EARTH SCIENCE DISCUSSION

Geology
 The science that considers the history of the earth, as recorded in rocks.

MINERALS AND ROCKS

Mineral crystals can form in two main ways

 From stuff
dissolved in liquids
(Evaporation & Hot Water)
 From Cooling molten material

Minerals & Crystals from Magma

& Lava
 Minerals form from hot magma as it cools inside the crust, or as lava cools on the surface.
 When these liquids cool to a solid, they form crystals (minerals).
 Size of the crystal depends on time it takes to freeze into a solid.
 “Extrusive” Cooling:
Lava cools Fast
(Short Time = Small Crystals)
 “Intrusive” Cooling:
Magma cools slowly
(Long Time = Large Crystals)

TERMINOLOGY

Mineral
 is defined as naturally-occurring, inorganic solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered internal
structure.

Naturally-occurring
 minerals exist naturally. Steel and synthetic diamonds are created artificially, and therefore, are not minerals.

Inorganic
 minerals are limited to substances formed through inorganic process, and exclude materials derived from living
organisms which involved organic process.

Solid
 all liquid and gases—even those that are naturally formed such as petroleum—are not considered minerals.

Definite chemical composition

 the chemical composition of minerals should express the exact chemical formula with the elements and compounds in
specific ratios.
Ordered internal structure
 the atoms in minerals are organized in regular, repetitive geometric patterns or crystals structure

COMPOSITION OF MINERALS

Silicates
 are composed primarily of silicon-oxygen tetrahedrons(SiO4-2).

Oxides
 consist of metal cations bonded to oxygen O2-.

Sulfides
 consist of metal cations bonded to sulfide S2-.

Sulfates
 consist of metal cations bonded to sulfate SO42- anionic group. They usually precipitate out of water near Earth’s
surface.

Halides
 are composed of halogen ions, such as Cl- Chlorine or F- fluorine, which forms rock salt NaCl and fluorite CaF2.

Carbonates
 are characterized by the presence of carbonic ions CO32-
Native metals
 consist of a single metal such as copper and gold.

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE OF MINERALS

Six Crystal System

 Monoclinic
 Triclinic
 Isometric
 Orthorhombic
 Tetragonal
 Hexagonal

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS

Cleavage
 The tendency of a mineral to break along planes. Minerals
with excellent cleavage will break into smooth, flat, parallel surface.

Fracture
 is the texture and shape of a rock's surface formed. is the tendency of a mineral to break along curved surfaces without
a definite shape. These minerals do not have planes of weakness and break irregularly.
Luster
 describes appearance of light as it is reflected off its surface.

Color and Streak

 The streak of a mineral is the color it displays in finely powdered form. The streak maybe completely different from
the color of the hand specimen. One of the simplest ways of determining the streak of a mineral is to rub a specimen
across a piece of unglazed porcelain known as a streak plate.

Hardness
 The hardness of minerals is a measurement of the strength of the chemical bonds in its structure. It can be measured
by scratching it with another mineral or a reference material with known hardness.

Density
 Specific gravity is a measurement of the density of a mineral. It is the weight of a minerals relative to the weight of an
equal volume of water.

FORMATION OF IGNEOUS ROCKS

 are formed from the cooling and solidification of magma or lava
 the word “igneous” is derived from Latin “igneus” means “fiery” or on “fire”

WAYS IGNEOUS ROCKS FORM

Below the surface

 from slowly cooling magma—this results in the formation of crystals that are visible to naked eye. These type is
called intrusive or plutonic, since they cool underneath.

On the surface
 from rapid cooling lava--this results in the formation very small crystals that may not be visible without the use of
magnifying lens.

FORMATION OF SEDIMENTARY ROCKS

 Sedimentary rocks are products of lithification of particles produced by the weathering of other pre-existing rocks.
Lithification
process in which sediments compact under pressure, expel fluids, and gradually become solid rock.

Sediments
 older igneous rocks  mineral fragments
 metamorphic rocks  organic material
 sedimentary rocks  minerals that precipitate
from solution

FORMATION OF METAMORPHIC ROCKS

Metamorphic rocks
 form when pre-existing or parent rocks (igneous, sedimentary, even metamorphic) are altered by heat, pressure and
the chemical activity of fluids.
Metamorphism meaning change in form
 Metamorphism usually occurs underneath the surface, but not as deep as the igneous rocks

 foliated metamorphic rocks results in a layered or banded appearance in the rocks

 non foliated results in rocks like marble and quartzite
 regional metamorphism tectonic process involved produces mountain chain

ORE
 are naturally-occurring materials that can be probably mined.
 It can be:
 Mineral
 Rock
 Metallic
 Non metallic

DEPOSIT
 is considered a potential ore body if its localized abundance is greater than its average abundance or distribution on
Earth’s crust.

GOOD ORE
 Not too expensive to mine
 Not too far to a market to transport
 if the additional costs (labor, mine management, and environment protection) outweigh the potential profit to be
made.

LOCATING ORE
 Hydrothermal fluid circulation
 most common type of ore mineral deposition process
 forms when groundwater or seawater is heated by magma or when hot aqueous solutions an expelled from
cooling plutonic body.