142 WELDING METALLURGY

Table 4.2
Typical Mechanical Properties of Some Commercial Steels at Room Temperature
Ultimate Yield Strength Elongation Hardness
Tensile Strength 0.2% Offset in 2 in.
Material Type Conditions ksi (MPa) ksi (MPa) (50 mm), % Brinell Rockwell
Mild steel Plain carbon Hot-rolled 55 (379) 30 (207) 30 110 62B
A36 Plain carbon Hot-rolled 65 (448) 38 (262) 28 135 74B
A285 Plain carbon Hot-rolled 70 (483) 39 (266) 27 140 77B
Medium Plain carbon Oil-quenched and tempered 120 (827) 93 (641) 18 242 100B
carbon steel at 400°F (204°C)
Oil-quenched and tempered 80 (552) 62 (427) 30 202 (23C)
at 1200°F (649°C) 90B
A514 Low-alloy Water-quenched and 115 (793) 95 (655) 18 230 98B
tempered (21C)
A240 Type 304 Stainless steel Annealed 90 (621) 40 (276) 60 160 83B
A216 Grade WCB Casting Normalized and tempered 70 (483) 36 (248) 22 180 89B

Alloy Steels chemical composition by the AISI-SAE classification

The carbon content of alloy steels intended for
welded applications is typically less than 0.25% and
frequently below 0.15%. Other alloying elements such
as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, manganese, and sil-
icon are added to increase the strength of these steels at
room temperatures as well as to impart better notch
toughness at low temperatures. These elements also
alter the response of the steels to heat treatment and can
improve their corrosion resistance. Alloy additions
adversely affect the crack susceptibility of alloy steels.
Therefore, low-hydrogen welding processes should be
used on these steels. Preheat may also be required.
Modern design often utilizes steels that have higher
strength and toughness than the plain carbon and struc-
tural steels. A yield strength of 50,000 pounds per
square inch (psi) (345 megapascal [MPa]) and a tensile
strength of 70,000 psi (480 MPa) are achieved in the
as-rolled condition by adding two or more alloying ele-
ments. Adequate weldability is maintained by restrict-
ing the carbon content to a maximum of 0.20%. Some
of these steels are heat treated up to 100,000 psi
(690 MPa) yield strength, and they have better notch
toughness than ordinary carbon steel. The selection of
the proper filler metal and welding procedures will
result in comparable properties in welded joints in these
steels.11
A variety of steels have been developed for use in
machinery parts. These steels are classified according to
11. The American Welding Society publishes low-alloy-steel filler
metal specifications for the common arc welding processes.
system. The weldability of these steels depends on their
chemical composition. The more they are alloyed, the
farther the nose of the CCT diagram is moved to the
right.
Other steels have been developed to meet the needs
of the cryogenic industry. Those steels have good notch
toughness at temperatures well below 0°F (–18°C).
Fine-grained aluminum-killed steels with up to 10%
nickel are frequently used for cryogenic service.
Alloy steels have also been developed for high-
temperature service in welded structures such as steam
boilers, oil refining towers, and chemical-processing
retorts. Additions of chromium and molybdenum give
these steels structural stability and provide high creep
and stress-rupture values at temperatures up to 1100°F
(595°C).
Stainless Steels. Stainless steels are important com-
mercial alloy steels. They contain at least 12% chro-
mium, and many of the grades have substantial
amounts of nickel. Other alloying elements are added
for special purposes. Stainless steels are noted for their
resistance to attack by many corrosive media at atmo-
spheric or elevated temperatures. The four basic types
of stainless steel are austenitic, ferritic, martensitic, and
duplex. Some are precipitation-hardenable steels.
Austenitic stainless steels are produced by adding
alloying elements that stabilize austenite at room
temperature. Nickel is the most important austenite-
stabilizing element. Manganese, carbon, and nitrogen
also stabilize austenite. Chromium, nickel, molyb-
denum, nitrogen, titanium, and niobium provide the

austenitic stainless steels with special properties of
corrosion resistance, oxidation resistance, and elevated
temperature strength. Carbon can contribute to ele-
vated temperature strength, but it may reduce corrosion
resistance by forming a chemical compound with chro-
mium. As the austenitic alloys cannot be hardened by
heat treatment, they do not harden in the weld heat-
affected zone. The austenitic stainless steels have excel-
lent weldability.
Ferritic stainless steels contain from 12% to 27%
chromium with small amounts of austenite-forming ele-
ments. As the ferrite phase is stable up to the melting
temperature, no undesirable martensite is formed.
However, slow cooling through the temperature range
circa 885°F (474°C) should be avoided, as this precipi-
tates a brittle phase.
Martensitic stainless steels contain the smallest
amount of chromium and exhibit high hardenability.
The cutlery grades are martensitic stainless steels. As
the martensitic heat-affected zone is susceptible to
cracking, care must be taken when welding these steels.
Preheating and postheating treatments are necessary to
prevent cracking.
Duplex stainless steels are chosen for their improved
corrosion resistance. They form no martensitic transfor-
mation product from welding. Some of the duplex
alloys have limited weldability due to the undesirable
formation of a sigma (σ ) phase upon cooling.
Most stainless steels are readily joined by arc, elec-
tron beam, laser beam, resistance, and friction welding
processes. Gas metal arc, gas tungsten arc, flux cored
arc, and shielded metal arc welding are commonly used.
Plasma arc and submerged arc welding are also suitable
methods. Oxyacetylene welding is seldom recom-
mended, and its use for sections thicker than 0.13 in.
(3.3 mm) is discouraged.
Other Alloy Steels. Other alloy steels have been spe-
cially designed for applications that require outstanding
mechanical properties or strength and ductility at ele-
vated temperatures. These steels range from chromium-
molybdenum steels (ASTM A387) and nickel steels
(ASTM A353 and A553) to nickel-cobalt maraging
steels and tool steels. Important compositions are dis-
cussed in Materials and Applications—Part 2, Volume 4
of the Welding Handbook, 8th edition.12
In tool steels, alloys are added to extend the time
required for transformation. It follows that they
become proportionately more difficult to weld.
Although the chromium-molybdenum and nickel steels
are typically welded under controlled conditions, these
tool steels may be fabricated and repaired using any of
the common arc welding processes (e.g., gas tungsten
12. Oates, W. R., and A. M. Saitta, eds., 1998, Materials and Applica-
tions—Part 2, Vol. 4 of Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Miami: American
Welding Society.
WELDING METALLURGY 143
arc welding, gas metal arc welding, shielded metal arc
welding, and submerged arc welding). Dies, punches,
and shears are made from high-carbon tool steels that
contain moderate amounts of other alloying elements.
Premium quality high-strength alloys may require the
use of gas tungsten arc or plasma arc welding to achieve
clean weld deposits with suitable mechanical properties.
ALUMINUM ALLOYS
Aluminum and aluminum alloys have a face-centered-
cubic crystal lattice structure at all temperatures up to
their melting points. The alloys have low density—
about one-third that of steel or copper—and excellent
corrosion resistance. Aluminum resists corrosion by air,
water, oils, and many chemicals because it rapidly
forms a tenacious, refractory oxide film on a clean sur-
face in air. As this oxide is virtually insoluble in the
molten aluminum, it inhibits wetting by molten filler
metals.
Aluminum conducts thermal and electrical energy
approximately four times faster than steel. As a result,
thick sections may need preheating. In addition, fusion
welding requires high heat input, and resistance spot
welds require a higher current and a shorter weld time
than steel welds of equivalent thickness. As this metal is
nonmagnetic, arc blow causes no difficulty. Aluminum
is highly reflective of radiant energy and does not
change color prior to melting, which occurs at approxi-
mately 1200°F (650°C).
Aluminum is strengthened by alloying, cold working,
heat treating, and combinations of these methods. Heat-
ing during welding, brazing, or soldering may soften
aluminum alloys that were previously strengthened by
heat treatment or cold working. This behavior must be
considered when designing the component and selecting
the joining process and manufacturing procedures.
Aluminum is alloyed principally with copper, magne-
sium, manganese, silicon, zinc, and lithium. Small addi-
tions of chromium, iron, nickel, titanium, and lithium
are made to specific alloy systems to obtain desired
properties and to refine the grain. Alone or in various
combinations, magnesium, manganese, silicon, and iron
are used to strengthen aluminum by solid solution or by
dispersing intermetallic compounds within the matrix.
The addition of silicon also lowers the melting point
and increases the fluidity of the melted alloy.
Copper, magnesium, silicon, zinc, and lithium
additions produce alloys that are heat treatable.
These elements become more soluble with increasing
temperature. Such alloys can be strengthened by
appropriate thermal treatments, which may be sup-
plemented by cold working. However, the heat treat-
ment and the cold work may be negated by the
thermal cycle of a joining operation. Heat treatment