OBJECTIVES OF TESTING

The mechanical testing of metals to be used in shipbuilding is carried out to assess and verify
that the properties of the metal are suitable for their intended purpose and match the specification
requirements. Hardness is the property of a material that enables it to resist plastic deformation,
usually by penetration. However, the term hardness may also refer to resistance to bending,
scratching, abrasion or cutting. The objectives of hardness testing are to identify the degree of surface
hardness which is the amount of resistance of a surface to abrasion or indentation.

Measurement of Hardness

Hardness is not an intrinsic material property dictated by precise definitions in terms of fundamental
units of mass, length and time. A hardness property value is the result of a defined measurement
procedure. Hardness of materials has probably long been assessed by resistance to scratching or
cutting. Relative hardness of minerals can be assessed by reference to the Mohs scale that ranks the
ability of materials to resist scratching by another material. Similar methods of relative hardness
assessment are still commonly used today. There are three principal standard test methods for
expressing the relationship between hardness and the size of the impression, these being Brinell,
Vickers, and Rockwell. For practical and calibration reasons, each of these methods is divided into a
range of scales, defined by a combination of applied load and indenter geometry.

Hardness Testing Methods

1. Rockwell Hardness Test

2. Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test
3. Brinell hardness Test
4. Vickers Hardness Test
5. Micro hardness Test
6. Mohs hardness Test
7. Scleroscope and other hardness testing methods
Applications in Shipbuilding Industry In Hardness Testing

It is carried out in order to assess and verify that the properties of the metal are
suitable for their intended purpose and match the specifications requirements. There are
several of tests performed and it includes our topic, hardness testing.

The main reason why hardness testing are required so are because to identify the
degree of surface hardness which is the amount of resistance of a surface to abrasion or
indentation.

Hardness can be measured by using hardness testing machine such as:

1. Brinell

2. Vickers

3. Universal hardness testing machine

A compressive force is applied to the surface of the metal by forcing a small steel ball
into the materials under a set load for a specified time (dwell time) and then measuring the
degree of indentation into its surface. The smaller the indentation produced the harder the
materials.

The hardness value is given as a Brinell hardness number that is either read from a Brinell
References Table or determined by calculation. HN equals the force used to produce the
indentation divided by the surface area of the indentation

Hardness number = Force used ÷ surface area of indentation

Or

Hardness Number = ___ __________Load______________

Area of curved surface of the indentation

To calculate the area of curved surface of indentation use to represent the diameter of the
ball, and D the diameter of the indentation.

For more reliable results when using a Brinell hardness test, it is important to use a ball
diameter suitable for the thickness of material being tested. The thickness of the piece should
be at least eight times greater than the depth of the indentation. Brinell testing balls are made
of either hardened steel or carbide of fixed diameters of 1mm, 5mm or 10mm and these are
selected depending on the thickness of the test specimen.
PROCEDURES
Brinell Hardness Testing

• Prepare the Brinell hardness testing machine for use.

• Obtain a suitable test specimen of the material requiring testing.

• Select the appropriate diameter of ball (hardened or carbide) for the thickness of the
test specimen of a fixed and known diameter.

• Set the required load on the dial.

• Apply a preload by bringing the surface of the test piece in contact with the ball
penetrator.

• Apply a predetermined amount of force to the surface of the test piece causing
indentation.

• Hold the force for a predetermined amount of time before removal. Steel 30 seconds
while softer materials 60 seconds.

• Measure the indentation using the microscope that reads in millimetres across two
diameters. Take several readings and average these out.

• Using a Brinell reference table convert the averaged diameter measurements to a

Brinell Hardness Number. Or calculate the Brinell Hardness Number – H, by using
the formula provided.

FIGURE 1
 • Because of the relatively large indentation left in the surface of the material being
tested the Brinell test can be considered a destructive test because the indentation is
intrusive and permanently remains in the surface and a non-destructive test when the
indentation is tolerated or considered non-intrusive.

Types of materials:

Copper alloys Case hardened steel Zinc

Soft steel Cast iron Lead
Aluminium and
Aluminium Aluminium alloys
manganese alloys
Malleable iron Bearing metals
Steel Phosphor bronze
Hard cast iron Beryllium
Pearlitic malleable iron Copper
Titanium Malleable irons
Table 1: Types of material for Brinell testing.

Rockwell Hardness Testing

• The depth of penetration of an indenter under certain arbitrary test conditions is

determined.

• The indenter may either be a steel ball of some specified diameter or a spherical
diamond-tipped cone of 120° angle and 0.2 mm tip radius, called Brale. The type of
indenter and the test load determine the hardness scale (A, B, C).

• A minor load of 10 kg is first applied, which causes an initial penetration and holds
the indenter in place.

• Then, the dial is set to zero and the major load is applied.

• Upon removal of the major load, the depth reading is taken while the minor load is
still on. The hardness number may then be read directly from the scale.
 • The hardness of ceramic substrates can be determined by the Rockwell hardness test,
according to the specifications of ASTM E-18.

• This test measures the difference in depth caused by two different forces, using a dial
gauge.

• Using standard hardness conversion tables, the Rockwell hardness value is

determined for the load applied the diameter of the indenter, and the indentation
depth.

Vickers Hardness Testing

• For those with extremely hard surfaces, the surface is subjected to a standard pressure
for a standard length of time by means of a pyramid-shaped diamond.

• The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately controlled test force.

• The force is maintained for a specific dwell time, normally 10 – 15 seconds.

• After the dwell time is complete, the indenter is removed leaving an indent in the
sample that appears square shaped on the surface.

• The size of the indent is determined optically by measuring the two diagonals of the
square indent.

• The Vickers hardness number is a function of the test force divided by the surface
area of the indent. The average of the two diagonals is used in the following formula
to calculate the Vickers hardness.

HV = Constant x test force / indent diagonal squared

• The constant is a function of the indenter geometry and the units of force and
diagonal.

• The Vickers number, which normally ranges from HV 100 to HV1000 for metals, will
increase as the sample gets harder.
• Tables are available to make the calculation simple, while all digital test instruments
do it automatically. A typical Vickers hardness is specified as follows:

356HV0.5

- where 356 are the calculated hardness and 0.5 is the test force in kg.

• The diagonal of the resulting indention is measured under a microscope and the
Vickers Hardness value read from a conversion table.
Table 2: Hardness unit conversion table