Chapter 3

Limit State Method of Design

3.1 Safety and Serviceability Requirements and Different

Limit States of Structure

Safety and Serviceability Requirements

Design of an engineering structure must ensure that
under the worst loadings, the structure is safe and that during
normal working conditions; the deformation of the members
does not affect the appearance, durability or performance of the
structure. Even though, there is difficulty in assessing the
correct loadings and variation in strength of the materials viz.,
concrete and steel, these requirements have to be met. Three
basic methods of factor of safety to achieve safe workable
structures have been developed. They are:
i) The working stress method, in which calculations
are done with working loads, on design stress being
obtained by reducing the maximum or yield stress
by dividing by a factor called factor of safety.
ii) The load factor method, in which the working
loads are multiplied by a factor called load factor.
Design is based on the ultimate loads obtained thus
and on the ultimate strength of the materials.
iii) The limit state method, which multiples the
working loads by partial factor of safety and also
divides the ultimate strengths of the materials by
partial factor of safety.
The working stress method has proved to be a simple
and useful method, but it suffers from certain inconsistencies.
As the method is based on an elastic stress distribution, it is not
really applicable to a semi plastic material like concrete, nor is it
suitable when the deformations are not proportional to the load
as in slender columns.
The load factor method does not apply factor of safety to the
material stresses. It cannot, therefore, directly take into account
variability of the materials. It cannot also be used to calculate
the deflection or cracking at working load.
The limit state method of design overcomes many of the
disadvantages of the previous two methods. This is
accomplished by applying partial factors of safety, both to the
loads and to the material strengths and the magnitude of the
factors may be varied, so they may be used either with the
plastic conditions in the ultimate state or with the more elastic
stress range at working loads.
Limit State: The acceptable limit for the safety and
serviceability requirement before failure occurs is called limit
state. The aim of design is to achieve acceptable probabilistic
that the structure will not become unfit for the use for which it
is intended, that is, it will not reach a limit state.

Different Limit State Considered in the Limit State

Design
The two principal limit states are Ultimate Limit State and
Serviceability Limit States:

A) Limit State of Collapse: It is reached when the structure

collapses. It requires that the structures must withstand the
load for which it is designed with adequate factor of safety
without collapse. The limit state may corresponds to
1) Flexure
2) Compression
3) Shear
4) Torsion

B) Limit State of Serviceability: Serviceability limit states are

those for deflection and cracking. It requires that the
appearance, durability and performance of the structure
must not be affected by deflection and cracking. So this
limit states may corresponds to
 1) Deflection
2) Cracking
3) Vibration

3.2 Design Strength of Materials and Design Load

3.2.1 Characteristic Strength of Materials and Method of

Determining the Characteristics Strength for Concrete and
Steel
The strengths of materials upon which design is based,
are such strengths below which results are unlikely to fall. These
are called characteristic strengths. It is assumed that for a
given material, the variation of strengths will have a normal
distribution. The characteristic strength is taken as that value,
below which it is unlikely that more than 5 percent of the
results will fail. Thus statistically, characteristic strength=Mean
strength - 1.64σ where σ= standard deviation.

Partial Safety Factors (Materials)

Variations in loads and materials are allowed for by the
factors of safety applied to the loading, to the strength of the
materials. It is possible to derive values of these from a
mathematical assessment of the probability of reaching each
limit state. However, in practice, values are based on experience
and simplified calculations.

Partial Safety Factor for Material Strength: In selecting a

safety factor m for material strengths, variation of strength in
the actual construction from the strength of the test specimen is
to be considered. Higher values are taken for limit state of the
safety than for limit state of serviceability.
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑐 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
Thus, Design Strength 𝑓𝑑 = 𝑃𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑎𝑓𝑒𝑡𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 
𝑚

For limit state of collapse, IS 456 specifies that values of

m shall be taken as 1.50 for concrete and 1.15 for steel. For
assessing deflection value of m may be taken as unity.
 A higher value of m for concrete is recommended as it
is expected that the actual strength of concrete in the structure
may vary from that determined from tests by an amount more
than that can be expected for reinforcing steel, on account of
several construction operations like transporting, compacting
and curing in case of concrete.

Factor to be considered while deciding the value of Partial

Safety Factor for Materials
The factors are governed by
1) Possibility of deviation of the strength of material
2) Deviation of the sectional dimensions
3) Accuracy of the calculation procedure, and
4) Risk to life and economic consequences.
The design strength (i.e.the factored strength)of concrete or
reinforcing steel is obtained by dividing the characteristic
strength by the appropriate partial safety factor. In the case of
concrete, while f ck is the characteristic cube strength, the
strength of concrete in the actual structure is taken as 0.67 f ck
and hence the design strength of concrete is 0.67 f ck /  c .
For ultimate limit states, the code specifies  c =1.5 and
 s =1.15. A higher partial safety factor has been assigned to
concrete, compared to reinforcing steel, evidently because of
the higher variability associated with it.
For serviceability limit states,  c =1.0and  s =1.0. A
safety factor of unity is appropriate here, because the interest is
in estimating the actual deflections and crack-widths under the
service loads, and not 'safe'(conservative) values.

Design Strength and Its Significance in Limit State Design

Design Strength fd of the material is obtained by dividing the
characteristic strength f by the partial safety factor m.
Thus, f d  f
m
Significance:
Load
Stress 
Area

Load remaining constant, stress and area are inversely

proportional. That means, when stress increases, area decreases
and vice versa. So when characteristic strength is divided by the
partial safety factor, low value of designed strength is found
which makes it safer.

3.2.2 Characteristic Loads and their Partial Safety Factors:

Characteristic Loads: Characteristic load means the value of
load which has a 95 percent probability of not being exceeded
during the life of the structure.

Partial safety factors

Errors and inaccuracies in loading may be due to design
assumptions, and inaccuracies of calculation, possible load
increases, unforeseen stress redistributions, and constructional
inaccuracies. These are taken into consideration by introducing
a partial safety f for loadings, so that design loads
Fd= (characteristic load f)  (Partial safety factor f).
The value of these factors will account adequately for
normal conditions. Values of f are given in Table:
 Table 3.1: Partial Safety Factors f for Loading (As per IS 456-2000)

Load Limit State of

Contribution Limit State of Collapse Serviceability
W.L W.L
or or
D.L L.L E.L L.L D.L E.L
D.L + L.L 1.5 1.5 - 1.0 1.0 -
D.L + W.L 1.5 (or
- 1.5 1.0 - 1.0
(or E.I) 0.9)
D.L+L.L+W
1.2 1.2 1.2 1.0 0.8 1.0
.L (or E.I)

Note 1 f for D.L is to be taken as 0.90 when stability against

overturning or stress reversal is critical.
Note 2 For limit state of serviceability f given in the table are
applicable for short-term effects. While assessing the long-term
effects due to creep, the dead load and that part of live load
likely to be permanent may only is considered.
The factor of 1.5 may be interpreted as a device for
causing the desired margin of safety against collapse with
respect to the combined effects of D.L and L.L taken together
instead of providing distinct factor for dead load taken
separately. This is conformity to the provision in European
Concrete Committee.
Sometimes, however, in some codes a lower factor say
1.40 is suggested for the dead load and a higher one say 1.60 for
the live load due to the reason that dead load is known with all
accuracy whereas live load is not known so accurately.
Where stability against overturning may be critical, the
unfavorable case corresponding to the application of minimum
value of load should be considered. Hence the IS Code
recommends use of f=0.90. This is justified as the member
actually cast may be smaller than nominal values in design and
densities of materials may actually be less than those assumed.
In the third load combination of (D.L+L.L +W.L. or
E.L), there is a smaller probability that all the imposed loads
will reach their characteristic values simultaneously and also that
the duration of W.L and E.L is rather small. It is highly unlikely
that both W.L and E.L will occur simultaneously and as a result
it is necessary to consider only loads due to the one whichever
produces the larger effect.
In case of footing, the area is usually determined on
basis of the service load and allowable soil pressure. The
resulting moments and shears on basis of these are calculated.
The partial safety factor as mentioned above are also applicable
obtaining the design values for use in limit state method.
Alternatively, the design values for limit state method
can be obtained by multiplying the applied service load as well
as the allowable soil pressure by the partial safety factor for
calculation of footing size. The resulting moments and shears
for design can then be obtained.
As partial safety factors in IS for various combinations
of loads always suggest the same value for the various types of
loads to be combined, no difficulty is faced.
Total Safety Factors: Total safety factors may be obtained by
multiplying f by m. Thus for steel, the safety factor for both is
1.725, compared with the usual average of 1.80 used in the load
factor design approach.
Factor to be considered while deciding the value of partial
safety factor for loads:
1) The unusual increase in loads beyond that used for
deriving characteristics values
2) Unforeseen stress redistribution
3) Inaccurate assessment of the effects of loading and
4) Importance of the limit state considered.

Design Load and Its Significance

The load considered for design for each limit state is
known as the design load and is obtained from the characteristic
load with appropriate partial factor of safety (  f ).
Design Load = Characteristic loadPartial factor of safety (  f )
The value of partial safety factor of safety (  f ) depends on the
importance of the limit state under consideration and the
accuracy in predicting the load.
Significance: Factor of safety of load is higher in design load
as the partial safety factor to be considered is higher.

3.3 Idealized Stress Strain Diagram for Concrete and Steel

3.3.1 Stress Strain Diagram for Concrete:

The figure below shows the actual and idealized stress
strain curve for concrete. The maximum stress in the
characteristic curve is limited to 0.67fck. Up to the point where
the slope becomes zero (i.e. where the strain is 0.002), the curve
is a parabola. From then on, it continues as a straight line at a
constant stress level of 0.67fck up to an ultimate strain of 0.0035.

Actual
fck Idealized
Stress, MPa

Parabolic

 u 0.0035
u

Strain
Fig. 3.1: Stress-Strain curve

Idealized curve
f ck

0.67fck 0.67fck
Characteristic curve m
Stress, MPa

0.44fck Design curve

 The design curve is obtained by simply scaling down
the ordinates of the characteristic curve dividing by c, which is
equal to 1.5. Accordingly, the maximum design stress becomes
equal to 0.447fck and the relationship for the design compressive
stress fc corresponding to a strain  0.0035 is given by:

𝜀 𝜀 2
fc = 0.447fck[2 (0.002) − (0.002) ] for  0.002

= 0.447fck for 0.002  0.0035

The stress-strain curve for compression zone of
reinforced concrete flexural member is approximately identical
to that obtained for a member under uniaxial compression.
Thus, when concrete is subjected to uniform compression, as in
the case of anaxially loaded short column, the ultimate strain is
limited to 0.002, and the corresponding maximum design stress
is 0.447 fck. The maximum design stress level remains
unchanged at 0.447fck, even when the concrete is subjected to
axial compression combined with flexure. The ultimate strain is
limited to a value between 0.002 and 0.0035, depending on the
location of the neutral axis.

3.3.2 Stress Strain Diagram for Steel:

3.3.2.1 Mild Steel
fy Characteristic curve
250

fy Design curve fy

200
 m
0.75f y m
stress,MPa

150

0.50f y

100 E s= 2 * 10 MPa

0.25f y
Design yield strain
50
0.67fck
Ey = m

0
0.00 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008

Fig. 3.3 Characteristictrainand design stress- strain curve for

S

mild steel
 The bi linear characteristic and design stress-strain
curves specified by IS:456 for various grades of reinforcing steel
are as shown in the figure 3.3. The design yield strength fyd is
obtained by dividing the specified yield strength fyby the partial
safety factors s = 1.15 thus, fyd = 0.87fy. In mild steel of grade
Fe250, the yield point is at stress level 0.87fy and a
corresponding design yield strain = 0.87fy/Es.

The failure strain on the design stress-strain curve is:

𝑓𝑦𝑑 0.87×250
yd = 𝐸𝑠
= 2×105
= 0.00109

3.3.2.2 HYSD Steels

On these bars, the transition from linear elastic
behaviour to non linear behaviour is assumed to occur at a
stress level equal to 0.8 times fy in the characteristic curve and
0.8 times fyd in the design curve. These HYSD bars of grade
Fe415 and Fe500 have no specific yield point. The full design
yield strength 0.87fy is assumed to correspond to a proof strain
of 0.002, i.e. the residual strain on unloading is 0.002. The
slopes of the loading and unloading curves remain same. The
design yield strain beyond which the curve becomes non linear
is 0.8 0.87 fy/Es.

500 Fe 500

400 Fe 415

300

200

100

0
0 0.001 0.002 0.003 0.004 0.005 0.006 0.007
Strain

Fig. 3.4 Characteristic stress-strain curves for HYSD steels

For Fe415 steel,
0.8 0.87415
yd = 2105
= 0.00144

Then, at the end of non linear portion i.e. at proof

stress or yield strain level, residual strain is 0.002, hence total
strain at this point is:

𝑓𝑦𝑑 0.87×415
yd = 0.002 + 𝐸𝑠
=0.002 + 2×105
= 0.00380

The intermediate portion is approximated piecewise by

linear segments. At 0.95 times the yield stress, the residual strain
is 0.0007 and corresponding total strain is:
0.95 ×0.87×𝑓𝑦 0.95×0.87×415
yd= 0.0007 + 𝐸𝑠
= 0.0007 + 2×105
= 0.00241

In concrete, the stress strain curve is directly affected by

changes in the compressive strength of concrete, but it is not
the case in steel whose modulus of elasticity is independent of
the variation in the yield strength. Therefore, in concrete, the
partial safety factor c is applicable at all stress levels but for
reinforcing steel, the partial safety factor s is applicable only for
the inelastic stress levels.

3.4Limit State of Collapse in Flexure, Shear, Torsion and

Compression

3.4.1Limit State of Collapse in Flexure

Flexure or bending is encountered in structural element

such as beam and slabs. It also occurs in column and wall. The
flexural member may fail due to crushing of concrete in
compression or yielding of steel in tension. The failure will
occur when either steel or concrete reaches its limiting strain.
 There are two kinds of problem in flexure. In analysis
problems, the complete cross sectional dimensions including
details of reinforcing steel as well as material properties of the
members are known. In design, the load members are known
from structural analysis and it is required to select appropriate
grade of materials and arrive at the member dimensions and
reinforcement details.

Basic assumptions in the design of flexural member at

limit state of collapse:
1) Plane section normal to the axis plane after bending, i.e. the
strain is proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
The maximum strain in concrete at the outermost
compression fiber is 0.0035 in bending.
2) The tensile strength of concrete is neglected.
3) The steel is assumed to be concentrated at the centroid of the
steel.
4) The stress-strain curve for the concrete in compression may
be assumed to be rectangle, trapezium, parabola or any other
shape which results in prediction of strength in substantial
agreement with the test results.
An acceptable stress-strain curve for design purposes.
The stress distribution for strain varying from 0 to 0.002 is
parabolic and, thereafter, for strain from 0.002 to 0.0035, it is
constant, i.e., the curve has a rectangular shape. The
compressive strength of concrete in structure shall be assumed
to be 0.67 times the characteristics strength. In addition to this,
a partial safety factor  m  1.5 shall be applied. Thus, the
maximum stress on the design curve which corresponds to
design compressive strength of concrete is:
0.67 f ck
f cd   0.447 f ck
1.5
5) The stress in reinforcement is derived from the stress-strain
curve for the type of steel used. For design purposes; a
partial safety factor  m  1.15 shall be applied
6) In order to ensure ductile failure i.e., the tension
reinforcement undergoes a certain degree of inelastic
deformation before the concrete fails in compression, the
maximum strain in tension reinforcement in the section at
failure shall not be less than  f y / 1.15 / E s 
 0.002  0.87 f y / Es   0.002, where f y and Es are
characteristic strength of steel and its modulus of elasticity,
respectively.
The modulus of elasticity for all types of steel is
E s  2  10 5 MPa. The design yield stress or 0.2 percent
proof stress f yd , is equal to f y /  m  f y / 1.15 =0.87 f y .
The stress-strain relation is applicable to steel both in tension
and compression. In the relation for mild steel, the stress is
proportional to the strain up to the yield point and thereafter
the strain increases at a constant stress. On the other hand,
in cold deformed steels is proportional to the Fe415 and
Fe500, the stress-strain curve has inelastic strains.
7) There exists a perfect bond or adhesion between the concrete
and reinforcing steel up to the point of failure, so that there
is no slippage between the two materials.

Type of Sections:

a. Balanced Section:
Reinforced concrete sections are designed on the
assumption that the maximum stresses in concrete and steel
reach their permissible stresses at the same time. Both the
materials are stressed to their fullest allowable stress at one and
the same time. As such, the section is called ‘balanced’ or
‘critical’ or ‘economic’. The neutral axis of this section is called
neutral axis and may be denoted by xm.
For balanced section, the moment of resistance is calculated by
the following equation:
x=xm
z=d-0.42 xm
Mu=0.36  ck bxm d  0.42xm 
Mu=0.87σyAt (d - 0.42xm )

b. Under-Reinforced:
If less steel than that required for balanced section is
used, the section is under-reinforced. In such a condition, the
steel is stressed to its maximum permissible stress, while
concrete is stressed below the permissible stress. Under such
conditions, the beam will fail initially due to overstress in the
steel. For under reinforced section, the value of x/d is less
thanxm/dvalue. The moment of resistance is calculated by the
following equation:
0.87 y At
x=
0.36 ck b
 y At
z= d 
 ck b
Mu=0.87  y At z

This actual N.A is above the critical N.A. The neutral

axis moves upwards because the concrete area is greater than
the area of steel, the latter being less than what it should be for
perfect balance.

c. Over-Reinforced:
If more steel than the steel required for balanced
section is used, the section is over-reinforced. The steel is not
fully stressed to its maximum permissible tensile stress, while
the compressive stress in concrete at extreme fiber reaches its
maximum permissible value. In this case, the beam will fail
initially due to overstress in the concrete.
For over reinforced section, the value of x/d is limited
to xm/d and the moment of resistance is computed based on
concrete:
x=xm
z= d-0.42 xm
Mu=0.36  ck bxm d  0.42xm 

Modes of Failure:
1) Balanced Failure
Balanced failure is expected to occur by the simultaneous
initiation of crushing of concrete and yielding of stress at the
same time.

2) Tensile Failure and Ductile Failure

The failure of an under-reinforced beam is termed as tension
failure. So called because the primary cause of a failure is the
yielding in tension of steel. The onset of failure is gradual,
giving ample proper prior warning of the impending collapse
by way of increased curvature, deflections and cracking. The
large increase in curvature prior to collapse is indicative of a
typical ductile mode of failure.

3) Compression Failure or Brittle Failure

The concrete fails in compression before the steel reaches its
yield point. Hence this type of failure is termed as
compression failure. This failure occurs without warning,
because the failure is sudden and the deflections and
curvatures remain low right up to failure, this type of failure
is called brittle failure. For this reason, over reinforced
flexural members are not permitted.

3.4.2 Limit State of Collapse in Shear

When a structure is subjected to shear, sliding of the plane
occurs and such collapse in shear also occurs when we are
designing in limit state of design then such failure occurrence is
called the limit state of collapse in shear. The majority of
structural members subjected to bending are subjected to shear
forces. In a reinforced concrete member under flexure the shear
resisting mechanism interacts with the bond between concrete
and reinforcement and is related to what is known as the
development length or anchorage length of reinforcement.
Shear transfer is dependent on the tensile and compressive
strengths of concrete.

Behaviour of RC Beam under Shear

When there is bending there is a high probability of
shear. Concrete is weak in tension due to which large diagonal
tension stresses can produce cracking and even failure of
concrete member. That is the reason that beam should always
be checked for safety against shear failure; in physical terms,
against diagonal tension and compression failure. Bending shear
is sometimes referred to as ‘one way shear’ and it should be
distinguished from punching shear that occurs in slab under
concentrated load and sometime referred to as ‘two way shear’.
Mainly three types of shear and diagonal stresses are
1) Diagonal tension
2) Diagonal compression
3) Tension in beam

Relation between Span, Effective Depth Ratio and Shear

Failure
Higher the value of Span to effective depth ratio (l/d),
higher the slenderness of the section becomes. Higher the
slenderness of the section, shear resistance decreases, which
means the chance of shear failure increases. On the other hand,
when the value of l/d is very less, slenderness increases, shear
resistance increases while the chance of shear failure decreases.

Shear Stress Distribution in RC Beam

Shear stress distribution in a rectangular reinforced
section depends on the distribution of the normal stress. For
the sake of simplicity the value of normal shear stress across the
cross section of the beam is taken as average shear on the
section i.e. the value obtained by dividing the shear force by the
area of the section. We know that,
V
u  u
bd
 The variation of shear stress along the depth of the
section above the neutral axis is parabolic with zero at the
extreme compression fiber at a distance xu from neutral axis
increasing to its maximum value (Vu/b.d) at the neutral axis.

Nominal Shear Stress and its maximum value: The shear

stress obtained by dividing the ultimate design shear Vu by the
cross sectional area is known as the nominal shear stress.
The nominal shear stress is maximum at the neutral axis and
also its value increases as the cross section decreases.

Components of Shear Strength in RC Beam

1) Shear Resistance by Concrete and the longitudinal bars
with no shear reinforcement:

Some shear strength is taken by the concrete which is

the mixture of cement, aggregate, sand and water. The bond
formed by these material helps at the time when shear occurs.
When a beam is provided with main steel, the shear is jointly
resisted by shear resisted by concrete in compression, by
aggregate interlock and the dowel action of main tension steel.
Since the shear resistance due to aggregate interlock is effective
only after the development of diagonal crack, it is ignored by
the code and kept as reserve strength. Shear resisted by the
dowel action and concrete in compression is function of grade
of concrete and of percentage of tension steel.
The design strength of concrete in beams without shear
reinforcement is higher than in case of working stress method
and can be calculated from,
0.85√0.8𝑓𝑐𝑘 (√1 + 5𝛽 − 1)
𝜏𝑐 =
6ß
0.8𝑓 100𝐴
Where,𝛽 = 6.89𝑝𝑐𝑘, but not less than 1.0 and pt= 𝑏 𝑑𝑠𝑡
𝑡 𝑤
Values of 𝜏c corresponding to pt varying from 0.25 to
3.00 are given in table for different grades of concrete.
The term Ast in the table is area of longitudinal tension
reinforcement which continues at least one effective depth
beyond the section being considered except at supports, where
the full area of tension reinforcement may be used, provided the
details fulfill requirements of curtailment and anchoring of
reinforcing bars.

Table 3.2: Design shear strength of concrete c in

N/mm2 for various concrete grades

100
Ast/bd M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40
0.25 0.36 0.36 0.36 0.37 0.37 0.38
0.50 0.46 0.48 0.49 0.50 0.50 0.51
0.75 0.54 0.56 0.57 0.59 0.59 0.60
1.00 0.60 0.62 0.64 0.66 0.67 0.68
1.25 0.64 0.67 0.70 0.71 0.73 0.74
1.50 0.68 0.72 0.74 0.76 0.78 0.79
1.75 0.71 0.75 0.78 0.80 0.82 0.84
2.00 0.71 0.79 0.82 0.84 0.86 0.88
2.25 0.71 0.81 0.85 0.88 0.90 0.92
2.50 0.71 0.82 0.88 0.91 0.93 0.95
2.75 0.71 0.82 0.90 0.94 0.96 0.98
3.00 0.71 0.82 0.92 0.96 0.99 1.01

For solid slabs, the design shear strength shall be 𝑘 𝜏 c, where 𝑘

has the value depending on the overall depth of slab as shown
below:

Table 3.3: Value of K

Overall 150
300 or
depth of 275 250 225 200 175 or
more
slab, (mm) less
K 1.00 1.05 1.10 1.15 1.20 1.25 1.30
The nominal shear stress in beams even when provided with
shear reinforcement shall not exceed 𝜏c, max obtained from
0.83√𝑓𝑐′ and 0.6375√𝑓𝑐𝑘 as given in table:
Table 3.4: Value of τc, max
Concrete
M 15 M 20 M 25 M 30 M 35 M 40
Grade
2.50 2.80 3.10 3.50 3.70 4.00
τc, max (N/mm2)
Shear reinforcements Vusis given by;
Vus=Vu- 𝜏c(bd)

2) Shear Resistance by the Shear Reinforcement

In the condition when the applied shear force is beyond
the shear resisting capacity of concrete and the main bar or the
longitudinal bar, additional shear force is resisted by the
different stirrups like bent up bars, vertical stirrups and inclined
stirrups or series of bent up bars

Type of Shear Reinforcement

With the object of increasing the load carrying capacity,
the reinforced concrete beams are provided with shear or web
reinforcement in the form of: (i) vertical stirrups, (ii) inclined
stirrups, and/or (iii) bent-up bars. The bent-up bars usually
consist of the part of longitudinal steel bent up where it is no
longer required for moment resistance.
Of these, the vertical stirrups and bent up main steel
rods are most commonly used in practice. The mechanical
actions of these two are different from each other to certain
extent. While bent-up bars are good in restricting crack-width,
the stirrups help the longitudinal steel to maintain dowel action.
From overall considerations, vertical stirrups are superior to
inclined bars are also used for resisting superior solution.

Importance of Stirrups
The effect of shear reinforcement on the behavior of
the structural element before cracking is insignificant and does
not influence the diagonal cracking load. Stirrups come into
action only after the formation of diagonal cracks and they
increase the ultimate load considerably. The shear
reinforcement augments the shear resistance of the beam in
three different ways:

1. The stirrups do not carry any shear. They only perform the
function of reinforcing a beam transversely against diagonal
cracking.
2. They serve to restrict the growth of diagonal cracks and
reduce their penetration into the compression zone.
3. Stirrups tie the longitudinal reinforcement into the main bulk
of the concrete.

Reasons for Provision of Minimum Shear Reinforcement

1. Guard against any sudden failure of a beam if concrete cover
bursts and the bond to the tension steel is lost.
2. Prevent brittle shear failure which can occur without shear
steel;
3. Prevent failure that can be caused by tension due to shrinkage
and thermal stresses and internal cracking in the beams
4. Hold the shear reinforcements in place while pouring
concrete and
5. Act as the necessary ties for the compression steel and make
them effective.

3.4.3 Limit State of Collapse in Torsion

Torsion is the act of twisting or turning. It can also be
defined as the condition of being twisted or turned. Torsion is
the stress or deformation caused when one end of an object is
twisted in one direction and the other end is held motionless or
twisted in the opposite direction.

When a structure is subjected to torsion, twisting of the

plane occurs and such collapse in torsion also occurs when we
are designing in limit state of design then such failure
occurrence is called the limit state of collapse in torsion.
Torsional Stiffness:
Torsional stiffness is the ratio of applied torsion moment
to angle of twist.

Limit State of Collapse in Torsion (Necessary Data from

Code)
a) Provisions in IS 456. Provisions for limit state of stress in
Torsion are similar as in case of working stress method except
that for calculation of equivalent shear, Vu and Tu have to be
used in place of working V and T. In calculating equivalent
bending moment Me1 and Me2, Mu has to be used and Mt is to be
calculated with Tu. The transverse reinforcement has to be
calculated on basis of Tu, Vu and taking 0.87fy in place of σsv.
b) Provision in Other Codes. I) British Code CP 110. As in IS the
British code provides for additional area of longitudinal bars
and stirrups required to resist the torsional shear forces. The
beam is first designed for bending moment and shear forces.
The torsional shear stress is calculated from,
2𝑇𝑢
𝜏𝑡 = ℎ
2
ℎ𝑚𝑖𝑛 (ℎ𝑚𝑎𝑥 − 𝑚𝑖𝑛)
3
Where, hmin and hmax are the smaller and larger dimensions of the
beam section.
If 𝜏t> 𝜏t,min, in table torsional reinforcement is required.
Also 𝜏v+ 𝜏t ≯ 𝜏tu in table, where 𝜏v is the shear stress due to
shear force
For sections with y1<550 mm, 𝜏t≯ 𝜏tu

Behaviour of RC Beam under Torsion

A plain cutting in the concrete beam of rectangular
cross section subjected to torsion develops spiral cracks and
fails suddenly. The diagonal cracks in the form of a spiral
develop when diagonal tension exceeds the tensile strength of
the concrete, resulting in the warping of surface
In reinforced concrete members subjected to flexure
and torsion, the flexural cracks are the first to be formed. As
soon as this stage is reached, the flexural and torsional stiffness
are formed on the beam face in which torsional shear stress and
conventional shear stress are additive. Eventually these cracks
are formed on the other sides of the beam also. Finally, the
tension reinforcement yields and the beam fail by secondary
compression. Depending upon the relative magnitudes of
flexure and torsion, this behaviour may slightly alter and
compression failure may occur on the sides of the beam.
Having determined the torsional moment acting on a section by
elastic analysis, the next step is to determine the maximum shear
stress that will be produced in the section.

3.5 Limit State of Serviceability in Deflection and in

Cracking
A reinforced concrete structure should satisfy the
serviceability limit state that is, in a section of sufficient strength
to support the design loads, there should not be excessive
deformations and cracks which may affect its appearance.
Widespread use of ultimate load method of design of reinforced
concrete members resulted in smaller sections. Such smaller and
heavily reinforced sections deflect a greater amount than those
designed by the working stress method. The problem of
deflections is further amplified due to the increasing use of high
strength deformed bars. The permissible deflection is governed
by the amount that can be tolerated by the interacting
components of the structure. Excessive deflection of the
member may not be detrimental in itself but the effect on
structural components that are supported by the deflecting
member determines the acceptable limit. It is essential to
consider both the short-term deflection and the long-term
deflection. The factors affecting the short-term deflection are as
follows:
a) Magnitude and distribution of live load,
b) Span and type of end restraints,
c) Cross-sectional properties including steel percentages,
d) Type of concrete and its characteristics strength
e) Stress in steel reinforcement, and
f) Amount and extent of cracking.
 Long term deflection occurs over a period of time
mainly due to shrinkage and creep. It is about two or three
times larger than the short-term deflection. The main factors
affecting the long-term deflection are as follows:
a) Humidity and temperature conditions at the time of
curing of concrete,
b) Age of concrete at the time of loading, and
c) All the other factors influencing shrinkage and creep,
such as: type and size of aggregate, water-cement ratio,
presence of compression reinforcement, size of
member etc.
Cracking in reinforced concrete members occurs mainly
due to shrinkage and loads. Shrinkage cracking can be
minimized by proper design of concrete mix, proportioning the
member to reduce or eliminate differential shrinkage stresses
and the proper detailing of construction joints. Flexural
cracking is inherent in all reinforced concrete flexural members
especially those utilizing high strength deformed bars. Cracking
is a complex phenomenon and is influenced by a number of
factors, such as:
a) Stress in reinforcing steel
b) Surface characteristics of reinforcing steel
c) Diameter and spacing of steel
d) Cover to bars
e) Quality of concrete
f) Load distribution and its rate of application, and
g) Shear stirrups and other form of reinforcement.
It is well accepted that concrete is very poor in tension
and will crack. However, the width of cracks will cause concern
if they were too large because surface finish and protection
afforded by concrete to the steel reinforcement would be
impaired.

Limit State of Serviceability in Deflection

The deflection of a structure or its part should not
adversely affect the appearance of efficiency of the structure or
finishes or partitions. The total deflection due to all loads
including the effects of temperature, shrinkage and creep should
not exceed span/250 when measured from the as-cast level of
the supports of floors, roofs and all other horizontal members.
The deflection including the effects of temperature; shrinkage
and creep occurring after the construction of partitions, and
finishes should not exceed span/350 or 20 mm, whichever is
lesser. Two methods are given in the code for checking the
deflections. These are:
a) Limiting the span/effective depth ratio given in clause
23.2 which should be used in all normal cases, and
b) Calculation of deflection given in Appendix C of the
Code to be used in special cases.
Span/effective depth ratio: This is a semi-empirical
method based on calculations and tests on beams. It has been
adopted from Cl 3.4.6 of BS 8110 part 1-1989. The permissible
value for the span/effective depth ratio depends on:
a) The basic value, that is, span and support conditions,
b) The service stress and amount of tension steel,
c) The amount of compression steel, and
d) The type of beam
For beams and slabs, it is assumed that vertical
deflection limit given earlier is satisfied provided that the span
to effective depth ratio is not greater than the value obtained as
follows:
𝐿
𝑑
≤𝛼𝛽𝛾𝛿λ
Where,
𝛼=basic values of span to effective depth ratios for spans upto
10 m
=7 for cantilever
=20 for simply supported
=26 for continuous
𝛽 =a factor which depends on the stress at service and amount
of steel for tension reinforcement
=a factor which accounts for correction in the values of 𝛼 for
spans greater than 10 m.
=10/span, where span is in meters.
 𝛾 =a factor which depends on the stress at service and amount
of steel for tension reinforcement.
The modification factor 𝛾 may be computed using the following
equation given by:
(477 − 𝜎𝑠 )
𝛾 = 0.55 + 𝑀
≤ 2.0
120 (0.9 + 𝑏  𝑑𝑢 𝑑)
The design service stress in the tension reinforcement may be
estimated from the following equation:
𝜎𝑦 𝐴𝑠,𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑑 1
𝜎𝑠 = ( )[ ]
 𝐴𝑠,𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑣 𝛽𝑏
Where,
b=width of a rectangular beam, or effective flange width of a
flanged beam
As,reqd =area of tension reinforcement required at midspan to
resist the factored bending moment (at support for a
cantilever)
As,prov =area of tension reinforcement actually provided at
midspan (at support for a cantilever)

𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑓𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

ßb=𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑎𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑏𝑒𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑏𝑢𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

η = 8/5 = 1.60 in British code

=1/0.58=1.73 in IS: 456-2000
Alternatively, the service stress in steel bars may be computed
from compatibility of strains. Typical values of  for some
selected values of service stress in steel are shown in Table 10.1
of IS: 456–2000.
δ =a factor which depends on the area of compression
reinforcement
λ=a factor for flanged beams which depends on the ratio of
web width to the flange width
When the span exceeds 10 m, value of the basic span/effective
depth ratio is modified by using the factor ß. However, for
cantilever beams exceeding 10 m in span, the exact deflection
calculations should be made.
Table 3.5 Modification Factor for Tension Reinforcement ()
Percentage of fs=145
S. fs=290 fs=240 fs=190 fs=120
tension N/mm
No. N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2 N/mm2
reinforcement 2

1 0.00 2.000 - - - -
2 0.20 1.370 1.685 - - -
3 0.40 1.030 1.330 1.670 - -
4 0.60 0.980 1.157 1.420 1.770 -
5 0.80 0.900 1.050 1.280 1.550 1.770
6 1.00 0.850 0.990 1.194 1.420 1.600
7 1.20 0.810 0.943 1.123 1.330 1.490
8 1.40 0.780 0.910 1.070 1.260 1.410
9 1.60 0.750 0.885 1.030 1.220 1.340
10 1.80 0.730 0.845 0.985 1.160 1.285
11 2.00 0.720 0.830 0.960 1.120 1.230
12 2.20 0.690 0.825 0.930 1.085 1.200
13 2.40 0.680 0.805 0.910 1.060 1.168
14 2.60 0.670 0.790 0.900 1.035 1.140
15 2.80 0.665 0.787 0.890 1.020 1.200
16 3.00 0.663 0.785 0.880 1.000 1.100

The deflection is influenced by the amount of tension

reinforcement at the centre of the spans for beams or at the
support for cantilevers. The addition of tension reinforcement
necessitates an increase in the effective depth of the beam. An
increase in the area of tension steel increases the depth of the
compression zone and, consequently, the effect of shrinkage.
This results in greater curvature and creep deflection. Same is
the effect of greater tensile stress. Thus it can be seen from
table 3.5 that value of  decreases with the increase in tension
reinforcement and also with the increase in service stress of
steel reinforcement.
All reinforcement in the compression zone reduces
shrinkage and, therefore, the curvature which decreases
deflection.