Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Materials Today Communications

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/mtcomm

Impact resistance of fiber reinforced sandwich-structured nonwoven T

composites: Reinforcing effect of different fiber length
Ting Ru Lina, Ting An Linb, Mei-Chen Linb, Yan-Yu Lina, Ching-Wen Louc,d,e,f,g,*,
Jia-Horng Line,f,g,h,i,j,k,*
a
Laboratory of Fiber Application and Manufacturing, Department of Fiber and Composite Materials, Feng Chia University, Taichung 40724, Taiwan
b
Department of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Medicine, Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Nagano Prefecture 390-8621, Japan
c
Department of Bioinformatics and Medical Engineering, Asia University, Taichung 41354, Taiwan
d
Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
e
Fujian Key Laboratory of Novel Functional Textile Fibers and Materials, Minjiang University, Fuzhou 350108, China
f
Innovation Platform of Intelligent and Energy-Saving Textiles, School of Textiles, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China
g
College of Textile and Clothing, Qingdao University, Shangdong 266071, China
h
School of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
i
Department of Fiber and Composite Materials, Feng Chia University, Taichung 40724, Taiwan
j
Department of Fashion Design, Asia University, Taichung City 41354, Taiwan
k
Tianjin and Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Advanced Textile Composite Materials, Tiangong University, Tianjin 300387, China

A R T I C LE I N FO A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Apart from the main function of stab resistance, personal protective equipment is required to be comfortable,
High-strength polyester filaments flexible, and light weighted and as such to prevent soldiers and police officers from the danger caused by a long-
High-strength polyester staple fibers term use and accidents. The stab resistance is dependent on the structure formed of different materials and
Heat treatment processes majorly, and therefore this study proposes sandwich-structured composites using high-strength
Sandwich composites
polyester staple fibers (S-type) and high strength polyester filaments (F-type) that have differing characteristics
Personal protective equipment
by means of the nonwoven process. First, recycled Kevlar® fibers, nylon fibers, and low-melting-point polyester
fibers are processed, thereby forming the surface and bottom layers. In addition, the needle punching process
and heat treatment are performed with the aim of combining high strength polyester filaments or staple fibers as
the interlayer. Next, the differences in the fiber structure and damage modes of sandwich composites are ex-
amined in terms of the interlayer type (i.e. S- and F-type) by conducting the quasi-static stab resistance testing
and SEM/FE-SEM observations, respectively. The test results indicate that the S-type sandwich composites
outperform the F-type sandwich composites in terms of absorbing the puncture, and the stab resistance is 415 N
for S 300e13 group. However, the S-type sandwich composites have the potential to develop personal protective
equipment by virtue of a light weight and being comfortable provided by filaments.

1. Introduction and stiff types [6].Flexible personal protective equipment is usually

Because the gun laws are almost perfect, soldiers and the police are
less threatened by the danger of gun shots in the advanced society [1].
With a principal consideration of stab resistance, personal protective
equipment also needs comfortable texture, flexibility, and a light
weight to achieve the optimal performance [2,3]. The stab and punc-
ture wounds are respectively rendered by sharp weapons of a knife and
a spike in a perpendicular direction. The prevention is difficult [4] and
the failure modes are different [5]. In addition to the difference in the
weapons, personal protective equipment is also divided into flexible
composed of a multiple layers and weighs 4−5 kgs. By contrast, the
stiff type are made of stiff materials that provide personal protective
equipment with high mechanical properties [7].In recent years, many
studies apply matrices composed of high performance fibers, and im-
prove the manufacturing process to gain the puncture/stab resistance.
High performance fibers, such as Kevlar ®fibers and ultra-high mole-
cular weight polyethylene fibers, feature cut resistance and high tensile
strength and thus can be used in the protection field to improve the
heavy feature of personal protective equipment while contributing ex-
cellent performance to the bulletproof field [8–10]. Besides, many

⁎
Corresponding authors at: Fujian Key Laboratory of Novel Functional Textile Fibers and Materials, Minjiang University, Fuzhou 350108, China.
E-mail addresses: anyquestionx@mail.fcu.edu.tw (T.R. Lin), cwlou@asia.edu.tw (C.-W. Lou), jhlin@fcu.edu.tw (J.-H. Lin).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mtcomm.2020.101345
Received 19 April 2020; Received in revised form 21 May 2020; Accepted 5 June 2020
Available online 11 June 2020
2352-4928/ © 2020 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
T.R. Lin, et al.
studies also added silicon dioxide, metal ring mesh, and ceramic to high
performance fibers with an attempt to improve the puncture/stab re-
sistance [11,12]. Cheon et al. employed multi-layered lamination with
three types of high performance fibers and epoxy resin. The surface
layer composed of carbon fibers helped diminishing the damage area
while interlacing three types of high performance fibers provided op-
timal puncture/stab resistance [6]. Song et al. combined and changed
the lamination angles of carbon fibers, aramid fabrics, and glass fiber
fabrics. Afterward, epoxy resin was added in order to form composite
materials, the structure and lamination order of which were able to
adjust for greater mechanical properties [13]. Nayak et al. coated boron
carbide over aramid fabrics and bulletproof nylon fabrics. The coating
restricted the mobility of the warp and weft yarns of the fabrics, at-
taining stab resistance [14–16]. Guo et al. chose five polymers to
compare the stab resistance and failure modes, and both of the shear
strength and surface hardness have a great impact on the stab resistance
of polymers [7].
In addition to lamination and coating measures, composites with a
sandwich structure have been commonly used in the stab resistance
field [17–21]. Apart from a relatively higher specific strength and ri-
gidity, sandwich composites are also steady and bespoke. The interlayer
usually has a low intensity and a light weight and is responsible to
transmit the shear force between the lamination layers. The surface and
core layers need to be bonded firmly, and the stacking order of sand-
wich structure is the principal factor to absorb the impact energy
[22,23]. Sarasini et al. combined aramid fabrics and basalt woven
fabrics with a multi-layered sandwich structure, which better absorbed
the impact energy and hence demonstrated higher damage resistance
[23]. To sum up, different sandwich composites can be attained by a
wide range of combining different core materials, structures, and
manufacturing processes. The aforementioned interlayer in sandwich
composites requires a certain thickness to realize the effect. Besides, the
feasibility is compromised due to the use of epoxy resin, which makes
the products less flexible, less comfortable, and possibly cumbersome.
Accordingly, this study proposes composites with a sandwich structure.
Recycled Kevlar® fibers, nylon fibers, and low-melting-point polyester
fibers with a specified blending ratio undergo the nonwoven process,
which form the top and bottom layers. With regard to the interlayer,
high strength polyester filaments or staple fibers are used. High
strength polyester filaments that are processed with friction opening
beforehand are directly and regularly arranged in loops between the top
and bottom layer. In regard of high strength polyester staple fibers, they
are obtained from PET woven selvages and undergo the nonwoven
process to form nonwoven fabric, which is subsequently laminated
between the top and bottom layers otherwise. Despite the interlayer
type, the top layer, interlayer, and bottom layer are laminated, needle
punched and thermally treated in order to secure and stabilize the fiber
structure of the sandwich composites [24–26]. It is hoped that the se-
lected materials and differences in the processing parameters help
create light, comfortable, and stab resistant personal protective equip-
ment.
This study aims to apply two different interlayers as the reinforce-
ment to the mechanical properties of sandwich composites, and the
effects of interlayer type are examined using the quasi-static stab re-
sistance testing. At the same time, the test results also compare in terms
of the effects of the needle punching depth and the employment of heat
treatment. Finally, a stereomicroscope and an FE-SEM are employed to
observe the failure modes and in this regard the failure modes are then
discussed based on the relationship between the fiber structure and stab
resistance.
2. Experimental
2.1. Materials
There are various fiber materials used in this study and Table1 lists
2
Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345
the physical properties of the component materials.
2.2. Experimental procedure
As stated in the introduction, high performance fibers possess good
mechanical properties including tensile strength and cut-resistant.
Therefore, this study uses high performance fibers as matrices that are
combined with two other high strength core materials in order to
provide the sandwich-structured composites with different fiber types.
In this study, the sandwich-structured composites are composed of a top
and a bottom layers that are composed of Nylon fibers, recycled Kevlar®
fibers, and low-melting-point polyester (LMP) fibers at the ratio being
20/50/30 wt% employing the nonwoven process as Fig. 1 (A). Ac-
cording to our pilot study, a specified 30 wt% of LMPET fibers and
different Kevlar and nylon fibers have a synergistic effect in promoting
the mechanical properties. Nylon fibers and recycle Kevlar® fibers are
commonly used in the military and protection gear fields because of
good mechanical properties. Low-melting-point polyester (LMPET) fi-
bers have a sheath with a melting point of 140 °C and thus can be
melted to form hot bonding points by the employment of heat treat-
ment, which in turn strengthens mechanical properties considerably.
The use of LMPET fibers can stabilize the fiber structure and also pre-
vent the environmental pollution issue caused by using other adhesives.
Fig. 2 (A) shows the melting state of LMPET fibers where the adhesion
of LMPET fibers and other fibers is indicated by arrow 1. In addition,
arrow 2 indicates that the LMPET fibers before adhesion while arrow 3
indicates the two isolated fibers during the bonding process. LMPET
fibers are composed of polyethylene fibers as the sheath and the sheath
can be melted in order to bond other fibers. Fig. 2 (B) shows the
bonding structure.
Sandwich composites consist of top/bottom nonwoven layers and
two types of an interlayer. The interlayers can be divided into two
batches according to the constituent materials, either high strength
polyester filaments or high-strength polyester staple fibers. In one
batch, the filaments are first processed with friction opening with an
attempt to gain lamination uniformity, and then irregularly and circu-
larly aligned between the top/bottom layers as Fig. 1 (B). In the other
batch, high-strength polyester staple fibers are collected from the
woven salvages using an opening machine, and made into nonwoven
fabrics via the nonwoven process as Fig. 1 (C). Two types of interlayers
are separately combined with the top/bottom layers by needle
punching and heat treatment as Fig. 1(D). The employment of needle
punching process repeatedly moves the barbed needle plate upwards
and downwards, thereby attaining the physical bonding. In this study,
needle punching depth of 13 mm, 15 mm, and 17 mm are based on the
result of our previous study where the limit is 17 mm. Next, the heat
treatment melts the sheath of LMPET fibers in an airtight heat con-
vection oven at 140OC for twenty minutes, thereby generating hot
bonding points that reinforce the composite structure. Subsequently,
the S- and F-types of sandwich composites are acquired as Fig. 1 (E)
where S and F separately mean the constitutional material of interlayer
being staple fibers (S) and filaments (F). Moreover, the non-thermally
treated (N) batches are denoted as SN and FN otherwise. Samples are
trimmed into 100 mm × 100 mm squares for the conduction of quasi-
static stab resistance testing. Moreover, Table 2 shows the sample de-
notations.
2.3. Tests
2.3.1. Quasi-static stab resistance testing
This test is conducted as specified in the ASTM F1342−05 in which
a constant rate is used to measure the mechanical property. The test
standard does not regulate the sample size but requires the top and
bottom ends of a sample piece to affix with metallic rings. In this study,
sample size is 100 mm × 100 mm while the constant test rate is 508
mm/min.
T.R. Lin, et al. Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345

Table 1
Physical properties of the component materials.
Fiber Fineness Fiber Length Manufacturer

Constituent materials for top/bottom layers

Recycled Kevlar® Fiber (K) 1.5D 50 mm DuPont Company, USA
Nylon Fiber (N) 15 D 64 mm Formosa Chemicals & Fibre Corporation, Taiwan
Low-Melting-Point PET Fiber (LM) 4D 51 mm Huvis, Korea
Constituent materials for the core
High Strength Polyester Filament (F) 500D Universal Textile, Taiwan
High-Strength Polyester Staple Fiber (S) 1000 D 66 mm Chien Cehn Textile, Taiwan

Fig. 1. Diagram of manufacturing flow chart: (A) raw material, (B) high strength polyester filaments, (C) high-strength polyester staple fibers, (D) needle punching
process and heat treatment process, and (E) sandwich composites.

2.3.2. Sample observation 3. Results and discussion

A FE-SEM (S-4800, HITACHI, Japan) and a stereomicroscope (SMZ-
10A, Nikon Instruments Inc., Japan) are used to observe the structure
and failure modes of sandwich composites. When performing FE-SEM
observation, a sample is affixed to the platform tailored for SEM and
then observed for its morphology.
3.1. Quasi-static stab resistance testing
The quasi-static stab resistance testing and dynamic stab resistance
testing can be compared in terms of the failure modes and fiber types
based on the sample structure [27]. In this study, the quasi-static stab
resistance testing is used primarily for mechanical test with corre-
sponding stereomicroscopic and SEM images to analyze the structure.
According to Figs. 3 and 4, which are individually the load-

3
T.R. Lin, et al. Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345

Fig. 2. (A) the melting status of LMPET fibers and (B) the bonding structure with LMP and other fibers.

Table 2
Denotation of sandwich composites based on the needle punching depth and the type of interlayer.
Needle Punching Depth (mm) 13 15 17

Staple Fibers (S) With heat treatment S 300−13 S 300−15 S 300−17

Non heat treatment (SN) SN 300−13 SN 300−15 SN 300−17
Filaments (F) With heat treatment F 300−13 F 300−15 F 300−17
Non heat treatment (FN) FN 300−13 FN 300−15 FN 300−17

Fig. 3. The stab load-displacement of sandwich composites consisting of different interlayers and needle punched at a depth of (A) 13 mm, (B) 15 mm, or (C) 17 mm.

displacement curves and quasi-static stab resistance of sandwich com-
posites, the energy absorption differs with the variations in the inter-
layer and the needle punching depth as well as whether the heat
treatment being employed. S-type sandwich composites have lower stab
resistance when the needle punching depth is greater, but the opposite
is the case for the F-type sandwich composites. The maximal stab re-
sistance is 415 N for S 300−13 and 117.3 N for F 300−17. The em-
ployment of heat treatment improves the stab resistance when com-
paring S- and F-groups with SN- and FN-groups. LMPET fibers randomly
form the hot bonding points on the structure when being heated at
140OC, which in turn raises the fiber cohesion and stabilizes the
composite structure. Furthermore, different failure modes are pertinent
to the employment of heat treatment. Without heat treatment, SN- and
FN-type sandwich composites display a greater range of displacement
when being punctured by a die, and fibers bear a stress via being ex-
pelled and deformed until they are broken. As for the specified two
groups that receive hot treatment (i.e. S- and F-type), fibers exhibit low
mobility that benefits the friction, which enables the samples to bear a
higher force. On the other hand, the needle punching process can
provide the products with different mechanical properties via the ma-
chine parameters and fiber properties, fiber length, and fiber fineness
otherwise. High-strength polyester staple fibers and recycled Kevlar®

4
T.R. Lin, et al.
Fig. 4. The quasi-static stab resistance of sandwich composites consisting of
different interlayers as related to needle punching depth.
fibers, nylon fibers, and LMPET fibers have comparable fiber length,
which is reflected by a higher fiber cohesion that helps improving the
strength. Nonetheless, with an increasing needle punching depth, high-
strength polyester staple fibers are less capable of bearing a force due to
the fiber fineness. Conversely, featuring a smooth surface, high strength
polyester filaments are continuously and circularly aligned between the
nonwoven top and bottom layers. Hence, it requires a higher needle
punching depth to bond fibers and filaments so as to obtain strong fiber
cohesion. As a result, interlayers that consist of staple fibers or fila-
ments demonstrate different performances when the needle punching
depth varies.
Fig. 5. SEM and stereomicroscopic images of fractured sandwich composites consisting high-strength polyester staple fibers as the interlayer after the quasi-static
stab resistance testing where “1″ indicates the punched hole that is surrounded by fibers and “2″ indicates the fractured fibers.
5
Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345
3.2. Morphology observation
3.2.1. High-strength polyester staple fibers
Fig. 5 shows the SEM and stereomicroscopic images of fractured
sandwich composites consisting high-strength polyester staple fibers as
the interlayer after the quasi-static stab resistance testing. Based on the
punched hole in the quasi-static stab resistance testing, the failure
modes of S-type sandwich composites as related to the needle punching
depth are observed. A needle punching depth of 13 mm gives fibrilla-
tion to the proximity of the hole as Fig. 5 (A) and there are also distinct
presences of fibers surrounding the punched holes in Fig. 5 (B, C). The
result indicates that when the die penetrates the sample, fibers are
deformed directly by the stress, after which fibers surround the die and
are then broken in order to absorb the energy efficiently.
Sandwich composites made at a needle punching depth of 15 mm
(Fig. 5 ([D]) demonstrate less significant fiber breakage than a depth of
13 mm (Fig. 5 [A]), so the yielded failure mode is primarily fiber de-
formation and breakage (Fig. 5 [E, F]). When made at a needle
punching depth of 17 mm (Fig. 5 [G]), sandwich composites are ren-
dered with a greater punched hole size. Samples are needle punched at
a higher depth and fibers are thus compactly entangled. In this case,
fiber structure is prone to damage and thus samples have lower en-
durance against the stab force. Fig. 5 (H and I) clearly exhibit the
punched holes, fiber deformation, and fiber breakage.
3.2.2. High strength polyester filaments
After the quasi-static stab resistance testing, the failure modes of
sandwich composites can be evaluated based on the punched holes.
T.R. Lin, et al.
Fig. 6. SEM and stereomicroscopic images of fractured sandwich composites consisting high-strength polyester staple filaments as the interlayer after the quasi-static
stab resistance testing where “1″ indicates the punched hole that is surrounded by fibers, “2″ indicates the pulled out fibers, and “3″ indicates the fiber breakage.
When being needle punched at 13 mm, sandwich composites exhibit a
fluffy structure as SEM images in Fig. 6 (A, B, and C). When the die
penetrates the sample, fibers exhibit deformation in response to a stress,
and are then gathered in the proximity to the hole, which in turn di-
minishes the punched hole size. When being needle punched at 15 mm
as Fig. 6 (D, E, and F) and bearing a stress, sandwich composites have a
more compact fibrous structure, restricting the mobility of fibers. As a
result, fibers absorb the stab energy via deformation, pull out, and
breakage, the second of which is shown in Fig. 6 (F). Fig. 6 (G, H, and I)
show that a needle punching depth of 17 mm renders a looser structure
and a larger hole size than that of 13 mm as Fig. 6 (H). Fibers enter a
tense state when being needle punched at 17 mm, so it is difficult for
fibers to move or deform in response to the stress. Therefore, fibers are
directly pulled out and broken.
3.2.3. Failure modes
Fig. 7 shows the cutting sections of sandwich-structured composites
containing high-strength polyester filaments or high-strength polyester
staple fibers as the core as related to the needle punching depth. High-
strength polyester filaments are first processed with friction opening
and then irregularly and circularly aligned over the fabrics. None-
theless, there are still voids presented in the sandwiched structure so
the employment of needle punching process does not provide the fila-
ment-core group with a less neat cutting section than the staple-fiber-
core group. With comparable fiber length, nylon fibers, recycled
Kevlar® fibers, and LMPET fibers are made into the top and bottom
layers of sandwich-structured composites. When the top and bottom
layers are combined with staple fibers as the core, the resulting
6
Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345
composites thus exhibit a neat cutting section.
Fig. 8 (a and d) show the fractured sandwich composites consisting
of an interlayer being high-strength polyester staple fibers (i.e. S-type
sandwich composites) and high-strength polyester filaments (i.e. F-type
sandwich composites) as the after the testing. For F-group, filaments are
aligned non-directionally and exhibit fibrillation and fiber breakage.
Fig. 8 (b) shows that fibers display fiber deformation, distortion, and
fiber breakage as a result of enduring the stress. Fig. 8 (c) shows the
entangled points and thermally bonded points due to the needle
punching process and heat treatment, which is more commonly found
in S-type sandwich composites. The level of entanglement relates with
fiber length. The more similar the fiber length, the better the bonding
effect during the needle punching process. Either entangled points or
hot bonding points have a positive influence on the mechanical
strength, and a combination of both has a synergistic effect. Fig. 8 (d)
shows the SEM image of cutting section where filaments are tidy and
neat than that of randomly-arranged fibers in the nonwoven fabric.
Fig. 8 (e) shows that the hot bonding points are presented as a result of
employing the heat treatment. The results of quasi-static stab resistance
testing prove that the presence of hot bonding points can reinforce the
fiber structure and the mechanical strength. Fig. 8 (f) shows that the
entangled points caused by needle punching process are also one prime
factor to mechanical reinforcement of sandwich composites. It is rarely
seen in F-type sandwich composites because the filaments have a
smooth surface, making filaments prone to slip from other fibers and
thus gain a low cohesion level. To sum up, F-type sandwich composites
show lower stab resistance than S-type sandwich composites.
T.R. Lin, et al. Materials Today Communications 24 (2020) 101345

Fig. 7. Sectional views of sandwiched composites containing a core of (A) high-strength polyester filaments or (B) high-strength polyester staple fibers as related to
the needle punching depth.

Fig. 8. SEM images of fractured sandwich composites as related to the interlayer being high-strength polyester staple fibers or filaments.

7
T.R. Lin, et al.
4. Conclusions
In this study, the two types of interlayer of sandwich composites are
separately made of high-strength polyester staple fibers and filaments.
The resulting samples are referred as staple fiber (S-) and filament (F-)
type sandwich composites and demonstrate different failure modes
when absorbing the stab energy. The results of the quasi-static stab
resistance testing can be summarized as follows. Due to the sleek sur-
face of filaments, when being needle punched at a greater depth, S- and
F-type sandwich composites have different trend on stab resistance. The
maximal mechanical strength occurs at a needle punching depth being
13 mm for S-group and 17 mm for F- group. Regardless of whether it is
the S- or F-group, the mechanical strength is improved when heat
treatment is performed at 140OC for 20 min. Because the sheath of low-
melting-point polyester fibers is melted to bond with other fibers,
sandwich composites thus gain the reinforcement to fiber structure and
mechanical strength. Both types of sandwich composites exhibit fiber
deformation, fiber breakage, and fibrillation after the testing, but only
F-group has an extra phenomenon of fiber pull out, which is ascribed to
the difference in constituent materials and manufacturing design. In
addition, S-group is composed of three lamination layers that are well
bonded, which enables it to transfer the stress well and thus the SEM
images show that the fibers are distorted and deformed when being
exerted a stab force.
CRediT authorship contribution statement
Ting Ru Lin: Writing - original draft, Writing - review & editing.
Ting An Lin: Writing - review & editing. Mei-Chen Lin: Methodology.
Yan-Yu Lin: Methodology. Ching-Wen Lou: Conceptualization,
Supervision. Jia-Horng Lin: Resources.
Declaration of Competing Interest
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
ence the work reported in this paper.
Acknowledgements
The authors would especially like to thank Ministry of Science and
Technology of Taiwan, for financially supporting this research under
Contract MOST 108-2622-E-035-002-CC3, MOST 107-2221-E-035-052-
MY2, MOST 108-2221-E-468-017, and MOST 108-2622-E-468-003-
CC3.
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