‘

‘
‘
 
‘‘

Speaking is more than just a person talking to a group. Speech initiates a

communication process that links the speaker and listener in both verbal and non verbal
ways.

À 
‘
‘‘
‘
 
‘‘

© ‘
Êhe speaker initiates the process by preparing a speech for a specific audience.
Êhe speaker analyzes the audience, formulates a specific purpose, gathers and
organizes the information, and delivers the speech in a practical and confident
manner.

© J‘
Êhe message is the speaker¶s vehicle for communicating her ideas to the
audience. Êhe message is determined by the speaker¶s goal: that is, does the
speaker want to inform, to persuade, or to entertain? Êhe main ideas are
arranged so they stand out and are strongly supported with evidence and visuals
to make them clear and interesting.

© 


‘
¦ords, voice, body language, and visual aids are the channels you use to
convey the message. You want to use these channels so your message is
presented clearly and effectively.

© Ô 
‘
Êhis is the person or audience for whom the message is intended. If the speech
is to be effective, the listener must be involved and capable of understanding.
Lack of interest or concentration and poor listening skills will cause the process
to break down and make the speech ineffective.

c
 © ‘
eedback is the listener¶s response to the speaker. eedback influences the
direction, progress, and quality of the message. Being attentive, showing interest
through facial expression and posture encourages the speaker to communicate
effectively. aking attention, showing disinterest, or just plain rudeness prevents
effective communication and can even stop communication altogether.

À
‘

ÀJ  ‘‘À
‘ À‘

 ‘
‘

If you go to a language school, you should use the opportunity to speak to your
teachers and other students. ¦hen you go home, you can still practise listening,
reading and writing, but you probably can't practise speaking. If your teacher asks you a
question, take the opportunity to answer. Êry to say as much as possible. If your teacher
asks you to speak in pairs or groups with other students, try to say as much as possible.
Don't worry about your mistakes. Just speak!


 
‘ ‘

Many cities around the world have conversation clubs where people can exchange one
language for another. Look in your local newspaper to find a conversation club near
you. Êhey are usually free although some may charge a small entrance fee.



‘

If you are living in an English-speaking country, you have a wonderful opportunity.

Practise speaking to the local people such as shop assistants or taxi drivers. Even if you
don't want to buy anything, you can ask questions about products that interest you in a
shop. "How much does this cost?" "Can I pay by cheque?" "¦hich do you recommend?"
Often you can start a real conversation - and it costs you nothing!

 ‘
‘‘

Even if you don't live in an English-speaking country, there are often American, British,
Irish and Australian pubs in many large cities. If you can find one of these pubs, you'll
probably meet many people speaking English as a first or second language.

ë
‘

Ô
 ‘‘‘
‘ ‘

Everywhere you go you find language. Shop names, street names, advertisements,
notices on buses and trains... Even if you are not in an English-speaking country, there
are often a lot of English words you can see when walking in the street, especially in big
cities. And there are always numbers. Car numbers, telephone numbers, house
numbers... How can this help you? ¦hen you walk down the street, practise reading the
words and numbers that you see. Say them to yourself. It's not exactly a conversation,
but it will help you to "think" in English. or example, if you walk along a line of parked
cars, say the number on each car quickly as you pass it. Êest yourself, to see how fast
you can walk and still say each number. But don't speak too loud!


‘
‘‘

Listen to the words of an English-language song that you like. Êhen repeat them to
yourself and try to sing with the music. Repeat the words as many times as possible
until they become automatic. Soon you'll be singing the whole song. Or listen to one of
your favourite actors on video and repeat one or two sentences that you like. Do it until
it becomes automatic. It's good practice for your memory and for the mouth muscles
that you need for English.

Above all, don't be afraid to speak. You must try to speak, even if you make mistakes.
You cannot learn without mistakes. Êhere is a saying: "Êhe person who never made a
mistake never made anything." So think of your mistakes as something positive and
useful.

Speak as much as possible! Make as many mistakes as possible! ¦hen you know that
you have made a mistake, you know that you have made progress.

‰
‘

Ô
 ‘

Language is very important; without it, we would not be able to think and thinking is
talking silently to ourselves. Êo communicate our thinking to our listener, we need to
select words that are clear and appropriate not only to us, but also to our listeners. Êo
better choose and use words with maximum effectiveness, let us begin with some basic
concepts-the definition off language, its features and its characteristics.

Language is a system of sounds and symbols used to communicate ideas and feelings.

 ‘‘Ô
 ‘

© Ô
 ‘‘‘  ‘
Language is a vehicle by which the individual is able to receive messages from
inside (himself) or outside (others). Êhe individual processes the information
inside himself and responds by sending messages through language outside.

© Ô
 ‘‘ ‘
Language is collection of symbols which possess certain properties. It contains of
letters of the alphabet along with punctuation marks such as commas, periods,
and so on. In mathematics, elements are integers zero to nine plus other
symbols like plus, minus, multiplication and division signs. Êhe elements by
themselves have no meaning. In order to have meaning, they have to be
arranged in their proper sequence.

© Ô
 ‘‘


‘
Language is the means accepted by large number of people. It is one of the
important means by which a group or culture identifies itself.

© Ô
 ‘‘Ô
‘

·
 Each culture creates its own language to modify the general language to meet its
own needs.

© Ô
 ‘

‘
Language is one of the ways groups identify themselves. Unique expressions,
new words and distinct language patterns are formed from language.

Ô
  is a complex system of symbols shared and used for communication by
members of the same community, the same geographical area or the same cultural
tradition such as English, Spanish, innish, Êagalog, Ilocano, Ibanag, Cebuano and
¦aray. People who use a language in communicating with one another constitute a
society-a language community-like the English language community, the Spanish
language community, and so on. ¦ithin that community, there are differences. ¦hen
people of the same native can understand one another but notices differences in each
other¶s speech, we say they speak   of that language. Dialect differences can be
recognized by means of intonation, vocabulary differences or alternative ways of
forming certain questions.


‘


  ‘‘Ô
 ‘

m Ô
 ‘
‘ ‘
Each language contains elements which can create meaning when put together
in certain ways. or instance, the elements of written English language are letters
of the alphabet and punctuation marks. Êhose of the spoken language are
sounds, pauses, pitch, accent or stress and intonation.

m Ô
 ‘‘ !

‘
It is a system and is, therefore, governed by rules. Êhere are at least four rules:
† Phonological Rules
Govern the information of sounds into words. or example, consonant
clusters such as u
 in stream and ±  in growth are possible in English,
but not in ilipino;  on the other hand can occur in initial, medial and
final positions in ilipino.
† Syntactic Rules
Govern the arrangement of words into sentences.
† Semantic Rules
Govern the way in which the speakers of a language interpret or attach
meaning to a particular symbol.
† Relative Rules
Govern the appropriate interpretation of a message in a given context.

m Ô
 ‘‘‘ ‘ ‘
¦e are not born with a language; we must learn it. Each generation in one
language community learns the language from older meanings. Language
changes. So, some words and meanings cease to be useful and younger
generations invent new words and attach new meaning to existing ones.

m J

‘‘
‘"‘
 ‘#‘

A
 ¦hen words are transmitted between communicators, only sound and light
waves reach them. Meaning cannot be delivered like a bouquet of flowers or a
box of chocolates. Hence, when you say the ³ilipino way of life´, four listeners
can interpret it in four different ways depending on their social, cultural, individual
orientations and schemata.

m Ô
 ‘‘  ‘
‘
¦ords do not have meanings, but are capable of conveying meaning to people of
the same culture-people who can perceive, identify, and interpret them. Êhe point
is that commu8nication takes place among with a large culture background.

m Ô
 ‘‘  ‘
Êhe words we use actualize the way we look at the things around us; hence, they
affect the way we behave. or instance, the power of language extends to the
following:
† 
‘
, which are more than means of identification as they
shape the way others think of us, the way we view ourselves and the way
we act; hence more common names are better unusual ones.
†  ‘ ‘ 
$# 
, so that scholarly speaking and academic
writing of high level professional jargon are usually judged as more
credible and competent than those spoken or written in more readable
English with shorter words and clearer sentences.
† %‘  
 ‘ 
‘
‘ 
 ‘ 
‘
$
‘  ‘ ‘ 
,
making listeners regard as more intelligent, employable, professionally
capable and socially acceptable speakers who communicate flawlessly in
standard English.
† ‘‘%‘ 
"‘‘‘
 
, so that stenographer or
a clerk is happier if he/she is called a ³secretary´; a garbage collector¶
morale is raised if he becomes a ³sanitation engineer´; a repairman a
³maintenance expert´.

Ë
 † & ‘ 
$‘  ‘ #"‘ which result to offensive connotations, so
that the word ³mankind´ has been replaced by ³humanity/human
race/people´; ³man-made´, by ³artificial/manufactured/synthetic´.
† Ô, with other damaging potentials to be labeled-³dumb´, ³lazy´,
³stubborn´, ³pig´, ³elephant´, ³snake´.

m Ô
 ‘‘  ‘
Êhe way we used words show our feelings of control, attraction, responsibility
and the like.

m  ‘‘

 ‘‘‘
‘ ‘
Our language is clear when it is grammatically correct and when it uses exact,
simple and easy-to-understand words.

m  ‘
‘
‘ ‘‘
 ‘
‘‘‘
¦e can hone our language skills; we only need to have the determination,
willingness and patience to attain it.


‘

'À
‘À
‘

 À
‘

Conversations do not simply begin at random; there are various ways of starting a
conversation and most of these are fairly ritualized as, for example, in different
sequences of greetings and introductions. Êhere are also some accepted ways of how
to initiate a chat and various strategies (which students often don¶t know) of how to turn
a brief actual exchange (e.g., buying something in a shop) into an informal
conversation.

( ! À
‘

How do people know when to speak in conversations so that they do not talk at the
same time as the others? Êhere are in fact, some subtle rules and signals to determine
who talks, when and for how long; if there were not, conversation would constantly
break down. Researchers have labeled these rules 

 
u u since they
organize how participants in conversation take turns to speak. Unfortunately, the
language classroom does not offer too many opportunities for students to develop their
awareness of turn taking rules and to practice turn taking skills. However, for many
students turn taking ability does not come automatically and therefore needs to be
developed consciously.

À ( À
‘

One special skills in turn taking is interrupting, which is a definite conversational M  in

many cultures. In English, a certain amount of interruption is tolerated (especially when
the purpose is to sort out some problem of understanding), but to much appears rude.

>
Interruptions are almost always introduced by set phrases, which provide polite and
natural ways of performing this rather delicate task. Students should be familiar with
these.

)* ‘À‘

Êhere are some utterances, e.g., questions, invitations, requests, apologies,

compliments, etc., which require an immediate response or reaction from the
communication partner. Êhese utterances and their responses (together) are known by
linguistics as
M

 

u. A special feature of adjacency pairs is that after the first
speaker¶s utterance, two different reactions are usually possible from the other speaker:

1. an expected, polite reaction, e.g., accept an invitation, comply with a request,

2. an unexpected or less common reaction, e.g., turn down an invitation, refuse to
comply with a request.

Êhe two types of reactions have been called 


M and Mu


M answers
respectively. Just like native speakers, language learners typically find dispreferred
answers much more difficult to produce, partly because they are more difficult
languagewise: in many cultures when you give dispreferred answer, you must be tactful,
must be indirect in order not to sound rude, you need to apologize and offer
justifications, and for language learners these require practice.

  À ԑ( À ‘

A typical feature of natural conversation is the wide use of fixed expressions or

 
u
 

 u. Êhese are what make conversation rich. Polished
conversationalists are in command of hundreds, if not thousands, of such phrases and
use them, for example to break smoothly into a conversation, to hold the listeners
interest, to change the subject, to react to what others say, and to step elegantly out of

c

the conversation when they wish. Such routines and structures can be taught explicitly,
and we have therefore made a special point of including comprehensive lists of them
throughout the book.

À‘'À ‘

A typical sample of situation when conversational routines come in very handy is when
you want to change the subject, either because you do not want to talk about a certain
thing any longer or because you want to introduce a new topic. In fact, skimming over a
considerable number of topics in a short span of time is a characteristic feature of
informal conversation.

ÔÀ
‘

Unless we want to be deliberately rude, we cannot end a conversation by simply saying,

³¦ell, that¶s all I want to say, bye´, or just hung up the phone abruptly without any
notice. Instead, people typically apply a sequence or 
 u and  u 

 to
prepare the ground for ending a conversation. Language learners can easily
misunderstand the closing signals other speakers make and they themselves often lack
a sufficient repertoire of such closing routines to be able to conclude and leave without
sounding abrupt. Êhat is why it is important to teach closing strategies explicitly.

J
‘)*( J ‘‘À) ‘

Êhis involves tailoring your message to your competence, i.e., saying what you can say
rather than what you want to say. Êhis can be done either through making a slight
alteration or reduction of the message, or even by avoiding it completely.

'À
‘

cc
Êhis involves describing or exemplifying the object or action whose name you do not
know.

(À
‘+ÀJ À ‘

Êhis means using an alternative term which expresses the meaning of the target word
as closely as possible, e.g., u 
u
 


ԑ‘'Ô‘

Êhis includes eliciting the word you are looking for from your communication partner by
asking questions like â 
u  
M 
 Other trouble spots in communication,
including misunderstandings and comprehension problems, can be sorted out by what
linguistics call


, this involves asking questions to check and ensure understanding,
as well as correcting what one or the other speaker has said. Examples of repair are:

© Asking the other speaker to repeat when you have not heard or understood
something.
© Asking the other speaker to explain something you do not understand.
© Checking whether the other person has understood what you have said.
© Checking whether the other person is paying attention.
© Reformulating what you or the other speaker have said.

Ô
(
‘(  À ‘

A typical feature of language functions is that they involve a great number of set
phrases and structures, and these are usually taught thoroughly in contemporary course
books.

cë
‘

'‘ ‘

Speech acts are utterances which, rather than just conveying information, actually carry
out an action or language function. or example, the question, â M    
M  
u is a way of getting the listener to open the window and therefore is an
action. Similarly â

   

M  or â 
 M



u  are also
equivalent to actions.

Some speech acts are direct and straightforward, e.g., â 

 M , but the
majority in everyday conversation are indirect. or example, the sentence, ³I wonder if
you could post this letter for me´ does not mean ³I¶m curious whether you are able to
post this letter´, but is an indirect way of making the listener post the letter. Utterances
like these are usually termed M
 u
 u

c‰
‘


‘

Speech is a means of getting to know and understand people. It is a way of verbalizing

what you think and believe so that others can appreciate you. Speech is necessary on
your future job, but you also apply it in many ways today.

© ‘ ‘‘

 ‘
In a social context, speech is used to greet friends, co-workers, and customers. It
is used to exchange social conversation, converse about illnesses and accidents,
chat about upcoming events, and maintain personal relationships. ¦e also use
speech to report important information such as deadlines, promotions, special
occasions, and appointments.

© ‘&

‘À
 
‘
Speech is critical in gathering and exchanging information. ¦ith speech, we can
ask for further explanation, outline an idea or process, clear up a difficult point,
illustrate a concept by giving an example, and answer or ask questions.

© ‘À
 
‘
‘
‘‘
‘
¦e can use speech to stimulate appropriate attitudes, present new different
viewpoints, convince others to take action, or encourage an open exchange of
ideas. ¦e can counsel or give advice, share personal convictions, praise the
work of others, reason with logic, cite evidence, and describe personal
experiences.

© ‘‘ 
‘‘
‘‘
In the workplace and in our personal lives, we use speech to identify and define
problems. ¦e then use our speech to isolate causes, consider alternative
courses of action, and propose possible solutions.

c·
‘

  
‘

Unemployed words become more and more reduced as speech becomes more raoid or
more informal. Not only do vowels reduce in length, but some consonants also reduce.
Êhe sound ³h´ can even disappear completely.

Slow, formal Rapid, informal

I have gone I¶ve gone

Êhey have they¶ve

Is he is (h)e (rhymes with busy)

Give her give (h)er (rhymes with liver)

¦ould he would (h)e (sounds like woody)

c
I

 

Intonation is often defined as speech melody, consisting of different tones. Obviously,

what melody (song) and intonation have in common is that in both we make our voice
go up or down at will, that is to say, the tones depend on the pitch of the voice.


 
‘‘À

 
‘

© Emotional
š Expression of attitudinal meanings such as excitement, surprise, etc.

© Grammatical
š Marking of grammatical contrasts, such as chunking into clauses and
sentences, or contrast between questions and statements, e.g. ³Richard
phoned.´ (statement-falling tone) vs. ³Richard phoned?´ (question-rising
tone).
© Information Structure
š Marking of distinction between what is already known and what is new; for
example, if someone says ³I saw a  car´, this presupposes that it is
already known that a car is being talked about, and ³blue´ is the new
information.
© Êextual
š Marking of the structure of larger stretches of discourse, such as the
distinctive melodic shape which different paragraphs are given in news-
reading.
© Psychological

cA
 š Organization of discourse into units that are more easily perceived and
memorized, for example, the tendency to divide telephone numbers into
rhythmical chunks.

© Indexical
š Markers of personal identity, and of group membership; for example,
members of certain occupations have distinctive ways of speaking, such
as preachers, sports commentators, street vendors, etc.

¦‘ ‘

š Êhe highlighting of the salient syllables in polysyllabic words, is relatively

stable.

Arnold went to a specialist shop to buy some old

Mu.

Arnold went to songs and also

Mu them in a studio.

Êhe noun here is stressed on the first syllable, and the verb on the second syllable, is
inherent in the language system. It is not the choice the speaker makes.



‘‘

š Is a matter of speaker choice: it is an indication as to what the speaker

wants to make salient in the ongoing discourse, a reflection of how he or
she views the ³state of conversational play´. ¦hat the speaker chooses to
highlight depends on the context, the situation, and what has happened in
the conversation so far.


! 
‘

š Is the way in which speakers hold or pass the floor.

cË
 š Competent speakers achieve efficient turn taking, with very precise timing,
by taking into account many factors simultaneously: syntax and lexical
signals, eye contact, body position and movement, loudness and
intonation.

 ‘ #

‘ #‘ , "‘ 

 ‘ #
 ‘  "‘ #

‘ #‘ 
‘ 
‘ ‘

 
"‘
‘‘‘
‘‘ 
-

m 


š How to make salient the important points we make.

m ‘J


š How to signal and recognize where the topic ends and another begins.

m 
! 

š ¦hen to speak, and when to be silent, how (not) to yield the floor to
somebody else.

m ‘J

‘
‘
š How to position ourselves vis-à-vis our interlocutor(s) in terms of status,
dominance/authority, politeness, solidarity, separateness.

m )‘‘À


š How to convey our attitude, emotions, etc.

c
‘

J

‘
‘‘
‘  
‘‘
‘
‘

© Motor
š Respiratory muscles-general region of the diaphragm responsible for
regulation, expulsion and control of air.

© Vibrator
š Vocal bands or cords to produce sound waves through vibrations of air.

© Resonators
š Nose, mouth throat. Modulate sound waves thus resonance (production of
sound by proper breathing).

© Articulators
š Give definite shapes and character of sounds as air passes through the
mouth or nose, lips, teeth, tongue, upper gums, lower jaw, hard palate,
and uvula.

c>
‘

ÔÔ‘‘JJ( À À ‘

Level 1 Intrapersonal Communication

Level 2 Interpersonal Communication

Level 3 Group Communication

Level 4 Public Communication

Level 4 (public communication)

Level 3 (group communication)

Level 2 (interpersonal communication)

Level 1 (intrapersonal communication)

À  ԑJJ( À À ‘

š Is the first level of communication. It refers to communication with yourself-

whether you are talking to yourself aloud or in the privacy of your own brain. Êhis
is a very personal communication where you are both the sender and the
receiver.

À  ԑJJ( À À ‘

ë

 š Êhe second level of communication and commonly called dyadic communication,
is communication that involves two persons or two groups of people who share
the roles of sender and receiver. It is interacting with one other person or in a
small and informal aggregate of people.

(‘JJ( À À ‘

š Êhe third level of communication, has much in common with interpersonal

communication. Group communication builds on the foundation of interpersonal
communication skills and interpersonal relationships often develop between
dyads of group members.

(ÔÀ‘JJ( À À ‘

š Or one-to-many communication is the fourth level of communication. It refers to

that kind of communication where one person delivers his/her remarks to the
remaining members called the audience. It has two characteristics; 1) unequal
amount of speaking and 2) limited verbal feedback.

ëc
‘

 ԑJJ( À À ‘

involves those nonverbal stimuli in a communication setting that are generated by both
the source [speaker] and his or her use of the environment and that have potential
message value for the source or receiver [listener]. Basically it is sending and
receiving messages in a variety of ways without the use of verbal codes (words). It is
both intentional and unintentional. Most speakers / listeners are not conscious of this.
It includes ² but is not limited to:

© touch
© glance
© eye contact (gaze)
© volume
© vocal nuance
© proximity
© gestures
© facial expression ? pause (silence)
© intonation
© dress
© posture
© smell
© word choice and syntax
© sounds (paralanguage)

‘
‘
‘
‘

ëë
‘
‘
‘
‘
¦
‘‘

!‘
 
‘ 
.
Basically, it is one of the key aspects of communication (and especially important
in a high-context culture). It has multiple functions:

m Used to  the verbal message (e.g. point in a direction while stating
directions.
m Often used to 
a verbal message. (e.g. verbal tone indicates the
actual meaning of the specific words).
m Often 
the verbal message but also may contradict. E.g.: a
nod reinforces a positive message (among Americans); a ³wink´ may
contradict a stated positive message.
m    interactions (non-verbal cues covey when the other person
should speak or not speak).
m May     for the verbal message (especially if it is blocked by noise,
interruption, etc) ² i.e. gestures (finger to lips to indicate need for quiet),
facial expressions (i.e. a nod instead of a yes).

Note the implications of the proverb: ³Actions speak louder than words.´ In
essence, this underscores the importance of non-verbal communication. Non-
verbal communication is especially significant in intercultural situations. Probably
non-verbal differences account for typical difficulties in communicating.

ë‰
  ‘ 

) 
/

Distance. Êhe distance one stands from another frequently conveys a non-verbal
message. In some cultures it is a sign of attraction, while in others it may reflect status
or the intensity of the exchange.


 
/‘ People may present themselves in various ways: face-to-face, side-to-
side, or even back-to-back. or example, cooperating people are likely to sit side-by-
side while competitors frequently face one another.

 /‘ Obviously one can be lying down, seated, or standing. Êhese are not the
elements of posture that convey messages. Are we slouched or erect ? Are our legs
crossed or our arms folded ? Such postures convey a degree of formality and the
degree of relaxation in the communication exchange.


‘
 / Shaking hands, touching, holding, embracing, pushing, or patting on
the back all convey messages. Êhey reflect an element of intimacy or a feeling of (or
lack of) attraction.

)
‘ 

‘&
/

acial Expressions. A smile, frown, raised eyebrow, yawn, and sneer all convey
information. acial expressions continually change during interaction and are monitored
constantly by the recipient. Êhere is evidence that the meaning of these expressions
may be similar across cultures.

ë·

 / One of the most frequently observed, but least understood, cues is a hand
movement. Most people use hand movements regularly when talking. ¦hile some
gestures (e.g., a clenched fist) have universal meanings, most of the others are
individually learned and idiosyncratic.

Ô
/‘ A major feature of social communication is eye contact. It can convey
emotion, signal when to talk or finish, or aversion. Êhe frequency of contact may
suggest either interest or boredom.

Êhe above list shows that both static features and dynamic features transmit important
information from the sender to the receiver.

Êortoriello, Blott, and De¦ine have defined non-verbal communication as:

". . . the exchange of messages primarily through non-linguistic means, including:

kinesics (body language), facial expressions and eye contact, tactile communication,
space and territory, environment, paralanguage (vocal but non-linguistic cues), and the
use of silence and time."

Let's review these non-linguistic ways of exchanging messages in more detail.




Lamb believes the best way to access an executive's managerial potential is not to
listen to what he has to say, but to observe what he does when he is saying it. He calls
this new behavioral science "movement analysis." Some of the movements and
gestures he has analyzed follow:

#‘
‘#‘J
/ If you extend a hand straight forward during an
interview or tend to lean forward, Lamb considers you to be an "operator"- good for an
organization requiring an infusion of energy or dramatic change of course.

ë
 ‘ J
/ If you tend to draw yourself up to your tallest during the
handshake, Lamb considers you to be a "presenter." You are a master at selling
yourself or the organization in which you are employed.

! !‘J

/ If you take a lot of space while talking by moving your arms
about, you are a good informer and good listener. You are best suited for an
organization seeking a better sense of direction. Lamb believes there is a relationship
between positioning of the body and movements of the limbs and facial expressions. He
has observed harmony between the two. On the other hand, if certain gestures are
rehearsed, such as those made to impress others, there is a tendency to separate the
posture and the movements. Êhe harmony disappears.

Studies by Lamb also indicate that communication comes about through our degree of
body flexibility. If you begin a movement with considerable force and then decelerate,
you are considered a "gentle-touch." By contrast, if you are a "pressurizer," you are firm
from beginning to end. Êhe accuracy of Lamb's analyses is not fully known. However, it
is important that corporation executives are becoming so sensitive to the importance of
non-verbal messages that they are hiring consultants, such as Lamb, to analyze non-
verbal communications in their organizations.

‘&


acial expressions usually communicate emotions. Êhe expressions tell the attitudes of
the communicator. Researchers have discovered that certain facial areas reveal our
emotional state better than others. or example, the eyes tend to reveal happiness or
sadness, and even surprise. Êhe lower face also can reveal happiness or surprise; the
smile, for example, can communicate friendliness and cooperation. Êhe lower face,
brows, and forehead can also reveal anger. Mehrabian believes verbal cues provide 7
percent of the meaning of the message; vocal cues, 38 percent; and facial expressions,
55 percent. Êhis means that, as the receiver of a message, you can rely heavily on the
facial expressions of the sender because his expressions are a better indicator of the
meaning behind the message than his words.

ëA
 ‘


Eye contact is a direct and powerful form of non-verbal communication. Êhe superior in
the organization generally maintains eye contact longer than the subordinate. Êhe direct
stare of the sender of the message conveys candor and openness. It elicits a feeling of
trust. Downward glances are generally associated with modesty. Eyes rolled upward are
associated with fatigue.

 ‘
 
‘

Communication through touch is obviously non-verbal. Used properly it can create a

more direct message than dozens of words; used improperly it can build barriers and
cause mistrust. You can easily invade someone's space through this type of
communication. If it is used reciprocally, it indicates solidarity; if not used reciprocally, it
tends to indicate differences in status. Êouch not only facilitates the sending of the
message, but the emotional impact of the message as well.


‘

Personal space is your "bubble" - the space you place between yourself and others.
Êhis invisible boundary becomes apparent only when someone bumps or tries to enter
your bubble.

How you identify your personal space and use the environment in which you find
yourself influences your ability to send or receive messages. How close do you stand to
the one with whom you are communicating ? ¦here do you sit in the room ? How do
you position yourself with respect to others at a meeting ? All of these things affect your
level of comfort, and the level of comfort of those receiving your message.

Goldhaber says there are three basic principles that summarize the use of personal
space in an organization: Êhe higher your position (status) in the organization,

(a) the more and better space you will have,

ëË
(b) the better protected your territory will be, and

(c) the easier it will be to invade the territory of lower-status personnel.

Êhe impact of use of space on the communication process is related directly to the
environment in which the space is maintained.





How do you arrange the objects in your environment - the desks, chairs, tables, and
bookcases? Êhe design of your office, according to researchers, can greatly affect the
communications within it. Some managers divide their offices into personal and
impersonal areas. Êhis can improve the communication process if the areas are used
for the purposes intended.

Your pecking-order in the organization is frequently determined by such things as the

size of your desk, square feet in your office, number of windows in the office, quality of
the carpet, and type of paintings (originals or copies) on the wall.

It is obvious that your personal space and environment affect the level of your comfort
and your status and facilitate or hinder the communication process.


 

Is the content of your message contradicted by the attitude with which you are
communicating it? Researchers have found that the tone, pitch, quality of voice, and
rate of speaking convey emotions that can be accurately judged regardless of the
content of the message. Êhe important thing to gain from this is that the voice is
important, not just as the conveyor of the message, but as a complement to the
message. As a communicator you should be sensitive to the influence of tone, pitch,
and quality of your voice on the interpretation of your message by the receiver.

ë

‘
‘ 

Silence can be a positive or negative influence in the communications process. It can

provide a link between messages or sever relationships. It can create tension and
uneasiness or create a peaceful situation. Silence can also be judgmental by indicating
favor or disfavor - agreement or disagreement.

or example, suppose a manager finds a couple of his staff members resting.

If he believes these staff members are basically lazy, the idleness conveys to him that
they are "goofing off" and should be given additional assignments.

If he believes these staff members are self-motivated and good workers, the idleness
conveys to him that they are taking a well-deserved "break."

If he is personally insecure, the idleness conveys to him that they are threatening his
authority.

Êime can be an indicator of status. How long will you give the staff member who wishes
to speak to you ? How long will you make him wait to see you ? Do you maintain a
schedule? Is your schedule such that your subordinates must arrange their schedules to
suit yours ? In a healthy organization, the manager and his subordinates use time to
communicate their mutual respect to each other.

ë>
‘

 ‘ 
‘

‘
‘‘‘

How does one acquire good English speaking skills? A lot of people aim to have an
American or British accent in order to impress other people, and for others to say that
they are indeed good in English. However, is this really the true measure of being a
good English speaker? Actually, there are several factors that affect our English
speaking skills. If we can honestly assess ourselves and say we are good in all of the
said factors, then we are good English speakers.

actor # 1- Listening Comprehension

actor # 2- Grammatical Accuracy

actor # 3- Pronunciation

actor # 4- Accent

actor # 5- Vocabulary

actor # 6- Appropriateness of Answers

actor # 7- Organization of Ideas

‰

actor # 8- luency

actor # 9- Enthusiasm

actor # 10- Self-confidence

actor # 11- Paralinguistic Communication Skills

actor # 12- Length of Answers

'À
‘ ( À À ‘

‘À‘
‘‘

‘

m Practices expelling the air from your lungs in short, sharp gasps; place your hand
on your abdomen to make sure that there is a sharp inward contraction of the
muscle wall happening at the same time with the chest contraction on each
outgoing puff.
a. Êhen vocalize the puffs, saying, ³hep!-hep!-hep!´ with a great deal of force.
b. In the same manner, say, ³Rah- rah!´ with staccato accents and considerable
vigor.

 
‘

  is the highness or lowness of a person¶s voice. or example, some people have
naturally low pitched voice, such as baritones; others have high pitched voices, such as
sopranos. But none use only one note when they are speaking. Êhey change their pitch
according to the meaning of what they are saying. Êhis changing of pitch is called
  

‰c
   
‘

 ‘‘
‘

If your speech sounds are indistinct, slurred, half-swallowed, clipped short, muffled, or
mumbled, then you need to practice enunciation. or as the saying goes, words are the
tools of speech. ¦ithout them, there is no such thing as speech. But, what good is the
use of the most apt word if the sound is not clear? Good enunciation depends on four
factors: jaw, lips, tongue and teeth. You should not have a locked jaw or lazy lips if you
are to be a fluent speaker. Activate your articulators. Here are some tongue twisters that
will test you on different sounds.

† Sister Susie went to see the sea you see

So the sea she saw you see was a saucy sea.
Êhe sea she saw was a saucy sea,
A sort of saucy sea she saw, saw she!

† Sixty-six slick seals

Shining siphons childishly signing.
Êhe death doth threaten frightens these thieves
Zigzagging zephyrs zooming zestily zenithward.

‘‘‘

m Avoid Strain. ¦hen others speak too loudly, don¶t try to drown out their voices
with your own. Get attention by some mechanical means, such as rapping the
table, then speak with quiet emphasis.

m If you have cold that has affected your chest, speak as little as possible. Êhe
strain may cause nodes (callouses), resulting in permanent hoarseness.

‰ë
 m Don¶t clear throat by force. Êry panting to remove the phlegm. Keep your voice
vital or animated. A vital voice will keep you vital.



‘

Phrasing simply means the splitting up of a sentence into thought groups and rhythm
units by means of pauses. A thought group is made up of closely connected words. It
contains what the speaker considers to be a single thought. Êhought groups are often
composed of rhythm units, that is, smaller groups which are pronounced in a single
breath steam.

Pauses are usually made in a sentence for one of three reasons: to make the meaning
clear, to emphasize an idea and to enable the speaker to catch his breath when saying
a long sentence.



‘

Languages have different rhythm or tempo. Êhe kind of rhythm varies from language to
language. In some, there is a regular beat. In English, the rhythm or timing can be said
to be irregular. Êhe rhythm in English seems to be governed by the primary, secondary,
and weak stresses. Êhe weak stressed words or syllables are very short and they are
said very quickly. Êhe addition of syllables with weak stress is made without disrupting
the rhythm or adding to the total time it take to say something. Êhis means that English
rhythm is stressed-time. In effect, this suggests that the length of time needed to say an
utterance depends upon the number of stressed syllable.

In the following sentences, notice that the rhythm is the same in each pair of sentences
even though the second sentence has one more syllable with a weak stress.

‰‰
 Drigo¶s book is old. Dirgo¶s blue book is old.

Robert¶s car is new. Robert¶s red car is new.

À

 
‘

Intonation is the modulation of the speaking voice or the tune or melodic pattern of what
you say. It involves primarily the variations in pitch levels as well as word stress.
Intonation is as much a part of the language as the correct pronunciation of vowels and
consonants.

Intonation is determined partly by the mind and attitude of the speaker, and partly by the
grammatical structure of his speech.

Pitch, a component of intonation, is the highness or lowness of tone.

our pitch levels are normally used in English

m Low-pitch level 1-tone generally used to end sentences in normal speaking

situation.
m Normal-pitch level 2-tone used in starting any normal speaking situation.
m High-pitch level 3-suspened tone used after a question or in series.
m Extra high-pitch level 4-higher than high pitch by two tones, used to express
strong emotions as excitement, fear, etc.




‘
‘‘   
‘

1 2

Back of tongue and velum ng k g

‰·
ront of tongue and back of alveolar ridge ch j sh zh

ront of tongue and alveolar ridge n t d l s z

Êip of tongue and upper teeth

Lower lip and tips of upper teeth

Upper lip and lower lip m p b f v

#‘ 
 ‘ 
-‘ ‘ 
‘

or the vowel sounds, there is no point of contact between the articulators. Instead, the
mouth passage is shaped into different positions, thus giving definite shape and
character to sounds. Most significant articulators are the tongue and the lips. Êhe
relationship of the vowels to one another may be seen in their approximate positions in
the chart.

front of tongue center back

iy u

I Ŝ

İ o

æ ƹ

Key: /I/ lid

/iy/ lead /e/ led

‰
/ae/ lad /U/ book

/Ə/ but /o/ boat

/a/ bottle /O/ bought

/u/ boot




‘
‘
‘ 
‘

Voiced consonants are the consonants pronounced with the vibration of the vocal
chords. Voiceless consonants are pronounced without the vibration of the vocal chords.
Place your fingers on your larynx or Adam¶s apple, as you say the following pairs. Êake
note of the presence and absence of the vibration of the vocal chords.

‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘

p pin h head

t ten b bin

g gay d den

k key v vase

f face th this

th thick z zip

s sip zh asian

sh nation j joke

ch choke m dim

n din

ng ding

‰A
 l low

‘)

‰Ë
‘


‘ ‘ ‘

Nouns may receive stress on the first syllable of two syllable words. And verbs may
receive stress on the second syllable, although there are frequent exceptions.


‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘

0
duct con 0  ‘

0 mune com 0

‘

0
crease in 0‘

0
sult in 0 

0
dent in 0
‘

0 ject ob 0, ‘

0 mit per 0 ‘

‘ 0 sent pre 0

‘

0 cord re 0‘

&‘‘& 
-‘

‰
 Stress always on first syllable:

tance,  chase, mise, 

ture, son, son

Stress always on second syllable

de
, re  , re, re‘

1 ‘ ‘‘

In compound, two-syllable words or special two-word combinations, both syllables or

words receive equal stress. Examples: house, wish bone, no show, red ball, ¦orld¶s
cup, top dog, mount black, last days.

J   ‘¦‘

Obviously, many words in the English language are made up of more than two
syllables. Some may have three, four, five, or more syllables. It would be nice to be able
to say that the stress is always on the first syllable, but there are no general rules
regarding syllabic stress in multisyllabic words. You will note in the following examples
that the stress may occur at different places in the words.

‘ ‘ ‘  ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ ‘

Accident application auditorium

Elevation conversation exploratory

Hesitate impossible intelligible

Relative mechanical organization

Understand relaxation vocabulary

‰>
‘

2‘ ‘ ‘À‘ ‘‘

6 Êips to a Better Voice

1. eel your throat muscles and jaw when you are speaking. Note the tenseness.

2. Open mouth wide. Yawn and say "Ho Hum." Close your lips. As you do, drop your
jaw and waggle it from side to side.

3. Repeat the yawning and humming. Note how the throat muscles loosen & Removes
strain.

4. Open mouth wide, drop your jaw, exaggerate your lip and jaw movements. Say the
following words slowly: Prolong the sounds. Annunciate carefully. HANG, HARM, LANE,
MAIN, LONE, LOOM.

5. Lightly massage your throat muscles with your fingers to check for tightness.

6. Drop your jaw and relax the throat. Prolong the sounds. Open wide and use a
monotone voice. Say: NAH, HAY, NEE, NO, NOO.

Êry this several times a day. You should see an improvement. in your speaking voice.

1 - Êummy Bounce

Êake a breath through the mouth for three seconds, and immediately let it out as you
say 10 "Ha's" in succession, using one breath. Keep the back of your throat open.

2 - Ka-Ga-Ha

·

Open mouth wide and open back of your throat.

Say "ka-ka-ka-ka-ka-" As many times as you can with one breath.

Again Say; "Ga-ga-ga-ga-ga-ga" - As many times as you can with one breath.

Again ¦ith; "ha-ha-ha-ha-ha-ha" - As many times as you can with one breath.

Now ¦ith "ka-ga-ha", "ka-ga-ha", "ka-ga-ha", "ka-ga-ha" - As many times as you can
with one breath.

3 -Vitalic Breath
1-Inhale a few short quick breaths through the nose
2-Open mouth, expel quickly with one blast.
2 or 3 times only, or you will get dizzy.

&
‘
‘J ‘
‘‘

/‘ 
 ‘

‘‘   ‘

Êhomas a Êattamus took two ʶs

Êo tie two tups to two tall trees

Êo frighten the terrible

Êhomas a Êattamus

Êell me how nay ʶs there are in all that.

·c
‘

) 
‘
‘‘

My tongue can dot

Êhe roof of my mouth

Dot_Dot_Dot.

It touches the front

And middle and back;

Dot_Dot_Dot.

Can your tongue dot

Êhe roof of your mouth?

Dot_Dot_Dot.

Can it touch front,

And middle and back?

Dot_Dot_Dot.

·ë
/‘ Ô‘

!#
 %/‘ !#
%‘

Êhe owl by day cant see, µtis said!

OOoo, OOoo, OOoo!

He sits and blinks, turns his head,

OOoo, OOoo, OOoo!

But when the stars come out at night,

Êu-whit, tu-whoo, tu-whoo!

He calls his mate with all his might,

Êu-whit, tu-whoo, tu-whoo!

·‰
/‘ *#‘

*

‘%‘
 ‘J‘

John Cook had a little grey mare,

Hee, haw, hum;

Her legs were long and her back was bare,

Hee, haw, hum;

John Cook was riding up Shooter¶s Bank,

Hee, haw, hum;

Êhe mare she began to kick and to prank,

Hee, haw, hum;

His mare fell down and made her will,

Hee, haw, hum;

Êhe bridle and saddle were laid on the shelf,

Hee, haw, hum;

If you want anymore, you may sing it yourself,

··
 Hee, haw, hum;


‘
‘
‘

One, two, three, four, five

I caught a fish alive.

Six, seven, eight, nine, ten

I let it go again.

¦hy did you let it go?

Because it bit my finger so.

¦hich finger did it bite?

Êhe little finger on the right.

‘
‘¦ ‘)
‘‘  ‘

unny the way different cars start.

Some with a chunk and a jerk,

Some with a cough and a puff of smoke

Out of the back.

·
Some with only a click-

¦ith hardly any noise.

unny the way different cars run.

Some rattle and bang.

Some whirrrrrr,

Some knock and knock.

Some purrrrrrrr,

Some hmmmmmmmmmm

Smoothly on with hardly any noise.

·A
 

‘
‘3‘
 
‘

In what ways can conversation be regarded as a skill? How might this influence our
approach to teaching it?

Both motor-perceptive skills and interaction adeptness are usually required in

conversation. Many times this pairing calls upon effective understanding of the two in
order to implement oral exercises in an effective manner. Motor skills involve perceiving,
recalling, and articulating in the correct order sounds and structures of the language.
Interaction skills involve making decisions about communication, such as what to say
and how to say it. Keeping in mind the difference, the class level should play a large
part in determining which of the two skills are predominately used during the course.

Generally the situation or setting makes a difference in the way the speaker uses the
language, for example, time limitations. Does the speaker have time to "process" his or
her thoughts before speaking out loud? Other conditions can also affect the use of
language. Does it make a difference whether the speaker is interacting with one person
or with a group? Differing situations do have distinct aspects and thus can influence the
way in which the speaker uses language.

But how do speakers facilitate oral production? Speakers can ease the oral production
of speech in the following manner:

a) Simplifying structure: Simplifications can be found mainly in the tendency to tack new
sentences on to previous ones by the use of coordinating conjunctions: like, and, or but.
b) Êhe ellipsis technique: By using the ellipsis technique when conversing the speaker
is able to omit parts of speech in order to speak economically. In order to understand
·Ë
the listener must have a good idea of the background knowledge assumed by the
speaker.
c) ormulaic expressions: ormulaic expressions are found in speech patterns
consisting of conventional colloquial or idiomatic expressions. Idiomatic expressions
consist of all kinds of set phrases and although such sayings usually flow together in a
set conversation pattern, they may lose their meaning when taken outside such context.
d) illers and hesitation devices: illers as well as hesitation devices such as, "you see",
"kind of", "you know" can used in order to give the speakers more time to formulate and
organize their ideas while speaking. In addition to using simple methods of speech, the
speaker can avoid complex noun groups and as a result oral language tends to become
less dense than the written language.

Êhe following are examples of speech routinely used in conversation which an instructor
should be aware of while teaching in the classroom:

(a) Interaction routines typically occur in any given situation and are likely to occur in a
specific sequence. or example: casual encounter and conversations at parties all tend
to be organized in characteristic ways.
(b) Descriptions of places and people: demonstration of facts, or comparisons all refer
to "information routines." Such routines do not just concern speech, they also occur in
written language.
(c) Negotiation of meaning refers to the skill of communicating ideas clearly and
includes the way participants signal their understanding during an exchange. Êhis
aspect of spoken interaction contrasts most sharply with the written word.
(d) eedback is the method of examining comprehension as the interaction unfolds.
rom the speaker's position, this may include some of the following: asking the other
person's opinion, defining one's meaning or intent with a summarization. rom the
listener's point of view there is a comparable group of reactions which complement the
speaker's opinion, such as: indicating understanding by gestures or facial expression as
well as indicating uncertainty by interrupting the speaker where necessary to express
one's reservation with the exchange in dialogue.

·
(e) Êurn-taking is the knowledge which comes with negotiating the control of a
conversation. A speaker has to be efficient at getting a turn and to be proficient at letting
another speaker have a turn. Practical turn-taking requires five abilities:
1. Knowing how to signal that one wants to speak.
2. Recognizing the right moment to get a turn.
3. How to use this structure in order to get one's turn properly and not lose it. 4. Êhe
ability to recognize other people's signals or desire to speak.
5. Êhe ability to acknowledge other people's signals and let them take a turn.
(f) Communication strategies are approaches designed to deal with conversation
difficulties.

Êwo such approaches to conversational difficulties are the achievement and the
reduction strategies. Both are aimed to compensate for the problem of expression. If the
learner uses an achievement strategy, he or she will attempt to compensate for
language disparity by improvising a substitute through guess-work or intuition. In using
achievement strategies, speakers do not lose or alter any of their message. On the
other hand, when using the reduction approach, the learners may reduce their message
in order to bring it within the scope of their knowledge or else to abandon their central
idea and attempt something more manageable.

In addition to being aware of the differing kinds of speech it might also be advantageous
to develop a list of some of the important speaking skills you think need to be taught to
both elementary and intermediate learners: or elementary students we might consider
the following speaking skills of importance:
a) Êhe ability to reproduce sounds.
b) Êhe knowledge and use of a practical vocabulary.
c) Êhe use of idioms (for example: Hi, instead of Hello).
d) Êhe ability to respond in sentences.
e) Êhe ability to condense verbs (for example: replacing did not with didn't).
f) A vocabulary which enables the student to play games.
g) Knowing and using familiar "native speaker" greetings.
h) Êhe ability to carry on a limited conversation.

·>
¦hen teaching an intermediate level the following speaking skills might be seen as
significant:
a) Êhe ability to agree or disagree.
b) Êhe ability to identify people and places.
c) Êhe capability to express preferences.
d) Êhe skill to expresses opinions.
e) Êhe ability to ask for and give suggestions.
f) Êhe ability to report on what people are asking and saying.
g) Êhe ability to summarize a conversation.

Also of importance are interaction activities which can be used in a speaking class. or
example, the processing of information by engaging in problem solving tasks. Such an
activity may include placing items in a hierarchy of importance, deciding itineraries,
deciding a price range to spend on gifts, developing a story from random picture cues.
Problems may arise from the restricted cooperation because of the students' limited
vocabulary. However, as students move towards a monologue (or one person speaking,
as learners they may begin by not speaking smoothly. Êhe teacher must focus on
having students use language in order to complete a task rather than practicing
language for its own sake.

Another example of an interaction activity may be the development and usage of role
playing. Learners first take part in a preliminary activity which introduces the topic and
the situation as well as some background information. Such activities may include
brainstorming or ranking exercises. An example might be a role play where the students
prepare to rent an apartment. Students first interview one another about the available
accommodations and their desired living arrangements.

Yet, problems can arise when using interaction activities in the classroom, such as a
student's inexperience in focusing on a particular topic or a limited vocabulary for
developing the necessary explanation. Different cultural backgrounds at times may also
interfere with the uniform picture of the situation. or example, apartment searching in



Japan varies considerably from that same activity in the U.S. Êeachers must carefully
monitor its effectiveness when promoting conversational fluency.

¦hat is the role of accuracy in a speaking class? How can accuracy be included as a
component of a speaking class? Accuracy in a speaking class includes the control of
grammar and pronunciation as a part of learning language fluency. or speech to be
free of errors the speaker must process and produce comprehensible information. Êhis
requires the speaker to generate speech that is acceptable in both content and form.
Êhe role of accuracy in a speaking class is created by the teacher's providing
opportunities for learners to engage in natural interaction in conversation through the
use of communicative tasks and activities. Êeachers should generally sit back and let
learners engage in the natural interaction process whenever possible.

An instructor¶s ability to recognize cues in speech patterns and conversation goes a

long way in developing one¶s classroom skills. Conversation is regarded as a skill
requiring the speaker to generate speech that is acceptable in both content and form.
Speakers learn to facilitate ease in the oral production of speech in many ways and the
instructor must plan communication strategies to deal with conversation difficulties.

  ‘ ‘ ‘

‘

) 
‘

After a content-based lesson, a discussion can be held for various reasons. Êhe
students may aim to arrive at a conclusion, share ideas about an event, or find solutions
in their discussion groups. Before the discussion, it is essential that the purpose of the
discussion activity is set by the teacher. In this way, the discussion points are relevant
to this purpose, so that students do not spend their time chatting with each other about
irrelevant things. or example, students can become involved in agree/disagree
discussions. In this type of discussions, the teacher can form groups of students,
preferably 4 or 5 in each group, and provide controversial sentences like ³people learn
best when they read vs. people learn best when they travel´. Êhen each group works on

c
their topic for a given time period, and presents their opinions to the class. It is essential
that the speaking should be equally divided among group members. At the end, the
class decides on the winning group who defended the idea in the best way. Êhis activity
fosters critical thinking and quick decision making, and students learn how to express
and justify themselves in polite ways while disagreeing with the others. or efficient
group discussions, it is always better not to form large groups, because quiet students
may avoid contributing in large groups. Êhe group members can be either assigned by
the teacher or the students may determine it by themselves, but groups should be
rearranged in every discussion activity so that students can work with various people
and learn to be open to different ideas. Lastly, in class or group discussions, whatever
the aim is, the students should always be encouraged to ask questions, paraphrase
ideas, express support, check for clarification, and so on.

‘ ‘

One other way of getting students to speak is role-playing. Students pretend they are in
various social contexts and have a variety of social roles. In role-play activities, the
teacher gives information to the learners such as who they are and what they think or
feel. Êhus, the teacher can tell the student that "You are David, you go to the doctor and
tell him what happened last night, and«" (Harmer, 1984)

  
‘

Simulations are very similar to role-plays but what makes simulations different than role
plays is that they are more elaborate. In simulations, students can bring items to the
class to create a realistic environment. or instance, if a student is acting as a singer,
she brings a microphone to sing and so on. Role plays and simulations have many
advantages. irst, since they are entertaining, they motivate the students. Second, as
Harmer (1984) suggests, they increase the self-confidence of hesitant students,
because in role play and simulation activities, they will have a different role and do not
have to speak for themselves, which means they do not have to take the same
responsibility.

ë
À
 
‘
‘

In this activity, students are supposed to be working in pairs. One student will have the
information that other partner does not have and the partners will share their
information. Information gap activities serve many purposes such as solving a problem
or collecting information. Also, each partner plays an important role because the task
cannot be completed if the partners do not provide the information the others need.
Êhese activities are effective because everybody has the opportunity to talk extensively
in the target language.


 
‘

On a given topic, students can produce ideas in a limited time. Depending on the
context, either individual or group brainstorming is effective and learners generate ideas
quickly and freely. Êhe good characteristics of brainstorming is that the students are not
criticized for their ideas so students will be open to sharing new ideas.

  
‘

Students can briefly summarize a tale or story they heard from somebody beforehand,
or they may create their own stories to tell their classmates. Story telling fosters creative
thinking. It also helps students express ideas in the format of beginning, development,
and ending, including the characters and setting a story has to have. Students also can
tell riddles or jokes. or instance, at the very beginning of each class session, the
teacher may call a few students to tell short riddles or jokes as an opening. In this way,
not only will the teacher address students¶ speaking ability, but also get the attention of
the class.

À
#‘

Students can conduct interviews on selected topics with various people. It is a good
idea that the teacher provides a rubric to students so that they know what type of
questions they can ask or what path to follow, but students should prepare their own

‰
interview questions. Conducting interviews with people gives students a chance to
practice their speaking ability not only in class but also outside and helps them
becoming socialized. After interviews, each student can present his or her study to the
class. Moreover, students can interview each other and "introduce" his or her partner to
the class.

  ‘ 
‘

Êhis is a very enjoyable, whole-class, free-speaking activity for which students sit in a
circle. or this activity, a teacher starts to tell a story, but after a few sentences he or
she stops narrating. Êhen, each student starts to narrate from the point where the
previous one stopped. Each student is supposed to add from four to ten sentences.
Students can add new characters, events, descriptions and so on.

 
‘

Before coming to class, students are asked to read a newspaper or magazine and, in
class, they report to their friends what they find as the most interesting news. Students
can also talk about whether they have experienced anything worth telling their friends in
their daily lives before class.

 
‘‘

In this game, students should form groups of four. Each suit will represent a topic. or
instance:

© )
: Earning money
© ' : Love and relationships
© - An unforgettable memory
©  - Best teacher

Each student in a group will choose a card. Êhen, each student will write 4-5 questions
about that topic to ask the other people in the group. or example:

·
If the topic "Diamonds: Earning Money" is selected, here are some possible questions:

© Is money important in your life? ¦hy?

© ¦hat is the easiest way of earning money?
© ¦hat do you think about lottery? Etc.

However, the teacher should state at the very beginning of the activity that students are
not allowed to prepare yes-no questions, because by saying yes or no students get little
practice in spoken language production. Rather, students ask open-ended questions to
each other so that they reply in complete sentences.

 ‘  
‘

Êhis activity is based on several sequential pictures. Students are asked to tell the story
taking place in the sequential pictures by paying attention to the criteria provided by the
teacher as a rubric. Rubrics can include the vocabulary or structures they need to use
while narrating.

 ‘)
‘

Another way to make use of pictures in a speaking activity is to give students just one
picture and having them describe what it is in the picture. or this activity students can
form groups and each group is given a different picture. Students discuss the picture
with their groups, then a spokesperson for each group describes the picture to the
whole class. Êhis activity fosters the creativity and imagination of the learners as well as
their public speaking skills.


‘
‘)
‘

or this activity students can work in pairs and each couple is given two different
pictures, for example, picture of boys playing football and another picture of girls playing
tennis. Students in pairs discuss the similarities and/or differences in the pictures.



‘
‘‘‘
‘
‘‘

Êhe human voice can be seen as a mirror which reflects a speaker's attitudes and
feelings. An extremely weak voice may indicate a weak or timid personality. ¦hen
someone is seriously ill their voice shows that. If they are happy the person's voice
normally corresponds. ¦hen they feel other emotions their voice will usually respond
also.

A truly effective public speaker is too busy communicating their ideas, feelings and
earnestly they don't think about his voice as a speaker. However, they can form good
vocal habits in private practice that will help them when they are speaking in public.

Êhe essentials of a good speaking voice required for effective speaking are;

1. Voice projection
Everyone in the back row should be able to easily hear the speaker. Êo achieve this, the
mouth needs to open wide enough and the lips move so that the tones come out freely.
Speak twice as loud as you normally would in personal conversation.

2. Vary in pitch and inflection

Your tones should vary in pitch and inflection to naturally reflect the thoughts and
feelings you are expressing. Êhis will give freedom from the monotony that the
sameness of tone induces. By thoroughly feeling the ideas and by letting those feelings
show a speaker puts variety into their tones.

A
3. A good average rate
A good average rate should be set at the rate that is comfortable for the speaker's
temperament, the audience and the nature of the speech. Êoo slow and you will
encourage the audience's attention to wander. Êoo fast and the audience can't keep up
and they will not get the full meaning of the speech.

4. Vary rate
Although a speaker should have a good average rate of speaking, a good speaker will
vary the rate of delivery when the ideas or information being discussed call for a
change. But, do not vary the speed of delivery mechanically but naturally in keeping
with the idea being expressed.

5. Emphasize Key ¦ords

Êhe key words in a sentence need more force than the other words. Êhe emphasis
involves increased vocal force as well as more spirit.

6. Good diction
Êhe words should be spoken clearly, but not spoken too precisely or exacting because
the words themselves become the focus and not the content of the speech. Nor is loose
careless speech useful, it may lead the audience to the conclusion that you are lazy.

By recording a speech and listening carefully to it will reveal any monotonous speaking
and any other vocal bad habits such as ums and ahs. A speaker can invite other
listeners to feedback on their speech delivery, too. Êhen the speaker should get busy
and practice putting more vocal color into their voice, being sure he speaks in a
conversational tone.

Every day there are numerous opportunities to practice public speaking, because
ordinary conversation is very much like public speaking. ¦hy not make every
conversation more vital and interesting by improving your speaking voice. Êhe
improvement in your speaking voice, will improve the effectiveness of your
communication in conversation, meetings, etc, as well as your public speaking.

Ë
‘

‘

‘‘
 
‘



- Research has it that what you say otherwise referred to as the content of
your speech is only 7% of your total communication. Êhe important thing to note here is
that it is not what you say alone that matters, how you say it is just as important. ¦hile
the content is very important, it will be foolhardy for any speaker to concentrate solely
on content seeing how it accounts for just 7% of the message. Êhis means there is still
93% to look out for when making your presentation.

 - Êhis component is a reference to your voice. It also involves how you use this
voice to project your message, this second aspect of the vocal component of
communication deals with vocal variety, which is a statement of how well you vary your
voice in speech making. Êhis vocal component accounts for 38% of total
communication.


! - Êhe third component is non-verbal communication simply because it is not
voiced even though it is an essential part of communicating with people. Êhis is what I
like to call, what you are not saying audibly though people can perceive it loudly and
clearly. Body language is an integral part of non-verbal communication and public
speakers need to know how to use body language to add value to their presentation
and how to interpret the body language of others especially those in their audience.
Research has put the value of this as 55% of total communication.

By way of repetition, the golden rule in presentation is this: It is not what you say but
how you say it. Êhis statement and its attendant implementation separate great
presenters from average ones.

inally, the best form of communication is one in which all three components of
communication agree completely. If there is a disconnection between these


components, it will no doubt affect the veracity of your message, as you will send
confusing signals to your audience. ¦hat you say must match how you say it and what
you are not saying. Êhat is the purest and most reliable form of communicating with
people. ¦hen what you say aligns with how you say it and also what you are not
saying, your believability level, as a public speaker will only increase and this will
ultimately enhance your message.

) ‘

Dialogues are effective devices in learning a language because they furnish students a
social context in which to practice the language. Sentences come to life in the context of
the dialogue because it represents real communication of ideas from one person to
another.

‘) ‘

‘
‘

Rudy: hello, how are you?

Eddy: fine. Êhank you. How are you?

Rudy: ine, thanks. Oh, excuse me-here¶s my mother.

Eddy: Goodbye.

Rudy: Goodbye.

>
 -‘

A. Êhis is an interesting picture.

B. Êhat¶s me on my motorcycle.
C. And who are these people?
D. Êhey¶re my friends from school.

À
 -‘

E. ¦here did Êita go?

Or

I hear you have been ill.

. ¦ell, I had the flu for a couple of days, but I¶m fine now.

Or

She went to the drug store.

A. Êo the bookstore?

Or

You¶re looking well. By the way, did you hear about Miss Cruz?

B. No, what about he?

Or

No, I said he went to the drugstore.

A. Oh, I misunderstood you. I thought you said bookstore.

A

 Or

She had such a bad case of the flu that they had to take her to the
hospital.

B. Oh, I¶m sorry to hear about that!

Or

How could you make a mistake like that?

¦eren¶t you paying attention?

À
 
‘
‘
‘
‘
‘‘

À/‘ ‘

A. Preparation before reading

1) Careful reading of the selection

a) Enjoy the though of the poem

b) ell the rhythm without falling into sing-song
c) ¦atch pronunciation of difficult words
d) Note where enunciation must be especially clear

2) Noting tempo and tones called for

a) Reflect the mood of the poem

b) Plan variety of tempo, tone, and arrangement, emphasis
c) Note words to be emphasized

3) Marking the lines of the poem to indicate readers

Ac
 a) A for all unison
b) BC, GC, for boys¶ or girls¶ chorus
c) BS1, BS2, etc., for solo parts for boy

B. Reading the poem

1. Start together on the first syllable at a sign form the teacher

2. Speak in natural voice

3. Subdue physical motions and emphasize the vocal inflection

II. Materials

A. Selection according to purpose

1. or young children, an activity rhyme and antiphonal reading

B: Jennie come tie my

Jennie come tie my (tying motion)

Jennie come tie my bonnie cravat

G: I¶ve tied it behind

I¶ve tied it before (tying motion)I¶ve tied it so often I¶ll toe it no more (finger
shaking)

B: ³¦here are you going my pretty maid?´ (bowing)

G: ³I¶m going to a milking sir,´ (curtsying)

Aë
B: ³May I go with you, my pretty maid?´

G: You¶re kindly welcome sir,´ she said

B: ³¦hat is your father, my pretty maid?´

G: ³My father¶s a farmer sir´, she said.

B: ³¦hat is your fortune, my pretty maid?´

G: ³¦hat face is my fortune sir´, she said.

B: ³Êhen I cant marry you, my pretty maid.´

G: ³Nobody asked you, sir,´ she said.

A‰
 ‘

‘

 
  ‘
A·
© À

 
‘ 
‘
 ‘

‘
‘J

‘
Ô-‘À
 ‘
‘
 -‘
1. Êhe teacher will give an example of a sentence that changes meaning
through intonation.

a. She¶s a doctor. = statement or fact

b. She¶s a doctor? = echo question, or statement of surprise or disbelief.

2. Êhe teacher will distribute copies of worksheets to students where sentences

are written. Êhe teacher will dictate the words in each sentence in which the
dot will be placed.
3. Êhe class will practice saying each one, first as a statement, and then as a
question, or as a statement of surprise or disbelief.
4. Êhe students will work with a partner. One person reads each sentence,
either as a statement or as a question. Êhe other listens and says, ³Oh´ or
µO.k.´ if it¶s a statement. If a question, the response will be ³that¶s right´.

Ô ‘‘#‘
1. Êhe hike starts at 6:00 am.
2. My check bounced.
3. Êhis is what you wanted.

A
 4. Êhere¶s a midterm next week.
5. ¦e¶re finally finished with this.
6. My fever¶s 102°.
7. ¦e have to take a taxi.
8. Class has been cancelled.

©  ‘
‘ 
‘
 -‘
‘
 ‘
Ô-‘

‘

 -‘
1. Êhe teacher will write the following on the board.

Oh Or
So saw
Low law
Coal call
Coat caught
Boat bought

2. Students, one by one, will say one of the words on the board. Êhe teacher will
point to the word that she hears and the students should say ³yes´ if that was
the word they said and ³no´ if it wasn¶t.
3. If the teacher is not sure of what she heard, point in between of two. If she
heard something different, point somewhere else on the board.
4. If one of the students says ³no´ to the teachers response, either give them
more time away to try t refine their intended pronunciation, or let them wait a
while until they are ready.

AA
 
-‘
Instead of just two-way sound contrast, the teacher could use three or four
confusing sounds for this activity.

AË
‘

© 

‘‘
 -‘ ‘‘ 
%‘
#‘‘

‘ ‘
Ô-‘
‘
‘
 -‘
1. Êhe teacher will divide the class into four groups. Each group will be given a
game board and set of tiles.
2. Êhe teacher will demonstrate the game to one group. Put all the phonemic
tiles face downwards on the table, and tell each member of the group to take
a given number unseen (seven tiles). Êhe first player looks at his/her
phonemes and tries to make an English word in sound ex. /si/ for ³see´. If
he/she can do so, he/she lays down this word on the game board. Êhe next
player looks at his/her phonemes and does the same. If player cannot make a
word, they pick up another tile from the pool.
3. All the groups will begin simultaneously.
4. After twenty minutes, the players count one point for each tile left in their
hand. Êhe player with the smallest number wins.

A

‘‘45‘

w e n z d ei
I u
ș æ ŋ k s
ȁ ԥu
k æ n æ
w d r I ŋ k
s i g ȁ n
b e n t ԥ m ȁ ŋ
t t
l
d

A>



‘

A. Objectives:
1. Êo speak with clarity and expressiveness.
2. Êo use correct form in answering the phone.
3. Êo use correct form in: calling home, calling a friend, calling the school.
4. Êo distinguish between correct forms used in business and social calls.

B. Activities
1. View one or more films such as:
Speech: Conversation
Young America ilms
Êelephone courtesy
Êhanks for Listening
2. Have the class draw up a code ³code for using the telephone´ which
combines courtesy and efficiency.
3. Dramatize emergency situations.
a. Calling in a fire-alarm.
b. Calling an ambulance.
c. Reporting to the proper city official the presence of the stray dog on
the playground.
d. Calling the family doctor.
e. Reporting a fire.
4. Dramatize social situations.
a. Inviting a friend to a party.
b. Asking a friend to a homework assignment.
c. Calling mother to get permission to purchase a ticket to the play.
d. Calling a friend to talk about a party, a movie, a new dress, a hockey
game.

Ë

)
‘‘
‘
 
‘

/‘ , ‘

1. Êo instruct pupils in conversational techniques.
2. Êo help pupils use conversational skills in their social contacts.
3. Êo help pupils identify and correct their weaknesses.
/‘ 

1 ‘
1. Have children dramatize some situations requiring conversation.
2. Discuss the attributes of good conversation; .spontaneity, fluency, expect for
other¶s ideas, alert listening, pleasant voice.
3. Discuss conversation as an informal speech activity.
a. importance of conversation
b. Consideration of others in conversation.
c. ¦hat to talk about.
d. Keeping well informal about happenings
e. How to avoid awkward pauses
f. Learning from conversationalists
/‘   ‘
1. dramatize specific situations
2. Divide into pairs and select an interesting problem for the dialogue.
3. Have the students suggest appropriate topics for conversation.
4. compose an imaginary conversation with an imaginary character of one¶s choice
5. Have pupils listen to and evaluate television programs involving conversations
and/or dialogues on subjects of general interest.
6. Have each student bring to class, to be read aloud, the best conversation that he
has focused on his reading recently.
7. Have the class draw up a list of ways to become better class conversationalists.
8. Êape several of the best conversations. Have the class listen to them and
evaluate them on the basis of the criteria set up.
9. Have the students report to the class on a conversation in which they took part.

Ëc
‘  
‘

/‘ , ‘

1. Êo help children improve their skills in human relations.
2. Êo instruct students in social situations in a functional setting.
3. Êo give students practical experience through dramatizing situations.
/‘ 

1 ‘‘
‘ 
‘
1. Point out to the students the social amenities.
2. View a film which demonstrates correct social behavior.
3. Discuss the needs for knowing what to do in specific situations.
4. Use creative dramatics as a preparation for the ³real´ experience.
5. Have children introduce parents, relatives, visitors, friends.
/‘   ‘
1. draw up a list of suggestions for making introductions
2. practice the procedure for making introductions by introducing the following
people:
a. a classmate to your mother
b. a relative to your teacher
c. your mother to your teacher
d. a boy to a girl
e. two girls to each other
f. one group to another group
3. dramatize the following introductions:
a. the premier of the province or mayor of the town to the class
b. Judge Brown, senior student, to your teacher
c. A friend to a member of your family
4. view a film demonstrating correct procedure for making introductions and note
how well the introduction were cued in to start a conversation, how well the cues
picked up, and so forth.

Ëë
 5. Dramatize: you are setting at your desk and your mother comes to the door. You
present your teacher to her.
6. Have students pair off and select types of introductions they wish to demonstrate
for the class.

‘‘À
  
‘

‘‘
  
‘

Introduce first the person who because of age or gender is entitled to greater
respect. A girl is introduced first when being introduced to a person of the opposite sex.
³Mary, this is Dan Mabrey. Dan, this is my cousin, Mary Davis.´

 ‘
‘

³May I present?´ ³Êhis is my mother´.


‘

³How do you do?´ not ³I¶m pleased to metcha´ or ³charmed´.

¦

‘ ‘
‘

‘

If a boy is introduced to a girl, he waits to initiate the action of shaking hands.

Men always shake hands.

ˉ
¦

‘ ‘‘

In the presence of older or distinguished guest one always rises. A boy always
rises in the presence of a girl or woman.

'#‘ ‘
 ‘‘
‘ ‘‘ ‘

Present the honored person to the entire group at once.

'#‘ ‘‘ ‘‘
‘

  
‘
‘
 
‘

Add a comment telling something about the individual you are introducing that
will give a clue to or springboard for conversation. or example, ³Miss Jenson, this is my
friend Alice. She has just moved to Manitoba. She lived in Ohio before she came here´.
³How do you do, Ann? Do you find the climate here quite contrast to that of Ohio?´

Ë·
&‘
‘
 ‘

 : Develop ability to start and keep up informal conversation.

Ô- Intermediate and Advanced

 -‘‘

1. ind a short exchange, and prepare a sample version of it in which

the speakers do not stop once the purpose of the dialogue has
been fulfilled but rather carry on chatting.
2. Collect a number of typical phrases or sentences which people
might use to strike up a conversation with a stranger.
‘) ‘

Original

Customer: Êwo pounds of tomatoes please.

Greengrocer: Here you are, sir. Êhat¶ll be 90p please.

Customer: Êhank you.

Greengrocer: 10p change. Êhank you sir. Goodbye.

Customer: Goodbye.

& 
"‘
 ‘
‘

Customer: Êwo pounds of tomatoes please.

Greengrocer: Here you are, sir. Êhat¶ll be 90p and cheap at the price!

Ë
Customer: Yes, they look like good ones. It would be cheaper still if I grew
my own. My garden¶s just about big enough.

Greengrocer: ¦ell, you could, sir, but it¶s a lot of trouble, you know. You
need special soil, fertilizers and a greenhouse.

Customer: ¦ell, yes, and I suppose that would cost money.

Greengrocer: It certainly would, sir and why bother when you can get two
pounds of tomatoes from me for only 90p, eh?

 
‘

‘
‘
 
‘
‘

Sitting in a circle, students practice strategies to keep the conversation

going by following one or more of the following four conversational
patterns.

1. Students 1 asks question; S2 answers it, elaborates on

the answer, then asks a related question; S3 answers it,
etc.
2. S1 expresses an opinion, S2 agrees with it and
expresses a related opinion, S3 agrees, etc.
3. S1 relates something interesting facts or news; S2 reacts
to it and then adds his/her own facts, news, etc.
4. S1 says a sentence which can be anything; S2 reacts to
it and asks a question concerning this sentence; S3
answers and elaborates on the subject; S4 reacts asks a
further question about the same topic, etc.

ËA
 ‘
‘¦ ‘
 ‘
‘J‘

 - Develop ability to change the subject naturally.

Ô- Intermediate to Advance

 -‘

1. Ask the students to describe in one sentence what the dialogue is

all about. Êhen get them to brainstorm some other, perhaps more
unusual, topics which they would like to see dealt with in a course
book. Make a list on the board.
2. point out that during the course of real life conversation, people
often keep moving on to different topics and usually use set
phrases to do this, e.g. ³by the way´. Elicit more such phrases from
them and suggest some for yourself. Draw up a list on the board.
3. Get the students into small groups or pairs (depending on the
number of characters in the dialogue). Êo make the activity more
challenging, each group is to pick out one topic from the board for
another group, e.g. with three groups Group A for B etc., and the
groups prepare a new version of the dialogue by including the topic
they have been given.
1. Êhe groups extend the dialogue by making the
characters introduce and start talking about the topic they
have been given, using one or more of the phrases listed
on the board.
2. Students perform their extended versions of the dialogue.
Êhe audience notes down which phrases they chose to
change the subject and what subjects were covered.

ËË
 ‘ ‘À
  ‘

 - Develop turn taking skills in conversation, practice

smooth interruptions.

Ô- Elementary and above

 :

1. ind or make a recorded monologue.

2. Prepare a list of 4-5 phrases your students can use when they
want to interrupt a conversation and when they want to return to
the original topic.
3. Go through the dialogue you will be using with your students
and think of some possible characters who could be added to
the play the role of nuisance and constantly interrupt the others;
some possibilities are: a clever teenager, a know-all relative, the
boss or a nosy colleague, a drunk person sitting nearby.

À
 -‘

‘À
  ‘

(I¶m) sorry to interrupt«

Sorry to break in, but«

Sorry, can/may I interrupt you for a second«

Excuse me«/Pardon me«

Ë
 Excuse/pardon me for interrupting, but«

If I may interrupt for a second«

Sorry, but did I hear you say«?

I couldn¶t help overhearing«

‘ 
‘

As I was saying«

(Now) what was I saying/ what were we talking about«?

¦here was I«?

Going back to«

Êo return to/going back to what I was saying before«

Êo get back to what we were talking about«

Let¶s get back to..

(Yes, well) anyway«

In any case«

 
‘

‘À
  
‘
‘

Students get into two groups and both are given a short text. Someone
from group A reading out the text; group B¶s job is to stop them getting to
the end for as long as possible by constantly interrupting. After each
interruption, group A must react and turn to the text. Afterwards, group B

Ë>
has to a go to reading. Êhe winning team is the one who can delay the
end of the other team¶s text for longer.

À‘'
% ‘
 ‘‘) 6‘

 -‘Provide combined practice in skills for initiating a conversation,

changing the subject and interrupting

Ô- Intermediate and Advanced

 :

1. Ask students whether they have ever been in a situation where they
were waiting o be served while the salesperson/attendant was
engaged in a lengthy conversation with another customer. Êell
them that they are going to reproduce a scene like this.
2. Present the sample sentences you have prepared and quickly
revise how one can go about striking up a conversation with
somebody, carrying it on by introducing new topics, and how
another person can try to interrupt this conversation.
3. Get your students into groups of three. In each group, two students
will take the role of the customer and the salesperson in the original
dialogue, while the third student will be the new character who is
another customer waiting for his/her turn.
4. Students prepare an extended version of the original dialogue
along the lines.



) ‘'‘

 - Explore how conversation is structured and sequenced

Ô- Elementary and above

 -‘

1. Students get into pairs. Hand out the dialogue skeletons you have
prepared; some pairs should be given only Skeleton 1, the others
only Skeleton 2.
2. Ask the pairs to write in the missing parts in their dialogue
skeletons.
3. Get students into new pairs by joining a student who had skeleton 1
with another who had skeleton 2. Ask them to put together dialogue
halves, i.e., the parts they have written, and see if the new hybrid
dialogue makes any sense. If not, they should make changes that
will join the parts together smoothly.
4. Each pair reads out the original hybrid dialogue, then their changed
version.
5. After each performance discuss why changes were necessary.
‘ ‘ 
‘

Skeleton 1 Skeleton 2

A: «««««««««« A: ¦hat¶s the time?

B: Half past seven. B: ««««««««««..

A: «««««««««« A: Is it that late already?

B: I¶m afraid so. B: ««««««««««..

c
‘

‘ ‘ 

‘

 
‘7‘ ‘ ‘ ‘  
‘8‘ ‘ ‘ ‘ #‘
‘

^  u  

A: ¦hat¶s the time? A: when is your

  mother coming?

B: Half past seven? 
  M

 u  B: It¶ll be dark soon.

^
u u 
  
 A: Is it that late already? A: Is she brining

  your aunt too?

B: I¶m afraid do.   M   


 B: ¦hy don¶t you

relax?

ë
* ‘) ‘

 - Develop the awareness of the natural and logical organization within
conversation.

Ô- Elementary and above

 -‘

1. Students get into groups of three. Give each group an envelope.

2. Ask students to shuffle the slips and divide them among themselves. Êell them
that they must not show their slips to the other two.
3. Êhe students¶ task is to put the slips in the right order by
a. irst deciding the possible order of their slips,
b. Each reading out their slip in turn,
c. Discussing the sequence and agreeing on the order of the slips (without
actually showing them to each other),
d. ¦riting a sequence number on each slip.
4. ¦hen all the slips have been numbered, students out together the slips on the
table in the right order, and read them out to check whether their version and the
other groups¶ versions are correct.

 
‘

' 
‘ ‘

‘

Split up the dialogue so that there is a section (or speaker¶s turn) for every student in
the class; write these on separate cards and hand them out to the students. Give them
thirty seconds to memorize the section they have got. Êhey then put the slips away, get
up and wander around repeating their sequence over and over, and listening carefully to
others. Êheir task is to fine people whose bit could logically come immediately before or
after their own. ¦henever they hear a possibility, they should jot down that person¶s
name.

Next, the students are asked to form a human dialogue chain, i.e., stand in a line
according to the order they think the utterances should come in. this might involve some

‰
lively negotiation. ¦hen they are satisfied with the chain, each student in turn says their
line so that they hear the complete dialogue for the first time.

Again, using two unrelated dialogues to form two human dialogue chains gives the
exercise an interesting twist.


! 
‘
‘
 

 - Identify the signals people give to coordinate turn taking in conversation.

Ô- Intermediate and Advanced

 -‘

1. Discuss with the class why it is that people in conversation hardly ever talk at the
same time-they take it in turns. How do they know whose turn it is to speak?
Listen to the beginning of the recording of the dialogue, stopping after each
change of turn, and discuss what turn taking signals the speakers received/gave.
2. Get students to think about other possible signals. Hand out the turn taking
observation sheets and go through the items to see if there is anything they have
not mentioned or anything then can add.
3. Êhe students¶ next task is to listen to the dialogue again and fill in the observation
sheet by putting a mark in the proper slot every time a particular turn taking
signal occurs. Point out that one change of turn may involve more than one
signal.
4. After listening to the recordings, discuss the results and sort out the ambiguous
points, e.g., whether something is an interruption or just moving briskly into a
gap, etc.
5. Play the authentic recording. Students continue filling in their observation sheets.
6. Compare and contrast the results obtained from the instructional and the
authentic conversation.

·
¦
 ‘)‘ ‘J
.‘

 - Provide practice in asking for explanations.

Ô- Elementary and above

 -‘

1. Êo start with, turn to a student and say something which includes a very difficult
or even an imaginary word. Can the student ask you in English to explain the
word? If not, try another student. Êhis should lead to a discussion of different
ways of asking for explanations. Make a list of these on the board.
2. Practice using these phrases by saying one or two difficult sentences and getting
students to ask for an explanation; when they do, you reformulate the sentence
in simpler language.
3. Students get into pairs. Hand out the dialogue halves and give them time to look
over their own part.
4. Hand out the sue cards. Using the dialogue halves, students perform the
dialogue, but they must say the difficult word or phrase on their cue card instead
of the original and simpler version. ¦hen the other speakers hear a difficult part,
he/she should ask for an explanation, using the phrases learnt.
5. After some students have had some practice, get one or two pairs to volunteer to
perform the dialogue for the class, but this time the speakers should include
imaginary words to elicit requests for explanation.

‘ ‘


‘

A: Êhere¶s lots of traffic on this road today, isn¶t there?

B: Yes, it¶s because they¶re doing some repair work on K¶s Road.


 #‘
‘

A: Êhere¶s an ambulance of vehicles on this road today, isn¶t there?

B: Sorry, I¶m afraid I don¶t understand«

A: Êhere¶s lots of traffic.

B: Oh, yes. Êhat¶s because road works are in progress on King¶s Road.

A: Sorry, what do you mean by µroad works are in progress¶?

J‘‘
‘‘

 - ocus on the new language function presented in the dialogue.

Ô- Intermediate and Advanced

 -‘‘

1. Êell the students that in this activity they will be working as textbook writers.

2. Introduce the dialogue and ask them to examine it from the teaching point of view:
what is the dialogue trying to teach? How many different structures are introduced to
carry out that function? Altogether how may times does the language function appear in
the dialogue?

3. tell them that the publishers are not satisfied with the dialogue because they believe
that it could be made more useful. In fact, they would like to offer a contract to the team
which can produce the best rewritten version, i. e., with the most functional expression
in terms of types and total number.

A
4. get the students to form teams of co-authors (groups of two or three) and ask them to
prepare their proposals; these should contain the author¶s names, the suggested title of
the book, and the rewritten dialogue. ¦hile writing, students can refer to the list of
expressions you have put on the board for further ideas.

5. when students have finished, ask the teams to read out their proposals in turn. ¦rite
the authors¶ names and the book title on the board, and during each reading record the
number of expression types and the total number of expressions used.

6. now students turn into an editorial board and, by secret vote, decide on the version to
be published.

Ë
 ‘

  ‘

‘

 
  ‘
‘


 -‘

Pangilinan, E. & Dilig, M. 1991. Sppech and Drama. MC Reprographics. Metro Manila.

Lucas, S. 1989. Êhe Art of Public Speaking. Random House Inc. USA.

Gilbert, J. 1084. Clear Speech. Cambridge University Press. USA.

Aquino, e. 2002. Effective Speech Communication. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. Quezon
City.

Streeter, D. 1969. A Speech Handbook for Êeachers. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New Jersey.

Byrns, J. 1004. Speak for Yourself. McGraw-Hill, Inc. USA.

O¶Connor, J. D. 1986. Better English Pronunciation. Cambridge University Press. USA.

Richard, G. & Carol, C. 1981. Basic Oral Communication. Prentice-Hall, Inc. New
Jersey.

Brown, G. 1983. Êeaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge University Press. Great
Britain.

Dalton, C. & Seidhofer, B. 1994. Pronunciation. Oxford University Press. Hong Kong.

Jeroski, S. 1990. Speak for Yourself. A Division of International Limited. Ontario.

Alcantara, R. et al. 1996. Êeaching Strategies I. Katha Publishing Co., Inc. Quezon City.

Iogan, L. et al. 1972. Creative Communication: Êeaching the Language Art. McGraw-Hill
Ryeston Limited. Canada.

Quattrini, J. 1950. Speaking by Doing. National Êextbook Company. USA.

Bailey, K. & Savage, L. 1994. New ¦ays in Êeaching Speaking. New ¦ays in ÊESOL Series:
Innovative Classroom Êechniques. John Benjamins Publishing Co . Virginia, USA.

>