TOXICOLOGY 1

Toxicology

Name

Institution affiliation

Date
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Toxicology

QUESTION ONE:

Thoughts on The Safety of BPA Use in Consumer Products

My thoughts on the safety of BPA use in consumer products is that it is safe for use in its

current levels occurring in food. My position is based on the fact that BPA has been in use since

the 1960s, and there have not been any serious side effects reported despite it being continually

in use. BPA is a structural constituent in polycarbonate cold drink bottles. Besides, BPA has

been used as one of the components of the metal coatings that directly protect the food from

contacting the metals surfaces.

I believe that the U.S. Food & Drug Administration's (FDA) position on BPA is valid

because the body gives authority for certain products to be used after extensive research. The

body has noted some inconsistencies in the scientific study of BPA currently, which it has

proposed to be reviewed, and earlier recommendations made of about the product that is

inconsistent with the earlier findings are welcome. BPA in baby products such as pacifiers and

bottles could be of great concern because even low doses of it can lead to the baby developing

cardiovascular problems, and it could also trigger blood pressure changes, atherosclerosis, and

arrhythmias. For these reasons, I cannot let my baby drink from a bottle with BPA.

QUESTION TWO:

Measures of Central Tendency of Benzene Contaminants Consumed by Family Members

a. Mean

The mean is the average of a given set of numbers. It is normally used in continuous or

discrete data. When calculating the mean, the sum of all the given value is calculated and divided

by the number of values in the data set. From the data given, the average number of benzene
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micro-organisms consumed by the members of the family were approximately 348. This value is

calculated by getting the sum of 215, 501, 305, 298, 345, 305, and 465, which is 2434 and then

divided by the number of values, which is 7.

b. Mode

The mode is defined as the most frequent score in a given set of data. From the given data,

the model is 305, which is the most occurring value. It was easy to get this value from this data

because it is not a continuous set. However, it should be noted that this value might not provide

an accurate measure of central tendency because it is far from the other values.

c. Median

Median is defined as the measure of the middle score of a given set of data. It is usually

measured by first arranging the given data in ascending order and getting the middle number. For

example, the median of benzene micro-organism consumed by the family is 305. This value is

calculated by first arranging the given data in ascending order. When arranged in the ascending

order, the data gives 215,298,305,305,345,465,501. Since the total number of values is 7, the

middle number is the fourth, which is 305. For cases of an even number of values, the central

two numbers are summed, and their average calculated to give the median of that particular set

of numbers.

d. Standard Deviation

The standard deviation measures how numbers are spread from the mean. It calculated by

getting the square root of the variance, which is the average of the squared differences from the

mean. From the given data, the standard deviation was found to be 101.

QUESTION THREE:
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Measures of Central Tendency of The Level of Response to The Contaminant Rated on A

Scale From 1–20

a. Mean

The mean defined as the average of a given set of numbers. When calculating the mean, the

sum of all the given value is calculated and divided by the number of values in the data set. From

the data given, the average number of the level of response to the contaminant was 10. This

value is calculated by getting the sum of 9, 12, 7, 15, 8, 9, and 10, which is 70 and then divided

by the number of values, which is 7.

b. Mode

The mode is the most frequent score in a particular group of data. From the given data, the

model is 9. To calculated mode, one needs to find the most occurring value in the given data. It

should be noted that mode can sometimes fail to give the correct measure of central tendency,

especially when the most occurring values are far to the left or right.

c. Median

Median is the measure of the middle score of a given set of data. To calculate the median,

the given data is arranged in ascending order, and the middle value is picked. For example, the

median from the sample set from the population indicates the level of response to the

contaminant rated on a scale from 1–20 is 9.

d. Standard Deviation.

To calculate the standard deviation, the mean is first calculated and then subtracted from

each number, after which the results are squared. Afterward, the average of those squared means

will be calculated. To find the standard deviation, one needs to find the value of the result’s

square root. The standard deviation measures how numbers are spread from the mean. It
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calculated by getting the square root of the variance, which is the average of the squared

differences from the mean. From the given data, the standard deviation was found to be 2.7

benzene micro-organisms.

QUESTION FOUR:

The Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) Pesticide

Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) was synthesized more than 130 years (1874) ago by

the German O. Zeidler and relegated to oblivion (Rossi et al., 2017). The pesticide was used for

the rapid elimination of the potato beetle, responsible for huge losses until then. Also, it helped

armies in missions that had difficult conditions maintain their operations by preserving them

from malaria and typhus, among other infections. For instance, in 1944, Naples suffered a

serious typhus epidemic, and by literally applying DDT to all Neapolitans, the epidemic was

radically cut off (Rossi et al., 2017).

Some of the benefits of DDT is that it allowed an increase in the quality of life, crops were

protected, and it was estimated that more than a million people were saved each year. Malaria

data affecting 75 million people in 1952 was frequently used in India, and after the massive use

of DDT, it was only around 100,000 cases (Rossi et al., 2017).

When moving in the environment, DDT is slow to degradation since it is very poorly soluble

in water, and if it is soluble in fat, it accumulates in organisms in the food chain. That is why

much more accumulates in insects than in plants, but in insect predators, the accumulation

increases progressively. It has been estimated that in the food chain, it could accumulate for

more than 100 years, which would allow us to deduce that in the 1970s, more than 500,000 tons

remained active on our planet DDT (Rossi et al., 2017).

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The effects were soon demonstrated; some populations of birds and other animals began to

be negatively affected. The resistance of insects to these pesticides increased, and through the

food chain, it reached man, discussing its carcinogenic effects, and decreased fertility.

Furthermore, by a chemical-physical mechanism, the volatile components pass into the

atmosphere from the hottest areas of the globe, condensing in the colder regions and depositing

on vegetation, soil, and watery surfaces.

QUESTION FIVE:

Chlorofluorocarbons Pollutant

Contamination is the presence of foreign substances in places where they should not be while

pollution is the contamination, which leads to an adverse effect on the environment. It should be

noted that not all contaminants are pollutants, but all pollutants are contaminants. One specific

environmental pollutant is Chlorofluorocarbons (CFC). Chlorofluorocarbons pollutant was

introduced and transferred throughout the environment when it began being produced by various

North American industries since 1930 and were believed to be the ideal compounds since they

contain carbon and halogen, they are not flammable, they are used for extinguishers

(Gupta, Shah & Mishra, 2018). Besides, they are very stable, and therefore it was believed that

they did not react or produce other undesirable products.

However, in the presence of ultraviolet radiation, chlorofluorocarbons are reactive and

damage the ozone layer, which eventually affects the environment. The mechanism for the

reaction that alters the ozone layer involves exposing the substances to radiation, dissociating to

form two radicals, atomic chlorine and the rest of the parent compound, and the chain reaction

that destroys ozone.

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The depletion of the Ozone layer leads to the increased conversion of ultraviolet radiation

to heat by this process is the largest in the upper stratosphere, where the intensity of the radiation

is also higher. It decreases at lower stratospheric altitudes as the radiation intensity decreases,

and the ozone concentration decreases. The great environmental risk of ultraviolet radiation on

human, animal, or plant life is that the great intensity and power of ultraviolet radiation can

darken, dry and age the skin, cause ulcers, and cause tissue cancer.

Radiation can also damage and alter the key units of deoxyribribonocleic acid DNA,

which contains the genetic information essential for the perpetual reproduction of the life of

species. Excessive exposure to ultraviolet radiation can cause mutations, skin cancer, and

damage to the eyes. Therefore, bathers are recommended not to expose themselves to long

periods of sun exposure.

QUESTION SIX:

Naphthalene Toxicant

The most common occupational toxicant in the past 6 months or even more, is naphthalene.

This substance is produced by burning of crude oil, cigarettes and coal since it is a polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbon. Besides naphthalene, which can still be found in commercial

establishments, is the product traditionally used for the prevention of moths and other insects in

closets and boxes with clothes.

The substance has a very strong and unpleasant odor, and it is additionally irritating to the

eyes and mucous membranes, becoming toxic due to irritation of the respiratory tract in sensitive

people. It is also not very ecological because its aromatic cycles do not break down easily, and

there is danger of a child or pet swallowing one of the balls.

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The substance can use the nasal paths or skin contact to enter the body since it has a very

high penetration power. Some of the symptoms of the person who has inhaled naphthalene are

confusion, restlessness, headache, excessive sweating, as well as vomiting and diarrhea.

Naphthalene intoxication can be prevented through wearing personal protective gear when

handling the substance as well as ensuring that there is proper ventilation in the working places

which will aid effective air circulation.

QUESTION SEVEN:

Factors That Can Affect the Distribution of a Toxicant in The Body

The factors that affect the distribution of a toxicant in the body include the physicochemical

characteristics of the compound, physical characteristics of the body’s presentation. Other factors

are whether the toxicant is fat-soluble or water-soluble nature, its solubility in biological fluids,

the route of penetration, and the duration of the exposure.

Once absorption has taken place, the blood distributes the toxin throughout the body. It is

rapidly distributed to tissues with high blood flow, including lung, kidney, brain, liver, and at the

same time, it reaches the smaller flow compartments such as the muscles and, more slowly, the

adipose and bone tissue. The substances are distributed either homogeneously or selectively,

since there may be tissues with a different affinity for the toxin. The toxins can accumulate in the

tissues with the highest affinity, which may or may not coincide with the place where they exert

their toxic action.

Accumulation is capable of prolonging the toxic effects after exposure ceases due to the

progressive release of the accumulated product since the accumulated toxic is in equilibrium

with the plasma toxic and is released as it is metabolized or excreted. This accumulation can
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increase the residence time of the toxin in the body. The residence time is given by its biological

half-life, which is necessary for the toxic concentration to be reduced by half.

If the toxicant is soluble in blood fluid such as plasm, it will also spread quickly in the

affected person’s body since blood circulation is quicker than other substances. It should also be

noted that substances inhaled tend to use blood for circulation, which makes them more

dangerous than those in which one comes into contact with. Also, if the body is very active, the

toxicants tend to spread faster due to increased metabolism, and some of them get excreted by

the body mechanism quickly.

QUESTION EIGHT:

Using Hair in Testing Alcohol Toxicity

One of the great advantages of hair compared to other more traditional matrices, such as

blood and urine, is obtaining a chronological profile of consumption, in this case of alcohol,

which is achieved by fragmenting the lock of hair into length segments known and analyzed

separately. However, in order to extrapolate the concentrations obtained in the different segments

with the corresponding consumption period, it is necessary to know the growth rate of the hair,

which does not grow homogeneously, but rather alternate periods of active growth and rest,

which are reflected in three well-known phrases such as anagen, catagen, and telogen.

The growth rate is not the same in all the individuals either, but the values oscillate between

0.07 and 0.78 mm / day with an average between 0.32 and 0.46 mm / day (Greim &

Snyder, 2018), giving the circumstance that the authors applied different values to establish

monthly growth. To avoid all controversy and especially for an official, court-acceptable stance,

the Society of Hair Testing recommended that, for the interpretation of hair analyzes in forensic

cases, speed of hair growth of 1cm / month (Greim & Snyder, 2018). So far, there is not much-
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published literature on the possibility of establishing the chronological profile of alcohol

consumption by sequential analysis of EtG in hair. However, all conclude that there is a

correlation between the pattern of consumption and the concentrations in the different segments.

Greim and Snyder (2018) performed a segmental analysis of EtG on hair samples obtained

from 15 patients who entered a detoxification program and compared it with their histories of

alcohol consumption, noting, in all cases, that the onset of withdrawal coincides with a decrease

in the concentration of EtG in the proximal segments and those previous withdrawal periods,

before any relapse, led to a decrease in the concentrations of the corresponding segments. This

experiment demonstrates that the sequential determination of EtG in hair samples provides us

with information about the different histories of alcohol consumption.

QUESTION NINE:

Processes Used by The Body to Eliminate A Toxicant

Excretion is the process the body uses to eliminate toxic substances or their metabolites. The

most important route of excretion of volatile compounds in the lung and for non-volatile

compounds, the kidney, the bile, or the digestive. Volatile compounds pass from the blood into

the alveolar air and are excreted together with the exhaled air. Therefore, the elimination of these

compounds increases with the blood flow and with the respiratory rate. Much of the particles are

retained by filtration in the nostrils, eliminated through the nasal mucosa.

The particles deposited in the pharyngeal mucosa, trachea, and bronchi are transported by the

epithelial cilia and later expectorated or swallowed, which will enable the absorption of the toxin

in the gastrointestinal tract. The particles deposited in the bronchioles or alveoli may, with more

difficulty, be transported to the ciliated area, or they will be phagocytosed by macrophages and
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transported to the lymphatic vessels, some of these particles will simply remain in the lung, thus

favoring the subsequent appearance of an injury.

The kidneys' essential function is to filter the blood and to eliminate poisonous or metabolite

poles and water-soluble poisons from lipophilic poisons circulating in the bloodstream (Greim &

Snyder, 2018). Toxic substances passing through the liver enter the bloodstream, accumulate in

it, or are excreted in the bile and eliminated in the faces. The toxins that enter the bloodstream,

deposit in the target organs, are eliminated or continue to recirculate through the bloodstream

until they reach the liver again to undergo successive transformations. Another way to eliminate

toxins from the body is by excreting them dissolved in sweat. Excretion by Bushels Some toxins

can be eliminated by nails or hair. This type of excretion can be hindered in case there is massive

kidney failure. This will lead to the body accumulating toxicants and poisoning of the blood,

which eventually leads to death.

QUESTION TEN:

Three Systems of The Body in Which Toxicants Can Enter

One of the entry points of these toxicants is through the breathing system of the body. It is

the most frequent and most important in occupational toxicology. Besides, it is also the fastest, at

least for gases and vapors, since the toxic once it reaches the pulmonary alveoli have to cross the

alveolar-capillary epithelium, which is a very thin membrane with a large surface area. Gases

and vapors are easily absorbed by diffusion, especially when it comes to fat-soluble compounds.

Digestive system another route the toxins use to the enter the body. Occupational poisonings

by mouth are generally associated with improper work practices, by accidental ingestion of

substances, such as by pipetting with the mouth, smoking, eating, drinking in the laboratory, and

storing food or drinks in refrigerators next to chemicals (Beilmann, 2018). The toxins enter
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through the oral cavity and except for exceptions in which it can be absorbed by it (nicotine),

they are absorbed by the gastrointestinal tract, passing from here to the liver, in this first passage

of the toxic by the main laboratory of the organism, where it will undergo the first

transformation, subsequently passing into the bloodstream, into bile or accumulating in it.

The third system that could be used by toxicants to enter the body is the skin. Under

normal circumstances, when protective clothing is not used, the skin is the first line of defense

against the environment. The skin is not very permeable. However, some toxins can be absorbed

through the skin in sufficient quantity to produce effects on other organs. For example, carbon

tetrachloride can be absorbed through the skin and cause liver damage. Also, many pesticides

have affected serious damage through its absorption by the skin. Contrary to what happens in

other absorption routes, the poison needs to cross several layers of cells to reach the blood, of

which the determinant is the epidermis and within it the stratum corneum, which is a dry and

keratinized layer. Non-polar substances pass through the skin more easily than polar ones, and

their passage is proportional to their fat solubility and inversely proportional to their size.
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References

Beilmann, M. (2018). Optimizing drug discovery by investigative toxicology: Current and future

trends. ALTEX. https://doi.org/10.14573/altex.1808181

Greim, H., & Snyder, R. (2018). Introduction to the discipline of toxicology. Toxicology and

Risk Assessment, 1-19. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119135944.ch1

Gupta, J. K., Shah, K., & Mishra, P. (2018). Environmental pollutants and aggressive climatic

Conditions:Combination scaffolds of brain stroke. Current Science, 114(10), 2034.

https://doi.org/10.18520/cs/v114/i10/2034-2038

Rossi, M., Taddei, A. R., Fasciani, I., Maggio, R., & Giorgi, F. (2017). The cell biology of the

thyroid-disrupting mechanism of dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT). Journal of

Endocrinological Investigation, 41(1), 67-73. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40618-017-0716-9