Leather Technology I PDF

B Sc Chemical
Engineering

Year III; Sem I
2015-‐2016

Leather Technology I
Faculty of Chemical and Food
Engineering
Prepared by
Sundarapandiyan S
Faculty of Chemical and Food Engineering
Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

Bahir Dar University
29th December 2015

UNIT 3
Unit Operations in leather Manufacturing

1. Leather
Leather is durable and flexible material created by the tanning of animals
rawhide and skin. It can be produced through different manufacturing
processes/techniques.

2. Process Description
The leather process can be divided into four main steps:
! Pre-‐tanning to eliminate non-‐collagenous materials,
! Tanning to stabilize the collagen matrix,
! Post-‐tanning to impart functional properties, and
! Finishing to give aesthetics

Flow chart of leather process is given in Fig. 1

2.1. Pre-‐tanning
In the preparatory stages the raw hide/skin is cleaned and sterilized, under
this process all the unwanted matter like flesh and blood stains are removed.

Soaking
Soaking is the first step in leather processing. In this step the raw skin is
exposed to water and chemicals, which hydrate the proteins and fibers.
Additionally, denatured proteins as well as salts used for preservation are
solved in the water phase and removed together with dirt, which is attached
to the skins.

The main object of soaking therefore is to restore the lost moisture so that
the chemical treatments that follow will achieve optimum results. In
addition, adhering salt, blood, etc., are also removed during soaking.
B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 2 Leather Technology I

Soaking operation can be carried our in pits, paddles or drums. The wet-‐
salted stock about 3-‐4 hours and the dry-‐salted ones preferably overnight
with the addition of a preservative to the soak liquor. For dried hides the
soaking time varies from 36 to 48 hours and more.

Unhairing and Liming
The second step in the leather process is the removal of hair and other
components from the skin, which are not supposed to be transformed into
leather. Liming removes the epidermis and hair. This also results in alkaline
swelling of the pelt to cause a controlled breaking of some of the chemical
crosslinks of the collagen.


The followings objectives are achieved in the liming processes.
a) Un-‐hairing -‐ to remove the epidemic layer and at the same time to loosen
the hair.
b) Removal of inter-‐fibrillary proteins (cementing substances) to make the
final leather pliable and soft to the touch.
c) Swelling of fiber bundles into individual fibers and splitting of fibers into
fibrils in order to expose their surrounding surface to the subsequent action
of tanning materials, thereby converting them into leather.
d) To remove the natural fats in leather by saponification in order to obtain
non-‐patchy and uniform surface in the final leather.

The liming step introduces chemicals such as lime (Ca(OH)2) and sodium
sulfide (Na2S) which open up the fibre structure of the skin and hence
provides more working surface for treatment with tanning agents.

Hair loss is introduced by the destruction of the cementing substances,
prokeratines and glycoproteins, in the root of the hair. The amino acid
cystine is part of the prokeratine structure and features a disulfide bond
which is broken by the addition of the liming agent due to SH2 ion formation.

The duration for liming process is about 16 to 20 hours

Deliming and Bating
The alkaline chemicals used in the liming process are still present in relatively
large amounts in two forms -‐ a) partly as free alkali and b) partly as
chemically combined with collagen. Now that their utility is served, they
should be removed. Free alkali which is soluble in water is removed partially
by washing the pelts in water. After washing, chemically combined alkali is
removed by neutralizing it with acids, acid salts, ammonium salts or
substances with acidic reaction. This process called deliming.


The bating step involves the addition of proteolitic enzymes. These proteolitic
enzymes open the fibrious structure of the derma to make it softer. Raw
hides and skins through the preparatory stages of liming, un-‐ hairing and de-‐
liming have been transformed components discarded en route. However,
they still contain non-‐leather-‐making constituents such as degraded proteins,
color pigments, grease and lime soap and for further refinement, are
subjected to a process called BATING. The main object of bating is to make
the grain surface clean, smooth and fine and give the finished leather its soft,
pliable and stretchy feel.

Pickling
The main acidification process is that of pickling. The skins are agitated in a
solution of salt and sulphuric acid until they are at or near equilibrium at a pH
value of 3.0 -‐ 3.5.

2.2 Tanning
Tanning is the process that converts the protein of the raw hide or skin into a
stable material, which will not putrefy and is suitable for a wide variety of
purposes. Tanning materials form crosslinks in the collagen structure and
stabilise it against the effects of acids, alkalis, heat, water and the action of
micro-‐organisms.

For tanning different methods and materials are used. The hides are soaked
in a tanning liquor which slowly penetrates through the hide. When the
penetration is done to a satisfactory level, the pH of the float is slowly raised
in a process called basification. Basification fixes the tanning material to the
leather.

Chrome tanning: Chrome is the most common material used for tanning.
Chromium salts used in this method gives pale blue color to the leather and
thus it is also known as 'wet blue' leather. It makes leather water proof and
stretchable.

Vegetable tanning: In this method, which is also called bark tanning, the hide
is soaked in a solution of bark of oak or chestnut. The leather becomes
flexible but when dry, it doesn't stretch much.

Aldehyde and Oil tanning: In this method, fish and animal oil is used which
makes the leather very soft and flexible. Tanning with aldehydes and oils
produce very soft leathers and this system can be used to produce dry
cleanable and washable fashion leathers and also chamois leather.

Mechanical Operations
Splitting: The leather is split into one or more horizontal layers. This can be
done after liming or after chrome tanning. The choice depends on the
product we want to achieve.
" Upper Part is called GRAIN.
" Lower part is called FLESH.

Shaving: This operation smoothens the thickness of the whole surface of the
skin and eliminates the residues of fleshing. This operation is carried out
with a cylinder machine where the top one is provided with helical blades.

Trimming: Useless Edges are removed manually by sharp knives to give the
wet blue a proper shape. Thickness of each hide is also checked in this
section.

Weighing: Finally Hides are weighed again before any other operation is
done. A proper record is to be maintained. It is then passed on to dye house
for further processing.


Post Tanning Operations
• Wet Back
• Re-‐Chroming
• Neutralization & Washing
• Re-‐Tanning & Dyeing
• Fat Liquoring
• Fixing

Wet Back: Depending upon the condition of wet blue, if it is too dry then wet
back is done by adding 0.25%-‐0.30% sodium formate with 100% water & run
drum for 30-‐45 mins & drain water.

Re-‐chroming: This process varies for individual tanners. The shaved hide at
this stage has got open fibers& its weight is reduced by 64% hence the
consumption of BCS is reduced. This process is done in drums. In case of
vegetable tanned semi-‐finished leather, chrome tanning is given depending
on the final leather quality.

" Here 4% BCS with 1.5% Na COOH is added in first feed & run for 45-‐60
mins.
" Then second feed is added as 2% BCS with 2% sulphonated fish oil
" H2SO2 is added as emulsifying agent on fish oil for emulsion with water.

Neutralization & washing : Chrome tanned leather is acidic in nature after
leaving tan liquor.Mild alkalis are added to the leather, to make it electrically
neutral. Due to electrical neutrality the oil droplets in the fat liquoring stage
can’t breakdown. After this leather is washed completely by plain running
water by which the deposits on the surface are washed away. The float is not

drained out after this process but is used for retanning. it for later chemical
processes.

Re-‐tanning: Retanning is carried out with a combination of vegetable and
synthetic tanning materials. By this process the uneven surface becomes
even. The chemicals used are different tanning agents & Syntans. They
provide improved fullness, tighter grain, good buffing properties. skins as it
impairs the tensile strength and makes them more difficult to dye . At the
end of retannage the leather is light in colour. It is a relatively short process
involving about one and a half hours in the drum.

Dyeing: the leather is dyed in drums to give it colour! It can be fixed up to
the fabric & when fixed,is not fugitive that is fast t light & not washable by
water, dilute acid or alkali. Commonly types of dyes are
" Acid Dyes
" Basic Dyes
" Direct dyes
Anionic/Acidic dyes are very common as they are negatively charged
and so latch onto the chrome leathers well. Modes of dyeing are.
" Trough Dyed Leathers(T/D): 2.0/2.5% dye
" Surface Dyed Leather(S/D): 0.25/0.5% dye
" Then dye leveling agents (dispersing agents) are added as 0.10/0.15%

Fat liquoring: This process uses fats and oils to lubricate and soften the fibre
structure of leather. The manner in which the oils are introduced into the
hide coat every fibre. This is where leather gets its smell!

This process is done in same drums in which dyeing was done without
draining of the float. If the leather is not fat liquored it becomes dry and hard
and breaks when bent. The tensile strength, stitching tear resistance,
abrasion resistance etc improve considerably b fat liquoring. In addition to
the above improvement in physical properties like toughness, water

repellence, resistance to chemical action also. Some stronger hydrophilic
groups are introduced into the oil molecules to increase the affinity of the
latter for protein.In tanneries this is generally done by one of the following
methods :-‐
" Oxidation of oils
" Sulphitation
" Sulphonation
" Saponifacation
" Chlorination

According to the required softness of leather fat liquors are added mostly
5.0-‐ 25% sulphited or sulphonated fat liquors are used..
Types of fat liquors commonly used are:-‐
" Synthetic Fat Liquors
" Vegetable Fat Liquors
" Animal Fat Liquors
" Marine(fish) Oil
Free Oils (Neat) is also added as0.25% with 0.02% anti fungal preservatives.

Fixing: -‐ Then the chemicals are fixed up by formic acid. This helps in fixing all
the droplets on fibers.

Piling: -‐ The leather is piled up for 24 hours after completion of fat liquoring.
By this process oil is equally distributed on the surface of leather.

Mechanical Operations
Sammying: -‐ It is a mechanized process to remove excess moisture in the wet
blue. Only 50-‐55% of moisture is left in the leather and remaining water is
drained out. Hence the leather is conditioned for next operation.

Setting: -‐To remove the wrinkles & folds & grain side smoothen. This also
smoothens out coarse & drawn grain.

Vacuum Drying: -‐ The most significantly in the drying technique applied to
leather is the development of the vacuum dryer. In vacuum drying the
leather is spread out grain down on a smooth or sand blasted, usually
chrome plated polished steel surface. Heat is applied to this surface by a built
in heat exchanger. This temperature is maintained by thermostatic control of
circulating hot water & a hood is placed over the plate & then evacuated to
aid in drying the leather.

In vacuum drying the same general rules apply to the heat balance. Since the
heat is being supplied directly from the plate to the leather, rather than being
taken from hot air, the entire drying system changes completely. Evaporation
will take place in the fiber inside the leather & the problem arising from the
migration of the tanning materials & oils are greatly decreased.

Hang Drying & Toggling: -‐ In hang drying the leather in hanged under
gravity for drying as air circulation method. It takes long time to dry & an old
method. Toggling has the advantage of drying large quantities of leather in a
relatively small space. In addition it provides for stretching the leather during
drying.

A Toggling unit consists of a number of screens placed in a dryer having
controlled temperature & humidity. The leather is stretched & held in place
by a number of clamps that hook into the screens. Radio frequency is used in
drying & for the initiation of chemical reactions in other industries. Radio
frequency can be used to bring leather from a wet condition to less than 20%
moisture in a few seconds without damage.

Stacking: -‐ The modern technique used by increasing number of units is
vibration stacking machine. The latest version of this machine which is
modified one is equipped with stacking & stretching facilities in one

operation which softens the leather. This action simultaneously opens &
spreads the leather, thereby enlarging its surface.
Trimming: Useless Edges are removed manually by sharp knives to give the
wet blue a proper shape. Thickness of each hide is also checked in this
section.

Finishing
The purpose of finishing is to improve the use properties of the leather in
general and to protect it from wetting and soiling, to level out patches and
grain faults and to apply an artificial grain layer to split or corrected grain
leather. Furthermore to modify the surface properties (shade, lustre, handle,
etc.).

The finish of leather can greatly vary mainly depending on the purpose of the
leather. Hide stocks differ in extent of grain damages greatly in the countries.
Hides with greater damages have to be corrected by buffing, which removes
more or less much from the natural grain structure. They are referred to
corrected grain. Therewith the most important element of a natural look gets
lost.

Furthermore leather varies uneven in grain in respect of structure and
coloration requires more pigments and more pigments generate thicker films
and the resulting leather becomes more plastic like. A so-‐called natural feel
or look is made by embossing an artificial grain and by milling and also by
application of a bicolour effect.

Finishing Materials
Finishing materials may be classified into two main groups:
• Binders which may be waxes, proteins or synthetic polymers
• Additives such as pigments to give color, or surface modifiers

Mechanical finishing operations may include:

Polishing: to create a shiny surface by rubbing it with a velvety wheel
Ironing & Plating: to obtain a flat and smooth surface
Embossing: -‐to obtain a three-‐dimensional print
Tumbling: -‐ by rotating the drum quickly to create a more evident grain and a
smooth surface
Chemical Finishing: -‐ involves the application of a film, natural or synthetic by
using curtain coaters, roller coatings and spraying.


Questions
1. What is leather?
2. Write the name of major operations involved in leather processing
3. What is the purpose of soaking operations?
4. What is the purpose of liming operations
5. What are the chemicals used in liming operations
6. Write any two names of deliming agents?
7. What is tanning?
8. What are the different types of tanning?
9. Write the process recipe for pickling operations.
10. Write the process recipe for chrome tanning operations.
11. What is the purpose of samming operation?


UNIT 4
Manufacture of Different types of leathers

1.0 UPPER LEATHER
Desirable properties:
a) General Appearance
Retention of natural beauty and uniformity of finish
b) Thickness
For light footwear the required thickness is 0.75 – 1.75 mm
For heavy footwear the required thickness is 1.75 – 2.75 mm
c) Colour
Uniform and accurate match to specification. The finish should be fast to
wet and dry rub i.e., the leather should maintain original coluor without
spotting or fading.
d) Tightness of grain
As far as possible the leather should posses uniformly tighter grain-‐break
throughout the area (including belly, shank and shoulder area.
e) Handle, stretch, firmness, roundness
! Mellow handle with sufficient stretch to lasting property – yet it
must retain shape after taking off the last.
! Leather should resist repeated wetting without stiffening,
hardening and appearance loss.
f) Tensile strength
Sufficient to withstand stitch, flexing and wear.
g) Water resistance
It should high water resistance. However, higher water resistance should
not materially affect the property of permeability to air and water
vapour.
h) Abrasion resistance
Sufficient to resist scuff in wear.

i) Other properties
! Lightness in weight
! Foot comfort (should not be hot on foot)
! Resistance to cracking, Peeling, shrinking or curling

2.0 Glove leathers
Desirable properties:
! Substance varies according to its end use
• For ladies -‐ 0.3-‐0.6 mm
• For mens – 0.7-‐0.9 mm
• For industrial and sports gloves – 0.5-‐2.0 mm
! Glove leather must be very soft and flexible with considerable non-‐elastic
stretch (Run)
Definition of RUN properties “The property of leather of contracting along
lines at right angles to the direction of stretch is called ‘run’.
! The finish on surface must be flexible, without any tendency to crack or peel
off.
! Resistant to water to stand up a light shower is also an important property
desired for dress gloves.

3.0 Glove leathers
BASIC CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF GARMENTS LEATHER

• Drape,
• Softness,
• Naps,
• Surface smoothness,
• Lightness in weight,
• Light fastness,
• Wet and dry rub fastness,
• Fastness to washing,
• Fastness in dry cleaning,
• Perspiration resistance,

• Uniformity in shade,
• Shower proofness,
• Stitch tear resistance,
• Tongue tear resistance.
Drape:
This is the most important characteristic of garment leather, as it contributes to wear
comfort. This property deals with the ability of the leather to fall like textile so as to
take the shape of the body when worn.
Softness:
The clothing leather should be soft without any bony feel. This property can be
achieved by modifying the possessing techniques. The present day fashion demands
better soft leather for garment.
Nap:
This is the most important characteristic by which the suede garment leathers are
judged. These leathers should have a short, tight and velvety nap which is achieved
by proper retanning techniques.
Surface smoothness:
This is an important property for grain garment leathers and a verity of chemicals
under the tough modifiers and slip agents category are available to impart this
property to the leathers.
Light fastness:
The garment is exposed to different weather condition when worn. The color of the
garment should not change when exposed to the vagaries of the weather. The
chemicals used for processing, particularly dyestuffs and retanning agents play a vital
role in achieving this property.
Wet and dry rub fastness:
This is another important property of garment leather. In the case of grain garment
leather, the finish should have good protective top coat to prevent the color coming off
from the leather when rubbed with a dry cloth. In the case of suede’s the bleeding of
the dye is prevented by using different kinds of fixatives.
Fastness to washing:
This property depends upon the type of tannage and dyestuff employed for production
of garment leathers. Leathers processed by chrome glutaraldehyde combination
tannage and dyed with reactive dyes comparatively possess greater fastness.

Fastness to dry cleaning:
The garment leather should stand the treatment with solvents to remove greasy
stains. During this treatment, the color of the leather should not change or should not
shrink and become hard. To achieve this property, selection of dyestuff and fat liquor
are very crucial.
Perspiration Resistance:
The leather should be capable of absorbing and transmitting the perspiration without
staining / soiling the leather. Treatment with glutaraldehyde is always beneficial in
achieving this property.
Uniformity in shade:
This property depends on tanning and post tanning operations and is essential for
garment leathers where the different panels of the garment should have uniformity in
shade even when cut from different leathers.
Shower proofness:
This is very much essential for suede garment leathers, because during drizzle /
shower, the leather should not get wet lest the color will run. To achieve’ this objective
shower proofing chemicals, water resistance/repellant chemicals are available and
judicious choice of these enables the suede leather achieve this property.
Stitch tear resistance:
Generally the stitch tear resistance should be good in the garment leathers. Garment
leathers made from Indian origin sheep skins have better stitch tear resistance
compared to sheep skins like merinos and merinos cross breeds.
Tongue tear resistance:
This is also important property of garment leather. Tear resistance also is good in the
Red Hair sheep skins.


Questions
1. Write the process techniques involved in the manufacturing of wetblue
leathers.
2. What are the processes techniques involved in manufacture of resin upper
leathers?
3. What are the properties required for upper leather?
4. Define “run”properties of glove leather.
5. What are the properties required for garment leathers?
6. Define “Drape”


UNIT 5
TANNERIES AND THE ENVIRONMENT

1. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF TANNING INDUSTRY WASTES
Effect on surface waters
! Untreated tannery wastes in surface waters can bring about a rapid
deterioration of their physical, chemical and biological qualities.
! Wastes may give rise to noxious odours from the decomposition of
organic matter.
! Decomposition of wastes may deplete the dissolved oxygen in the water
that is vital for aquatic life.
! The water may also become saline and hard due to the presence of
inorganic salts. And acquire some toxicity from the chromium, sulphides
and ammonia in the wastes.
! Release of nitrogenous compounds will stimulate aquatic plant growth,
contributing to eutrophication of water bodies.
! Due to turbidity and colour, photosynthesis may be restricted.

Effect on Land
! Wastes may damage the soil structureand loss of agricultural
production capacity
! Wastes may contaminate sub-‐surface water due to the high salt
content and toxic components.

Effect on Ground water
! Ground water contamination occurs when wastewater and chemicals
seep through the soil.
! High levels of nitrogen in water are also deleterious to health.


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Bahir Dar Institute of Technology

29th December 2015

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 2 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 3 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 4 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 5 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 6 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 7 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 8 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 9 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 10 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 11 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 12 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 13 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 14 Leather Technology I

BASIC CHARACTERISTIC PROPERTIES OF GARMENTS LEATHER

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 15 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 16 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 17 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 18 Leather Technology I

B Sc Chemical Engineering (Leather) 19 Leather Technology I

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