Sunteți pe pagina 1din 5

Industry in Chemistry

Main article: Chemical industry


The chemical industry represents an important economic activity worldwide. The global top 50
chemical producers in 2013 had sales of US$980.5 billion with a profit margin of 10.3%.[75]

Professional societies
 American Chemical Society
 American Society for Neurochemistry
 Chemical Institute of Canada
 Chemical Society of Peru
 International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry
 Royal Australian Chemical Institute
 Royal Netherlands Chemical Society
 Royal Society of Chemistry
 Society of Chemical Industry
 World Association of Theoretical and Computational Chemists
 List of chemistry societies

See also

 Chemistry portal

 Science portal

 Comparison of software for molecular mechanics modeling


 Glossary of chemistry terms
 International Year of Chemistry
 List of chemists
 List of compounds
 List of important publications in chemistry
 List of unsolved problems in chemistry
 Outline of chemistry
 Periodic systems of small molecules
 Philosophy of chemistry
 Science tourism

References
1. ^ "What is Chemistry?". Chemweb.ucc.ie. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
2. ^ Chemistry. (n.d.). Merriam-Webster's Medical Dictionary. Retrieved August 19, 2007.
3. ^ Carsten Reinhardt. Chemical Sciences in the 20th Century: Bridging Boundaries. Wiley-
VCH, 2001. ISBN 3-527-30271-9. pp. 1–2.
4. ^ Theodore L. Brown, H. Eugene Lemay, Bruce Edward Bursten, H. Lemay. Chemistry: The
Central Science. Prentice Hall; 8 edition (1999). ISBN 0-13-010310-1. pp. 3–4.
5. ^ "History of Alchemy". Alchemy Lab. Retrieved  2011-06-12.
6. ^ Strathern, P. (2000). Mendeleyev's Dream – the Quest for the Elements. New York: Berkley
Books.
7. ^ Jump up to:a b "alchemy", entry in The Oxford English Dictionary, J.A. Simpson and E.S.C.
Weiner, vol. 1, 2nd ed., 1989, ISBN 0-19-861213-3.
8. ^ p. 854, "Arabic alchemy", Georges C. Anawati, pp. 853–885 in Encyclopedia of the history
of Arabic science, eds. Roshdi Rashed and Régis Morelon, London: Routledge, 1996, vol. 3, ISBN 0-
415-12412-3.
9. ^ Weekley, Ernest (1967). Etymological Dictionary of Modern English. New York: Dover
Publications. ISBN 0-486-21873-2
10. ^ "chemical bonding". Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved  1 November  2012.
11. ^ Matter: Atoms from Democritus to Dalton by Anthony Carpi, Ph.D.
12. ^ IUPAC Gold Book Definition
13. ^ "California Occupational Guide Number 22: Chemists". Calmis.ca.gov. 1999-10-29.
Archived from  the original on 2011-06-10. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
14. ^ "General Chemistry Online – Companion Notes: Matter". Antoine.frostburg.edu.
Retrieved 2011-06-12.
15. ^ Armstrong, James (2012). General, Organic, and Biochemistry: An Applied
Approach.  Brooks/Cole. p.  48. ISBN 978-0-534-49349-3.
16. ^ Burrows et al. 2008, p. 13.
17. ^ Jump up to:a b Housecroft & Sharpe 2008, p. 2.
18. ^ Burrows et al. 2009, p. 110.
19. ^ Burrows et al. 2008, p. 12.
20. ^ "IUPAC Nomenclature of Organic Chemistry". Acdlabs.com. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
21. ^ Connelly, Neil G.; Damhus, Ture; Hartshorn, Richard M.;  Hutton, Alan
T. (2005).  Nomenclature of Inorganic Chemistry IUPAC Recommendations 2005. RSCPublishing.
pp.  5–12. ISBN 978-0-85404-438-2.
22. ^ Hill, J.W.; Petrucci, R.H.; McCreary, T.W.; Perry, S.S. (2005).  General Chemistry (4th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Pearson Prentice Hall. p.  37.
23. ^ M.M. Avedesian; Hugh Baker.  Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys. ASM International.
p. 59.
24. ^ Burrows et al. 2008, p. 16.
25. ^ Atkins & de Paula 2009, p. 9.
26. ^ Visionlearning.  "Chemical Bonding by Anthony Carpi, Ph". visionlearning. Retrieved  2011-
06-12.
27. ^ Reilly, Michael. (2007). Mechanical force induces chemical reaction, NewScientist.com
news service, Reilly
28. ^ Changing States of Matter – Chemforkids.com
29. ^ Chemical Reaction Equation – IUPAC Goldbook
30. ^ Gold Book Chemical Reaction IUPAC Goldbook
31. ^ "The Lewis Acid-Base Concept". Apsidium. May 19, 2003. Archived from  the originalon
2008-05-27. Retrieved 2010-07-31.[unreliable source?]
32. ^ "History of Acidity". Bbc.co.uk. 2004-05-27. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
33. ^ Selected Classic Papers from the History of Chemistry
34. ^ Boyle, Robert (1661).  The Sceptical Chymist. New York: Dover Publications, Inc.
(reprint).  ISBN  978-0-486-42825-3.
35. ^ Glaser, Christopher (1663). Traite de la chymie. Paris. as found in: Kim, Mi Gyung
(2003).  Affinity, That Elusive Dream – A Genealogy of the Chemical Revolution. The MIT
Press. ISBN 978-0-262-11273-4.
36. ^ Stahl, George, E. (1730). Philosophical Principles of Universal Chemistry. London.
37. ^ Dumas, J.B. (1837). 'Affinite' (lecture notes), vii, p 4. "Statique chimique", Paris: Académie
des Sciences
38. ^ Pauling, Linus (1947). General Chemistry. Dover Publications, Inc.  ISBN  978-0-486-65622-
9.
39. ^ Chang, Raymond (1998).  Chemistry, 6th Ed. New York: McGraw Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-
115221-1.
40. ^ First chemists, February 13, 1999, New Scientist
41. ^ Barnes, Ruth (2004).  Textiles in Indian Ocean Societies. Routledge. p. 1.
42. ^ Lucretius (50 BCE).  "de Rerum Natura (On the Nature of Things)".  The Internet Classics
Archive. Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Retrieved  9 January  2007. Check date values in: |
date= (help)
43. ^ Simpson, David (29 June 2005). "Lucretius (c. 99–55 BCE)". The Internet History of
Philosophy. Retrieved  2007-01-09.
44. ^ Strodach, George K. (2012). The Art of Happiness. New York: Penguin Classics. pp. 7–
8. ISBN 978-0-14-310721-7.
45. ^ Fr. 12; see pp.291–2 of Kirk, G. S.; J. E. Raven; Malcolm Schofield (1983).  The Presocratic
Philosophers  (2 ed.). Cambridge:  Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-27455-5.
46. ^ Long, A. A.; D. N. Sedley (1987). "Epicureanism: The principals of conservation". The
Hellenistic Philosophers. Vol 1: Translations of the principal sources with philosophical commentary.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.  25–26.  ISBN  978-0-521-27556-9.
47. ^ "International Year of Chemistry – The History of Chemistry". G.I.T. Laboratory Journal
Europe. Feb 25, 2011. Retrieved March 12, 2013.
48. ^ Bryan H. Bunch & Alexander Hellemans (2004).  The History of Science and Technology.
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 88.  ISBN  978-0-618-22123-3.
49. ^ Morris Kline (1985) Mathematics for the nonmathematician. Courier Dover Publications. p.
284. ISBN 0-486-24823-2
50. ^ Marcelin Berthelot, Collection des anciens alchimistes grecs (3 vol., Paris, 1887–1888, p.
161); F. Sherwood Taylor, "The Origins of Greek Alchemy," Ambix 1 (1937), 40.
51. ^ Derewenda, Zygmunt S.; Derewenda, ZS (2007).  "On wine, chirality and
crystallography".  Acta Crystallographica Section A. 64 (Pt 1): 246–258
[247].  Bibcode:2008AcCrA..64..246D.  doi:10.1107/S0108767307054293.  PMID  18156689.
52. ^ John Warren (2005). "War and the Cultural Heritage of Iraq: a sadly mismanaged
affair", Third World Quarterly, Volume 26, Issue 4 & 5, pp. 815–830.
53. ^ Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), Jâbir ibn Hayyân (Geber)
54. ^ Paul Vallely, How Islamic inventors changed the world, The Independent, 10 March 2006
55. ^ Kraus, Paul, Jâbir ibn Hayyân, Contribution à l'histoire des idées scientifiques dans l'Islam.
I. Le corpus des écrits jâbiriens. II. Jâbir et la science grecque,. Cairo (1942–1943). Repr. By Fuat
Sezgin, (Natural Sciences in Islam. 67–68), Frankfurt. 2002:
"To form an idea of the historical place of Jabir's alchemy and to tackle the problem of its sources, it is
advisable to compare it with what remains to us of the alchemical literature in the Greek language.
One knows in which miserable state this literature reached us. Collected by Byzantine scientistsfrom
the tenth century, the corpus of the Greek alchemists is a cluster of incoherent fragments, going back
to all the times since the third century until the end of the Middle Ages."
"The efforts of Berthelot and Ruelle to put a little order in this mass of literature led only to poor
results, and the later researchers, among them in particular Mrs. Hammer-Jensen, Tannery,
Lagercrantz, von Lippmann, Reitzenstein, Ruska, Bidez, Festugiere and others, could make clear only
few points of detail…
The study of the Greek alchemists is not very encouraging. An even surface examination of the Greek
texts shows that a very small part only was organized according to true experiments of laboratory:
even the supposedly technical writings, in the state where we find them today, are unintelligible
nonsense which refuses any interpretation.
It is different with Jabir's alchemy. The relatively clear description of the processes and the alchemical
apparatuses, the methodical classification of the substances, mark an experimental spirit which is
extremely far away from the weird and odd esotericism of the Greek texts. The theory on which Jabir
supports his operations is one of clearness and of an impressive unity. More than with the other Arab
authors, one notes with him a balance between theoretical teaching and practical teaching, between
the `ilm and the `amal. In vain one would seek in the Greek texts a work as systematic as that which is
presented for example in the Book of Seventy."
(cf. Ahmad Y Hassan. "A Critical Reassessment of the Geber Problem: Part Three". Archived
from  the original on 2008-11-20. Retrieved 2008-08-09.)

56. ^ Will Durant (1980). The Age of Faith (The Story of Civilization, Volume 4), p. 162-186.
Simon & Schuster. ISBN 0-671-01200-2.
57. ^ Ragai, Jehane (1992). "The Philosopher's Stone: Alchemy and Chemistry". Journal of
Comparative Poetics.  12  (Metaphor and Allegory in the Middle Ages): 58–
77.  doi:10.2307/521636. JSTOR 521636.
58. ^ Holmyard, E. J. (1924). "Maslama al-Majriti and the Rutbatu'l-Hakim". Isis.  6 (3): 293–
305.  doi:10.1086/358238.
59. ^ Marmura, Michael E.; Nasr, Seyyed Hossein (1965). "An Introduction to Islamic
Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-
Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina  by Seyyed Hossein Nasr". Speculum.  40  (4): 744–
746.  doi:10.2307/2851429.  JSTOR  2851429.
60. ^ Robert Briffault (1938). The Making of Humanity, pp. 196–197.
61. ^ "Robert Boyle, Founder of Modern Chemistry" Harry Sootin (2011)
62. ^ "History – Robert Boyle (1627–1691)". BBC. Retrieved 2011-06-12.
63. ^ Eagle, Cassandra T.; Jennifer Sloan (1998). "Marie Anne Paulze Lavoisier: The Mother of
Modern Chemistry". The Chemical Educator.  3 (5): 1–18.  doi:10.1007/s00897980249a.
64. ^ Mi Gyung Kim (2003).  Affinity, that Elusive Dream: A Genealogy of the Chemical
Revolution. MIT Press. p.  440. ISBN 978-0-262-11273-4.
65. ^ Davy, Humphry (1808).  "On some new Phenomena of Chemical Changes produced by
Electricity, particularly the Decomposition of the fixed Alkalies, and the Exhibition of the new
Substances, which constitute their Bases".  Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society.  98: 1–
45.  doi:10.1098/rstl.1808.0001.
66. ^ Chemistry 412 course notes. "A Brief History of the Development of Periodic Table".
Western Oregon University. Retrieved  July 20,  2015.
67. ^ Note: "...it is surely true that had Mendeleev never lived modern chemists would be using a
Periodic Table" and "Dmitri Mendeleev". Royal Society of Chemistry. Retrieved July 18, 2015.
68. ^ Winter, Mark.  "WebElements: the periodic table on the web". The University of
Sheffield.  Archived  from the original on January 4, 2014. Retrieved  January 27,  2014.
69. ^ "Julius Lothar Meyer and Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev". Science History Institute. June
2016. Retrieved  March 20,  2018.
70. ^ "What makes these family likenesses among the elements? In the 1860s everyone was
scratching their heads about that, and several scientists moved towards rather similar answers. The
man who solved the problem most triumphantly was a young Russian called Dmitri Ivanovich
Mendeleev, who visited the salt mine at Wieliczka in 1859." Bronowski, Jacob (1973). The Ascent of
Man. Little, Brown and Company. p. 322.  ISBN  978-0-316-10930-7.
71. ^ "Chemistry". Chemistry2011.org. Archived from the original  on 2011-10-08.
Retrieved 2012-03-10.
72. ^ Ihde, Aaron John (1984).  The Development of Modern Chemistry. Courier Dover
Publications. p. 164.  ISBN  978-0-486-64235-2.
73. ^ W.G. Laidlaw; D.E. Ryan And Gary Horlick; H.C. Clark, Josef Takats, And Martin Cowie;
R.U. Lemieux (1986-12-10). "Chemistry Subdisciplines".  The Canadian Encyclopedia.
Retrieved 2011-06-12.
74. ^ Herbst, Eric (May 12, 2005). "Chemistry of Star-Forming Regions". Journal of Physical
Chemistry A.  109  (18): 4017–
4029.  Bibcode:2005JPCA..109.4017H.  doi:10.1021/jp050461c.  PMID  16833724.
75. ^ Tullo, Alexander H. (28 July 2014).  "C&EN's Global Top 50 Chemical Firms For
2014". Chemical & Engineering News. American Chemical Society. Retrieved  22 August 2014.

Bibliography
 Atkins, Peter; de Paula, Julio (2009) [1992]. Elements of Physical Chemistry (5th ed.). New
York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-922672-6.
 Burrows, Andrew; Holman, John; Parsons, Andrew; Pilling, Gwen; Price, Gareth
(2009). Chemistry3. Italy: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927789-6.
 Housecroft, Catherine E.; Sharpe, Alan G. (2008) [2001]. Inorganic Chemistry (3rd ed.).
Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education. ISBN 978-0-13-175553-6.

S-ar putea să vă placă și