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THEORY OF MACHINES & VIBRATIONS

2 VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION ANALYSIS

1. INTRODUCTION

• As mentioned in the first chapter, analysis of mechanisms is the study of motions and forces
concerning their different parts.
• The study of velocity analysis involves the linear velocities of various points on different links
of a mechanism as well as the angular velocities of the links.
• The velocity analysis is the prerequisite for acceleration analysis which further leads to force
analysis of various links of a mechanism.
• To facilitate such study, a machine or a mechanism is represented by a skeleton or a line
diagram, commonly known as a configuration diagram.
• Velocities and accelerations in machines can be determined either analytically or graphically.
• With the invention of calculators and computers, it has become convenient to make use of
analytical methods. However, a graphical analysis is more direct and is accurate to an
acceptable degree and thus cannot be neglected.
• This chapter is mainly devoted to the study of graphical methods of velocity analysis. Two
methods of graphical approach, namely, relative velocity method and instantaneous
centre method are discussed.
• Convention:
➢ Capital letters deals with the configuration diagram i.e. A,B,C…
➢ Lower case letters indicate the points on the velocity diagram i.e. a,b,c…
➢ Lower case letters with dash indicate the points on the acceleration diagram i.e. a’,b’,c’…

2. ABSOLUTE AND RELATIVE MOTIONS

• All motions are relative since an arbitrary set of axes or planes is required to define a motion.
• Usually, the earth is taken to be a fixed reference plane and all motions relative to it are
termed absolute motions.
• If a train moves in a particular direction, the motion of the train is referred as the absolute
motion of the train or motion of the train relative to the earth. Now, suppose a man moves
inside the train. Then, the motion of the man will be described in two different ways with
different meanings:

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➢ Motion of the man relative to the train–it is equivalent to the motion of the man assuming
the train to be stationary.
➢ Motion of the man or absolute motion of the man or motion of the man relative to the
earth = motion of man relative to the train + Motion of train relative to the earth.

3. MOTION OF A LINK (RELATIVE VELOCITY METHOD)

Let a rigid link OA, of length r, rotate about a fixed point O with a uniform angular velocity ω
rad/s in the counter-clockwise direction. OA turns through a small angle δθ in a small interval
of time δt. Then A will travel along the arc AA’ as shown in Fig.1 (b) below.

Fig.1: Motion of a Link

Arc AA 𝛿𝜃
Velocity of A relative to O = =𝑟
t 𝛿𝑡

d
In the limits, when δt → 0 vao = r = rω
dt
The direction of Vao is along the displacement of A. Also, as δt approaches zero (δt → 0), AA’
will be perpendicular to OA. Thus, velocity of A is ωr and is perpendicular to OA. This can be
represented by a vector oa (Fig.1c). The fact that the direction of the velocity vector is
perpendicular to the link also emerges from the fact that A can neither approach nor recede
from O and thus, the only possible motion of A relative to O is in a direction perpendicular to
OA.
Consider a point B on the link OA.
Velocity of B = ω. OB perpendicular to OB.
ob OB OB
If ob represents the velocity of B, it can be observed that = =
oa OA OA
i.e., b divides the velocity vector in the same ratio as B divides the link.
Remember, the velocity vector Vao [Fig. 1(c)] represents the velocity of A at a particular instant
(i.e. at particular link configuration). At other instants, when the link OA assumes another

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configuration position, the velocity vectors will have their directions changed accordingly (i.e.
Velocity diagram changed accordingly).
Also, the magnitude of the instantaneous linear velocity of a point on a rotating body is
proportional to its distance from the axis of rotation.

Fig.2: Relative velocity method of a rotating link

4. FOUR-LINK MECHANISM

Figure 3(a) shows a four-link mechanism (quadric-cycle mechanism) ABCD in which AD is the
fixed link and BC is the coupler. AB is the driver rotating at an angular speed of ω rad/s in the
clockwise direction if it is a crank or moving at this angular velocity at this instant if it is a
rocker.
Absolute velocity of C (or velocity of C relative to A)
Writing the velocity vector equation,
Vel. of C rel. to A = Vel. of C rel. to B + vel. of B rel. to A
Vca = Vcb + Vba

Fig.3: Four-Link Mechanism

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The velocity of any point relative to any other point on a fixed link is always zero. Thus, all the
points on a fixed link are represented by one point in the velocity diagram figure 3(b). In Fig.
the points A and D, both lie on the fixed link AD. Therefore, the velocity of C relative to A is
the same as velocity of C relative to D.
Above Equation may be written as,
Vcd = Vcb + Vba
Or dc = ab + bc (here ab, bc, dc are corresponding length from
velocity diagram)
where Vba or ab= ω x AB; ⊥ to BC
Angular Velocity of BC
(a) Velocity of C relative to B, Vcb = bc (Fig. 3)
Point C relative to B moves in the direction-sense given by Vcb (upwards). Thus, C moves in
the counter-clockwise direction about B.
Vcb = ωcb × BC = ωcb × CB
vcb
cb =
CB
(b) Velocity of B relative to C, Vbc = cb (Fig. 3)
Point B relative to C moves in a direction-sense given by Vbc (downwards, opposite to bc), i.e.,
B moves in the counter-clockwise direction about C with magnitude ωbc given by
vbc
ωbc =
BC
It can be seen that the magnitude of ωcb = ωbc as Vcb = Vbc and the direction of rotation is the
same. Therefore, angular velocity of a link about one extremity is the same as the angular
velocity about the other. In general, the angular velocity of link BC is ω bc (= ωcb) in the counter-
clockwise direction.
Angular Velocity of CD
Velocity of C relative to D, Vcd = dc
It is seen that C relative to D moves in a direction-sense given by Vcd or C moves in the
clockwise direction about D.
vcd
cd =
CD

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5. VELOCITY OF RUBBING

Below figure shows two ends of the two links of a turning pair. A pin is fixed to one of the links
whereas a hole is provided in the other to fit the pin. When joined the surface of the hole of
one link will rub on the surface of the pin of the other link. The velocity of rubbing of the two
surfaces will depend upon the angular velocity of a link relative to the other.

Fig. 4
Pin at A (Fig. 3a)
The pin at A joins links AD and AB. AD being fixed, the velocity of rubbing will depend upon
the angular velocity of AB only.
Let ra = radius of the pin at A
Then velocity of rubbing = ra x ω
Pin at D (Fig. 3a)
Let rd = radius of the pin at D
Velocity of rubbing = rd x ωcd
Pin at B (Fig. 3a)
ωba = ωab = ω Clockwise
vbc
bc = cb = Counter-clockwise
BC
Let rb = radius of the pin at B
Velocity of rubbing = rb x (ωba + ωbc)
Pin at C (Fig. 3a)
vbc
bc = cb = Counter-clockwise
BC
ωdc = ωcd Clockwise
Let rc = radius of the pin at C
Velocity of rubbing = rc (ωbc + ωdc)
In case it is found that the angular velocities of the two links joined together are in the same
direction, the velocity of rubbing will be the difference of the angular velocities multiplied by
the radius of the pin.

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6. VELOCITY ANALYSIS IN 4-BAR MECHANISM

Consider the mechanism shown in figure 5. For the velocity analysis the knowledge of position
of all the links is required which is available from the position analysis or from configuration
diagram.
If the link 2 rotates with ω2 rad/sec in counter clock wise direction. The velocity of other links
are obtained as follows.

Fig.5 (a): Configuration diagram Fig.5 (b): Velocity diagram

Construction procedure for velocity Diagram:
• A & D are fixed points having zero velocity, Mark a & d at convenient location. They act as
reference for the velocity diagram.
• Velocity of B relative to A will be l2ω2 perpendicular to AB in the direction of ω 2. So draw
vector ab ⊥ to AB with a length l2ω2
• Velocity of C relative to B will be ⊥ to BC but sense is unknown hence draw a line ⊥ to BC
passing through b.
• Velocity of C relative to D will be ⊥ to DC but sense is unknown. So draw a line ⊥ to DC
through d.
• These two lines will intersect at C that completes the velocity diagram. In the velocity
diagram the vector bc indicates the velocity of C relative to B and ω 3l3=bc gives ω3. Similarly
dc = ω4l4 from which ω4 can be obtained.
Special Cases:
• When the link AB and DC are parallel to each other than Velocity diagram will be a straight
line. Velocity of B is equal to the velocity of C.
i.e. l2ω2= l4ω4 and ω3 = 0
• If both AB and DC are on the same side of AD, both have the angular velocities in the same
sense.

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Fig.6
• If both AB and DC are on opposite side of AD i.e. BC crosses AD; both have the angular
velocities in the opposite sense.

Fig.7
• When AB and BC are parallel i.e. they are in the same line than
ω4 = 0 and ω2l2 = – ω3l3

Fig.8
• When BC and CD are parallel i.e. they are in same line than
ω2 = 0 and ω3l3 = – ω4l4

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Example: draw the velocity diagram of given mechanism OABC:

Fig.: Configuration diagram OABC

Solution:
The velocity diagram will be as following:
From diagram 𝑉𝐴 = 𝑉𝐵

7. VELOCITY ANALYSIS OF SLIDER CRANK MECHANISM

Consider the mechanism shown in figure 9. For the velocity analysis the knowledge of position
of all the links is required which is available from the position analysis or from configuration
diagram.
Consider the configuration shown in fig. Let the crank of length ‘r’ rotates in Counter clockwise
sense at ω2 rad/sec.

Fig.9 (a): Configuration diagram Fig.9 (b): Velocity diagram

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Construction procedure for velocity Diagram:

• The velocity of B relative to A is rω2 ⊥ to AB, draw ab ⊥ to AB.
• Velocity of C relative to B will be ⊥ to BC, but direction unknown. So draw a line passing
through b and ⊥ to BC.
• Velocity of C relative to D is parallel to AD, but direction is unknown. So draw a line through
d parallel to AD.
• These two lines will intersect at c that completes the velocity diagram.
• Now the vector bc gives velocity of C relative to B and lω3= bc
• Vector dc or ac gives the velocity of slider.
Special Cases:
• Slider at TDC (θ = 0°)
Velocity of slider = 0
Acceleration become maximum
rω2 = - lω3
ω3 and ω2 are in opposite directions
• Slider at BDC (θ = 180°)
Velocity of slider = 0
Acceleration become maximum
rω2 = lω3
• Crank perpendicular to line of stroke
Velocity of slider = rω2
ω3 = 0

8. VELOCITY ANALYSIS OF CRANK AND SLOTTED LEVER MECHANISM

Consider the mechanism shown in figure 10. For the velocity analysis the knowledge of position
of all the links is required which is available from the position analysis or from configuration
diagram.

Fig.10 (a): Configuration diagram Fig.10 (b): Velocity diagram

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As in the figure, point P on the slider, point Q on the link AR, exactly at the same point.
OP is rotating in the clockwise direction with angular velocity ω.
∴ Velocity of Q with respect to O
= Velocity of Q relative to P + Velocity of P relative to O
Vqo = Vqp + Vpo
Construction procedure for velocity Diagram:
• Mark fixed points
• Draw Vsg on horizontal line (∵ slider Velocity)
• Draw Vpo ⊥ to OP
• Draw Vra ⊥ to link AR.
• Velocity Vqa is along the link AR. because of sliding, so parallel to AR.
• Draw vector pq ⊥ to AR through ‘p’.
Special Cases (Quick-Return mechanism):
• When angle between crank and rocker is 90° (fig.11)
ω4=0
Vslider = ω2 × l2
• Top Dead center position (fig.12)
Vslider = 0
l 4 = l1 + l 2
ω 2 × l2 = ω 4 × l4
acoriolis = 2Vslider × ω4 = 0
• Bottom Dead center position (fig.13)
Vslider = 0
l 4 = l1 – l 2
ω 2 × l2 = ω 4 × l4
acoriolis = 2Vslider × ω4 = 0

Fig.11 Fig.12 Fig.13

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9. INSTANTANEOUS CENTRE (I-CENTRE)

Let there be a plane body p having a non-linear motion relative to another plane body q. At
any instant, the linear velocities of two points A and B on the body p are V a and Vb respectively
in the directions as shown in Fig. 14.

Fig.14
If a line is drawn perpendicular to the direction of V a at A, the body can be imagined to rotate
about some point on this line. Similarly, the centre of rotation of the body also lies on a line
perpendicular to the direction of Vb at B.
If the intersection of the two lines is at I, the body p will be rotating about I at the instant.
This point I is known as the instantaneous centre of velocity or more commonly instantaneous
centre of rotation for the body p.
This property is true only for an instant and a new point will become the instantaneous centre
at the next instant.
For Fig.14 (b) instantaneous centre will be at infinite at that instant.
Now imagine that the body q is also in motion relative to a third body r. Then the motion of
the point I relative to the third body would be the same whether this point is considered on the
body p or q. This principle used in Kennedy’s theorem.
Notation/Convention:
An I-centre is a centre of rotation of a moving body relative to another body. If a body p is in
motion relative to a fixed body q, the centre of rotation (I-centre) may be named as pq.
However, in case of relative motions, the body q can also be imagined to rotate relative to
body p (i.e., as if the body p is fixed) about the same centre. Thus, centre of rotation or I-
centre can be named qp also.
This shows that the I-centre of the two body’s p and q in relative motion can be named either
pq or qp meaning the same thing.
In general, the I-centre will be named in the ascending order of the alphabets or digits, i.e. 13,
35, pq, qr etc.

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Number of I-Centres
For two bodies having relative motion between them, there is an I-centre. Thus, in a
mechanism, the number of I-centres will be equal to possible pairs of bodies or links.
Let N = Number of I-centres
n = number of bodies or links

n (n − 1)
Then, N =
2
Example:
If number of links = 5
5(5 − 1)
Then number of I-Centres = 5 C2 = = 10
2
Identification of Basic I-Centres in a mechanism:
• If two links have a hinged/Revolute joint, the location of the hinge is the relative
instantaneous centre because one link is in pure rotation with respect to the other about
that hinge.

Fig. 15: Turning Pair

• If the relative motion between two links is pure sliding, the relative instantaneous centre
lies at infinity on a line perpendicular to the direction of sliding.

Fig. 16: Plane Surface (Sliding Pair)

• If one body is rolling (without slipping) over another, the point of contact is the relative
instantaneous centre.

Fig. 17: Rolling Pair

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• If a link is sliding over a curved element, the centre of curvature is the relative instantaneous
centre.

Fig. 18: Convex Surface Fig. 19: Concave Surface

• f the relative motion between two links is both rolling and sliding (rolling with slipping), the
relative instantaneous centre lies on the common normal at the point of contact.
Types of I-Centres
• I12 and I14: Fixed: They remain in the same place for all configurations of mechanism
• I23 and I34: Permanent: They move when mechanism moves, but the joints are of
permanent nature
• I13 and I24: Neither permanent nor fixed as, their position varies with configuration of
mechanism.

Fig.20: Type of I-centres

Trajectory/Locus of I-Centres while link is in motion:
• In general, the motion of a link in a mechanism is neither pure rotation nor pure translation.
It is a combination of translation and rotation, which we say the link is in general motion.
• The instantaneous centre is also known as virtual centre. When link moves, its instantaneous
centre changes.
• Locus of instantaneous centre for a link in its motion is called CENTRODE.
• Locus of instantaneous axis of rotation for a link is called AXODE.

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• In below table for standard motion of link, corresponding Centrode and Axode Locus are
mentioned:

Motion Centrode Axode

General Motion Curve Curved surface

Pure Translation Straight line Plane Surface

Pure rotation Point Line

10. SIR ARNHOLD KENNEDY’S THEOREM

• Consider three plane bodies p, q and r.

• r being a fixed body, p and q rotate about centre pr and qr respectively relative to the body
r. Thus, pr is the I-centre of body p and r whereas qr is the I-centre of body q and r.
• Assume the I-centre of the body p and q at the point pq as shown in Fig.21
• Now, p and q both are moving relative to a third fixed body r. Therefore, the motion of their
mutual I-centre pq is to be the same whether this point is considered in the body p or q.
• If the point pq is considered on the body p, its velocity v is perpendicular to the line joining
pq and pr. If the point pq is considered on the body q, its velocity v q is perpendicular to the
line, joining pq and qr. It is found that the two velocities of the I-centre pq are in different
directions which is impossible. Therefore, the I-centre of the bodies p and q cannot be at
the assumed position pq.
• The velocities vp and vq of the I-centre will be same only if this centre lies on the line joining
pr and qr.

Fig.21
In other words, if three plane bodies/links have relative motion among themselves, their I-
centre must lie on a straight line. This is known as Kennedy’s theorem.

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11. ANGULAR VELOCITIES RATIO THEOREM

• When the angular velocity of a link is known and it is required to find the angular velocity of
another link, locate their common I-centre. The velocity of this I-centre relative to a fixed
third link is the same whether the I-centre is considered on the first or the second link.
• First consider the I-centre to be on the first link and obtain the velocity of the I-centre. Then
consider the I-centre to be on the second link and find its angular velocity.
• Let There are two links m and n. To satisfy Kennedy’s Theorem the velocities Vm and Vn of
the I-centre will be same.
i.e. Vm = m (Imn − I1m ) = n (Imn − I1n ) = Vn

where ωm = angular velocity of link m

ωn = angular velocity of link n

Fig. 21
Sign convention: If I1m and I1n lie at the same side of Imn, then direction of rotation of ωm
and ωn will be same. If I1m and I1n lie on the opposite side of Imn, then direction of rotation
of ωm and ωn will be opposite.

12. LOCATING I-CENTRES

• The procedure to locate I-centres of a mechanism is being illustrated with the help of the
following example of a four-link mechanism.
• Figure 22 shows a four-link mechanism ABCD, the links of which have been named as 1, 2,
3 and 4.

Fig. 22

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n (n − 1) 4 ( 4 − 1)
• The number of 1-centres is given by N = = =6
2 2
• Now, as the centre of rotation of 2 relative to 1 is at A, the I-centre 12 for the links 1 and 2
lies at A. Also, the location of A is not going to change with the rotation of the link 2.
Therefore this I-centre is referred as the fixed I-centre.
• Similarly, 14 is another fixed I-centre for the links 1 and 4 located at D.
• Link 3 rotates about B relative to the link 2 and thus the I-centre 23 for links 2 and 3 lies at
B. With the movement of the links, the position of the pin-joint B will change and so will the
position of the I-centre. However, at all times, the I-centre will be located at the pin joint.
Thus, 23 is known as a permanent but not a fixed I-centre.
• Similarly, 34 is another permanent but not fixed I-centre for the links 3 and 4.
• The above I-centres have been located by inspection only. The other two I-centres 13 and
24 which are neither fixed nor permanent can be located easily by applying Kennedy’s
theorem as explained below.
I-Centre 13
• First, consider three links 1, 2 and 3. One more link 2 has been added to links 1 and 3 with
the condition that the I-centres 12 and 23 are already known and the third I-centre 13 is to
be located.
• Now, as the three links 1, 2 and 3 have relative motions among themselves, their I-centres
lie on a straight line. Thus, I-centre 13 lies on the line joining 12 and 13 (or line AB).
• Similarly, consider the links 1, 4 and 3. There I-centres are 14, 34 and 13. Out of these, 14
and 34 are already known. Therefore, I-centre 13 lies on the line joining 14 and 34 (or DC).
The intersection of the line joining 12 and 23 with the line joining 14 and 34 locates the I-
centre 13.
I-Centre 24
• Considering two sets of links 2, 1, 4 and 2, 3, 4; the I-Centre would lie on the lines joining
I-Centre 12–14 and 23–34. The interaction locates the I-centre 24.
Convenient Way of Keeping the Track of the I-Centres
There is a convenient way of keeping the track of the I-centres located by inspection and by
Kennedy’s theorem.
• Mark points as the corners of a regular polygon having same number of sides as the number
of links in the mechanism.
• Name them according to the links of the mechanism.
• Join the points of which the I-centres have been located by inspection, by firm lines.
• Then go on joining the points, of which the I-centres are being located by Kennedy’s
theorem, by dotted lines.

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For example, for a four-link mechanism, mark the points 1, 2, 3 and 4 as shown in Fig. 23(a).
Join 12, 23, 34 and 14 by firm lines after locating these I-centres by inspection in Fig. 23(b).
In Fig. 23(c) these centres have been encircled for the record.

Fig. 23
To find the I-centre 13, join 1 to 3 by a dotted line [Fig. 23(b)]. The construction shows that
the I-centre lies on the line joining I-centres 12 and 23, and the line joining 14 and 34. Locate
the I-centre actually on the intersection of the two lines in the configuration diagram of the
mechanism. In Fig. 23(c), 13 is underlined to note that the I-centre has been located by
Kennedy’s theorem.
Similarly, find the I-centre 24 by joining 2 and 4 and locate the point on the intersection of the
lines 12-14 and 23-34.

13. ACCELERATION

• Velocity of a moving body is a vector quantity having magnitude and direction. A change in
the velocity requires any of the following conditions to be fulfilled:
➢ Magnitude change only
➢ Direction change only
➢ Both magnitude and direction change
• The rate of change of velocity with respect to time is known as acceleration and it acts in
the direction of the change in velocity. Thus acceleration is also a vector quantity.
• To find linear acceleration of a point on a link, its linear velocity is required to be found first.
Similarly, to find the angular acceleration of a link, its angular velocity has to be found.
• After finding the accelerations, it is easy to find inertia forces acting on various parts of a
mechanism or machine.
• Let a link AB is rotating about point B with angular velocity ωAB & Angular Acceleration αAB.
Now, there will be two components of acceleration of this link AB.
➢ Radial component of acceleration, arAB which will be always directed towards the centre
of rotation of the link.
➢ Tangential component of acceleration, a tAB which will act in a direction perpendicular to
the link.

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Fig. 24: Configuration Diagram

Fig.25: Acceleration of a link AB

Hence, Resultant acceleration is given by a = arAB + atAB

14. CORIOLIS ACCELERATION COMPONENT

• It is seen that the acceleration of a moving point relative to a fixed body may have two
components of acceleration; the centripetal and the tangential.
• However, in some cases, the point may have its motion relative to a moving body system,
for example, motion of a slider on a rotating link. The following analysis is made to
investigate the acceleration at that point.
• Let a link AR rotate about a fixed point A on it (Fig. 26). P is a point on a slider on the link.

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Fig.26
At any given instant,
Let ω = angular velocity of the link
α = angular acceleration of the link
v = linear velocity of the slider on the link
f = linear acceleration of the slider on the link
r = radial distance of point P on the slide
In a short interval of time δt, let δθ be the angular displacement of the link and δr, the radial
displacement of the slider in the outward direction.
After the short interval of time δt, let
ω' = ω + αδt = angular velocity of the link
v’ = v = f.δt = linear velocity of the slider on the link
r' = r + δr = radial distance of the slider
Acceleration of P Parallel to AR
Initial velocity of P along AR = v = vpq
Final velocity of P along AR = v’ cos δθ – ω’r’ sin δθ
Change of velocity along AR = (v’ cos δθ – ω’ r’ sin δθ) – v

Acceleration of P along AR =
( v + ft ) cos  − (  + t ) (r + r ) sin  − v
t
In the limit, as δt → 0 → cos δθ → 1 and sin δθ → δθ
d
Acceleration of P along AR = f – r = f – ωrw = f – ω2r
dt
= Acc. of slider – centripetal. acc.

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This is the acceleration of P along AR in the radially outward direction. f will be negative if the
slider has deceleration while moving in the outward direction or has acceleration while moving
in the inward direction.
Acceleration of P Perpendicular to AR
Initial velocity of P ⊥ to AR = ωr
Final velocity of P ⊥ to AR = v’ sin δθ + ω’r’ cos δθ
Change of velocity ⊥ to AR = (v’ sin δθ + ω’r’ cos δθ) – ωr
(𝑣+𝑓𝛿𝑡)𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛿𝜃+(𝑤+𝛼𝛿𝑡)(𝑟+𝛿𝑟)𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛿𝜃−𝑤𝑟
Acceleration of P ⊥ to AR =
𝛿𝑡

In the limit, as δt → 0 → cos δθ → 1 and sin δθ → δθ

d dr
Acceleration of P ⊥ to AR = v + + ra = v + v + r = 2v + r
dt dt
= 2ωv + tangential ace.
This is the acceleration of P perpendicular to AR. The component 2ωv is known as the Coriolis
acceleration component. It is positive if both ω and v are either positive or negative.
Magnitude of this acceleration is, ac = 2vω
Where, v = sliding velocity of slider
ω = angular velocity of body on which slider is sliding
Coriolis effect in a crank and slotted lever mechanism
This extra acceleration component ac = 2vω can be understand by below figure using separate
motion of translation and rotation of slider crank mechanism.
And after combining both motion and looking at their effect.

Fig.27: Coriolis effect in a crank and slotted lever mechanism

To find the direction of Coriolis Acceleration
Follow below steps to find out the direction of Coriolis acceleration
• Take the sense of direction of ω.
• Rotate the velocity vector in the direction of ω by an angle of 90 degrees if slider is moving
outwards.
• Rotate the velocity vector in the direction opposite to that of ω by an angle of 90 degrees if
slider is moving inwards.

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Examples: Direction of Coriolis component in various conditions

Fig.28: Direction of Coriolis component in various conditions

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15. ACCELERATION ANALYSIS OF 4-BAR MECHANISM

Fig.29 (a): Configuration diagram Fig.29 (b): Velocity diagram

Velocity diagram should be known to calculate accelerations of the Individual links.
We know at = α × r
ac = ω2r = V2/r
Calculation of above two acceleration components for each link are as below.
Acceleration table:

Link Vector Magnitude Direction

( ab )
2 2
Vab
acAB = Parallel to AB
AB r AB
atAB α2 × AB ⊥lr to AB

(bc )
2 2
c
aBC Vbc Parallel to BC
=
BC BC BC
t l3 3
aBC ⊥lr to BC

( cd)
2 2
c
aCD Vcd
= Parallel to DC
DC CD CD
t
aCD - ⊥lr to BC

Like in the velocity diagram, acceleration diagram would be constructed by using two
acceleration components for each link acordiflg to their rotational direction and sense.
c
aBA = 2 22 (parallel to AB, sense from B → A) = a’ba

a†BA = 2 2 (⊥ to AB in the direction of α2) = bab’

c
aBC = 3 23 (parallel to BC, sense from C → B) = b’cb

a†BC = 3 3 (⊥ to BC in the direction of α3) = cbc’ (unknown)

c
aCD = 4 24 (parallel to CD, sense from C → D) = d’cd

a†CD = 4 4 (⊥ to BC in the direction of α4) = cdc’ (unknown)

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Final unknown values would be obtained by measuring from acceleration diagram.

Fig.30: Acceleration diagram

16. ACCELERATION ANALYSIS OF SLIDER-CRANK MECHANISM

Fig.31 (a): Configuration diagram Fig.31 (b): Velocity diagram

Acceleration table:

Link Vector Magnitude Direction

acAB = ab a r22 Parallel to AB

AB
t
aBA = ba b rα2 ⊥lr to AB
c
aBC = bcb 23 Parallel to BC
BC
t 3
aBC = cb c ⊥lr to BC

Slider aslider = d’c’ Parallel to AD

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Fig.32: Acceleration diagram

Final unknown values would be obtained by measuring from acceleration diagram.

17. KLEIN’S CONSTRUCTION

• In Klein’s construction, the velocity and the acceleration diagrams are made on the
configuration diagram itself.
• The line that represents the crank in the configuration diagram also represents the velocity
and the acceleration of its moving end in the velocity and the acceleration diagrams
respectively.
• This can only be applied in Basic Single Slider Crank Mechanism when ω crank is given and
αcrank is zero.
Here, OAP = velocity diagram of single slider crank mechanism
OARS = acceleration quadrilateral

Fig.33: Klein’s construction of a single-slider crank mechanism

For a slider-crank mechanism, the procedure to make the Klein’s construction is described
below.
• In Fig. 29, OAB represents the configuration of a slider-crank mechanism.
• Let r be the length of the crank OA
• For velocity diagram, let r represent Vao, to some scale i.e. length OA = ωr
From this, the scale for the velocity diagram is known.

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• Produce BA and draw a line perpendicular to OB through O. The intersection of the two lines
locates the point P. The triangle OAP is the velocity diagram which is similar to the velocity
diagram of Fig. 9(b) rotated through 90° in a direction opposite to that of the crank.
• For acceleration diagram, let r represent fao i.e. length OA = ω2r
This provides the scale for the acceleration diagram.
• Now make the following construction:
➢ Draw a circle with AP as the radius and A as the centre.
➢ Draw another circle with AB as diameter.
➢ Join the points of intersections M and N of the two circles. Let it meet OB at S and AB
at R.
➢ Then OARS is the required acceleration diagram.
• Both Velocity and acceleration diagram can be summarize by following equations:
𝑉𝐴 𝑉𝐵 𝑉𝐴𝐵
= = = 𝜔𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑂𝐴 𝑂𝑃 𝐴𝑃
𝑟 𝑡
𝑎𝐴 𝑎𝐵𝐴 𝑎𝐵𝐴 𝑎𝐵 2
= = = = 𝜔𝑐𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑘
𝑂𝐴 𝐴𝑅 𝑅𝑆 𝑂𝑆

18. MECHANICAL ADVANTAGE (M.A.) OF THE MECHANISM

A mechanical advantage is a form of calculation that measures the amplified force taken by
the mechanical system.
It gives the ratio between the force applied to the load and the force needed to overcome the
given force. It is a unit less expression since the two ratio quantities are the force.
Mechanical advantage is also defined as the force created by the machine to the for applied on
it. The formula of mechanical advantage is given as It is defined as the ratio of output force or
torque to the input force or torque.
Foutput Toutput
Mechanical advantage = =
Finput Tinput

Poutput Toutput  output

Efficiency,  = =
Pinput Tinput  input

output voutput
Mechanical advantage =   = 
input vinput

Example: Estimate the mechanical advantage if 400N force is needed to overcome

the load of 900N.
Solution:
FA = 400N
FB = 900N
The formula of mechanical advantage is
MA = FB / FA
MA = 900 / 400
MA = 2.25

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19. TOGGLE POSITION

• Simple toggle consists of two links which tend to line-up in a straight line at one point in
their motion. The mechanical advantage of the simple toggle above is the velocity ratio of
the input point A to the output point B

Fig.34: 2 link toggle mechanism

• Mechanical advantage
𝐹𝐵 𝑥 𝑣𝐴
= = tan 𝛼 =
𝐹𝐴 𝑦 𝑣𝐵
• As angle alpha approaches 90 degree, CA & AB come in to toggle. And mechanical advantage
becomes infinite.
• This type of mechanism is used in punch presses, riveting machines, stone crusher, etc.
• In 4 bar mechanism toggle position is defined as that position when the angle between the
input link and coupler link is 180°. In such a situation, the velocity of the output link becomes
zero and hence, the mechanical advantage becomes infinite.
19.1. Stone Crusher
• The stone crusher shown uses two toggle linkages in series to obtain high mechanical
advantage.
• When links 2 and 3 are in toggle, links 4 & 5 are also in toggle to produce high
crushing force needed.
• When link 2 reaches the lowest point of its stroke, it comes into toggle with link 3
and at the same time links 4 and 5 come into toggle with each other.
• This configuration results in a very large crushing force.

Fig.35: Stone Crusher

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