure. Another real-time the importance of the teacher. In the
cally receive eight books over the sum- measure is having teachers call children absence of teacher-directed lessons at
mer. It is a bit like Netflix for kids — and record the conversations to see how the end of the year, children enjoy no
but books, not movies. Every two well children are reading their books. improvement in comprehension —
weeks, each child receives two books even when they receive the books. To
and two reading postcards. In one of Isn’t it difficult to motivate kids to read me, this is good news for American
our studies where we saw a positive during their months away from school? education: Teachers are critical for chil-
impact of READS, children enjoyed It is very important to tap into chil- dren’s success; they can even influence
comprehension gains if they received dren’s intrinsic motivation. We do this children’s success in the summer when
the books and the end-of-year compre- by giving children opportunities to they aren’t in school!
hension lessons. Children who received indicate their reading preferences.
only books did no better than a control Growing up, what were you like as a
group. These findings suggest that the You found that in order for this to work, reader?
combination of the eight books and the parent involvement is important. I was an average reader. But one thing
teacher lessons are critical to making a We encourage parents to view them- always made a big difference — my
difference in children’s reading compre- selves as key partners in the interven- teachers. When my teachers did read
hension skills. tion. During the end-of-school-year aloud, I wanted to read those books.
lessons, teachers instruct children
How do you know kids are actually read- how to read aloud to their parents for Was the i3 grant critical for you?
ing the books? homework. Parents are taught simple The i3 grant enables us to conduct
We use a lot of different measures. We strategies for motivating their children, large-scale studies over a five-year
need to ask kids directly, survey their such as providing feedback on their period. This kind of research requires
parents, and look at performance on children’s reading fluency and asking lots of time and money. It would
real-time measures. simple comprehension questions. definitely not have been possible with-
out the i3 funding and the matching
Real-time measures? Teachers must love this. contributions.
In my work, we do this by teaching chil- We often receive positive feedback.
dren to complete reading postcards after Teachers find it easy to understand — Lory Hough
istockphoto.com
breezed through in kindergarten, deriving no joy or excite- shattered visions, I did what I do
ment from the pages in front of her. At that time I was well best: I read. I got to work figur-
aware of the fact that the world is riddled with injustice and ing out the science of reading,
that I was truly fortunate to have had the advantages that I and stockpiling my toolbox with
did in my formative years. However, no amount of reading strategies and research. I became versed in the vocabulary
and consciousness-raising done within the brick walls of my of reading instruction. I began to see teaching reading as a
liberal arts college could have prepared me for that moment systematic, intellectually stimulating pursuit, rather than a
when “unfairness” and “injustice” were plopped in front of simply idealistic one.
me in a (hopelessly adorable) flesh-and-blood package. As I have moved forward in my career, I have come to see
I was bewildered by my mentee’s limited ability to navi- the book corner — the cozy, pillow-and-book-filled nook in
gate and comprehend the world of print — a world that had my classroom — and the guided reading table as transforma-
helped to carve the perimeter of my personality and talents. I tive spaces. They are the sites of small victories and constant
remember wondering how this had happened. When I spoke growth. As we bustle about in our busy day-to-day routines, I
with her teacher, she informed me that she was frantically feel that what we do as teachers goes beyond simple altruism
trying to bridge the gap between where my mentee was and or an ethic of care; what we do is revolutionary. It is in the
where she should have been. This teacher was dedicated complex act of learning to read that students are laying down
to her student’s success, but there was a lot to be done in a the groundwork for long-term change. Young readers are
limited amount of time. empowered. They will be the change agents.
One day, after a halted and exhausting reading of a Dr. After seven years in the classroom I still find myself as en-
Seuss book, my new friend smiled at me sheepishly. “I’m not raptured by the act of awakening young readers to the world
so good at reading,” she said. That was the tipping point of words as I am by the words themselves. I do, however, also
for me. I knew then that I would be trading my dream of find myself continuing to write in journals made of hand-
becoming a writer with the dream of becoming a teacher. made paper, and reading way past my bedtime.
I put my hand on my friend’s shoulder. “You can do this,”
I said. “Reading takes a lot of practice and hard work, and — Brooke McCaffrey, Ed.M.’07, teaches kindergarten at Prospect
that’s how you are going to get good at it.” Hill Academy Charter School in Somerville, Mass., and spends a lot of
I had witnessed the many complicated aspects of teach- time in the book corner reading with her students. She is featured in this
ing while volunteering in Harlem. However, I still envi- issue’s cover story on how to read.
I
n many ways, a little boy in Haiti reminded Aimee Corrigan, a
photographer and filmmaker, of why she came to the Ed School.
It was the end of summer, a few days before the fall semester
was about to begin, and Corrigan was in a tent camp in Port-Au-Prince
with the Life Is Good Kids Foundation. The NGO was training Haitian
youth workers who were helping children who had survived the 2010
earthquake. “The conditions were beyond anything I’ve ever seen,” she
says, now back in Cambridge where she is finishing her master’s in the
Technology, Innovation, and Education Program. “It was 102 degrees,
so hot that the tents were melting. Families were in short supply of all of
their needs: food, water, and medicine.” Corrigan asked the boy, Jimmy,
who was 12, if she could interview him about his experience. “He was
extremely eager to do the interview and said he knew the perfect spot,”
Corrigan says. “He brought me to a room full of broken desks, bench-
es, and tables that was used as a classroom before the earthquake
and it almost took my breath away.” January 12, the day of the earth-
quake, was still written on the blackboard. “Even though Jimmy is
living in a tent and struggling for resources every day, he told me
that more than anything else he wants a chance to go to school
this year. Even before the quake, access to education was a
challenge in Haiti because the nation does not have a universal
public education system. Jimmy hoped that by telling his story,
he might inspire people around the world to help kids in Haiti
get the education they deserve.” Telling stories like Jimmy’s is
why Corrigan has also traveled to Nigeria and Zimbabwe to
take photos and be involved in documentary films. “My goal
is to find stories of hope in places that are often portrayed
martha stewart
?
for students.
Gutman houses many things: library Gino Beniamino, Ed.M.’09, an A bank of 10 Mac Pros
books, faculty offices, conference 1 instructional technologist, runs
2 with 23” flat screen
rooms, student computers, and — the lab with Susan Geddis Eppling, monitors line the walls of the
surprise, surprise! — boom mics an instructional media developer. He lab, loaded with software
and a green screen. Three years ago, had experience with a similar lab at needed to edit, animate, and
a 930-square-foot multimedia lab Dartmouth College and pushed for grant mix: Final Cut Studio, iLife,
opened on the third floor. Available money to create the space. He’s become and everything Adobe.
to students, staff, and faculty, the the go-to guy when students need help
lab is fully staffed with everything with the or equipment or software.
needed to make and edit movies,
video, and audio productions.
The lab offers 10 kits for Students love the green The boom operator, holding a
3 users to borrow, in the studio
4 screen. Chroma key
5 fishpole and boom mic, helps
or off-site. Included: Canon GL2 technology has been used since with sound during filming. Wireless
digital camcorder, mic, tripod, the 1930s in Hollywood and for lavalier mics, sometimes called pin-
and batteries. Students use the decades with weather reporters, on or lapel mics, are also available.
equipment for class assignments, allowing filmmakers to easily
“Not many people use lights —
as well as for personal projects. For add one image behind another. 6
example, students in the Teacher “It’s particularly popular when it can be tricky — so these
Education Program videotape each reflectors help bounce light,” says
aimee corrigan
W I
hat happens when you bring society’s most t’s a puzzling dilemma: How do people who are not them-
privileged and most marginalized groups together selves victims of discrimination come to develop a com-
under one roof? In Shelter, Scott Seider, Ed.M.’04, mitment to act for racial justice? Associate Professor Mark
Ed.D.’08, explores the ramifications of that encounter through Warren spent several years seeking answers to that question
the lens of the Harvard Square Homeless Shelter, where every through interviews with white activists from across the country.
night from November to April Harvard students and the home- Fire in the Heart describes his findings from 50 such interviews,
less gather to share sustenance, stories, and security. “contributing to our understanding of the processes that lead
Drawing on detailed field notes from a single night at the some whites to an awareness of racism and a commitment to
shelter, Seider opens the book with a vivid chronological combat it,” he writes.
description of what happens between the arrival of the first Warren weaves key quotes and stories into eight themed
Harvard volunteer at 6:30 p.m. and the team’s 8:30 a.m. chapters, starting with an introduction that describes his
departure. These volunteers, when they could be studying at research methods and provides a skeleton of the rest of the
the library or sleeping in their warm beds, are busy cooking book. Subsequent chapters explore seminal activist experiences
and serving meals, washing dirty laundry, cleaning bathrooms, and the moral impulse to act; relationships with people of color;
and occasionally settling disputes. Yet the homeless are by moral visions and the purposeful life; challenging racism in the
no means the only parties that benefits from this encounter. context of inclusion; multiracial collaboration; and building new
Seider writes, “The Harvard students volunteering at the identities in racially diverse communities. At the conclusion,
shelter utilize the shelter as a mechanism for identity explora- Warren asserts that large-scale social change cannot occur until
tion and as a ‘shelter’ from some of the academic, social, and we create a national movement dedicated to racial justice.
personal pressures that are a part of the college years and Fire in the Heart is especially aimed at white students seeking
young adulthood.” inspiration and guidance in the effort to deepen their commit-
Told in three sections focusing on the impact the shelter ments to racial justice and activism. As an example of the power
has — on its guests, the student volunteers, and society of white activism, Warren repeatedly highlights the impact tens
— Shelter is both educational and emotionally moving, a of thousands of white volunteers contributed to Barack Obama’s
blend of statistics and stories. Through nearly 300 pages, presidential campaign. While Obama’s election surely did not
Seider takes special care to highlight the symbiotic nature solve the problem of racism, it was an important step toward
of this unique encounter, providing countless examples of racial justice, he writes, and shows the potential of Americans to
positive transformations both for the homeless and for the come together on a national level around values-based politics
volunteers. He claims that the “youth and inexperience” of calling for change.
the college students operating the shelter often combine to As Warren demonstrates clearly through 250 pages, the road
create a teacher-student dynamic to commitment has not been an easy one for any of the activists
that empowers guests in a way older interviewed. Through numerous examples, he points out that it is
professional social service workers common for white racial justice activists to be held in some sus-
cannot, ultimately making a persua- Listen to an EdCast picion both by white Americans as well as by people of color, a
sive case for the replication of the with Scott Seider suspicion that inhibits the formation of successful collaboration.
Harvard Square Homeless Shelter’s and read interviews Despite the challenges, however, participating in this effort for a
with the featured
student-run model in other major more just society has given white activists enormously fulfilling
authors.
cities across the United States. lives and, like the Obama volunteers, their own place in history.
E
ducational policymakers around the globe regularly make Save Money While Serving Students Best
Frederick Hess, Ed.M.’90, and Eric Osberg; 2010
tough decisions about how to improve their educational
systems with the scarce resources available to them. Since
these decisions are rarely informed by sufficient evidence, knowledge other books
of what works in different situations has been difficult to accrue. In Below C Level: How American Education Encourages Mediocrity
Methods Matter, Professors Richard Murnane and John Willett offer and What We Can Do about It
guidance for those who evaluate educational policies. They cover John Merrow, Ed.D.’73; CreateSpace, 2010
basic principles of causal inference and introduce complex concepts
Certifiable: Teaching, Learning, and National Board Certification
previously inaccessible to nonspecialists: randomization by group,
David Lustick, Ed.M.’89; Rowman & Littlefield Education, 2010
natural experiments, instrumental variables, regression discontinu-
ity, and propensity scores. With clear prose and relevant examples, Dream College: How to Help Your Child Get into the Top Schools
Methods Matter challenges researchers and policymakers to think Kpakpundu Ezeze, Ed.D.’83; Supercollege, Llc, 2010
more critically about the evidence and assumptions in their work.
One of the book’s most persuasive features is the wide range of Enhancing Student Learning in Middle School
Martha Casas, C.A.S.’92, Ed.D.’97; Routledge, 2010
research examples offered in support of each argument. Specific
causal inquiries include: “Does financial aid affect students’ and Faces: Illustrated Limericks Portraying People You May Know
families’ educational decisions?” and “Does class size influence stu- Carl Pickhardt, Ed.M.’66; Xlibris Corp., 2010
dents’ achievement?” These questions are followed by descriptions
In Theda Bara’s Tent
of high-quality studies that led to informed scientific conclusions.
Diana Altman, M.A.T.’64; Tapley Cove Press, 2010
The authors highlight the fact that “evidence-based” policy propos-
als today are often constructed upon unreliable and invalid sources. Ordinary Gifted Children: The Power and Promise of Individual
They subsequently outline the production process that leads to good Attention
evidence, explaining how the causal impact of educational and social Jessica Hoffman Davis, Ed.M.’86, Ed.D.’91; Teachers College Press, 2010
interventions can be estimated from quantitative data. Storytelling as an Instructional Method: Research Perspectives
Methods Matter is linked to real-world problems and solutions Thomas Derrick Hull, Ed.M.’09; Sense Publishers, 2010
rather than pure theoretical academia. In the words of the authors,
“Our emphasis is not on mathematics, but on providing intuitive The Teacher’s Toolkit
explanations of key ideas and procedures. We believe that illustrat- Brad Olsen, Ed.M.’93; Paradigm Publishers, 2010
ing our technical explanations with data from exemplary research
Through Veterans’ Eyes: The Iraq and Afghanistan Experience
studies makes this book widely accessible.” Larry Minear, M.A.T.’63; Potomac Books Inc., 2010
In recent decades, developments in research methodology, admin-
istrative record keeping, and statistical software have significantly The Tin Ticket: The Heroic Journey of Australia’s Convict Women
Deborah Swiss, Ed.M.’75, Ed.D.’82; Berkley Hardcover, 2010
enhanced the capabilities of researchers to make well-informed eval-
uations of the causal impacts of educational interventions. Methods
The Unofficial Diplomat: A Memoir
Matter offers professional wisdom that will continue to increase the Joanne Grady Huskey, Ed.M.’78; SCARITH, 2009
number of well-designed impact studies and educated policymaking.
Whole Child Education
— Briefs written by Matt Corby John Miller, M.A.T.’67; University of Toronto Press, 2010
Many banks left the guaranteed loan program, and by In a 2007 paper in the Harvard Educational Review, Ed
2008, the Department of Education under President George School Professor Bridget Terry Long says the loss of the Pell
W. Bush had stepped in to buy loans from private lenders, Grants’ buying power has hurt low-income students.
providing them with capital to originate new loans. “Years of research demonstrate that grants make a differ-
That led to President Obama’s push for full direct lending, ence in enrollment decisions,” she wrote. “Unfortunately, the
which was passed this spring, ending the dual system and purchasing power of the Pell Grant is only a fraction of its
the banking industry’s ability to originate subsidized federal original level.”
loans. (Banks can still provide private loans, but the loans Donald Heller, Ed.M.’92, Ed.D.’97, director of the
are no longer guaranteed by the government.) The banking Center for the Study of Higher Education at Pennsylvania
industry unsuccessfully fought the plan, arguing that the dual State University, says the financial pinch has created a strati-
system provided the dynamic that led to better service and fied system of higher education, with wealthier families able
lower prices. to afford more selective four-year colleges, and lower-income
The transition to the new system has gone smoothly, students flocking to community colleges.
according college officials across the country. At Carleton, The rise of merit-aid programs in many states, like the
Oto says his staff worked out the kinks this past summer, and Helping Outstanding Pupils Educationally (HOPE) scholar-
students barely noticed. But he remains concerned about ship program in Georgia, has provided financial support
what happens in the future, without the competition to keep to huge numbers of middle- and upper-income students
the federal government sharp. whose families could afford to pay the tuition bill — not the
“The Department of Education has done a great job program’s intention.
getting it off the ground and making sure it works,” he says. Georgia students who qualify for HOPE scholarships
“But time will tell if the government becomes lax and less receive full tuition to attend state universities if they maintain
responsive. Hopefully not, but when you have only one game a B average in high school. In 2004, the commission found
in town, it can become easy to see customer service decline.” that only 30 percent of the HOPE scholars came from low-
At Tufts University, the transition occurred without a and moderate-income.
hitch. Lee Coffin, Ed.M.’90, dean of undergraduate admis- “The money goes disproportionately to wealthy families,”
sions and enrollment management, and an Ed School ad- says Heller.
junct lecturer, remains concerned that that Pell Grants, which The Obama plan adopted in March made significant
don’t need to be repaid and benefit low-income students, progress in addressing the needs of low-income students. The
haven’t kept pace with the rise in education costs. maximum annual Pell Grant — now at $5,550 — will be tied
“As need goes up, students aren’t getting the federal dol- to the Consumer Price Index for 5 of the program’s 10-year
lars to offset the cost,” he says. “That puts pressure on institu- period. The Congressional Budget Office estimates an in-
tions to raise funds and use endowment income to meet those crease in Pell spending of $21 billion from 2010 to 2014, with
full needs.” an additional $15 billion earmarked for students by 2019.
Undersecretary Kanter says this bodes well for low-income
students over the coming decade. But she acknowledges reach-
Need Still Great ing the president’s college-graduation goals will take consider-
While the federal loan program helps students from the full able efforts, with low-income students among those targeted
spectrum of income levels finance their education, the Pell for increased achievement on the higher-education level.
Grant Program is targeted to families demonstrating finan- “It’s really a national imperative that 100 percent of
cial need. The increases under the new Obama plan in the qualified students have a chance to go to college,” she says.
maximum Pell Grant this year will certainly help low-income “And more American students with low income want to
students. But the Pell Grant, which Undersecretary Kanter have that opportunity.”
says once covered two-thirds of college costs, now only covers
one-third, leaving low-income students hunting for loans and — David McKay Wilson, who writes for university magazines around
institutional aid to make ends meet. the country, is a regular contributor to Ed. magazine. Ed.
By Greg Esposito
illustrations by Daniel vasconcellos
C
ompared with the typical pace of politics and the adoption of
education policy, the Common Core State Standards Initiative
has developed at a lightning-fast rate. In 2009 and 2010, drafts of
the standards were written, public comments were made, and a final draft
was produced. And in one short, hot summer, state after state signed on
to a common definition of the skills and knowledge their students should
have in math and English at various points during their academic careers.
Considering the long tradition of local control in American education,
this is no small feat. But those who have been closer to the movement
know that the events leading to their development and adoption did not
occur over the course of a year. Politicians and education leaders —
including many Harvard Graduate School of Education alumni and
faculty — have debated the merits of national standards for decades.
Their experiences have given them insight into why the movement is
gaining traction now and where it might go in the future.
Harvard Graduate School of Education 33
A Rudderless System develop national standards for core subjects. And then he
Senior Lecturer Paul Reville, secretary of education for was disappointed when the movement gained no traction.
Massachusetts, held various roles over the past two decades The standards movement within states was slow and arduous
that placed him in the middle of the discussion of measuring on the ground as leaders struggled to find fair measures.
progress and setting education goals. The former president of The summit did signal advances for the conversation
the Rennie Center for Education Research & Policy and for- on the 30,000-foot policy level, but it didn’t lead to wide-
mer executive director of the Pew Forum on Standards-Based spread reform. And it certainly didn’t convince states to
Reform can trace his personal memories of the debate back turn education over to federal control. Bush’s calls for an
to the mid-1980s. There was a growing perception then of a American Achievement Test in certain grades didn’t make
rudderless education system that lacked clear goals, he says. it through Congress. It appeared that while leaders recog-
“I think that this [current movement] is all part and parcel nized that there was an issue that needed to be addressed,
of the education reform movement generally and the percep- anything that smacked of federal intervention in education
tion growing in the mid-’80s that what we were doing in remained something of a third rail that no member of
education was outdated and outmoded,” Reville says. Congress wanted to touch. This lesson was not lost on the
Spurred by concerns about international competition, chair of the Charlottesville summit — an activist governor
economic troubles, and a perceived stagnation or regression from Arkansas who would soon be involved in the education
in student performance outlined by the now famous 1983 re- reform debate from a completely different vantage point.
port, A Nation at Risk, the standards debate gained new life as
politicians looked for ways to clarify goals, measure progress,
and hold schools accountable. The Clinton Years
Chief among those politicians was President George Just around the time of the Charlottesville forum, Marshall
H.W. Bush. In 1989, following vows that his presidency “Mike” Smith, Ed.M.’63, Ed.D.’70, was coauthoring an ar-
would focus on education reform, he met with state gover- ticle on national curriculum in the United States that would
nors at a national education summit in Charlottesville, Va. lead to proposals for standard-based reform. He has advised
A joint statement issued by the president and the governors on education matters for multiple administrations, including
at the start of the summit acknowledged that education the current one.
should remain a state responsibility and a local function. But In 1991, Bush signed legislation creating a National
the document outlining objectives at the close of the summit Council on Education Standards and Testing and called
was rife with language now common in the education reform for the development of voluntary national testing as part
debate — accountability, competitiveness, readiness, and of his “America 2000” initiative. Although Bush was voted
national goals. out of office, his basic ideas for education reform survived.
The summit brought attention to and built momentum Academic Dean Robert Schwartz, C.A.S.’68, and Smith
for the movement for national educational objectives. It served on a transition team that wrote a report stating that
brought together governors who believed education reform fundamentally, the standards movement was headed in
was an important moral and economic issue. It led to an the right direction. Plans to provide money to states to put
announcement of national education goals by the president standards in place were made, and the reauthorization of the
four months later. Moreover, it led to more thought and Elementary and Secondary Education Act included tying
discussion by governors about equity within their states. And Title I money to standardization across districts within states.
one did not have to make a large leap in logic to apply that “We used a little leverage,” Smith says. “We said, ‘Gosh,
ideology to the country as a whole, Reville says. guys, Title I money goes to poor schools. We want every one
“If you draw the conclusion that all the children in your of those schools to have standards, and they have to be the
state are the responsibility of the state’s education system same as [the standards for] other kids in their state.’”
irrespective of the geographic accident of birth … then Following these advances in standardization within
you don’t want there to be widely variable standards” on a states, President Bill Clinton signed the Goals 2000
national level, he says. Educate America Act in 1994. It established an outcomes-
The problem, according to Fordham Institute President based framework to set goals of American student achieve-
Chester Finn, M.A.T.’67, Ed.D.’70, was found in the details. ment relative to students in other nations. Graduation rates,
“There was a general agreement that yes, every kid in teacher quality, student preparation, teacher development,
every school should demonstrate proficiencies in core sub- and literacy were other national goals listed in the legisla-
jects,” he says. “But what the heck are proficiencies?” tion. It also provided for federal funding to allow schools to
As chair of the National Assessment Governing Board, achieve these goals. Voluntary national testing was pro-
Finn applauded when Bush handed out grants for states to posed again.
Why education? And from that work, H.E.R.O emerged? and triage at several major hospitals
My lifelong devotion to education In November 2009, I unofficially in Port-Au-Prince. Ten days after the
began in the Fiji Islands at the age of formed H.E.R.O. (Housing, Education, earthquake, all six of us were evacuated
16, when a local headmaster asked if and Rehabilitation of Orphans) from Haiti.
I would like to volunteer as a teacher through a self-created blog with the
for his third- and fourth-grade classes. ultimate goal of raising sufficient funds How did Union School fare?
Despite being known as a tropical to build a residence for street children It found itself with an enrollment of 30
paradise, Fiji is actually an impover- and orphans. After the earthquake, the children, down from 300. Subsequently
ished country. It was in Fiji that I truly need for a self-sustainable residence my services were no longer needed,
experienced life in a developing country became even more pressing. and for the first time in my life I found
for the first time, and after teaching for myself involuntarily unemployed.
a brief one-week period at the local Rather than pursuing additional job
primary school, I was hooked. opportunities in the United States, I
instead focused on H.E.R.O.
How did you come to Haiti?
I mentored Haitian youth during my You experienced the earthquake? How is it going?
senior year at the University of Miami. Yes. [It was] unforgettable. I had just H.E.R.O.
[Later] I was hired as a high school returned home from work with five provided school
English/writing teacher at Union other teachers to our shared apart- supplies and
School in Port-Au-Prince. ments. We were oblivious to the English instruc-
impending disaster. At 4:53 p.m., the tion to more than
Any surprises about Haiti? entire apartment complex began to 150 children in
Despite having visited developing shake violently, swaying vigorously April. Of these,
countries like Ghana, Tanzania, and side to side. I immediately ran to the approximately 25
Fiji, Haiti was a shock to my system. As doorframe and stood underneath it. were street chil-
an educator, I was truly in disbelief that I could hear my colleagues yelling, dren. We have
it was not uncommon to find communi- and plates and glasses smashing to the recently rented a
ties of 200,000 people where not one kitchen floor. house in Port-Au-Prince that will tem-
single public elementary school existed. porarily house 12 children orphaned
After having worked for three months How did you react? by the earthquake. We are still in the
at a school that provided education for As the earthquake subsided I ran development phase of our permanent
the most elite of Haiti’s population, I outside to gauge the status of my col- residence. We have been donated one
knew that I had to expand my efforts to leagues, thankfully finding that they had and a half acres of land in the province
reach the other 80 percent of Haiti, the all survived uninjured. We ran down of Nippes, approximately three hours
people that live on less than $2 a day. to the open lawn of our complex and outside of Port-Au-Prince. We have
stared at each other, amazed by the partnered with several organizations to
So what did you do? absolute silence that lasted for more create a residence that will support up
I found SOPUDEP (Society of than a minute. And then the screaming to 50 children.
Providence United for the Economic began. We watched as a cloud of dust A main focal point of our develop-
Development of Petion-Ville), a local and dirt rose to the sky from a poverty- ment is to become as self-sustainable as
grassroots organization that provides an stricken neighborhood nearby, and we possible. To accomplish this task we will
education to children in Haiti, regard- could hear the yelling of the injured. be using solar and wind energy, rainwa-
less of their I ran up to my apartment and ter collection, and innovative farming
ability to pay. grabbed first aid supplies, bottles of practices to decrease our reliance on
They had an af- water, and flashlights. I was immedi- third parties for our operation. The
ternoon program ately joined by the other five teachers residence is slated to open on January
that specifically in the apartment building. Through 12, 2011, the one-year anniversary of
targeted street the night we set up temporary first aid the earthquake.
children, provid- stations in soccer fields
ing a daily meal filled with thousands of Go to www.haitihero.blogspot.com to visit
and formal educational experiences. I people, now homeless. Kirby’s blog.
began working with the street children For the next seven days
teaching English. we provided first aid — Marin Jorgensen
1985
Julius Wayne Dudley
1994 2005
Christopher Kennedy Louie Rodriguez
2007
Kevin Boehm and
Laura (Potenski) Boehm
2009
Heidi Cook, Mina Kim,
and Erin Sudduth
S
hazia Amjad used to have free time. But the reading, hik-
ing, and gardening that she once enjoyed in her leisure
Breaking Ground:
Norman Smith, Ed.D.’84
T
he greater the challenge, the greater the
appeal. Over the course of his 40-year career
in higher ed administration, Norman Smith
helped several institutions — including the Ed School
— overcome enrollment and finance issues. But after a
Katrina Sarson, Ed.M.’03 teachers about the importance of such activities and the poten-
tial consequences of raising generations of children that aren’t
W
hen Katrina Sarson decided to go back to school, encouraged to appreciate the arts or think outside the box.
she already had a decade of experience under her “It’s a problem that no one is really talking about because it’s
belt as a TV producer, having worked for HGTV, ESPN, not hot and happening on the nightly news,” she says. “Unless
and the Food Network. But what she really wanted to do was you have a child in school, you probably don’t realize there’s a
merge this experience with her other interest: arts in education. serious lack of the arts in schools these days. And if it’s happen-
This decision was affirmed by her Ed School professors, who ing in Oregon, it’s happening in other places. But if no one talks
enhanced her interest in education. One professor in particular about it, nothing’s going to change.”
stands out to the Boston native. “When I was in kindergarten,
[Professor] Howard Gardner was a student-teacher for my class,” Teaching Creativity: Is Art the Answer? can be seen on Oregon
she recalls. “At HGSE, he remembered me. He told me his Public Broadcasting or at www.opb.org/teachingcreativity.
time as a student-teacher helped him realize that he was more
passionate about research and academics. … [The story of his — Katy Kroll
1
2 2
Alumni Events
5 1 The HGSE Alumni Council hosted a Chicago area alumni reception at the W Lakeshore
Hotel in Chicago. April 2010
Washingon, D.C., alumni event, “Career Paths Beyond the School Setting: Nontraditional
3 Opportunities for Education Graduates.” July 2010
Alumni gathering in Bangkok, Thailand. Among the attendees were host Jomphong
4 Mongkhonvanit, Ed.M.’04 (sixth from left), and Professor Fernando Reimers (center).
October 2010
2008
Rasheed Meadows, Ed.M., and Family Dynamics. His Vince Bertram, Ed.M., is Jonathan Epstein, Ed.M.,
is among the first cohort of research was recently featured superintendent of the Evansville was given the John B. Muir
the Ed School’s Doctor of in Time magazine, the Toronto Vanderburgh School Corpora- Editor’s Award by the National
Education Leadership Program Star, the Irish Examiner, and on tion in Indiana. In July 2010, he Association for College Admis-
(Ed.L.D.). BBC News. received the Distinguished Hoo- sion Counseling for his article,
sier Award, one of the highest “Behind the SAT-Optional
2005 awards given by the state of Movement: Context and Con-
1998 Louie Rodriguez, Ed.M.’99,
Indiana to its citizens. troversy” which appeared in
the organization’s Journal of
John Lewis, Ed.M., was ap- Ed.M.’01, Ed.D., is assis- Kevin Boehm, Ed.M., and College Admission.
pointed headmaster of Gunston tant professor in educational Laura (Potenski) Boehm,
Day School in Centreville, Md. leadership and curriculum at Ed.M., were married on July
California State University,
San Bernardino. In September,
31, 2010, in Sayreville, N.J.
They honeymooned in Ireland. 2009
1999 he was honored at the fourth
annual 30 Under 30 Recogni-
He is the assistant director for
student activities at the Ed
Heidi Cook, Ed.M., attended
the Communities Connecting
Jeffrey Riley, Ed.M., has tion Breakfast, which recognizes School. She is an eighth-grade End of Summer Celebration
become the academic su- Latino and Native American special education teacher at hosted by the Governor Deval
perintendent for middle and young adults who are making Oak Hill Middle School in Patrick campaign, at which she
K–8 schools for Boston Public a difference in the greater San Newton, Mass. Other 2007 Ed discussed school leadership with
Schools after several years as Bernardino community. School alums at the wedding Lt. Governor Tim Cahill. Also
principal at the Edwards Middle were Sara Stephens, Ed.M., part of the conversation were
School in Charlestown, Mass. and Kathleen Castillo- Mina Kim, Ed.M., and Erin
2006 Clark, Ed.M. Sudduth, Ed.M.
Amrita Dhamoon Sahni,
2000 Ed.M., has been director of in-
Sam Garson, Ed.M.,
received a 2010 Outstand-
Will Yeiser, Ed.M.’09, is
founder and director of French
Timothy Lannon, Ed.M.’96, struction at the Edwards Middle ing Educator award from Broad River Academy in
Ed.D., was named president of School in Charlestown, Mass., the Washington State Parent Asheville, N.C. He was recently
Creighton University in Ne- for the past four years. She Teacher Association. The featured on Western North
braska. He will begin in his new recently was named woman of honorees are chosen from staff Carolina public radio discussing
position in July 2011. the year by India New England. and parent nominations and single-sex education.
written recommendations of
2007
their departments.
2010
2002 Monica Groves, Ed.M., Allison Brian, Ed.M., is
Hikaru Kozuma, Ed.M., was Camille (L apidario) was appointed dean of the new working at Stanford University
named executive director of the Aragon, Ed.M., joined the KIPP Vision Academy located as assistant director of student
University of Pennsylvania’s Peace Corps and will be work- in Atlanta. and young alumni philanthropy.
Office of Student Affairs, effec- ing in the eastern Caribbean as Prior, she worked in the devel-
tive July 2010. a youth development volun- Lior Ipp, Ed.M, is the direc- opment office at the Ed School.
teer. She will be creating and tor of global programming for
Carlos Santos, Ed.M., managing educational programs Ashoka’s Youth Venture (YV), a
finished his Ph.D. in develop- in collaboration with country position held since graduating
mental psychology at New York partners in schools, NGOs, and from the Ed School. YV guides
University in 2010 and is now the local communities of St. young people (aged 12–20)
a professor at Arizona State Vincent and the Grenadines. through workshops, gatherings,
University’s School of Social
T
he huge number of comments posted online in contains the
response to the Ed School story about the death excitement and
of Professor Emeritus Gerald Lesser on Septem- joy that a child
ber 23, 2010, at the age of 84, says a lot about Lesser’s has experienced
appeal — that and the fact that his obituary was featured while not being
h
in sources ranging from The New York Times to IGN news in ‘educated.’”
ug
zh
eF
it
Rome to the Muppet wiki. It was helpful, of Su
si
“He touched the lives of millions,” wrote one person. course, to also have a sense
With his long career in education and children’s television, of playfulness. By all accounts,
Lesser certainly did. After earning a Ph.D. in child develop- Lesser had it and helped instill it in Sesame Street, which was,
ment and psychology in 1952 from Yale University, Lesser as writer Malcolm Gladwell once noted, an “artful blend of
taught at Hunter College and Adelphi University before fluffy monsters and earnest adults.” During an early promo-
joining the Ed School in 1963. He stayed at Harvard for tional video for the show, for example, Lesser took it in stride
35 years, teaching developmental psychology and chairing when Kermit the Frog, one of the shows most identifiable
the Human Development Program, before retiring in 1998. puppet characters, jokingly said, “When you get back to
During this time, starting in 1966, he became involved Harvard, how are you going to explain that you spent all day
in the Children’s Television Workshop, now known as in New York talking to a frog?”
Sesame Workshop. Serving as chair of its board of advisors, Linda Rath, Ed.D.’94, worked with Lesser when he
Lesser helped create the curriculum for Sesame Street, which served as an advisor for the series Between the Lions, where
debuted in 1969 and is now widely considered one of the she is a curriculum developer. She remembers how Lesser
shows that changed television. encouraged others to have fun, too, while making meaning-
Lesser was an innovator, understanding early on that ful television.
education and entertainment didn’t necessarily compete “His dedication to education was profound, but he de-
for the attention of children. As he wrote in his 1974 book, lighted in the playful and silly ideas of writers and produc-
Children and Television: Lessons from Sesame Street, which included ers of the series,” she says. “With diplomacy
sketches from Maurice Sendak, “Entertainment is seen as and warmth, he constantly nudged the team
frivolous. Education is seen as serious and earnest. … To use to aim high, respect our audience, and reach
entertainment in the service of education is tantamount to our educational goals.” Read or contribute
coddling.” What needed to be done, he wrote, was to make to the online
comments.
entertainment instrumental to learning, “so that learning — Lory Hough
In Memory
Harold Cummings, Ed.M.’42 Ann Muncaster, Ed.M.’58 Hedley Beare, Ed.D.’70
Patricia Jencks Gordon, M.A.T.’42 Priscilla Hastings Dunn, Ed.M.’59 Edward McMillan Jr., Ed.D.’71
Marjorie Gould Shuman, M.A.T.’42 Elizabeth Ann Bordeaux, Ed.M.’60 Jane Perrin, M.A.T.’71
Louise Keenan, Ed.M.’43 Marcia Woodruff Dalton, M.A.T.’60 Mary Holmes, Ed.M.’72
Jean Winchell, M.A.T.’43 David Eldridge, M.A.T.’60 Mary Bowes Winslow, Ed.D.’74
J. Warren Perry, GSE’47 Carol Armstrong Hamilton, M.A.T.’60 Gerald Sullivan, Ed.M.’75
John Gianoulis, M.A.T.’49 Joseph John Petroski, Ed.D.’60 Betty Martin Viereck, M.A.T.’75
Walter Deane, Ed.M.’50 Donald Gibbs Palmer, GSE’61 Carol Silva, Ed.M.’77
Philip Geffin, M.A.T.’51 Louise Goodridge, Ed.M.’63 Caroline Robinson, Ed.D.’78
Ralph West, Ed.M.’51 Michael Brown, M.A.T.’65 Noeline Purser, Ed.M.’80
Helen Neuhaus, M.A.T.’52 John Wright Jr., Ed.M.’66 Lawrence Zuckerman, Ed.M.’66, Ed.D.’86
Virgil Pitstick, M.A.T.’52 Duncan Circle, Ed.D.’68 Meredith Aldrich, C.A.S.’90
Yolanda Lyon Miller, M.A.T.’54 Natalie Gratovich, Ed.M.’69 Robyn Moore, Ed.M.’94
Cornelia Rose Levin, Ed.M.’55 Robert Whitman, Ed.M.’69 Timothy Sloate, Ed.M.’99
Donald Blyth, Ed.D.’57 Isabelle Cowens, Ed.M.’69, C.A.S.’70
recess
istockphoto.com
Hey, Hey, It’s a Monkey!
It’s so outlandish that it almost sounds made up. But the story made a copy of the data yet, so I ran after it and started yell-
about how a monkey nearly ruined doctoral candidate Anjali ing. Then I threw the banana and bonked it in the back.”
Adukia’s chance at finishing her dissertation is absolutely true. Adukia felt bad. “We were near the Gandhi ashram and
It started in the summer of 2007 when Adukia, Ed.M.’03, Gandhi did not condone violence,” she says. But she also
was trying to get data about Indian schools from a local knew she wasn’t going to give up her hard-earned data that
government agency located about 300 miles from where easily. Luckily, the unharmed monkey stopped, dropped the
her parents grew up in Mumbai. For nearly a year, through DVD, grabbed the banana, and walked away. She picked
e-mails and phone calls, the agency promised the data but up the DVD and thought, humorously, “I just defended my
never sent it. Finally, Adukia decided to show up in person. dissertation,” at least for the first time.
Armed with biscuits, tea, and her own chair, she camped out Back in Cambridge, Adukia is finishing her research
for an entire week. On the last day, they gave her the much- on the impact of health on education in India and other
needed data on a DVD. places, including how the lack of adequate sanitation affects
“I thought, great, my dissertation is done,” she says. learning. In retelling her monkey story, she jokingly credits
But a couple of days later, after leaving a meeting with Harvard’s office softball league for her Jonathan Papelbon–
a local NGO to discuss sanitation issues connected to her like skills.
research, her luck changed. “I’ve always thought that the only reason
“I was walking out of the meeting, DVD in one hand, I hit the monkey,” she says, “is because I was
a banana in the other, when I felt something. Then I saw a on the school’s Ed Sox team.”
Watch a video
flash of a monkey racing by,” she says. “The monkey had re-enactment.
snatched the DVD out of my hand and was running! I hadn’t — Lory Hough
Connect Ed
Ed.L.D. Donors Make Personal Links to New Students
B
eth Rabbit, a former associate partner at a venture philanthropy firm who
aspires to lead a public school system, had two choices for grad school:
a top-ranked business school or the Ed School’s new Doctor of Education
Leadership (Ed.L.D.) Program. The choice to attend the Ed School was an easy one
when she was offered full fellowship support for three years.
“Because I won’t need to repay school loans, my career path in education won’t
be restricted,” Rabbit says.
Thanks to the generosity of institutional and individual donors, Rabbit and each
of her 24 classmates in the first Ed.L.D. cohort is attending the Ed School tuition-
free and with a living expense stipend. The faculty who developed the program
knew that this level of funding was necessary in order to attract new talent to the
education sector and to convince successful midcareer practitioners to leave jobs
and make major life changes.
As part of the fellowship model, each Ed.L.D. student is matched with a donor who
is, in essence, funding his or her three years. In most cases, shared geography or in-
terests between the donors and students have made for deep, personal connections.
Diana Nelson said that in funding a fellowship, she and the other trustees of her
family’s Twin Cities–based Carlson Family Foundation hoped to develop a relation-
ship with an Ed.L.D. student. They were thrilled to learn that their fellow, Rhoda
Mhiripiri-Reed, was just as interested in connecting with them.
“I was completely moved by Rhoda. She’s truly inspiring,” Nelson says of
Mhiripiri-Reed, the former principal of Champlin Park High School in Champlin,
Minn. “We look forward to staying in close touch with her to learn more about the Rhoda Mhiripiri-Reed, Diana Nelson
program and its role in education reform,” one of the foundation’s priorities.
Mhiripiri-Reed, who hopes to become an urban superintendent, is similarly
moved by the foundation’s generosity and interest in her work.
“Everyone in Minnesota knows about the Carlson Companies, so I was thrilled
when I found out their foundation was supporting my education,” she says. “It’s im-
pressive [that] Diana and the other program donors have taken a special interest in
us as people. They are just as committed to the idea of every student in our country
receiving a great education as we [the fellows] are.”
Similarly, for Rabbit, getting to know her fellowship donors Don Gant and his
children, Chris and Sarah R. Gant, Ed.M.’94, has been particularly meaningful be-
cause, with backgrounds in business and education, they understand her motiva-
tions in pursuing the Ed.L.D.
Tommie Henderson, Karl Wendt, Jim Rothenberg, Amy Loyd
“We share a multisector view of this problem, believing that problems in educa-
tion are as much management-related as they are programmatic,” says Rabbit.
After meeting Rabbit and her classmates, Chris Gant says he was heartened that
Harvard was using its resources to attract such a strong group.
“This is an incredibly impressive group of people,” he says of the first cohort. “To
leverage Harvard’s strengths in educational administration, business executive
training, and public policy to prepare these future leaders makes so much sense.”
Harvard University Treasurer Jim Rothenberg, who with his wife Anne is sup-
porting three fellows — Tommie Henderson, Amy Loyd, and Karl Wendt — agrees,
describing the program as “all about partnership and collaboration.” He invested in
the Ed.L.D. students now because they will invest in others down the road.
“The impact of these students will be felt by generations of learners,” he says.
elena gormley
tricia hurley
You don’t have to be famous to end up here.
E-mail us a picture of yourself (or someone
in your family) reading Ed. and you may find
yourself on the back cover, too.
classnotes@gse.harvard.edu
kathleen mccartney
Where’s Ed.?
We caught a couple of celebrities reading Ed. recently. In October, Dick Wolf, the Emmy award-winning producer
of Law and Order, poured over the fall 2010 issue (to get ideas for an upcoming show, we’re sure). And last March,
best-selling author Jodi Picoult, Ed.M.’90, didn’t have to hide her support for the magazine after meeting with Ed
School students and alumni at the Brattle Theatre in Cambridge.