University of kufa

College of Engineering
Department of Electrical Engineering

Antenna

Report Name: - Antenna Array

‫ حيدر رافع‬: ‫أشراف الدكتور‬

‫ علي عايد عبدالشهيد‬: ‫األسم‬
‫ الثالثة – فصلي‬: ‫المرحلة‬
Introduction

An antenna is a passive structure that serves as a transducer between transmission

line and air in order to receive and transmit electromagnetic waves. An Antenna is
an electrical device which converts electric energy into radio waves, and vice
versa. It is usually used with a radio transmitter or radio receiver. An antenna is a
device used for sending or receiving Electromagnetic waves.

• Antenna arrays
o An antenna array is group of antennas connected and arranged in a regular
structure to form a single antenna that is able to produce radiation patterns
not produced by individual antennas.
o They are groups of isotropic radiators which radiate or receive
electromagnetic energy.
o They provide a solution to the problems caused by single antennas. Antenna
array composed of several similar radiating elements (e.g., dipoles or horns).
o Element spacing and the relative amplitudes and phases of the element
excitation determine the array’s radiative properties.
o Generally, any combination of elements can form an array.
o However equal elements of regular geometry are usually used.
o Antenna array is used to modify the radiation pattern. Generally, it is used to
increase the directivity of the antenna.
o Usually, arrays have many applications. But these are most often used to
improve the gain and shape the radiation pattern of an antenna system
effectively

1
CONCEPTS OF ARRAY ANTENNAS

An antenna array is an arrangement of 𝑁 number of individual and similar

antennas each separated by a distance. Array antennas have superior
characteristics when compared to an individual element especially with
improved directivity. A group of similar antennas is an array if and only if
the number of elements is more than one. A minimum number of elements
that exist in an array are two. As 𝑁 increases the performance of the array
antenna increases. Therefore, in practice, arrays have more elements
sometimes with N value of several thousands of elements. A brief review of
the concepts involved in understanding the array antennas and their
characteristics is given in the following sections.
WHY AN ARRAY ANTENNA?
• Single element is relatively wide and low gain (directivity) To have
very high gain and long distance antenna, this can be
• accomplished by increasing the electrical size of the antenna
• Enlarge dimensions of the antenna without increasing the size of
individual
• elements is to form an assembly of radiating elements in an electrical
and
• geometrical configuration
• This new antenna, formed by multi-elements, is referred to as an array
• In Most cases, the elements of an array are identical
• The total field is determined by the vector addition of the
• fields radiated by the individual elements

2
Array Antenna Applications and Types

Applications
• Used in satellite communications
• Used in wireless communications
• Used in military radar communications
• Used in the astronomical study

Types
1.Linear Antenna Array
• Broad side array.
• End fire array.
• Parasitic array.
• Driven array.
2.Circular Antenna Array
3.Planar Array
4.Phased Array

3
TYPES Of ANTENNA ARRAY

1. Linear Arrays
A linear array consists of similar antenna elements arranged in a straight
line in one dimension. Linear array can be used as feed for a parabolic
cylinder antenna. A broadside array is one in which the direction of
maximum radiation is perpendicular to, or almost perpendicular to, the
plane of the antenna. An end fire array has its maximum radiation
parallel to the array or at a small angle to the plane of the array.
Fig 3. Radiation pattern of a linear array at various scan angles

1.1. Broadside array

• The broadside array is one in which a number of identical
parallel antennas are set up along a line drawn perpendicular to
their respective axes.
• In the broadside array, the individual antennas are equally
spaced along a line and each element is fed with current of
equal magnitude, all in the same phase.
• By doing so, this arrangement radiates in broadside directions
(i.e., perpendicular to the line of array axis) where there are
maximum radiation and relatively a little radiation in other
directions.

4
 • Radiation pattern of broadside array is bidirectional (radiates
equally well in either direction of maximum radiation).
The bidirectional pattern of broadside array can be converted into
unidirectional by installing an identical array behind this array at a distance
/4 and exciting it by a current leading in phase by 90° or /2 radians.

1.2. End-fire array

• The end fire array is nothing but broadside array except that
individual elements are fed in, out of phase (usually 180º).
• End fire array is one in which a number of identical elements are fed
with currents
• of equal magnitude but their phases vary progressively along the line
in such a way that it provides unidirectional pattern.
• End fire array may be defined as the arrangement in which the
principal direction of radiation coincides with the direction of array.
• The radiation pattern of end fire array is unidirectional.
• The end fire array may be bidirectional. Example, two elements array,
fed with equal current, 180º out of phase.

1.3. Parasitic Array Antenna (yagi-uda antenna)

used for controlling radar and various other narrow beams such as the

microwave communication system.

5
 1.4. Driven Array Antenna (Log –periodic antenna)
Radiating elements are connected to an energy source and have less
loss when compared to parasitic arrays, but still maintain the narrow
beam characteristics, are used as search radar antennas where narrow
beams are less critical when compared to low losses.

2. Circular Array
Antenna elements arranged around a circular ring. Unlike linear arrays,
circular arrays can provide a 2D angular scan, both horizontal φ and
vertical θ scans. Unlike 2D planar arrays, circular arrays are basically 1D
linear arrays but in a circular form. Unlike linear arrays, a circular array
can scan horizontally for 360° with no distortions near the end-fire
directions. Applications are radio direction finding, air and space
navigation, underground propagation, radar, sonar.

3. Planar Arrays
A planar array is a two-dimensional configuration of antenna elements
arranged to lie in a plane. In both linear and planar arrays, the element
spacing usually is uniform. The planar array may be considered as a
linear array of linear arrays. Most of the phased arrays, which are of
interest for Radar are planar.

4. Phased Arrays
A directive antenna array, in which the relative phase and amplitude of
the current in the individual elements are controlled to obtain the desired
shape and direction of the radiation pattern, is called a Phased array
antenna. The control of the relative phases can be used to steer the beam,
while the control of the relative amplitude may be used to synthesis the
desired shape of the pattern with a minimum of side lobes.

6
ARRAY ANTENNA CHARACTERISTICS

The main characteristics of an array antenna are explained by the Array

Factor and its Array Pattern. Interpretation of these two gives the efficiency
of an array antenna for the specified values of design which involves the
sidelobe levels, beam steering capability as major performance indicators.

1) Array Factor
The Array Factor is calculated as a function of the arrangement of elements
in the array and excitation to each and every element. By adapting these
parameters, the array antenna performance may be optimized to achieve
desirable array patterns. The Array Factor 𝐴𝐹 of a linear array antenna is
given by Equation (1.1)

where 𝜃 is the angle between the axis of the array and the vector drawn from the
origin to the point of observation
𝐴𝐹(𝜃) is the Array Factor plotted w.r.t variations in θ
𝑘 = 2𝜋⁄𝜆
𝑑 is the distance between the two elements in the array
𝜑 is the phase shift
𝑁 is the Number of elements in the array antenna
The above expression holds good only for identical elements which are equidistant. From
the above expression it is evident that the Array Factor depends upon the number of
elements, the distance or spacing between the elements, their excitation magnitudes and
phases between elements. Once the array antenna is deployed into the field, i.e., after
manufacturing the array of 𝑁 number of elements and with a fixed spacing between them,
the only cause of deviations in the array factor and thereby the error in the array pattern
will be due to the excitations that will be fed to the array.

7
2) Array Pattern
The array pattern is the resultant of the simple multiplication of the array
factor with the radiation pattern of the individual element.
𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑃𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 = 𝐴𝑟𝑟𝑎𝑦 𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑜𝑟 × 𝑅𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑝𝑎𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒
𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
This is the phenomenon which is referred to as “Pattern Multiplication” in
the literature. One may note that the array pattern is usually called on where
the array is built from similar antenna elements.

3) Main Lobe and Sidelobe levels

Major lobe or Main lobe is a part of the radiation pattern or the array pattern
which is expected to deliver the maximum of radiated power in the desired
direction. Hence it is the important parameter of interest with respect to
directive arrays. The radiated power which is directed towards undesired
directions is also concentrated in the form of lobes other than the main lobe
and these lobes are referred to as “Sidelobes”. The level of sidelobe is never
expected to be more than the main lobe and if it happens to be dominating
the major lobe, it is considered as a case of serious degradation in the
performance of an array. So all the specifications come with a certain
limitation on the sidelobe level that can be tolerated in the design of an array
antenna. Considering an example of an 8X8 planar array antenna with
uniform illumination of all elements, the array pattern is computed at a
frequency of 14,500 MHz and plotted as shown in Figure 6, which is a
typical illustration of all the different types of lobes that exist in a planar
array antenna. The Main lobe, the First side lobe and other minor lobes are
shown in Figure 6 for an 8X8 planar array antenna.

8
 Figure: 6 The Array Pattern of 8X8 planar array

4) Element Spacing
The spacing between the elements in an array plays an important role in
minimizing the beam widths of the array and as well as in minimizing the
sidelobe levels. As the spacing between the elements increases, the
sidelobe levels increase and also broaden the beam widths. This can be
assumed as the main reason in degradation of array pattern, whenever,
element failures exist in between the array elements. Suppose if one
element fails in between two elements in an array antenna with 3
elements which are spaced equidistant by half wavelength, then the
practical distance between the 1st and the 3rd element is one wavelength,
when 2nd element has failed. Hence, the array factor changes and results
in deviations in the observed pattern from the expected one.

5) Grating lobes
The lobes which contain same or more amount of radiated power when
compared to the main lobe are called Grating lobes. High deviations in
transmission or reception of signals occur due to grating lobes. A typical
example worked out in resulted in Grating lobes resembling the Main
lobe and is shown in Figure 7.

9
 Figure: 7. A typical example of Grating lobes resembling the Main lobe

6) Normalization
The term normalization is used in the context of the array pattern or
radiation pattern in order to have a clear view of the differences in the main
lobe level to the first side lobe level and other minor lobes. On a dB scale,
the maximum value will be 0dB and for normal value representation, it will
be Unity. The normalized array pattern is plotted using the Equation (1.2)

where 𝐴𝐹(𝜃) is the array pattern plotted w.r.t variations in θ

𝐴𝐹(𝜃)𝑚𝑎𝑥 is the maximum value of the array pattern of the array antenna

10
 Important mathematic equation

I. The overall radiation pattern of an antenna array is the product of the

element factor (the radiation pattern of a single antenna) multiplied by an
array factor, which depends on how the array is arranged.

II. A two-element array has an array factor of

III. The array factor for a phased array is:

IV. The amplitude of each element in A binomial array can vary, according

V. The radiation pattern of such an array is:

11
 Conclusion

As antenna technology advances, radio system engineers are increasingly

able to utilize the spatial domain to enhance system performance by
rejecting interfering signals and boosting desired signal levels.
Arrays of antennas give us a great deal more flexibility in designing the
radiation pattern because there are so many more variables that can be
adjusted.
antenna array is a radiating system, which consists of individual radiators
and elements. Each of this radiator, while functioning has its own induction
field. The elements are placed so closely that each one lies in the
neighboring one’s induction field. Therefore, the radiation pattern produced
by them, would be the vector sum of the individual ones.

12
 References

1. Phased-Array Antenna(https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/phased-
array-antenna)
2. Antenna Arrays(https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/engineering/antenna-arrays)
3. Phased Array Design and
Analysis(https://www.mathworks.com/help/phased/phased-arrays.html?s_eid=PEP_16543)
4. Antenna Theory - Antenna
Arrays(https://www.tutorialspoint.com/antenna_theory/antenna_theory_arrays.htm)
5. Linear Array: Beam Characteristics and Array Factor by Peter Delos,
Bob Broughton, and Jon Kraft
6. Chapter 32: Antenna Arrays
(https://scholar.valpo.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?filename=32&article=100
0&context=engineering_oer&type=additional
7. Chapter - 1 PART - B OVERVIEW OF ARRAY
ANTENNAS(https://sg.inflibnet.ac.in/jspui/bitstream/10603/25115/14/14
_chapter1b.pdf)