IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO.
4, OCTOBER 2006
A Novel Wavelet-Based Algorithm for Discrimination
of Internal Faults From Magnetizing Inrush
Currents in Power Transformers
Jawad Faiz, Senior Member, IEEE, and S. Lotfi-Fard, Student Member, IEEE
Abstract—In this paper, a new algorithm based on processing
differential current is proposed for digital differential protection
of power transformers by considering different behaviors of the
differential currents under fault and inrush current conditions.
In this method, a criterion function is defined in terms of differ-
ence of amplitude of wavelet coefficients over a specific frequency
band. The criterion function is then used for three phases, and in-
ternal faults are precisely discriminated from inrush current less
than a quarter a cycle after the disturbance; this is one advan-
tage of the method. Another advantage of the proposed method
is that the fault detection algorithm does not depend on the selec-
tion of thresholds. The merit of this method is demonstrated by
simulation of different faults and switching conditions on a power
transformer using PSCAD/EMTDC software. Also the proposed
algorithm is tested offline using data collected from a prototype
laboratory three-phase power transformer. The test results show
that the new algorithm is very quick and accurate.
Index Terms—Inrush current, internal fault, power transformer,
wavelet transform.
I. INTRODUCTION
T HE POWER transformer protection is of critical impor-
tance in power systems. Since minimization of frequency
and duration of unwanted outages, is very desirable, this is a
high demand imposed on power transformer protective relays;
this includes the requirements of dependability associated with
no mal-operations, security associated with no false tripping,
and operating speed associated with short fault clearing time [1].
One of the main concerns in protecting this particular compo-
nent of power systems lies in the accurate and rapid discrimina-
tion of magnetizing inrush current from different internal faults
currents. This is because the magnetizing inrush current, which
occurs during the energizing the transformer, generally results
in several times full load current and therefore can cause malop-
eration of the relays [2]. Such maloperation of differential relays
can affect both the reliability and stability of the whole power
system.
Since a magnetizing inrush current generally contains a larger
2nd order harmonic component than that of internal fault, con-
ventional transformer protection systems are designed to re-
strain during inrush transient phenomenon by sensing this large
Manuscript received August 25, 2005; January 15, 2006. This work was sup-
ported by the University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran. Paper no. TPWRD-00501–
2005.
The authors are with the Center of Excellence on Applied Electromagnetic
Systems, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of
Tehran, Tehran 1439957131, Iran (e-mail: jfaiz@ut.ac.ir).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TPWRD.2006.877095
0885-8977/$20.00 © 2006 IEEE
1989
2nd order harmonic [3]. However, the 2nd order harmonic com-
ponent may also be generated during internal faults in the power
transformer. This may be due to current transformer saturation
or the presence of a shunt capacitor or the distributive capaci-
tance in a long extra high-voltage (EHV) transmission line to
which the transformer may be connected [4]. In certain cases,
the magnitude of the 2nd order harmonic in an internal fault
current can be close to or greater than that present in the mag-
netizing inrush current. Moreover, 2nd order harmonic compo-
nents in the magnetizing inrush currents tend to be relatively
small in modern large power transformers because of improve-
ments in the power transformer core material [5].
To enhance the reliability of differential protection, several
methods have utilized voltage signals as well as current sig-
nals [6]. In [7], differential power method has been proposed
to recognize fault from inrush current. The proposed method in
[8] is based on modal transform of voltage and current wave-
forms. Disadvantages of these methods include the need to use
voltage transformers and increased protective algorithm calcu-
lation cost. In other methods, fault conditions are recognized
by the distortion characteristic of differential current waveform.
One of these methods operates via measuring of intervals be-
tween two successive peaks of differential current waveform
[9]. The operation criterion in another method is the duration
in which differential current waveform remains near zero [10].
Delayed fault detection is the disadvantage of this group of al-
gorithms. Various methods based on processing differential cur-
rent harmonics have been proposed to detect internal faults of
power transformers. In some methods, differential current har-
monics are used as inputs to a trained neural network and fuzzy
logic [11], [12]. The problem associated with these methods is
the need to design neural networks or fuzzy laws, which re-
quire a huge number of training patterns produced by simula-
tions of various cases [13]. However, these approaches might
need re-training for use in other power transformer systems if
the transformer, for example, is changed in capacity and voltage
ratings as well as iron-core constructions and winding connec-
tions. In another approach the multi-criteria aggregation tech-
nique based on fuzzy logic has been employed [14]. However,
for such an approach, there are no recommended criteria for set-
ting the internal parameters of a relay.
A wavelet-based signal processing technique is an effective
tool for power system transient analysis and feature extraction.
Some applications of wavelet analysis in power systems include
analysis and detection of electromagnetic transients [15], power
quality [16], data compression [17], and fault detection [18]. Re-
1990
cently, several new protective schemes have been proposed to
deal with the foregoing problem in power transformer protection
based on wavelet transforms (WT) [19]–[21]. A wavelet-based
method has been presented in [19]. The drawback of this method
is that it requires the measurement of voltage in addition to cur-
rent that increases the cost of hardware implementation. In [20],
an algorithm has been recommended using a combination of the
WT and neural network. In this method a WT has been used as
a preprocessor and the output of the wavelet is the input of the
artificial neural network. The required algorithm training and
other above-mentioned problems are the drawbacks of the algo-
rithm. In [21], a wavelet-based algorithm has been suggested.
This algorithm has not been considered the condition in which
both inrush current and internal fault present simultaneously.
This paper introduces a simple decision making method
based on the WT for discriminating internal faults from inrush
currents. This algorithm has been developed by considering
different behaviors of the differential currents under fault and
inrush current conditions. The WT technique is first applied
in order to decompose the differential current signals into a
series of wavelet components, each of which is a time-do-
main signal that covers a specific frequency band. Thus, more
distinctive signal features that represent internal faults and
inrush currents are extracted. As a result, by quantifying the
extracted features, a criterion function is defined in terms of
difference of amplitude of wavelet coefficients over a specific
frequency band, due to the fault and inrush current. By using
this criterion function for three phases, the internal faults can
be accurately discriminated from inrush current less than a
quarter a cycle after the disturbance. Another advantage of
the proposed method is that the fault detection algorithm does
not depend on the selection of thresholds. The merit of this
method is demonstrated by simulation of different faults and
switching conditions on a power transformer. For this purpose,
a power system involving a power transformer and transmis-
sion lines, on both sides of the transformer, is considered. To
include effective factors on differential current components,
the elements of this power system have been modeled using
PSCAD/EMTDC software. The proposed algorithm is also
tested offline using data collected from a prototype laboratory
three-phase power transformer. The test results show that the
new algorithm is very quick and accurate.
II. WAVELET TRANSFORM
The waveforms associated with fast electromagnetic tran-
sients are typically non-periodic signals which contain both high-
frequency oscillations and localized impulses superimposed on
the power frequency and its harmonics. These characteristics
present a problem for traditional discrete Fourier transform
(DFT), because its use assumes a periodic signal and that the
representation of a signal by the DFT is best reserved for periodic
signals. As power system disturbances are subject to transient and
non-periodic components, the DFT alone can be an inadequate
technique for signal analysis. If a signal is altered in a localized
time instant, the entire frequency spectrum can be affected. To re-
duce the effect of non-periodic signals on the DFT, the short-time
Fourier transform (STFT) is used. It assumes a local periodicity
within a continuously translated time window [22].
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2006
Fig. 1. Implementation of DWT.
TABLE I
FREQUENCY LEVELS OF WAVELET FUNCTION COEFFICIENTS
The WT is a powerful signal processing tool used in power
system [15]–[18]. The WT, like the STFT, allows time localiza-
tion of different frequency components of a given signal, how-
ever with one important difference: STFT uses a fixed width
windowing function. As a result, both frequency and time reso-
lution of the resulting transform will be prior fixed but in the case
of the WT, the analyzing functions, which are called wavelets,
will adjust their time-widths to their frequency in such a way
that, higher frequency wavelets will be very narrow and lower
frequency ones will be broader. Therefore, in contrast with the
STFT, the WT can separate transient components in the upper
frequency isolated in a shorter part of power frequency cycle.
The ability of the WT to focus on short time intervals for
high-frequency components and long intervals for low-fre-
quency components improves the analysis of signals with
localized impulses and oscillations. For this reason, wavelet
decomposition is ideal for studying transient signals and
obtaining a much better current characterization and a more
reliable discrimination [22].
Fig. 1 illustrates the implementation procedure of a Discrete
WT (DWT), in which S is the original signal, LPF and HPF are
the low-pass and high-pass filters respectively. At the first stage,
an original signal is divided into two halves of the frequency
bandwidth, and sent to both HPF and LPF. Then the output of
LPF is further cut in half of the frequency bandwidth, and sent
to the second stage; this procedure is repeated until the signal is
decomposed to a pre-defined certain level. If the original signal
is being sampled at Fs Hz, the highest frequency that the signal
could contain, from Nyquist’s theorem, would be Fs/2 Hz. This
frequency would be seen at the output of the high frequency
filter, which is the first detail. Thus, the band of frequencies be-
tween Fs/2 and Fs/4 would be captured in detail 1; similarly, the
band of frequencies between Fs/4 and Fs/8 would be captured
in detail 2, and so on. The sampling frequency in this paper is
taken to be 10 kHz and Table I shows the frequency levels of the
wavelet function coefficients.
FAIZ AND LOTFI-FARD: NOVEL WAVELET-BASED ALGORITHM FOR DISCRIMINATION OF INTERNAL FAULTS 1991

Fig. 2. Different behavior of fault and inrush current.

III. PROPOSED ALGORITHM

The new method of discriminating inrush current from in-

ternal fault is based on the different behavior of these waveforms
following the disturbance. Since the magnetizing inrush cur-
rent corresponds to the transformer core saturation, the inrush
current has a conical shape (non-sinusoidal); in other words in-
rush current at the switching time increases very slowly; as time Fig. 3. Differential current as a result of internal fault AB-G at t = 0:3 s and
frequency levels obtained from WT.
passes its slope increases. However, when a fault occurs, the dif-
ferential current has higher slope compared with the starting of
the inrush current, and its slope decreases as time passes. Fig. 2
illustrates the above-mentioned features [23]. Since these fea-
tures stem from the different nature of the currents and param-
eters of transformer and the connected power system has no
influence on it, so these features may be used as the basis of
discriminating the fault from the inrush current.
The proposed algorithm is based on two principles.
1) The differential current due to fault begins with a higher
slope and then its slope decreases. But differential current
due to inrush current begins with a low slope and then its
slope is raised.
2) A larger slope in the time domain shows that there are
higher frequencies in the frequency domain.
Based on the above principles, it is expected that following the
internal fault, the amplitude of the high frequencies at the initial
instants has a decreasing trend; it means that its value drops from
large value to a small value. This trend has been shown in Fig. 3
(D1-D5) where the differential current due to the AB-G internal
fault at and frequency levels from the WT are visible. It
is also expected that following the inrush current the amplitude
of the high frequency components at the initial time of fault has
increasing trend. It means that their amplitudes increase from Fig. 4. Differential current as a result of inrush current at t = 0:3 s and fre-
a low value to a high value. The differential current due to the quency levels obtained from WT.
inrush current at s and the resultant frequency from WT
are visible as shown in Fig. 4 (D1-D5).
The aforementioned features at frequency level D5 is clearly and Y. Based on the above explanations, in the case of inrush
visible. Fig. 5 shows the differential current waveform due to current , and in the case of internal fault . The
the fault current and inrush current at frequency level D5. In second inequality is studied for every phase and if there is such
order to introduce a criterion function for discriminating the in- inequality even in one phase, a fault exists and the trip command
rush current from the internal fault current, the amplitudes of the is issued. As shown in Fig. 6, the above Inequalities can be used
two first peaks of the differential current in D5, following the to discriminate the internal fault from the inrush current around
disturbance, are considered and called X and Y. Fig. 6 shows a quarter a cycle which is very quick. Also the suggested cri-
the absolute value of the differential current in D5 and points X terion function is simple and it prevents complicated and huge
1992
Fig. 5. (a) Inrush current and (b) internal fault current in D5.
Fig. 6. Absolute value of (a) inrush current and (b) internal fault current in D5.
computations. This, of course, has a large effect on the speed of
the diagnosis trend.
It is noted that the characteristics mentioned which used in
the diagnosis process are normally appeared over high frequen-
cies (not over low frequencies, that is, D6-D7, A7 where fre-
quencies are lower than 156.25 Hz). As shown in Figs. 3 and 4,
amplitudes of the wavelet coefficients in D5 are larger that that
of D1-D4, which enhance the precision of the obtained X and
Y. This is the reason for using D5 in the proposed algorithm.
A simplified flowchart of the proposed algorithm has been
shown in Fig. 7; block (1) implements the calculation of the
three-phase differential currents; the restraining currents are
only used at the stage of blocks (1) and (2) to prevent false
tripping due to external faults, current-transformer (CT) mis-
match, CT error between LV and HV sides and error caused by
tap-changer; block (2) signifies that the relay is activated if any
one of three-phase differential currents is over a setting of the
differential protection [24]. If the output of block 2 is “Yes”,
there is an internal fault and/or inrush current which must be
discriminated. In fact, the proposed algorithm commences
from block (3) and its aim is to discriminate internal fault from
inrush current. Block (3) implements the WT to the differential
currents; block (4) estimates X, Y, where means the X for
phase a and means the Y for phase a and so on. Finally
the decision is made by block (5) to discriminate internal
faults from inrush currents. If an internal fault is detected, the
relay will issue a tripping signal; otherwise, the relay will be
restrained and does not operate.
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2006
Fig. 7. Flowchart of the proposed algorithm.
IV. SIMULATION RESULTS
To obtain the required current signals for investigation of the
merit of the proposed algorithm, a part of a power system con-
sisting of a power transformer and relevant CTs with transmis-
sion lines on the both sides of the transformer are modeled using
PSCAD/EMTDC software that is shown in Fig. 8. So the re-
quired current signals for a digital differential protection can be
provided. The proposed power system consists of a 500-MVA
and 400/230-kV transformer and the distributed model for the
transmission lines is used. A long 400-kV line in parallel with
the transformer distorts the faulty current waveform.
Different cases of inrush current and fault current are simu-
lated. Different cases of inrush current are simulated by varying
those major parameters that influencing the characteristics of this
current. These parameters are the residual core flux of single-
phase transformers , the voltage angle of switching phase a
, switching in the case of close or open secondary, the high
or low power supply connected to transformer and knee of the
core magnetic characteristic. Different cases of fault currents are
also simulated where the major factors affecting the characteris-
tics of the current are considered. These factors include the type
of fault and load condition. The results of application of the pro-
posed algorithm for different conditions of inrush current have
been summarized in Table II. This table shows the values of X
and Y of different phases during shorter than a quarter a cycle
following waveform distortion due to different inrush current.
The first column of the table presents the remnant fluxes in the
FAIZ AND LOTFI-FARD: NOVEL WAVELET-BASED ALGORITHM FOR DISCRIMINATION OF INTERNAL FAULTS 1993

Fig. 8. Diagram of the simulated power system.

TABLE II
VALUES OF X AND Y ( 102 ) FOLLOWING DISTURBANCE FOR DIFFERENT INRUSH CURRENTS CASES

single-phase transformer core at instant of switching as percent
of the rated flux. The second column shows the voltage angle of
phase at the instant of switching. The third column exhibits
that the investigated differential current related to which phase.
The forth and fifth columns show that at the time of inrush cur-
rent occurring the secondary of transformer is open or close. In
both no-load and on-load cases, influence of stiff or weak power
system and also effect of flux density change of the knee of the
transformer magnetic core characteristic have been studied. Flux
density of the knee of characteristic 2 is larger than that of char-
acteristic 1. The results of application of the proposed algorithm
for internal fault conditions have been summarized in Table III.
Simulations have been carried out for different faults in no-load
and on-load of power system. In addition to the fault and inrush
currents cases, it is necessary to study the merit of the algorithm
for simultaneous fault and switching; in Table IV, four different
cases have been included and in all cases the fault have been
properly diagnosed. The first and second row of this table show
switching and fault condition in different cases respectively. In-
dices ij in these two rows express the ith row and jth column of
Tables II and III. In this case it is assumed that Table II is 5
11 and Table III is 3 10 matrices. For instance, 2,4 in the first
column of Table IV is: no-load, char.1, ,
; and 2,3 in the second column of Table IV is: no-load,
A-G, . Tables II–IV show that in all cases the algorithm
acts properly.
One of these cases is studied in detail. Fig. 9 shows a differen-
tial current due to simultaneous inrush current and fault (A-G)
at s and WT coefficients in D5. As seen, the WT co-
efficients in D5 is decreasing, and , so
. Thus, the occurrence of the fault is detected accurately
shorter than a quarter a cycle (3.9 ms).
1994
TABLE III
VALUES OF X AND Y ( 10 2 ) FOLLOWING DISTURBANCE FOR DIFFERENT INTERNAL FAULT CASES
TABLE IV
2
VALUES OF X AND Y ( 10 ) FOLLOWING SIMULTANEOUS INRUSH
CURRENT AND INTERNAL FAULT CASES
Fig. 9. Differential current as a result of simultantanuose A-G internal fault
and inrush current at t = 0:3 s and frequency levels obtained from WT.
V. OFFLINE TESTING OF ALGORITHM
The proposed algorithm is to be tested on a three-phase,
5-kVA, 230/550–575–600, 60-Hz, core type, -Y-connected
laboratory prototype power transformer. The experimental
setup for collecting different types of investigated differential
currents is shown in Fig. 10 [21]. Three identical CTs are
connected in Y on the primary side, and another three identical
CTs are connected in on the secondary side of the power
transformer. The differential current is measured at point Q
using Tektronics current probe. The differential current is sam-
pled at 10 kHz and stored using Tektronics 2212 digital storage
oscilloscope. Three identical triac switches and a control circuit
to trigger them are used to provide a short contact between the
IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON POWER DELIVERY, VOL. 21, NO. 4, OCTOBER 2006
Fig. 10. Experimental setup for differential current data collection.
supply and the transformer. The configuration of the switches
and the control circuit is shown in [21]. The collected currents
data are to be used for testing the merits of the proposed
algorithm.
The following cases are proposed.
1) Fault currents:
• secondary line-to-ground fault, onload;
• primary line-to-line fault, no load;
• primary three-phase fault, no load.
2) Magnetizing inrush current, no load.
In many cases, the transformer is no load, which provides the
worst operating conditions.
Case 1) Single-phase-to-ground fault current
The single line-to-ground fault (phase c) occurred
on the secondary side with a balanced Y-connected
load of phase connected to the secondary side. It
should be noted that the primary line-to-line voltage
is set to 50 V in all investigated faults in order to
avoid the saturation or damage in the test equipment.
Fig. 11 shows the three-phase differential currents
Ia, Ib, Ic, and the frequency range D5 due to Ic. As
seen , , so holds after 2.8
ms of the disturbance (i.e., shorter than a quarter a
cycle that shows the disturbance is a fault).
Case 2) Line-to-line fault current
In the case of line-to-line fault between phases B
and C, the transformer is no load, and the fault takes
FAIZ AND LOTFI-FARD: NOVEL WAVELET-BASED ALGORITHM FOR DISCRIMINATION OF INTERNAL FAULTS
Fig. 11. Three-phase currents for the case of secondary onload single-phase-to-
ground fault current and the frequency range D5 due to Ic.
Fig. 12. Three-phase currents for the case of onload primary phase-to-phase
fault current and the frequency range D5 due to Ib.
place on the primary side of the transformer. Fig. 12
shows the three-phase differential currents Ia, Ib,
Ic and the frequency range D5 due to Ib. As seen
, , so holds after 3.6
ms of the disturbance (i.e., shorter than a quarter of
a cycle that shows the disturbance is a fault).
Case 3) Three-Phase-to-Ground Fault Current
The three-phase fault has occurred on the primary
side of the no-load power transformer. Fig. 13 shows
the three-phase differential currents Ia, Ib, Ic, and
the frequency range D5 due to Ib. As seen,
, , so holds after 3.2 ms of
the disturbance (i.e., shorter than a quarter a cycle
that shows the occurrence of a fault).
1995
Fig. 13. Three-phase currents for the case of no-load primary three-phase-to-
ground fault current and the frequency range D5 due to Ib.
Fig. 14. Three-phase currents for the case of unloaded magnetizing inrush cur-
rent and the frequency range D5 due to Ic.
Case 4) Unloaded Magnetizing Inrush Current
For the case of magnetizing inrush current, the
no-load transformer at a supply line voltage of 230
V is considered. Fig. 14 shows the three-phase dif-
ferential currents Ia, Ib, Ic, and the frequency range
D5 due to Ic. As seen and ,
so holds after 2.9 ms of the disturbance (i.e.,
shorter than a quarter of a cycle and this situation
is also the same in other phases which shows that
there is no fault and the maltrip is not issued).
These offline test results show that the proposed algorithm is
accurate for building a reliable differential protection scheme
for three-phase power transformers. In addition, in all cases of
1996
tested internal faults, the fault is identified in less than a quarter
a cycle based on a 60-Hz supply.
VI. CONCLUSION
In this paper, a novel algorithm for transformer differential
protection was presented. This method is based on the different
behaviors of differential currents. A criterion function was de-
fined using the difference of the amplitude of the WT over a
particular frequency spectrum due to a fault and inrush current,
internal fault conditions can be detected by evaluation of the
criterion functions of the three phases. In addition to suitable
accuracy, the proposed method can discriminate fault from in-
rush current quickly, less than a quarter a cycle after the distur-
bance. The proposed algorithm does not require choosing any
coefficient or threshold values. This is another advantage of the
method. The ability of the new method was demonstrated by
simulating various cases on a typical power system and the pro-
posed algorithm is also tested offline using data collected from
a prototype laboratory three-phase power transformer. The test
results show that the proposed algorithm was also quick and
accurate.
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Jawad Faiz (M’90–SM’93) received the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering
from the University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, U.K., in
1988.
Currently, he is a Professor in the Department of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
Dr. Faiz is a member of the Iran Academy of Science. His teaching and re-
search interests are switched reluctance and VR motors design, and the design
and modeling of electrical machines and drives.
S. Lotfi-Fard (S’06) received the M.Sc degree in electrical engineering from
the University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran, in 2006.
His research interests are power quality analysis and signal processing and
their application to transients and protection of power systems.