Fake news

Fake news, also known as junk news, pseudo-news,

alternative facts, false news or hoax news,[1][2] is a form of
news consisting of deliberate disinformation or hoaxes spread
via traditional news media (print and broadcast) or online
social media.[3][4] Digital news has brought back and
increased the usage of fake news, or yellow journalism.[5]
The news is then often reverberated as misinformation in
social media but occasionally finds its way to the mainstream
media as well.[6]
Reporters with various forms of "fake news"
Fake news is written and published usually with the intent to from an 1894 illustration by Frederick Burr
Opper
mislead in order to damage an agency, entity, or person,
and/or gain financially or politically,[7][8][9] often using
sensationalist, dishonest, or outright fabricated headlines to
increase readership. Similarly, clickbait stories and headlines earn advertising revenue from this activity.[7]

The relevance of fake news has increased in post-truth politics. For media outlets, the ability to attract viewers
to their websites is necessary to generate online advertising revenue. Publishing a story with false content that
attracts users benefits advertisers and improves ratings. Easy access to online advertisement revenue, increased
political polarization and the popularity of social media, primarily the Facebook News Feed,[3] have all been
implicated in the spread of fake news,[7][10] which competes with legitimate news stories. Hostile government
actors have also been implicated in generating and propagating fake news, particularly during elections.[11][12]

Confirmation bias and social media algorithms like those used on Facebook and Twitter further advance the
spread of fake news. Modern impact is felt for example in vaccine hesitancy.[13] Fake news undermines
serious media coverage and makes it more difficult for journalists to cover significant news stories.[14] An
analysis by BuzzFeed found that the top 20 fake news stories about the 2016 U.S. presidential election
received more engagement on Facebook than the top 20 election stories from 19 major media outlets.[15]
Anonymously-hosted fake news websites[3] lacking known publishers have also been criticized, because they
make it difficult to prosecute sources of fake news for libel.[16] The term "lying press"[17][18] is at times used
to cast doubt upon legitimate news from an opposing political standpoint.

During and after his presidential campaign and election, President Donald Trump popularized the term "fake
news" in this sense, regardless of the truthfulness of the news, when he used it to describe the negative press
coverage of himself.[19][20] In part, as a result of Trump's misuse, the term has come under increasing criticism,
and in October 2018 the British government decided that it will no longer use the term because it is "a poorly-
defined and misleading term that conflates a variety of false information, from genuine error through to foreign
interference in democratic processes."[21]

Contents
Definition
Types
Identifying
Detecting fake news online
History
Ancient
Medieval
Early modern period
19th century
20th century
21st century
On the Internet
Response
Jair Bolsonaro
Donald Trump
Criticism of the term
By country
Armenia
Australia
Austria
Belgium
Brazil
Canada
China
Colombia
Czech Republic
Finland
France
Germany
Hong Kong
India
Indonesia
Israel/Palestinian Territories
Malaysia
Mexico
Myanmar
Netherlands
Pakistan
Philippines
Poland
Romania
Russia
Saudi Arabia
Serbia
Singapore
South Africa
South Korea
 Spain
Sweden
Syria
Taiwan
Ukraine
United Arab Emirates
United Kingdom
United States
See also
Sources
References
Further reading

Definition
Fake news is a neologism[22] often used to refer to fabricated news. This type of news, found in traditional
news, social media[3] or fake news websites, has no basis in fact, but is presented as being factually
accurate.[23]

Michael Radutzky, a producer of CBS 60 Minutes, said his show considers fake news to be "stories that are
probably false, have enormous traction [popular appeal] in the culture, and are consumed by millions of
people." These stories are not only found in politics, but also in areas like vaccination, stock values and
nutrition.[24] He did not include news that is "invoked by politicians against the media for stories that they
don't like or for comments that they don't like" as fake news. Guy Campanile, also a 60 Minutes producer said,
"What we are talking about are stories that are fabricated out of thin air. By most measures, deliberately, and
by any definition, that's a lie."[25]

The intent and purpose of fake news is important. In some cases, what appears to be fake news may be news
satire, which uses exaggeration and introduces non-factual elements that are intended to amuse or make a
point, rather than to deceive. Propaganda can also be fake news.[7] Some researchers have highlighted that
"fake news" may be distinguished not just by the falsity of its content, but also the "character of [its] online
circulation and reception".[26]

Claire Wardle of First Draft News identifies seven types of fake news:[27]

1. satire or parody ("no intention to cause harm but has potential to fool")
2. false connection ("when headlines, visuals or captions don't support the content")
3. misleading content ("misleading use of information to frame an issue or an individual")
4. false context ("when genuine content is shared with false contextual information")
5. impostor content ("when genuine sources are impersonated" with false, made-up sources)
6. manipulated content ("when genuine information or imagery is manipulated to deceive", as with
a "doctored" photo)
7. fabricated content ("new content is 100% false, designed to deceive and do harm")

In the context of the United States of America and its election processes in the 2010s, fake news generated
considerable controversy and argument, with some commentators defining concern over it as moral panic or
mass hysteria and others worried about damage done to public trust.[28][29][30]
In January 2017, the United Kingdom House of Commons commenced a parliamentary inquiry into the
"growing phenomenon of fake news".[31]

Some, most notably United States President Donald Trump, have broadened the meaning of "fake news" to
include news that was negative of his presidency.[32][33]

In November 2017, Claire Wardle (mentioned above) announced she has rejected the phrase "fake news" and
"censors it in conversation", finding it "woefully inadequate" to describe the issues. She now speaks of
"information pollution" and distinguishes between three types of problems: 'mis-information', 'dis-information',
and 'mal-information':

1. Mis-information: false information disseminated without harmful intent.

2. Dis-information: created and shared by people with harmful intent.
3. Mal-information: the sharing of "genuine" information with the intent to cause harm.[34]

Author Terry Pratchett, who had a background as a journalist and press officer, was among the first to be
concerned about the spread of fake news on the Internet. In a 1995 interview with Bill Gates, founder of
Microsoft, he said "Let's say I call myself the Institute for Something-or-other and I decide to promote a
spurious treatise saying the Jews were entirely responsible for the second world war and the Holocaust didn't
happen and it goes out there on the Internet and is available on the same terms as any piece of historical
research which has undergone peer review and so on. There's a kind of parity of esteem of information on the
net. It's all there: there's no way of finding out whether this stuff has any bottom to it or whether someone has
just made it up". Gates was optimistic and disagreed, saying that authorities on the Net would index and check
facts and reputations in a much more sophisticated way than in print. But it was Pratchett who had "accurately
predicted how the internet would propagate and legitimise fake news".[35]

Types
Here are a few examples of fake news and how they are viewed:

Clickbait
Propaganda
Satire/parody
Sloppy journalism
Misleading headings
Biased or slanted news

These are features of fake news and may help to identify and avoid instances of fake news.[36]

Identifying
The International Federation of Library Associations and Institutions (IFLA) published a summary in diagram
form (pictured at right) to assist people in recognizing fake news.[37] Its main points are:

1. Consider the source (to understand its mission and purpose)

2. Read beyond the headline (to understand the whole story)
3. Check the authors (to see if they are real and credible)
4. Assess the supporting sources (to ensure they support the claims)
5. Check the date of publication (to see if the story is relevant and up to date)
 6. Ask if it is a joke (to determine if it is meant to be satire)
7. Review your own biases (to see if they are affecting your
judgment)
8. Ask experts (to get confirmation from independent people
with knowledge).[38]

The International Fact-Checking Network (IFCN), launched in 2015,

supports international collaborative efforts in fact-checking, provides
training, and has published a code of principles.[39] In 2017 it
introduced an application and vetting process for journalistic
organisations.[40] One of IFCN's verified signatories, the independent,
not-for-profit media journal The Conversation, created a short
animation explaining its fact checking process, which involves "extra
checks and balances, including blind peer review by a second
academic expert, additional scrutiny and editorial oversight".[41]

Beginning in the 2017 school year, children in Taiwan study a new Infographic How to spot fake news
curriculum designed to teach critical reading of propaganda and the published by the International
evaluation of sources. Called "media literacy", the course provides Federation of Library Associations
and Institutions
training in journalism in the new information society.[42]

Detecting fake news online

Fake news has become increasingly prevalent over the last few years, with over 100 incorrect articles and
rumors spread incessantly just with regard to the 2016 United States presidential election.[43] These fake news
articles tend to come from satirical news websites or individual websites with an incentive to propagate false
information, either as clickbait or to serve a purpose.[43] Since they typically hope to intentionally promote
incorrect information, such articles are quite difficult to detect.[44] When identifying a source of information,
one must look at many attributes, including but not limited to the content of the email and social media
engagements.[44] specifically, the language is typically more inflammatory in fake news than real articles, in
part because the purpose is to confuse and generate clicks.[44] Furthermore, modeling techniques such as n-
gram encodings and bag of words have served as other linguistic techniques to determine the legitimacy of a
news source.[44] On top of that, researchers have determined that visual-based cues also play a factor in
categorizing an article, specifically some features can be designed to assess if a picture was legitimate and
provides more clarity on the news.[44] There is also many social context features that can play a role, as well as
the model of spreading the news. Websites such as "Snopes" try to detect this information manually, while
certain universities are trying to build mathematical models to do this themselves.[43]

History

Ancient

In the 13th century BC, Rameses the Great spread lies and propaganda portraying the Battle of Kadesh as a
stunning victory for the Egyptians; he depicted scenes of himself smiting his foes during the battle on the walls
of nearly all his temples. The treaty between the Egyptians and the Hittites, however, reveals that the battle
was actually a stalemate.[46]
During the first century BC, Octavian ran a campaign of
misinformation against his rival Mark Antony, portraying him as a
drunkard, a womanizer, and a mere puppet of the Egyptian queen
Cleopatra VII.[47] He published a document purporting to be Mark
Antony's will, which claimed that Mark Antony, upon his death,
wished to be entombed in the mausoleum of the Ptolemaic pharaohs.
Although the document may have been forged, it invoked outrage
from the Roman populace.[48] Mark Antony ultimately killed himself
after his defeat in the Battle of Actium upon hearing false rumors
propagated by Cleopatra herself claiming that she had committed
suicide.[45]

During the second and third centuries AD, false rumors were spread
about Christians claiming that they engaged in ritual cannibalism and
incest.[49][50] In the late third century AD, the Christian apologist
Lactantius invented and exaggerated stories about pagans engaging in Roman politician and general Mark
acts of immorality and cruelty,[51] while the anti-Christian writer Antony killed himself because of
Porphyry invented similar stories about Christians.[52] misinformation.[45]

Medieval

In 1475, a fake news story in Trent claimed that the Jewish community had murdered a two-and-a-half-year-
old Christian infant named Simonino.[53] The story resulted in all the Jews in the city being arrested and
tortured; fifteen of them were burned at the stake.[53] Pope Sixtus IV himself attempted to stamp out the story;
however, by that point, it had already spread beyond anyone's control.[53] Stories of this kind were known as
"blood libel"; they claimed that Jews purposely killed Christians, especially Christian children, and used their
blood for religious or ritual purposes.[54]

Early modern period

After the invention of the printing press in 1439, publications became widespread but there was no standard of
journalistic ethics to follow. By the 17th century, historians began the practice of citing their sources in
footnotes. In 1610 when Galileo went on trial, the demand for verifiable news increased.[53]

During the 18th century publishers of fake news were fined and banned in the Netherlands; one man, Gerard
Lodewijk van der Macht, was banned four times by Dutch authorities—and four times he moved and restarted
his press.[55] In the American colonies, Benjamin Franklin wrote fake news about murderous "scalping"
Indians working with King George III in an effort to sway public opinion in favor of the American
Revolution.[53]

Canards, the successors of the 16th century pasquinade, were sold in Paris on the street for two centuries,
starting in the 17th century. In 1793, Marie Antoinette was executed in part because of popular hatred
engendered by a canard on which her face had been printed.[56]

During the era of slave-owning in the United States, supporters of slavery propagated fake news stories about
African Americans, whom white people considered to have lower status.[57] Violence occurred in reaction to
the spread of some fake news events. In one instance, stories of African Americans spontaneously turning
white spread through the south and struck fear into the hearts of many people.[58]
Rumors and anxieties about slave rebellions were common in Virginia from the beginning of the colonial
period, despite the only major uprising occurring in the 19th century. One particular instance of fake news
regarding revolts occurred in 1730. The serving governor of Virginia at the time, Governor William Gooch,
reported that a slave rebellion had occurred but was effectively put down—although this never happened.
After Gooch discovered the falsehood, he ordered slaves found off plantations to be punished, tortured, and
made prisoners.[59]

19th century

One instance of fake news was the Great Moon Hoax of 1835. The New
York Sun published articles about a real-life astronomer and a made-up
colleague who, according to the hoax, had observed bizarre life on the
moon. The fictionalized articles successfully attracted new subscribers, and
the penny paper suffered very little backlash after it admitted the next month
that the series had been a hoax.[53][60] Such stories were intended to
entertain readers and not to mislead them.[55]

From 1800 to 1810, James Cheetham made use of fictional stories to

A "lunar animal" said to have
been discovered by John
Herschel on the Moon
exploded in the harbor of Havana, Cuba.[66]
advocate politically against Aaron Burr.[61][62] His stories were often
defamatory and he was frequently sued for libel.[63][64][65]
Yellow journalism peaked in the mid-1890s characterising the sensationalist
journalism that arose in the circulation war between Joseph Pulitzer's New
York World and William Randolph Hearst's New York Journal. Pulitzer and
other yellow journalism publishers goaded the United States into the
Spanish–American War, which was precipitated when the USS Maine

20th century

Fake news became popular and spread quickly in the 1900s. Media
like newspapers, articles, and magazines were in high demand
because of technology.[67] Author Sarah Churchwell asserts that it
was Woodrow Wilson who popularized the phrase 'fake news' in
1915, although the phrase had been used in the US in the previous
century.[68] During the First World War, an example of fake news
Joseph Pulitzer and William
was the anti-German atrocity propaganda regarding an alleged
Randolph Hearst caricatured as they
"German Corpse Factory" in which the German battlefield dead were urged the U.S. into the Spanish–
supposedly rendered down for fats used to make nitroglycerine, American War.
candles, lubricants, human soap and boot dubbing. Unfounded
rumors regarding such a factory circulated in the Allied press starting
in 1915, and by 1917 the English-language publication North China Daily News presented these allegations as
true at a time when Britain was trying to convince China to join the Allied war effort; this was based on new,
allegedly true stories from The Times and The Daily Mail that turned out to be forgeries. These false
allegations became known as such after the war, and in the Second World War Joseph Goebbels used the story
in order to deny the ongoing massacre of Jews as British propaganda. According to Joachim Neander and
Randal Marlin, the story also "encouraged later disbelief" when reports about the Holocaust surfaced after the
liberation of Auschwitz and Dachau concentration camps.[69] After Hitler and the Nazi Party rose to power in
Germany in 1933, they established the Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda under the
control of Propaganda Minister Joseph Goebbels.[70] The Nazis used both print and broadcast journalism to
promote their agendas, either by obtaining ownership of those media or exerting political influence.[71]
Throughout World War II, both the Axis and the Allies employed fake news in the form of propaganda to
persuade the public at home and in enemy countries.[72][73] The British Political Warfare Executive used radio
broadcasts and distributed leaflets to discourage German troops.[70]

The Carnegie Endowment for International Peace has published that The New York Times printed fake news
"depicting Russia as a socialist paradise."[74] During 1932–1933, The New York Times published numerous
articles by its Moscow bureau chief, Walter Duranty, who won a Pulitzer prize for a series of reports about the
Soviet Union.

21st century
In the 21st century, both the impact of fake news and the use of the term became widespread.[4]

The increasing openness, access and prevalence of the Internet resulted in it growing to unimaginable breadth.
New information and stories may be published around the clock and by anyone which has resulted in the
creation of unwanted, untruthful and misleading information, often lacking in verification, which may be
consumed by anyone with an Internet connection.[75][76] Fake news has grown from being sent via emails to
attacking social media.[77] Besides referring to made-up stories designed to deceive readers into clicking on
links, maximizing traffic and profit, the term has also referred to satirical news, whose purpose is not to
mislead but rather to inform viewers and share humorous commentary about real news and the mainstream
media.[78][79] United States examples of satire (as opposed to fake news) include the television show Saturday
Night Live's Weekend Update, The Daily Show, The Colbert Report, The Late Show with Stephen Colbert and
The Onion newspaper.[80][81][82]

21st century fake news is often intended to increase the financial profits of the news outlet. In an interview
with NPR, Jestin Coler, former CEO of the fake media conglomerate Disinfomedia, told who writes fake news
articles, who funds these articles, and why fake news creators create and distribute false information. Coler,
who has since left his role as a fake news creator, said that his company employed 20 to 25 writers at a time
and made $10,000 to $30,000 monthly from advertisements. Coler began his career in journalism as a
magazine salesman before working as a freelance writer. He said he entered the fake news industry to prove to
himself and others just how rapidly fake news can spread.[83] Disinfomedia is not the only outlet responsible
for the distribution of fake news; Facebook users play a major role in feeding into fake news stories by making
sensationalized stories "trend", according to BuzzFeed media editor Craig Silverman, and the individuals
behind Google AdSense basically fund fake news websites and their content.[84] Mark Zuckerberg, CEO of
Facebook, said, "I think the idea that fake news on Facebook influenced the election in any way, I think is a
pretty crazy idea" and then a few days later he blogged that Facebook was looking for ways to flag fake news
stories.[85]

Many online pro-Trump fake news stories are being sourced out of a city of Veles in Macedonia, where
approximately seven different fake news organizations are employing hundreds of teenagers to rapidly
produce and plagiarize sensationalist stories for different U.S. based companies and parties.[86]

One fake news writer, Paul Horner, was behind the widespread hoax that he was the graffiti artist Banksy and
had been arrested;[87][88] that a man stopped a robbery in a diner by quoting Pulp Fiction;[89][90] and that he
had an "enormous impact" on the 2016 U.S. presidential election, according to CBS News.[91] These stories
consistently appeared in Google's top news search results, were shared widely on Facebook, were taken
seriously and shared by third parties such as Trump presidential campaign manager Corey Lewandowski, Eric
Trump, ABC News and the Fox News Channel.[92][93][94] Horner later claimed that his work during this
period was intended "to make Trump's supporters look like idiots for sharing my stories".[95]
In a November 2016 interview with The Washington Post, Horner expressed regret for the role his fake news
stories played in the election and surprise at how gullible people were in treating his stories as
news.[89][96][97][98] In February 2017 Horner said, "I truly regret my comment about saying that I think
Donald Trump is in the White House because of me. I know all I did was attack him and his supporters and
got people not to vote for him. When I said that comment it was because I was confused how this evil got
elected President and I thought maybe instead of hurting his campaign, maybe I had helped it. My intention
was to get his supporters NOT to vote for him and I know for a fact that I accomplished that goal. The far
right, a lot of the Bible thumpers and alt-right were going to vote him regardless, but I know I swayed so many
that were on the fence."[99]

In December 2016, while speaking on Anderson Cooper 360, Horner said that all news is fake news and said
CNN "spread misinformation", which was one month before Trump leveled the same criticism at that
network.[100][101]

Horner spoke at the European Parliament in March, speaking about fake news and the importance of fact
checking.[102] According to a 2017 BuzzFeed article, Horner stated that a story of his about a rape festival in
India helped generate over $250,000 in donations to GiveIndia, a site that helps rape victims in
India.[103][104][105] Horner said he dislikes being grouped with people who write fake news solely to be
misleading. "They just write it just to write fake news, like there's no purpose, there's no satire, there's nothing
clever. All the stories I wrote were to make Trump's supporters look like idiots for sharing my stories."[95] The
Huffington Post called Horner a "Performance Artist".[106] Horner has been referred to as a "hoax artist" by
outlets such as the Associated Press and the Chicago Tribune.[107]

Kim LaCapria of the fact checking website Snopes.com has stated that, in America, fake news is a bipartisan
phenomenon, saying that "[t]here has always been a sincerely held yet erroneous belief misinformation is more
red than blue in America, and that has never been true."[108] Jeff Green of Trade Desk agrees the phenomenon
affects both sides. Green's company found that affluent and well-educated persons in their 40s and 50s are the
primary consumers of fake news. He told Scott Pelley of 60 Minutes that this audience tends to live in an
"echo chamber" and that these are the people who vote.[109]

In 2014, the Russian Government used disinformation via networks such as RT to create a counter-narrative
after Russian-backed Ukrainian rebels shot down Malaysia Airlines Flight 17.[110] In 2016, NATO claimed it
had seen a significant rise in Russian propaganda and fake news stories since the invasion of Crimea in
2014.[111] Fake news stories originating from Russian government officials were also circulated internationally
by Reuters news agency and published in the most popular news websites in the United States.[112]

A 2018 study at Oxford University[113] found that Trump's supporters consumed the "largest volume of 'junk
news' on Facebook and Twitter":

"On Twitter, a network of Trump supporters consumes the largest volume of junk news, and junk news is the
largest proportion of news links they share," the researchers concluded. On Facebook, the skew was even greater.
There, "extreme hard right pages—distinct from Republican pages—share more junk news than all the other
audiences put together."[114]

In 2018,[115] researchers from Princeton University, Dartmouth College and the University of Exeter
examined the consumption of fake news during the 2016 U.S. presidential campaign. Their findings showed
that Trump supporters and older Americans (over 60) were far more likely to consume fake news than Clinton
supporters. Those most likely to visit fake news websites were the 10% of Americans who consumed the most
conservative information. There was a very large difference (800%) in the consumption of fake news stories as
related to total news consumption between Trump supporters (6.2%) and Clinton supporters (0.8%).[115][116]
The study also showed that fake pro-Trump and fake pro-Clinton news stories were read by their supporters,
but with a significant difference: Trump supporters consumed far more (40%) than Clinton supporters (15%).
Facebook was by far the key "gateway" website where these fake stories were spread and which led people to
then go to the fake news websites. Fact checks of fake news were rarely seen by consumers,[115][116] with
none of those who saw a fake news story being reached by a related fact check.[117]

Brendan Nyhan, one of the researchers, emphatically stated in an interview on NBC News: "People got vastly
more misinformation from Donald Trump than they did from fake news websites—full stop."[116]

NBC NEWS: "It feels like there's a connection between having an active portion of a party that's prone
to seeking false stories and conspiracies and a president who has famously spread conspiracies and false
claims. In many ways, demographically and ideologically, the president fits the profile of the fake news
users that you're describing."

NYHAN: "It's worrisome if fake news websites further weaken the norm against false and misleading information
in our politics, which unfortunately has eroded. But it's also important to put the content provided by fake news
websites in perspective. People got vastly more misinformation from Donald Trump than they did from fake news
websites—full stop."[116]

A 2019 study by researchers at Princeton and New York University found that a person's likelihood of sharing
fake-news articles correlated more strongly with age than it did education, sex, or political views. 11% of users
older than 65 shared an article consistent with the study's definition of fake news. Just 3% of users ages 18 to
29 did the same.[118]

Another issue in mainstream media is the usage of the filter bubble, a "bubble" that has been created that gives
the viewer, on social media platforms, a specific piece of the information knowing they will like it. Thus
creating fake news and biased news because only half the story is being shared, the portion the viewer liked.
"In 1996, Nicolas Negroponte predicted a world where information technologies become increasingly
customizable."[119]

On the Internet

The roots of fake news

The term "fake news" gained importance with the electoral context in Western Europe and North America. It
is determined by fraudulent content in news format and its velocity.[121] According to Bounegru, Gray,
Venturini and Mauri, fake news is when a deliberate lie "is picked up by dozens of other blogs, retransmitted
by hundreds of websites, cross-posted over thousands of social media accounts and read by hundreds of
thousands" that it then effectively becomes "fake news".[122] On January 10, 2019 Fox Nation ran a
documentary called Black Eye: Dan Rather and the Birth of Fake News.

The evolving nature of online business models encourages the production of information that is "click-worthy"
and independent of its accuracy.[123]

The nature of trust depends on the assumptions that non-institutional forms of communication are freer from
power and more able to report information that mainstream media are perceived as unable or unwilling to
reveal. Declines in confidence in much traditional media[124] and expert knowledge[125] have created fertile
grounds for alternative, and often obscure sources of information to appear as authoritative and credible. This
ultimately leaves users confused about basic facts.[126]
Internet companies with threatened credibility tend to
develop new responses to limit fake news and reduce
financial incentives for its proliferation.[127][128]

In websites

When the Internet was first made accessible for public

use in the 1990s, its main purpose was for the seeking
and accessing of information.[129] As fake news was
introduced to the Internet, this made it difficult for
some people to find truthful information. The impact of
fake news has become a worldwide phenomenon.[130]
Fake news is often spread through the use of fake
news websites, which, in order to gain credibility,
specialize in creating attention-grabbing news, which
often impersonate well-known news The roots of "fake news" from UNESCO's World
sources. [131][132][133] Jestin Coler, who said he does it Trends Report[120]
for "fun", [25] has indicated that he earned US$10,000
per month from advertising on his fake news
websites.[109] In 2017, the inventor of the World Wide Web, Tim Berners-Lee claimed that fake news was one
of the three most significant new disturbing Internet trends that must first be resolved, if the Internet is to be
capable of truly "serving humanity." The other two new disturbing trends that Berners-Lee described as
threatening the Internet were the recent surge in the use of the Internet by governments for both citizen-
surveillance purposes, and for cyber-warfare purposes.[134] Research has shown that fake news hurts social
media and online based outlets far worse than traditional print and TV outlets. After a survey was conducted, it
was found that 58% of people had less trust in social media news stories as opposed to 24% of people in
mainstream media after learning about fake news.[135]

How fake news spreads and goes viral

Fake news has the tendency to become viral among the public. With the presence of social media platforms
like Twitter, it becomes easier for false information to diffuse quickly. Research has found that false political
information tends to spread "3 times" faster than other false news.[136] On Twitter, false tweets have a much
higher chance of being retweeted than truthful tweets. More so, it is humans who are responsible in
disseminating false news and information as opposed to bots and click-farms. The tendency for humans to
spread false information has to do with human behavior; according to research, humans are attracted to events
and information that are surprising and new, and, as a result, causes high-arousal in the brain.[137][138] This
ultimately leads humans to retweet or share false information, which are usually characterized with clickbait
and eye-catching titles. This prevents people from stopping to verify the information. As a result, massive
online communities form around a piece of false news without any prior fact checking or verification of the
veracity of the information.

Popularity of fake news

Fake news has become popular with various media outlets and platforms. Researchers at Pew Research Center
discovered that over 60% of Americans access news through social media compared to traditional newspaper
and magazines.[139] With the popularity of social media, individuals can easily access fake news or similar
content. One study looks at the number of fake news articles being accessed by viewers in 2016 and found
that each individual was exposed to at least one or more fake news articles daily. As a result, fake news is
omnipresent among the viewer population and results in its ability to spread across the internet.
 Intentionally deceptive photoshopped image of Hillary Clinton over a 1977 photo of Peoples Temple cult leader
Jim Jones.

Bots on social media

In the mid 1990s, Nicolas Negroponte anticipated a world where news through technology become
progressively personalized. In his 1996 book Being Digital he predicted a digital life where news consumption
becomes an extremely personalized experience and newspapers adapted content to reader preferences. This
prediction has since been reflected in news and social media feeds of modern day.[140]

Bots have the potential to increase the spread of fake news, as they use algorithms to decide what articles and
information specific users like, without taking into account the authenticity of an article. Bots mass-produce
and spread articles, regardless of the credibility of the sources, allowing them to play an essential role in the
mass spread of fake news, as bots are capable of creating fake accounts and personalities on the web that are
then gaining followers, recognition, and authority. Additionally, almost 30% of the spam and content spread on
the Internet originates from these software bots.[141]

In the 21st century, the capacity to mislead was enhanced by the widespread use of social media. For example,
one 21st century website that enabled fake news' proliferation was the Facebook newsfeed.[142][143] In late
2016 fake news gained notoriety following the uptick in news content by this means,[10][144] and its
prevalence on the micro-blogging site Twitter.[144] In the United States, 62% of Americans use social media to
receive news.[145] Many people use their Facebook news feed to get news, despite Facebook not being
considered a news site.[146] According to Craig McClain, over 66% of Facebook users obtain news from the
site.[147] This, in combination with increased political polarization and filter bubbles, led to a tendency for
readers to mainly read headlines.[148]

Numerous individuals and news outlets have stated that fake news may have influenced the outcome of the
2016 American Presidential Election.[149][150] Fake news saw higher sharing on Facebook than legitimate
news stories,[151][152][153] which analysts explained was because fake news often panders to expectations or
is otherwise more exciting than legitimate news.[154][152] Facebook itself initially denied this
characterization.[143][155] A Pew Research poll conducted in December 2016 found that 64% of U.S. adults
believed completely made-up news had caused "a great deal of confusion" about the basic facts of current
events, while 24% claimed it had caused "some confusion" and 11% said it had caused "not much or no
confusion".[156] Additionally, 23% of those polled admitted they had personally shared fake news, whether
knowingly or not. Researchers from Stanford assessed that only 8% of readers of fake news recalled and
believed in the content they were reading, though the same share of readers also recalled and believed in
"placebos"—stories they did not actually read, but that were produced by the authors of the study. In
comparison, over 50% of the participants recalled reading and believed in true news stories.[23]

By August 2017 Facebook stopped using the term "fake news" and used "false news" in its place instead. Will
Oremus of Slate wrote that because supporters of U.S. President Donald Trump had redefined the word "fake
news" to refer to mainstream media opposed to them, "it makes sense for Facebook—and others—to cede the
term to the right-wing trolls who have claimed it as their own."[157]

Research from Northwestern University concluded that 30% of all fake news traffic, as opposed to only 8% of
real news traffic, could be linked back to Facebook. The research concluded fake news consumers do not exist
in a filter bubble; many of them also consume real news from established news sources. The fake news
audience is only 10 percent of the real news audience, and most fake news consumers spent a relatively similar
amount of time on fake news compared with real news consumers—with the exception of Drudge Report
readers, who spent more than 11 times longer reading the website than other users.[158]

In the wake of western events, China's Ren Xianling of the Cyberspace Administration of China suggested a
"reward and punish" system be implemented to avoid fake news.[159]

Internet trolls

In Internet slang, a troll is a person who sows discord on the Internet by starting arguments or upsetting people,
by posting inflammatory, extraneous, or off-topic messages in an online community (such as a newsgroup,
forum, chat room, or blog) with the intent of provoking readers into an emotional response or off-topic
discussion, often for the troll's amusement. Internet trolls also feed on attention.[160]

The idea of internet trolls gained popularity in the 1990s, though its meaning shifted in 2011. Whereas it once
denoted provocation, it is a term now widely used to signify the abuse and misuse of the Internet. Trolling
comes in various forms, and can be dissected into abuse trolling, entertainment trolling, classical trolling, flame
trolling, anonymous trolling, and kudos trolling. It is closely linked to fake news, as internet trolls are now
largely interpreted as perpetrators of false information, information that can often be passed along unwittingly
by reporters and the public alike.[161][162]

When interacting with each other, trolls often share misleading information that contributes to the fake news
circulated on sites like Twitter and Facebook.[163] In the 2016 American election, Russia paid over 1,000
internet trolls to circulate fake news and disinformation about Hillary Clinton; they also created social media
accounts that resembled voters in important swing states, spreading influential political standpoints.[164][165] In
February 2019, Glenn Greenwald wrote that a cybersecurity company New Knowledge "was caught just six
weeks ago engaging in a massive scam to create fictitious Russian troll accounts on Facebook and Twitter in
order to claim that the Kremlin was working to defeat Democratic Senate nominee Doug Jones in
Alabama."[166]

Response

During the 2016 United States presidential election, the creation and coverage of fake news increased
substantially.[167] This resulted in a widespread response to combat the spread of fake news.[168][169][170][171]
The volume and reluctance of fake news websites to respond to fact-checking organizations has posed a
problem to inhibiting the spread of fake news through fact checking alone.[172] In an effort to reduce the
effects of fake news, fact-checking websites, including Snopes.com and FactCheck.org, have posted guides to
spotting and avoiding fake news websites.[169][173] New critical readings of media events and news with an
emphasis on literalism and logic have also emerged.[174] Social media sites and search engines, such as
Facebook and Google, received criticism for facilitating the spread of fake news. Both of these corporations
have taken measures to explicitly prevent the spread of fake news; critics, however, believe more action is
needed.[171]

After the 2016 American election and the run-up to the German election, Facebook began labeling and
warning of inaccurate news[175][176] and partnered with independent fact-checkers to label inaccurate news,
warning readers before sharing it.[175][176] After a story is flagged as disputed, it will be reviewed by the third-
party fact-checkers. Then, if it has been proven to be a fake news story, the post cannot be turned into an ad or
promoted.[177] Artificial intelligence is one of the more recent technologies being developed in the United
States and Europe to recognize and eliminate fake news through algorithms.[170] In 2017, Facebook targeted
30,000 accounts related to the spread of misinformation regarding the French presidential election.[178]

In March 2018, Google launched Google News Initiative (GNI) to fight the spread of fake news. It launched
GNI under the belief that quality journalism and identifying truth online is crucial. GNI has three goals: "to
elevate and strengthen quality journalism, evolve business models to drive sustainable growth and empower
news organizations through technological innovation".[179] To achieve the first goal, Google created the
Disinfo Lab, which combats the spread of fake news during crucial times such as elections or breaking news.
The company is also working to adjust its systems to display more trustworthy content during times of
breaking news. To make it easier for users to subscribe to media publishers, Google created Subscribe with
Google. Additionally, they have created a dashboard, News Consumer Insights that allows news organizations
to better understand their audiences using data and analytics. Google will spend $300 million through 2021 on
these efforts, among others, to combat fake news.[179]

Algerian lawmakers passed a law criminalising "fake news" deemed harmful to "public order and state
security".[180] In the Philippines,[181] China,[182] India,[183][184] Egypt,[185] Bangladesh,[186] Morocco,[187]
Pakistan,[188] Saudi Arabia,[189] Oman,[190] Iran,[191] Montenegro,[192] Vietnam, Laos,[193] Indonesia,[184]
Mongolia,[184] Sri Lanka,[184] Kenya, South Africa,[194] Nigeria,[195] Ethiopia,[196] Cote d'Ivoire,[197]
Somalia,[198] Mauritius,[199] Zimbabwe,[200] Thailand,[201] Kazakhstan,[202] Azerbaijan,[203] Malaysia[204]
Singapore,[205][206] and Hong Kong, people have been arrested for allegedly spreading fake news about the
COVID-19 pandemic.[207][184] The Turkish Interior Ministry has been arresting social media users whose
posts were "targeting officials and spreading panic and fear by suggesting the virus had spread widely in
Turkey and that officials had taken insufficient measures".[208] Iran's military said 3600 people have been
arrested for "spreading rumors" about COVID-19 in the country.[209] In Cambodia, some individuals who
expressed concerns about the spread of COVID-19 have been arrested on fake news charges.[210][211] The
United Arab Emirates have introduced criminal penalties for the spread of misinformation and rumours related
to the outbreak.[212]

In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, Facebook found that Troll farms from North Macedonia and the
Philippines pushed coronavirus disinformation. The publisher which used contents from these farms banned
from the platform.[213]

Jair Bolsonaro

President of Brazil Jair Bolsonaro has claimed that he will not allow his government to use any of its 1.8
billion reais (US$487 million) media budget on purchases from fake news media.[214] The BBC reported that
Bolsonaro's campaign declared media associating his campaign to the "extreme right" were themselves fake
news.[215]
Donald Trump

President Trump has claimed that the mainstream American media

regularly reports fake news. His use of the term has increased distrust
of the American media globally, particularly in Russia. His claims
have given credibility to the stories in the Russian media that label
American news, especially news about atrocities committed by the
Syrian regime against its own people, where it was quoted that
"munitions at the air base had as much to do with chemical weapons
as the test tube in the hands of Colin Powell had to do with weapons
Trump frequently mentioned "fake
of mass destruction in Iraq", as just more fake American news.[216]
news" on his twitter.
Trump has carried on a war against the mainstream media, often
attacking it as "fake news" and the "enemy of the
people."[217][218][219][220][221]

According to Jeff Hemsley, a Syracuse University professor who studies social media, Trump uses this term
for any news that is not favorable to him or which he simply dislikes.[222] Trump provided a widely
cited[223][19][224][225] example of this interpretation in a tweet on May 9, 2018:

Donald J. Trump Twitter

@realDonaldTrump

The Fake News is working overtime. Just reported that, despite the tremendous
success we are having with the economy & all things else, 91% of the Network
News about me is negative (Fake). Why do we work so hard in working with
the media when it is corrupt? Take away credentials?

May 9, 2018[226]

Chris Cillizza described the tweet on CNN as an "accidental" revelation about Trump's "'fake news' attacks",
and wrote: "The point can be summed up in these two words from Trump: 'negative (Fake).' To Trump, those
words mean the same thing. Negative news coverage is fake news. Fake news is negative news
coverage."[223] Other writers made similar comments about the tweet. Dara Lind wrote in Vox: "It's nice of
Trump to admit, explicitly, what many skeptics have suspected all along: When he complains about 'fake
news,' he doesn't actually mean 'news that is untrue'; he means news that is personally inconvenient to Donald
Trump."[19] Jonathan Chait wrote in New York magazine: "Trump admits he calls all negative news 'fake'.":
"In a tweet this morning, Trump casually opened a window into the source code for his method of identifying
liberal media bias. Anything that's negative is, by definition, fake."[224] Philip Bump wrote in The Washington
Post: "The important thing in that tweet ... is that he makes explicit his view of what constitutes fake news. It's
negative news. Negative. (Fake.)"[225] In an interview with Lesley Stahl, before the cameras were turned on,
Trump explained why he attacks the press: "You know why I do it? I do it to discredit you all and demean you
all so that when you write negative stories about me no one will believe you."[227]

Author and literary critic Michiko Kakutani has described developments in the right-wing media and websites:

"FOX News and the planetary system of right-wing news sites that would orbit it and, later, Breitbart, were
particularly adept at weaponizing such arguments and exploiting the increasingly partisan fervor animating the
Republican base: They accused the media establishment of "liberal bias", and substituted their own right-wing
views as "fair and balanced"—a redefinition of terms that was a harbinger of Trump's hijacking of "fake news" to
 refer not to alt-right conspiracy theories and Russian troll posts, but to real news that he perceived as inconvenient
or a threat to himself."[228]

In September 2018, National Public Radio noted that Trump has expanded his use of the terms "fake" and
"phony" to "an increasingly wide variety of things he doesn't like": "The range of things Trump is declaring
fake is growing too. Last month he tweeted about "fake books," "the fake dossier," "fake CNN," and he
added a new claim—that Google search results are "RIGGED" to mostly show only negative stories about
him." They graphed his expanding use in columns labeled: "Fake news", "Fake (other) and "Phony".[229]

Criticism of the term

Because of the manner in which Trump has co-opted the term, Washington Post media columnist Margaret
Sullivan has warned fellow journalists that "It's time to retire the tainted term 'fake news'. Though the term
hasn't been around long, its meaning already is lost."[222] By late 2018, the term "fake news" had become
verboten and U.S. journalists, including the Poynter Institute were asking for apologies and for product
retirements from companies using the term.[230][231][232]

In October 2018, the British government decided that the term "fake news" will no longer be used in official
documents because it is "a poorly-defined and misleading term that conflates a variety of false information,
from genuine error through to foreign interference in democratic processes." This followed a recommendation
by the House of Commons' Digital, Culture, Media and Sport Committee to avoid the term.[21]

By country

Armenia

According to a report by openDemocracy in 2020, the Armenian website Medmedia.am was spreading
disinformation about the coronavirus pandemic, calling COVID-19 a “fake pandemic” and warning
Armenians to refuse future vaccine programmes. The website is led by Gevorg Grigoryan, a doctor who has
been critical of the Armenian government's health ministry and its vaccine programmes, and has a history of
anti-LGBT statements, including remarks posted on Facebook in which he called for gay people to be burned.
The Guardian newspaper said the site was launched with the unwitting help of a US State Department grant
intended to promote democracy.[233]

Australia

A well-known case of fabricated news in Australia happened in 2009 when a report Deception Detection
Across Australian Populations of a "Levitt Institute" was widely cited on news websites across the country,
claiming that Sydney was the most naive city, despite the fact that the report itself contained a clue: amidst the
mathematical gibberish, there was a statement: "These results were completely made up to be fictitious material
through a process of modified truth and credibility nodes."[234] The Australian Parliament initiated
investigation into "fake news" regarding issues surrounding fake news that occurred during the 2016 United
States election. The inquiry looked at several major areas in Australia to find audiences most vulnerable to fake
news, by considering the impact on traditional journalism, and by evaluating the liability of online advertisers
and by regulating the spreading the hoaxes. This act of parliament is meant to combat the threat of social media
power on spreading fake news as concluded negative results to the public.[235]

Austria
Politicians in Austria dealt with the impact of fake news and its spread on social media after the 2016
presidential campaign in the country. In December 2016, a court in Austria issued an injunction on Facebook
Europe, mandating it block negative postings related to Eva Glawischnig-Piesczek, Austrian Green Party
Chairwoman. According to The Washington Post the postings to Facebook about her "appeared to have been
spread via a fake profile" and directed derogatory epithets towards the Austrian politician.[236] The derogatory
postings were likely created by the identical fake profile that had previously been utilized to attack Alexander
van der Bellen, who won the election for President of Austria.[236]

Belgium

In 2006, French-speaking broadcaster RTBF showed a fictional breaking special news report that Belgium's
Flemish Region had proclaimed independence. Staged footage of the royal family evacuating and the Belgian
flag being lowered from a pole were made to add credence to the report. It wasn't until 30 minutes into the
report that a sign stating "Fiction" appeared on screen. The RTBF journalist that created the hoax said the
purpose was to demonstrate the magnitude of the country's situation and if a partition of Belgium was to really
happen.[237]

Brazil

Brazil faced increasing influence from fake news after the 2014 re-election of President Dilma Rousseff and
Rousseff's subsequent impeachment in August 2016. BBC Brazil reported in April 2016 that in the week
surrounding one of the impeachment votes, three out of the five most-shared articles on Facebook in Brazil
were fake. In 2015, reporter Tai Nalon resigned from her position at Brazilian newspaper Folha de S Paulo in
order to start the first fact-checking website in Brazil, called Aos Fatos (To The Facts). Nalon told The
Guardian there was a great deal of fake news, and hesitated to compare the problem to that experienced in the
U.S.[238] In fact, Brazil also have problems with fake news and according to a survey have a greater number
of people that believe fake news influenced the outcome of their elections (69%) than the United States
(47%).[135]

In the wake of the uptick in Amazon fires of 2019, it became clear that many of the forest fire photos that went
viral were fake news.[239][240] Emmanuel Macron, president of France, tweeted picture taken by a
photographer who died in 2003, for example.[241][240][242]

Canada

Fake news online was brought to the attention of Canadian politicians in November 2016, as they debated
helping assist local newspapers. Member of Parliament for Vancouver Centre Hedy Fry specifically discussed
fake news as an example of ways in which publishers on the Internet are less accountable than print media.
Discussion in parliament contrasted increase of fake news online with downsizing of Canadian newspapers
and the impact for democracy in Canada. Representatives from Facebook Canada attended the meeting and
told members of Parliament they felt it was their duty to assist individuals gather data online.[243]

In January 2017, the Conservative leadership campaign of Kellie Leitch admitted to spreading fake news,
including false claims that Justin Trudeau was financing Hamas. The campaign manager claimed he spread the
news in order to provoke negative reactions so that he could determine those who "aren't real
Conservatives".[244]

China
Note: Hong Kong and the Republic of China on Taiwan are discussed in separate sections Fake news during
the 2016 U.S. election spread to China. Articles popularized within the United States were translated into
Chinese and spread within China.[238] The government of China used the growing problem of fake news as a
rationale for increasing Internet censorship in China in November 2016.[245] China then published an editorial
in its Communist Party newspaper The Global Times called: "Western Media's Crusade Against Facebook",
and criticized "unpredictable" political problems posed by freedoms enjoyed by users of Twitter, Google, and
Facebook. China government leaders meeting in Wuzhen at the third World Internet Conference in November
2016 said fake news in the U.S. election justified adding more curbs to free and open use of the Internet.
China Deputy Minister Ren Xianliang, official at the Cyberspace Administration of China, said increasing
online participation led to "harmful information" and fraud.[246] Kam Chow Wong, a former Hong Kong law
enforcement official and criminal justice professor at Xavier University, praised attempts in the U.S. to patrol
social media.[247] The Wall Street Journal noted China's themes of Internet censorship became more relevant
at the World Internet Conference due to the outgrowth of fake news.[248]

The issue of fake news in the 2016 United States election gave the Chinese Government a reason to further
criticize Western democracy and press freedom. The Chinese government accused Western media
organisations of bias, in a move apparently inspired by President Trump.[249]

In March 2017, the People's Daily, a newspaper run by the ruling Communist Party of China, denounced
news coverage of the torture of Chinese lawyer and human rights advocate Xie Yang, claiming it to be fake
news.[249] The newspaper published a Twitter post declaring that "Foreign media reports that police tortured a
detained lawyer is FAKE NEWS, fabricated to tarnish China's image". The state-owned Xinhua News
Agency claimed that "the stories were essentially fake news". The Chinese government often accused Western
news organizations of being biased and dishonest.[250]

The Chinese government also claimed that there were people who posed as journalists who spread negative
information on social media in order to extort payment from their victims to stop doing so. David Bandurski of
University of Hong Kong's China Media Project said that this issue continued to worsen.[251]

Taiwan's leaders, including President Tsai Ing-wen and Premier William Lai, accused China's troll army of
spreading "fake news" via social media to support candidates more sympathetic to Beijing ahead of the 2018
Taiwanese local elections.[252][253][254]

Colombia

In the fall of 2016, Whatsapp spread fake news that impacted votes critical to Colombian history.[255] One of
the lies spreading rapidly through WhatsApp was that Colombian citizens would receive less pension so
former guerrilla fighters would get money.[255] The misinformation initially began in a question to whether
Whatsapp users approved of the peace accord deal between the national government and the Revolutionary
Armed Forces of Colombia (FARC) or did not. The peace accord would end five decades of war between
paramilitary groups (rebel forces) and the Colombian government that resulted in millions of deaths and
displaced citizens throughout the country. A powerful influence of votes was the "no" campaign, the "no"
campaign was to convince citizens of Colombia to not accept the peace accord because it would be letting the
rebel group off "too easily."[256] Uribe, former president of Colombia and of the democratico party, led the
"no" campaign. Santos, president in 2016 took liberal approaches during his presidency. Santos won a Nobel
Peace Prize in 2016 because of his efforts towards a peace accord with rebel forces.[257] In addition, Uribe
naturally had opposing views than of Santos.[257][255] Furthermore, other news spread through whatsapp were
easily misinterpreted by the public, including that Santo's scheme was to turn Colombia under harsh rule like
Cuba and chaos like Venezuela (under Hugo Chávez), though the logistics were never explained.[255] In an
interview of Juan Carlos Vélez, the "no" campaign manager, he says their strategy was that "We discovered
the viral power of social networks." [255] In addition, the yes campaign also took part in spreading fake news
through whatsapp. For instance, a photoshopped image of a democratico senator Everth Bustamante spread
about of him holding a sign reading "I don't want guirrellas in congress" to show hypocrisy. This would be
seen as hypocritical because he was a former left wing M-19 guierrilla.[255] The "no" campaign strongly
influenced votes throughout Colombia, Yes votes strong in areas with highest number of victims and no votes
in areas influenced by Uribe. In result, there were 50.2 percent of no votes compared to 49.8 percent of yes
votes.[256] The result of the fake news throughout Whatsapp included changes within WhatsApp by
Journalist, Juanita Leon, who invented the Whatsapp "lie detector" in January 2017 to fight fake news within
the app.[255] Although the accord was eventually signed, the WhatsApp incident further prolonged the accord
and brought controversial views among citizens.

Czech Republic

Fake news outlets in the Czech Republic redistribute news in Czech and English originally produced by
Russian sources. Czech president Miloš Zeman has been supporting media outlets accused of spreading fake
news.[258]

The Centre Against Terrorism and Hybrid Threats (CTHH) is unit of the Ministry of the Interior of the Czech
Republic primarily aimed at countering disinformation, fake news, hoaxes and foreign propaganda. The
CTHH started operations on January 1, 2017. The CTHH has been criticized by Czech President Miloš
Zeman, who said: "We don't need censorship. We don't need thought police. We don't need a new agency for
press and information as long as we want to live in a free and democratic society."[259]

In 2017 media activists started a website Konspiratori.cz maintaining a list of conspiracy and fake news outlets
in Czech.[260]

Finland

Officials from 11 countries met in Helsinki in November 2016 and planned the formation of a center to combat
disinformation cyber-warfare, which includes the spread of fake news on social media. The center is planned
to be located in Helsinki and combine efforts from 10 countries, including Sweden, Germany, Finland and the
U.S. Prime Minister of Finland Juha Sipilä planned to address the topic of the center in Spring 2017 with a
motion before Parliament.

Deputy Secretary of State for EU Affairs Jori Arvonen said cyber-warfare, such as hybrid cyber-warfare
intrusions into Finland from Russia and the Islamic State, became an increased problem in 2016. Arvonen
cited examples including online fake news, disinformation, and the little green men troops of the Ukrainian
crisis.[261]

France

During the ten-year period preceding 2016, France was witness to an increase in popularity of far-right
alternative news sources called the fachosphere ("facho" referring to fascist); known as the extreme right on
the Internet.[238] According to sociologist Antoine Bevort, citing data from Alexa Internet rankings, the most
consulted political websites in France in 2016 included Égalité et Réconciliation, François Desouche, and Les
Moutons Enragés.[262][263] These sites increased skepticism towards mainstream media from both left and
right perspectives.

In September 2016, the country faced controversy regarding fake websites providing false information about
abortion. The National Assembly moved forward with intentions to ban such fake sites. Laurence Rossignol,
women's minister for France, informed parliament though the fake sites look neutral, in actuality their
intentions were specifically targeted to give women fake information.

2017 presidential election

France saw an uptick in amounts of disinformation and propaganda, primarily in the midst of election cycles.
A study looking at the diffusion of political news during the 2017 presidential election cycle suggests that one
in four links shared in social media comes from sources that actively contest traditional media narratives.[264]
Facebook corporate deleted 30,000 Facebook accounts in France associated with fake political
information.[265]

In April 2017, Emmanuel Macron's presidential campaign was attacked by the fake news articles more than
the campaigns of conservative candidate Marine Le Pen and socialist candidate .[266] One of the fake articles
even announced that Marine Le Pen won the presidency before the people of France had even voted.[265]
Macron's professional and private emails, as well as memos, contracts and accounting documents were posted
on a file sharing website. The leaked documents were mixed with fake ones in social media in an attempt to
sway the upcoming presidential election.[267] Macron said he would combat fake news of the sort that had
been spread during his election campaign.[268]

Initially, the leak was attributed to APT28, a group tied to Russias GRU military intelligence directorate.[269]
However, the head of the French cyber-security agency, ANSSI, later said that there was no evidence that the
hack leading to the leaks had anything to do with Russia, saying that the attack was so simple, that "we can
imagine that it was a person who did this alone. They could be in any country."[270]

Germany

German Chancellor Angela Merkel lamented the problem of fraudulent news reports in a November 2016
speech, days after announcing her campaign for a fourth term as leader of her country. In a speech to the
German parliament, Merkel was critical of such fake sites, saying they harmed political discussion. Merkel
called attention to the need of government to deal with Internet trolls, bots, and fake news websites. She
warned that such fraudulent news websites were a force increasing the power of populist extremism. Merkel
called fraudulent news a growing phenomenon that might need to be regulated in the future. Germany's
foreign intelligence agency Federal Intelligence Service Chief, Bruno Kahl, warned of the potential for
cyberattacks by Russia in the 2017 German election. He said the cyberattacks would take the form of the
intentional spread of disinformation. Kahl said the goal is to increase chaos in political debates. Germany's
domestic intelligence agency Federal Office for the Protection of the Constitution Chief, Hans-Georg
Maassen, said sabotage by Russian intelligence was a present threat to German information security.[271]
German government officials and security experts later said there was no Russian interference during the 2017
German federal election.[272] The German term Lügenpresse, or lying press, has been used since the 19th
century and specifically during World War One as a strategy to attack news spread by political opponents from
the 19th and 20th century.[273]

The award-winning German journalist Claas Relotius resigned from Der Spiegel in 2018 after admitting
numerous instances of journalistic fraud.[274]

In early April 2020, Berlin politician Andreas Geisel alleged that a shipment of 200,000 N95 masks that it had
ordered from American producer 3M's China facility were intercepted in Bangkok and diverted to the United
States during the COVID-19 pandemic. Berlin police president Barbara Slowik stated that she believed "this is
related to the US government's export ban."[275] However, Berlin police confirmed that the shipment was not
seized by U.S. authorities, but was said to have simply been bought at a better price, widely believed to be
from a German dealer or China.[276][277] This revelation outraged the Berlin opposition, whose CDU
parliamentary group leader Burkard Dregger accused Geisel of "deliberately misleading Berliners" in order "to
cover up its own inability to obtain protective equipment". FDP interior expert Marcel Luthe said "Big names
in international politics like Berlin's senator Geisel are blaming others and telling US piracy to serve anti-
American clichés."[276] Politico Europe reported that "the Berliners are taking a page straight out of the Trump
playbook and not letting facts get in the way of a good story."[278]

Hong Kong

During the 2019–20 Hong Kong protests, the Chinese government has been accused for using fake news to
spread misinformation regarding the protests. It includes describing protests as "riots", and "radicals" seeking
independence for the city. Due to the online censorship in China, citizens inside mainland China could not
read news reports from some media outlets.[279][280] It was also found by Facebook, Twitter and YouTube
that misinformation was spread with fake accounts and advertisements by state-backed media. Large amount
of accounts were suspended.[281]

Dot Dot News, a pro-Beijing online media located in Hong Kong, has been banned by Facebook given it has
been distributing fake news and hate speech.[282][283]。

India

Fake news in India has led to violent incidents between castes and religions, interfering with public policies. It
often spreads through the smartphone instant messenger WhatsApp,[284] which had 200 million monthly
active users in the country as of February 2017.[285]

Indonesia

Recently, Indonesia has seen an increase in the amount of fake news circulating social media. The problem
first arose during their 2014 presidential election, where the eventual-winning candidate Joko Widodo became
a target of a smear campaign by Prabowo Subianto's supporters which falsely claimed he was the child of
Indonesian Communist Party members, of Chinese descent, and a Christian.[286] Unlike the 2016 U.S.
presidential election, where the sharing of fake news resulted in increased social-media engagement than real
news, inflaming ethnic and political tensions could be potentially deadly in Indonesia, with its recent
incidences of domestic terrorism, and its long and bloody history of anti-communist, anti-Christian and anti-
Chinese pogroms cultivated by Suharto's U.S.-backed right-wing dictatorship which ran the country for thirty-
some years.[286] Suharto was also Prabowo's father in-law for the last 15 years of the regime. The
government, watchdog groups, and even religious organizations have taken steps to prevent its spreading, such
as blocking certain websites and creating fact-check apps. The largest Islamic mass organization in Indonesia,
Nahdlatul Ulama, has created an anti-fake news campaign called #TurnBackHoax, while other Islamic groups
have defined such propagation as tantamount to a sin.[286] While the government currently views criminal
punishment as its last resort, officials are working hard to guarantee law enforcement will respect the freedom
of expression.

The fake news campaign rose again in the 2019 presidential election, which involved the same sides
competing last time out. For years, most fake news circulated in Indonesia are related to alleged Chinese
imperialism (including Sinicization), communization, and Christianization. It was made worse by the 2016–17
Jakarta protests led by Islamic fundamentalist groups such as the Islamic Defenders Front (FPI) which
successfully imprisoned Jakarta Governor Basuki Tjahaja Purnama, who happens to be a Chinese-Christian.

Israel/Palestinian Territories
In 1996, people had been killed in the Western Wall Tunnel riots in reaction to fake news accounts.[287] An
Egyptian newspaper reported on Israeli spy sharks trained to eat Arab bathers in the Red Sea, an example of
an Israel-related animal conspiracy theory.[288] The Israeli state has been accused of spreading propaganda in
the U.S.[289] In April 2018, Palestinian-Israeli football team Bnei Sakhnin threatened to sue Israeli Prime
Minister Benjamin Netanyahu for libel, after he claimed fans booed during a minute of silence for Israeli flash-
flood victims.

In a social media post, Netanyahu blasted various Israeli news critical of him, as fake news including Channel
2, Channel 10, Haaretz and Ynet the same day U.S. President Trump decried "fake news".

The Palestinian Islamist political organization, Hamas published a political program in 2017 intended to ease
its position on Israel. Among other things, this charter accepted the borders of the Palestinian state circa the
Six-Day War of 1967.[290] Although this document is an advancement from their previous 1988 charter,
which called for the destruction of the State of Israel, it still does not recognize Israel as legitimate independent
nation.[290] In a video, Prime Minister of Israel, Benjamin Netanyahu responded to the coverage of this event
by news outlets such as Al Jazeera, CNN, New York Times and The Guardian, calling their reporting fake
news.[291] He specifically disagreed with the notion that Hamas had accepted the state of Israel within their
new charter, and called this "a complete distortion of the truth". Instead he said, "The new Hamas document
says Israel has no right to exist." In a later speech, addressed to his supporters, Netanyahu responded to
allegations against him: "The fake news industry is at its peak ... Look, for example, how they cover with
unlimited enthusiasm, every week, the left-wing demonstration. The same demonstrations whose goal is to
apply improper pressure on law enforcement authorities so they will file an indictment at any price." Observers
likened his blanketed use of the term, 'fake news', for describing left-wing media to Donald Trump, and his
similar statements during the 2016 election cycle.[292]

In a most recent studies conducted by Yifat Media Check Ltd. and Hamashrokit ("The Whistle" fact-checking
NGO), they found that over 70% of statements made by Israeli political leaders were not accurate.[293]

Malaysia

In April 2018, Malaysia implemented the Anti-Fake News Bill 2018, a controversial law that deemed
publishing and circulating misleading information as a crime punishable by up to six years in prison and/or
fines of up to 500,000 ringgit.[294] At implementation, the country's prime minister was Najib Razak, whose
associates were connected to the mishandling of at least $3.5 billion by a United States Department of Justice
report.[295][294] Of that sum of money, $731 million was deposited into bank accounts controlled by
Razak.[294][295] The convergence between the fake news law and Razak's connection to scandal was made
clear by the Malaysian minister of communications and multimedia, Salleh Said Keruak, who said that tying
Razak to a specific dollar amount could be a prosecutable offense.[296] In the 2018 Malaysian general election,
Najib Razak lost his seat as prime minister to Mahatir Mohammad, who vowed to abolish the fake news law in
his campaign, as the law was used to target him.[297][298] After winning the election, the newly elected prime
minister Mohammad has said, "Even though we support freedom of press and freedom of speech, there are
limits."[297][298] As of May 2018, Mohammad has supported amending the law, rather than a full
abolition.[298]

Paul Bernal, a lecturer in information and technology, fears that the fake news epidemic is a "Trojan horse" for
countries like Malaysia to "control uncomfortable stories".[299] The vagueness of this law means that satirists,
opinion writers, and journalists who make errors could face persecution. The law also makes it illegal to share
fake news stories. In one instance, a Danish man and Malaysian citizen were arrested for posting false news
stories online and were sentenced to serve a month in jail.[300]
Mexico

Myanmar

In 2015, BBC News reported on fake stories, using unrelated photographs and fraudulent captions, shared
online in support of the Rohingya.[301] Fake news negatively affected individuals in Myanmar, leading to a
rise in violence against Muslims in the country. Online participation surged from one percent to 20 percent of
Myanmar's total populace from 2014 to 2016. Fake stories from Facebook were reprinted in paper periodicals
called Facebook and The Internet. False reporting related to practitioners of Islam in the country was directly
correlated with increased attacks on Muslims in Myanmar. BuzzFeed journalist Sheera Frenkel reported fake
news fictitiously stated believers in Islam acted out in violence at Buddhist locations. She documented a direct
relationship between the fake news and violence against Muslim people. Frenkel noted countries that were
relatively newer to Internet exposure were more vulnerable to the problems of fake news and fraud.

Netherlands

In March 2018, the European Union's East StratCom Team compiled a list dubbed a "hall of shame" of articles
with suspected Kremlin attempts to influence political decisions.[302] However, controversy arose when three
Dutch media outlets claimed they had been wrongfully singled out because of quotes attributed to people with
non-mainstream views.[302] The news outlets included [1]Post Online, GeenStijl, and De Gelderlander.[302]
All three were flagged for publishing articles critical of Ukrainian policies, and none received any forewarning
or opportunity to appeal beforehand.[302] This incident has contributed to the growing issue of what defines
news as fake, and how freedoms of press and speech can be protected during attempts to curb to spread of
false news.

Pakistan

Khawaja Muhammad Asif, the Minister of Defence of Pakistan, threatened to nuke Israel on Twitter after a
false story claiming that Avigdor Lieberman, the Israeli Ministry of Defense, said "If Pakistan send ground
troops into Syria on any pretext, we will destroy this country with a nuclear attack."[303][304]

Philippines

Fake news sites have become rampant for Philippine audiences, especially being shared on social media.[305]
Politicians have started filing laws to combat fake news[306][307] and three Senate hearings have been held on
the topic.[308][309][310]

The Catholic Church in the Philippines has also released a missive speaking out against it.[311]

Vera Files research at the end of 2017 and 2018 show that the most shared fake news in the Philippines
appeared to benefit 2 people the most: President Rodrigo Duterte (as well as his allies) and politician
Bongbong Marcos, with the most viral news driven by shares on networks of Facebook pages.[312] Most
Philippine audience Facebook pages and groups spreading online disinformation also bear "Duterte",
"Marcos" or "News" in their names and are pro-Duterte.[313] Online disinformation in the Philippines is
overwhelmingly political as well, with most attacking groups or individuals critical of the Duterte
administration.[314] Many Philippine-audience fake news websites also appear to be controlled by the same
operators as they share common Google Adsense and Google Analytics IDs.[313]
According to media scholar Jonathan Corpus Ong, Duterte's presidential campaign is regarded as the patient
zero in the current era of disinformation, having preceded widespread global coverage of the Cambridge
Analytica scandal and Russian trolls.[315] Fake news is so established and severe in the Philippines that
Facebook's Global Politics and Government Outreach Director Katie Harbath also calls it "patient zero"[316]
in the global misinformation epidemic, having happened before Brexit, the Trump nomination and the 2016
US Elections.[317]

Poland

Polish historian Jerzy Targalski noted fake news websites had infiltrated Poland through anti-establishment and
right-wing sources that copied content from Russia Today. Targalski observed there existed about 20 specific
fake news websites in Poland that spread Russian disinformation in the form of fake news. One example cited
was fake news that Ukraine announced the Polish city of Przemyśl as occupied Polish land.[318]

Poland's anti-EU Law and Justice (PiS) government has been accused of spreading "illiberal disinformation"
to undermine public confidence in the European Union.[319] Maria Snegovaya of Columbia University said:
"The true origins of this phenomenon are local. The policies of Fidesz and Law and Justice have a lot in
common with Putin's own policies."[319]

Some mainstream outlets were long accused of fabricating half-true or outright false information. One of
popular TV stations, TVN, in 2010 attributed to Jarosław Kaczyński (then an opposition leader) words that
"there will be times, when true Poles will come to the power".[320] However, Kaczyński has never uttered
those words in the commented speech.

Romania

On 16 March 2020, Romanian President Klaus Iohannis signed an emergency decree, giving authorities the
power to remove, report or close websites spreading "fake news" about the COVID-19 pandemic, with no
opportunity to appeal.[321][322]

Russia

In March 2019, Russia passed a new bill to ban websites from spreading false information.[323] In addition to
tackling fake news, the new legislation specifically punishes any sources or websites for publishing materials
that insult the state, the symbol of the government or other political figures.[324] For repeated offenders, they
would receive a 15-day jail sentence.

Saudi Arabia

According to the Global News, Saudi Arabia's state-owned television spread fake news about Canada. In
August 2018, Canada's Global News reported that state-owned television Al Arabiya, "has suggested that
Canada is the worst country in the world for women, that it has the highest suicide rate and that it treats its
Indigenous people the way Myanmar treats the Rohingya—a Muslim minority massacred and driven out of
Myanmar en masse last year."[325]

In October 2018, Twitter has suspended a number of bot accounts that appeared to be spreading pro-Saudi
rhetoric about the disappearance of Saudi opposition journalist Jamal Khashoggi.[326][327]
According to Newsweek, Saudi Arabia's Office of Public Prosecution tweeted that "producing rumors or fake
news [that Saudi Arabia's government was involved in the disappearance of Khashoggi] that would affect the
public order or public security or sending or resending it via social media or any technical means" is
punishable "by five years and a fine of 3 million riyals".[328]

Iranian-backed Twitter accounts spread sensational fake news and rumours about Saudi Arabia.[329]

On August 1, 2019, Facebook identified hundreds of accounts that were running a covert network on behalf
of government of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia to spread fake news and attack regional rivals. The social
media giant removed more than 350 accounts, pages and groups with nearly 1.4 million followers.[330] Along
with Facebook, these accounts were involved in "coordinated inauthentic behavior" on Instagram as well.
According to a FB blog post, the network was running two different political agendas, one on behalf of Saudi
Arabia and the other for the United Arab Emirates and Egypt.[331]

Serbia

In 2018, International Research & Exchanges Board described the situation in the media in Serbia as the worst
in recent history, and that Media Sustainability Index dropped because the most polarized media in almost 20
years, an increase in fake news and editorial pressure on media.[332] According to Serbian investigative
journalism portal Crime and Corruption Reporting Network, more than 700 fake news were published on the
front pages of pro-government tabloids during 2018.[333][334] Many of them were about alleged attacks on the
president Aleksandar Vučić and attempts of coups, as well as messages of support to him by Vladimir
Putin.[334] The best-selling newspaper in Serbia is the pro-government tabloid Informer, which most often
presents Vučić as a powerful person under constant attack, and also has anti-European content and pro-war
rhetoric.[335][336][337] Since Vučić's party came to power, Serbia has seen a surge of internet trolls and pages
on social networks praising the government and attacking its critics, free media and the opposition in
general.[338] That includes a handful of dedicated employees run fake accounts, but also the Facebook page
associated with a Serbian franchise of the far-right Breitbart News website, which has a disputed
accuracy.[339][338]

Singapore

Singapore criminalizes the propagation of fake news. Under existing law, "Any person who transmits or
causes to be transmitted a message which he knows to be false or fabricated shall be guilty of an offense".[340]

On 18 March 2015, a doctored screenshot of Prime Minister's Office website claiming the demise of the Lee
Kuan Yew went viral, and several international news agencies such as CNN and China Central Television
initially reported it as news, until corrected by the Prime Minister's Office. The image was created by a student
to demonstrate to his classmates how fake news could be easily created and propagated.[341] In 2017,
Singaporean news website Mothership.sg was criticized by the Ministry of Education (MOE) for propagating
remarks falsely attributed to a MOE official.[342] In addition, Minister of Law K Shanmugam also singled out
online news website The States Times Review as an example of a source of fake news, as it once claimed a
near-zero turnout at the state funeral of President S. R. Nathan.[343]

Following these incidents, Shanmugam stated that the existing legalization is limited and ineffective[344] and
indicated that the government intends to introduce legislation to combat fake news in 2018.[345] In 2017, the
Ministry of Communications and Information set up Factually, a website intended to debunk false rumors
regarding issues of public interest such as the environment, housing and transport,[346] while in 2018, the
Parliament of Singapore formed a Select Committee to consider new legislation to tackle fake news.[347]
Furthermore, the Singapore government has introduced draft legislation with regards to Fake News in April
2019, which is called the Protection from Online Falsehoods and Manipulation Bill.[348] This legislation is
intended to regulate websites that spread misinformation, and combat fake news. In addition, this bill is
supported by Prime Minister Lee Hsien Loong's People's Action Party, which has a super majority in
Parliament.[349] However, critics also point out that this bill could introduce government's self censorship and
increase government's control over social media.[350]

Activist platform The Online Citizen regarded legislation against fake news as an attempt by the government to
curb the free flow of information so that only information approved by the government is disseminated to the
public.[351] In an online essay, activist and historian Thum Ping Tjin denied that fake news was a problem in
Singapore, and accused the People's Action Party government as the only major source of fake news, claiming
that detentions made without trial during Operation Coldstore and Operation Spectrum were based on fake
news for party political gain.[352]

Facebook and Google have opposed the introduction of new laws to combat fake news, claiming that existing
legislation is adequate to address the problem and that an effective way of combating misinformation is
through educating citizens on how to distinguish reliable from unreliable information.[353]

South Africa

A wide range of South African media sources have reported fake news as a growing problem and tool to both
increase distrust in the media, discredit political opponents, and divert attention from corruption.[354] Media
outlets owned by the Gupta family have been noted by other South African media organisations such as The
Huffington Post (South Africa), Sunday Times, Radio 702, and City Press for targeting them.[355] Individuals
targeted include Finance Minister Pravin Gordhan who was seen as blocking Gupta attempts at state capture
with accusations levelled against Gordhan of promoting state capture for "white monopoly capital".[356][357]

The African National Congress (ANC) was taken to court by Sihle Bolani for unpaid work she did during the
election on the ANC's behalf. In court papers Bolani stated that the ANC used her to launch and run a covert
R50 million fake news and disinformation campaign during the 2016 municipal elections with the intention of
discrediting opposition parties.[358][359][360]

South Korea

South Korean journalists and media experts lament political hostility between South and North Korea which
distorts Media coverage of North Korea[361] and North Korea has attributed erroneous reporting to South
Korea and United States with being critical to media organization Chosun Ilbo[362] while also American
journalist Barbara Demick had made similar criticisms on media coverage of North.[362]

On November 27, 2018, prosecutors raided the house of Gyeonggi Province governor Lee Jae-myung amid
suspicions that his wife used a pseudonymous Twitter handle to spread fake news about President Moon Jae-in
and other political rivals of her husband.[363][364]

Spain

Fake news in Spain has become much more prevalent in the 2010s, but has been prominent throughout Spain's
history. The United States government published a fake article in regards to the purchase of the Philippines
from Spain, which they had already purchased.[365] Despite this, the topic of fake news has traditionally not
been given much attention to in Spain, until the newspaper El País launched the new blog dedicated strictly to
truthful news entitled "Hechos"; which literally translates to "fact" in Spanish. David Alandete, the managing
editor of El País, stated how many people misinterpret fake news as real because the sites "have similar names,
typography, layouts and are deliberately confusing" (Southern).[366] Alandete made it the new mission of El
País "to respond to fake news" (Scott).[367] María Ramírez of Univision Communications has stated that
much of the political fake news circulating in Spain is due to the lack of investigative journalism on the topics.
Most recently El País has created a fact-checking position for five employees, to try and debunk the fake news
released.[366]

Sweden

The Swedish Security Service issued a report in 2015 identifying propaganda from Russia infiltrating Sweden
with the objective to amplify pro-Russian propaganda and inflame societal conflicts. The Swedish Civil
Contingencies Agency (MSB), part of the Ministry of Defence of Sweden, identified fake news reports
targeting Sweden in 2016 that originated from Russia. Swedish Civil Contingencies Agency official Mikael
Tofvesson stated a pattern emerged where views critical of Sweden were constantly repeated. The Local
identified these tactics as a form of psychological warfare. The newspaper reported the MSB identified Russia
Today and Sputnik News as significant fake news purveyors. As a result of growth in this propaganda in
Sweden, the MSB planned to hire six additional security officials to fight back against the campaign of
fraudulent information.[368]

According to the Oxford Internet Institute, eight of the top 10 "junk news" sources during the 2018 Swedish
general election campaign were Swedish, and "Russian sources comprised less than 1% of the total number of
URLs shared in the data sample."[369]

Syria

In February 2017, Amnesty International reported that up to 13,000 people had been hanged in a Syrian prison
as part of an "extermination" campaign. Syrian president Bashar al-Assad questioned the credibility of
Amnesty International and called the report "fake news" fabricated to undermine the government. "You can
forge anything these days—we are living in a fake news era." [370]

Russia ran a disinformation campaign during the Syrian Civil War to discredit the humanitarian rescue
organisation White Helmets, and to discredit reports and images of children and other civilian bombing
victims. This was done to weaken criticism of Russia's involvement in the war.[371] The United Nations and
international chemical inspectors found Bashar al-Assad responsible for use of chemical weapons,[372] which
was called "fake news" by Russia. Russia promoted various contradictory claims that no chemicals were
present, or attributing the chemical attacks to other countries or groups.[373][374][375][376][377]

Taiwan

In a report in December 2015 by The China Post, a fake video shared online showed people a light show
purportedly made at the Shihmen Reservoir. The Northern Region Water Resources Office confirmed there
was no light show at the reservoir and the event had been fabricated. The fraud led to an increase in tourist
visits to the actual attraction.

According to the news updated paper from the Time World in regards the global threat to free speech, the
Taiwanese government has reformed its policy on education and it will include "media literacy" as one part of
school curriculum for the students. It will be included to develop the critical thinking skills needed while using
social media. Further, the work of media literacy will also include the skills needed to analyze propaganda and
sources, so the student can clarify what is fake news.[378]
Ukraine

Since the Euromaidan and the beginning of the Ukrainian crisis in 2014, the Ukrainian media circulated
several fake news stories and misleading images, including a dead rebel photograph with a Photoshop-painted
tattoo which allegedly indicated that he belonged to Russian Special Forces[379] and the threat of a Russian
nuclear attack against the Ukrainian troops.[380] The recurring theme of these fake news was that Russia was
solely to blame for the crisis and the war in Donbass.[380]

In 2015 the Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe published a report criticizing Russian
disinformation campaigns to disrupt relations between Europe and Ukraine after ouster of Viktor Yanukovych.
According to Deutsche Welle, similar tactics were used by fake news websites during the U.S. elections. A
website, StopFake (http://www.StopFake.org) was created by Ukrainian activists in 2014 to debunk fake news
in Ukraine, including media portrayal of the Ukrainian crisis.[381]

On May 29, 2018, the Ukrainian media and state officials announced that the Russian journalist Arkady
Babchenko was assassinated in his apartment in Kiev. Later, Babchenko appeared to be alive, and the Security
Service of Ukraine claimed that the staged assassination was needed to arrest a person who allegedly was
planning a real assassination. Alexander Baunov, writing for Carnegie.ru, mentioned that the staged
assassination of Babchenko was the first instance of fake news delivered directly by the highest officials of a
state.[382]

United Arab Emirates

The United Arab Emirates (UAE) had been funding non-profit organizations, think tanks and contributors of
journalism, including Foundation for Defense of Democracies (FDD) and the Middle East Forum (MEF),
which further paid journalists spreading fake information to defame countries like Qatar. In 2020, a researcher
at FDD, Benjamin Weinthal, and fellow at MEF, Jonathan Spyer, contributed an article on Fox News to
promote a negative image of Qatar, in an attempt to stain its diplomatic relations with the United States.[383]

United Kingdom

Under King Edward I of England (r. 1272–1307) "'a statute was passed which made it a grave offence to
devise or tell any false news of prelates, dukes, earls, barons, or nobles of the realm.'"[384]

In 1702 Queen Anne of England issued a proclamation "for restraining the spreading false news, and printing
and publishing of irreligious and seditious papers and libels".[385]

On December 8, 2016, Chief of the Secret Intelligence Service (MI6) Alex Younger delivered a speech to
journalists at the MI6 headquarters where he called fake news and propaganda damaging to democracy.
Younger said the mission of MI6 was to combat propaganda and fake news in order to deliver to his
government a strategic advantage in the information-warfare arena, and to assist other nations including
Europe. He called such methods of fake-news propaganda online a "fundamental threat to our sovereignty".
Younger said all nations that hold democratic values should feel the same worry over fake news.[386]

However, definitions of "fake news" have been controversial in the UK, with political satire being seen as a
key element of British humour.[387] Dr Claire Wardle advised some UK Members of Parliament against using
the term in certain circumstances "when describing the complexity of information disorder", as the term "fake
news" is "woefully inadequate":
 Neither the words 'fake' nor 'news' effectively capture this polluted information ecosystem. Much
of the content used as examples in debates on this topic are not fake, they are genuine but used
out of context or manipulated. Similarly, to understand the entire ecosystem of polluted
information, we need to consider far more than content that mimics 'news'.[388]

In 2017 the then British Defence Secretary Sir Michael Fallon falsely claimed that the number of Russian
troops taking part in Zapad 2017 exercise could reach 100,000.[389]

United States

See also
Alarmism
Alternative facts – Expression associated with political misinformation established in 2017
Chequebook journalism – The controversial practice of news reporters paying sources for their
information
Citizen journalism
Clickbait
Climate change denial – unwarranted denial of the scientific consensus on climate change
Confirmation bias – Tendency of people to favor information that confirms their beliefs or
hypotheses
Conspiracy theory – Explanation of an event or situation that invokes a conspiracy
Demoralization (warfare)
Doomscrolling
Factoid – False claim that is repeated so often that it becomes accepted as fact or common
knowledge
Fearmongering – Deliberate use of fear-based tactics
Information quality
Internet meme – Concept that spreads from person to person via the Internet
Journalism ethics and standards – Principles of ethics and of good practice in journalism
Lying press, also known as Lügenpresse – pejorative political term used largely by German
political movements for the press when it is believed not to have the quest for truth at the heart
of its coverage
Media bias – Real or perceived bias of journalists and news producers in mass media
Media coverage of North Korea
Muckraker
Political bias
Pseudohistory – Pseudoscholarship that attempts to distort or misrepresent the historical record
Tabloid journalism
Truthiness

Sources
This article incorporates text from a free content work. Licensed under CC BY SA 3.0 IGO License
statement (http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=261065&set=005B2A1A4F_2_135&gp=1&lin=1
&ll=1): World Trends in Freedom of Expression and Media Development Global Report 2017/2018 (http://une
sdoc.unesco.org/images/0026/002610/261065e.pdf), 202, University of Oxford, UNESCO.

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Further reading
AP Not Real News (https://apnews.com/NotRealNews) weekly roundup of the most popular,
but completely untrue, headlines of the week.
NYPR On The Media (https://www.wnycstudios.org/shows/otm) weekly media criticism and
analysis.
"Inside a Fake News Sausage Factory: 'This Is All About Income' " (https://www.nytimes.com/20
16/11/25/world/europe/fake-news-donald-trump-hillary-clinton-georgia.html) The New York
Times November 25, 2016
An online journal for Paul Horner and all of his hoaxes and fake news over the past 20 years (h
ttps://web.archive.org/web/20170426081655/http://newsexaminer.net/paul-horner-news/paul-h
orner-news-internet-news-satirist-writer-news-examiner/)
Elizabeth Schumacher (January 4, 2018). "Fake news 'casts wide net but has little effect' " (htt
p://www.dw.com/en/fake-news-casts-wide-net-but-has-little-effect/a-42029486). Deutsche
 Welle.
Bounegru, Liliana; Gray, Jonathan; Venturini, Tommaso; Mauri, Michele (January 8, 2018). A
Field Guide to "Fake News" and Other Information Disorders (http://fakenews.publicdatalab.or
g/). Amsterdam: Public Data Lab. An open access guide exploring the use of digital methods to
study false viral news, political memes, trolling practices and their social life online.
Young, Kevin (2017). Bunk: The Rise of Hoaxes, Humbug, Plagiarists, Phonies, Post-Facts,
and Fake News. Graywolf Press. ISBN 978-1555977917.
Robson, David (April 1, 2019). "Why smart people are more likely to believe fake news" (https://
www.theguardian.com/books/2019/apr/01/why-smart-people-are-more-likely-to-believe-fake-ne
ws). The Guardian.

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