Department of Geology University of Liberia Semester II-2019-2020

GEOL314LECTURE-ULSEMII-2020
Department of Geology
University of Liberia
Semester II- 2019-2020
Lecturer: Mr. Johnson S. Willabo, BSc, BSc, MSc
Lecture hour: Tuesday and Thursday: 15:00-16:30 GMT
Contact: johnson.willabo@yahoo.com
Section 1.0: Index properties of soil
A soil is unconsolidated earth material in which grain to grain depends on the

electrostatic forces, cohesion, and stratigraphic position. These earth materials are
characterized by the environment of deposition, the transportation mechanisms, and
the size of the mineral or rock grains that make up the constituents. A sample of soil
in the form of rock, dust, stones etc., may be composed of soil grains, water and air.
The soil grains are non-identical with other adjacent soil grains. The weight and
volume of a soil sample depends on the specific gravity of the soil grains (solids), the
size of the area between soil grains (voids or pores) and the amount of void space
filled with water. Void ratio (e) helps in estimating the relative strength and
compressibility of the soil sample, i.e., soil with low void ratios are known for strong,
incompressible soils, whereas high void ratios are known for soils with weak,
compressible soils.
Generally, this estimation can be done for various sectors like construction,
agricultural, mineralogy, ground water analysis etc., A soil type is characterized as
having the same geologic depositional history and generally has similarities
throughout the stratum in terms of density, source material, and hydrogeology. It
should be recognized that the properties of a given soil type at a site are likely to vary
significantly from point to point within the stratum. Adjacent geologic stratum may
have identical or approximate soil properties. It should also be recognized that some
properties might vary as a predictable function of a stratum.
1.1: Elements of index properties and relationship
Phase Relationships
Partially saturated soil (three-phase soil) is composed of solids (soil particles), liquids
(usually water), and gases (usually air). The spaces between the solids are called voids. The
soil water is commonly called pore water and it plays a very important role in the behavior of
soils under load. If all voids are filled with water, the soil is saturated (two-phase). Otherwise,
the soil is unsaturated. If all the voids are filled with air, the soil is said to be dry (two-phase).
Weight-Volume Relationships
shows an element of soil of volume V and weight W as it would exist in a natural state. To
develop the weight–volume relationships, we must separate the three phases (that is, solid,
Page 1 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
water, and air) as shown in Figure (1.1b). Thus, the total volume of a given soil sample can
be expressed as
V= Vs + Vv = Vs+ Vw+ Va
where Vs = volume of soil solids
Vv = volume of voids
Vw = volume of water in the voids
Va =volume of air in the voids
Assuming that the weight of the air is negligible, we can give the total weight of the sample
as
W= Ws + Ww
where Ws = weight of soil solids
Ww = weight of water
The volume relationships commonly used for the three phases in a soil element are void ratio,
porosity, and degree of saturation. Void ratio (e) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids
to the volume of solids. Thus,
𝑒=
Figure 1.1: Soil element in natural state; (b) three phases of the soil element
Page 2 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Porosity (n) is defined as the ratio of the volume of voids to the total volume or n =
The degree of saturation (S) is defined as the ratio of the volume of water to the volume of
voids, or s =
It is commonly expressed as a percentage.
The relationship between void ratio and porosity can be derived as shown below:
𝑽𝒗 𝑽𝒗 𝑽𝒗
e = 𝑽𝒔 = 𝑽−𝑽𝒗 = ( 𝒗
) = n
𝑽𝒗
1-( ) 1-n
𝑽
n=
The common terms used for weight relationships are moisture content and unit weight.
Moisture content (w) is also referred to as water content and is defined as the ratio of the
weight of water to the weight of solids in a given volume of soil:
𝑤= 𝑊𝑤
𝑊𝑠
Unit weight (γ) is the weight of soil per unit volume. Thus,
𝛾= 𝑊
𝑉
The unit weight can also be expressed in terms of the weight of soil solids, the moisture
content, and the total volume.
𝑤 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤 𝑊𝑤
𝛾=𝑉 = 𝑉
= ws[1 + 𝑊𝑠
] = Ws(1 + w)
V V
Soils engineers sometimes refer to the unit weight defined by as the moist unit weight.
Often, to solve earthwork problems, one must know the weight per unit volume of soil,
excluding water. This weight is referred to as the dry unit weight, 𝛾𝑑. Thus,
𝛾= 𝑊𝑠/𝑉
From the above equations, the relationship of unit weight, dry unit weight, and moisture
content can be given as
d=
Sometimes it is convenient to express soil densities in terms of mass densities (ρ). The SI
unit of mass density is kilograms cubic meter (kg/m3). We can write the density equations
Page 3 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
𝜌 = 𝑀/𝑉 and 𝜌= 𝑀𝑠/𝑉
Where ρ = density of soil (kg/m3)

𝜌𝑑 = dry density of soil (kg/m3)
M = total mass of the soil sample (kg)
Ms = mass of soil solids in the sample (kg)
The unit of total volume, V, is m3
The unit weight in kN/m3 can be obtained from densities in kg/m3 as
γ = (ρkN/m3) = 𝒌𝒈
gρ ( )
𝒎𝟑
1000
𝒌𝒈
γd = (ρkN/m3) = gρd ( )
𝒎𝟑
1000
1.2 Relationships among Unit Weight, Void Ratio, Moisture Content, and Specific
Gravity
To obtain a relationship among unit weight (or density), void ratio, and moisture content, let
us consider a volume of soil in which the volume of the soil solids is one, as shown in Figure
1.2. If the volume of the soil solids is one, then the volume of voids is numerically equal to
the void ratio, e. The weights of soil solids and water can be given as
Ws= Gs γw
Ww = wWs = wGs γw
where Gs = specific gravity of soil solids
w = moisture content
γw = unit weight of water
Page 4 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Figure 3.2 Three separate phases of a soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one
Now, using the definitions of unit weight and dry unit weight, we can write:
𝑤 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤
𝛾=𝑉 = 𝑉
=Gsγw + WGsγw = (1 + w)Gsγw and
1+e 1+e
𝒘𝒔 𝑮𝒔𝜸𝒘 or
𝜸d = =
𝑽 𝟏 𝒆
𝑮𝒔𝜸𝒘
e= -1
𝜸𝒅
Because the weight of water for the soil element under consideration is wGsγw, the volume
occupied by water is
( ) ( )
Vw = = = WGs
Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation,
S= = or se = WGs
or
𝑆𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase relationships.
Page 5 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
If the soil sample is saturated—that is, the void spaces are completely filled with water
(Figure 1.3)—the relationship for saturated unit weight (γsat) can be derived in a similar
manner:
𝑤 𝑊𝑠 𝑊𝑤
𝛾sat = 𝑉 = 𝑉
=Gsγw + eγw = (Gs + e)γw
1+e 1+e
Also, S=1,so
𝑒 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠
As mentioned before, due to the convenience of working with densities in the SI system, the
following equations, similar to unit–weight relationships given in previous equations, will be
useful:
Figure (1.3) Saturated soil element with volume of soil solids equal to one
Density = (𝟏 𝒘)𝑮𝒔𝜸𝒘
ρ=
𝟏 𝒆
𝑮𝒔𝜸𝒘
Dry density = ρd= 𝟏 𝒆
Page 6 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
(𝑮𝒔 𝒆)𝜸𝒘
Ρsat= 𝟏 𝒆
Saturated density =
Where ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3
In Figure 1.4,the volume of soil solids is equal to 1 and the volume of voids is equal to e.
Figure (1.4) Three separate phases of a soil element showing mass–volume relationship
Hence, the mass of soil solids, Ms, is equal to Gsρw. The moisture content is being defined in
as
𝒘𝒘 (𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒘𝒂𝒕𝒆𝒓 )𝒈
𝜸d = 𝑾𝒔 = (𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒐𝒍𝒊𝒅)𝒈
𝑴𝒘
= 𝑴𝒔
Since the mass of soil in the element is equal to Gsρw, the mass of water
Mw = WMs = WGsρw
density is defined as:
Page 7 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
( ) ( ) ( )( )( )
ρ= = = =
1.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content
The relationship among unit weight, porosity, and moisture content can be
developed in a manner similar to that presented in the preceding section.
Consider a soil that has a total volume equal to one, as shown in Figure 1.5:
𝑛=
Figure (1.5) Soil element with total volume equal to one
If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so 𝑉𝑠 = 1 − 𝑛. The weight of soil solids

(Ws) and the weight of water (Ww) can then be expressed as follows:
𝑊𝑠 = 𝐺𝑠γw(1 − 𝑛)
𝑊𝑤 = 𝑤𝑊𝑠 = 𝑤𝐺𝑠γw (1 − 𝑛)
So, the dry unit weight equals
Page 8 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
( − )
𝛾𝑑 = = =(1 − 𝑛)
The moist unit weight equals
= = 𝐺𝑠γw(1 − 𝑛)(1 + 𝑤)
Figure (1.6) shows a soil sample that is saturated and has V = 1. According to
this figure,
( − )
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = = = [(1 − 𝑛) + 𝑛]
The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

W= = =
( − ) ( − )
Figure (1.6) Saturated soil element with total volume equal to one
1.4: Various Unit-Weight Relationships
In Sections 1.2 and 1.3, we derived the fundamental relationships for the moist
unit weight, dry unit weight, and saturated unit weight of soil. Several other
forms of relationships that can be obtained for γ, γd, and γsat are given in Table
Page 9 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
(1.1). Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content in a saturated

condition, and dry unit weight for soils in a natural state are given in Table
(1.2).
Table 1.1
Table 1.2
Page 10 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Example problems on index properties
EXAMPLE 1.1
Page 11 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
EXAMPLE 1.2
Page 12 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
1.7
Page 13 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Page 14 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
1.3
3
Kg/m
1.4
Page 15 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Relative Density
The term relative density is commonly used to indicate the in situ denseness or looseness of
granular soil. It is defined as
−
𝐷r =
−
Where Dr = relative density, usually given as a percentage
e = in situ void ratio of the soil
emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state

emin = void ratio of the soil in the densest state
The values of Dr may vary from a minimum of 0% for very loose soil to a maximum of
100% for very dense soils. Soils engineers qualitatively describe the granular soil deposits
according to their relative densities, as shown in Table (1.3)
Page 16 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
TABLE
1.3
The relationships for relative density can also be defined in terms of porosity,
( )
emax =
− ( )
( )
emin = − ( )
e=
−
where nmax and nmin = porosity of the soil in the loosest and densest conditions, respectively.
( − )( − )
Dr =
( − )( − )
By using the definition of dry unit weight given, we can express relative density in terms of
maximum and minimum possible dry unit weights. Thus,
1 1
Dr = - 𝛾𝑑− 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥
1 1 = ( )
𝛾𝑑 max − 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑
-
𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥
where γd(min) = dry unit weight in the loosest condition (at a void ratio of emax)
γd = in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)
γd(max) = dry unit weight in the densest condition (at a void ratio of emin)
In terms of density, we have:
𝜌𝑑− 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜌𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

Dr =
𝜌𝑑 max − 𝜌𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛
( 𝜌𝑑
)
Page 17 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
example problems
EXAMPLE 1.5
More problems on index properties
1. For a given soil, the maximum and minimum dry unit weights are
108lb/ft3 and 92lb/ft3 respectively. Given Gs = 2.65, determine the moist
unit weight of the soil when the relative density is 60% and the moisture
content is 8%.
Solution
Page 18 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
2. An undisturbed sample of clayey soil is formed to have a wet weight of

285N, a dry unit weight of 250N, and a total volume of 14x10 3cm3. If the
specific gravity of the soil is 2.7, determine the water content, void ratio,
and degree of saturation.
Solution
Page 19 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
3. The moist weight of 0.1 cubic foot of a soil is 12.2lb. if the moisture
content is 12% and the specifuc gravity of the soil is 2.72. find the
following:
a. moist unit weight
b. dry unit weight
c. void ratio
d. porosity
e. degree of saturation
f. volume occupied by water
Solution
Page 20 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
4. A loose, uncompacted sandfill 6ft in depth has a relatively density of

40%. Laboratory test indicated that the minimum and maximum void
ratios of the sand are 0.46 and 0.90 respectively. The specific gravity of
the solid of the sand is 2.65.
a. What is the dry unit weight of the sand?
b. If the sand is compacted to a relative density of 75%, what is the
decrease in thickness of the 6ft fill?
Solution
Page 21 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Try this below

5. A soil sample has a void ratio of 0.72, moisture content of 12% and Gs=
2.72. determine the following:
a. dry unit weight and moist unit weight in KN/m3
b. weight of the water in KN/m3 to be added for 80% degree of
saturation
c. Is it possible to reach a water content of 30% without changing the
present void ratio?
Section 2.0:Clay minerals and index properties

The engineering properties of clay minerals are integrated with water and cations held in
the interlayer. The presence of water influences the following properties:
a. Plasticity
b. Bonding strength
c. Compaction
d. Suspension
e. Fluid conductivity
Page 22 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
f. Adsorption and Retardation of contaminants

It is important to note that water is attracted to soil mineral especially the clay
minerals. Before we move a step further, let take a look at structure of water
molecule:
 V- Shaped arrangement of atomic number
 The H-O-H angle is said to range from 103 degree to 106 degrees.
 The H-O bond is 60% covalent and 40% ionic
2.1: The clay-water system

There are four proposed mechanisms for water adsorption to clay minerals.
a. Hydrogen bonding
The surface of the interlayer is either exposed oxygen or hydroxyls. Hexagonal rings
on the T-layer cause an ―ice-like‖ symmetry of the water molecule.
The hydrogen bonding would alter the electron distribution over the absorbed
molecule making it easier for this molecule to bond to other molecules creating
additional layers.
b. Hydration of exchangeable cations
Cations are directly attracted to the surface of the interlayer.
Hydrated cations will allow hydrogen bonding of the hydrated ion to water molecules
Important adsorption mechanism occurs at low moisture content.
c. Attraction by osmosis
There is a concentration gradient of cations as the distance to the interlayer surface
decreases. Combine this with restrictions on the diffusion of ions from the surface and
the resulting electrostatic attraction.
The result is that the water molecules will diffuse to the vicinity of the surface to
achieve electrostatic equilibrium and in effect equalize concentrations.
d. Charged surface- dipole attraction
Water molecules will point their positive side to the plate and the degree of
orientation would decrease with increasing distance from the interlayer surface.
Important Summary
a. The volume of water in a soil is equal to or greater than the volume of the solid
fraction.
b. Dissolved ions disrupt the structure of water
c. Water is strongly attracted to the surface of the interlayer. The water is highly
structured to a thickness of three molecular layers (1 nm) and is different from normal
water and ice.
d. Absorbed water exhibits a release of energy and a lowering of the freezing points.
e. The hydrodynamic and thermodynamic properties of the absorbed water vary
exponentially with distance from the interlayer surface.
Page 23 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
f. There is no evidence for abnormal water viscosity or Darcy’s Law of clay

encountered in geotechnical and environmental practice. The viscosity and diffusion
properties are the same as pure water.
2.2: The genesis of clay by weathering
Clays are also called phyllosilicates.
Clays are considered secondary minerals; all are created from pre-existing
minerals as a function of chemical weathering.
There are three general ways to form clay minerals at your site.
A. Inheritance
The clay mineral was formed somewhere else and transported to your
location. The mineral has remained stable at its new location. Inheritance
dominates in the secondary environment. Temperatures and reaction rates
are usually low, thus predominates in cool, high latitude zones.
B. Neoformation
The clay mineral has precipitated from solution or has formed from the
reaction with existing amorphous materials. Neoformation does occur in
the wet tropics.
C. Transformation
Existing clays minerals have undergone chemical changes. Two reactions
are possible: ions exchange or layer transformation. Layer
transformations may require a change in the pressure and temperature.
Transformation dominates in high-temperature environments, specifically
in the presence of hydrothermal systems.
Decomposed granite is particularly a problem in engineering and environmental

projects and is composed of clay minerals.
Fractures in rocks will weather and deposit clay minerals in the fracture
systems. Hydrothermal alterations may be important in tunnel projects.
Page 24 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
3.0: Atomic structure of the micas (Phyllosilicates)
Silica Tetrahedral sheet
Page 25 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Pyrophyllite and Talc
a. pyrophyllite
b. talc
Page 26 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Muscovite and Biotite
Biotite
Page 27 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Illite
The most common clay mineral encountered in industrial practice. It structure is similar to
that of muscovite but it is different because:
 Fewer of the Si positions in the T-Layer are filled with Al.

 There is randomness to the stacking of the TGT packets
 There is less potassium in the illite
 The result is that illite particles are much smaller (1-2μg) than muscovite.
4.0 Rigid bodies: equivalent systems of forces

Most bodies in elementary mechanics are assumed to be rigid, i.e., the actual deformations are
small and do not affect the conditions of equilibrium or motion of the body
Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an equivalent

system consisting of one force acting at a given point and one couple.
Any two or more forces acting on a single body known as a force system and
can be classified in various ways. The forces can be classified accordingly to
their effect on the bodies they are applied or according to their orientation with
Page 28 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
respect to each other.

These include:
1. External and internal forces
2. Normal and tangential forces
3. Tensile and compressive forces
4. Coplanar forces (forces in 2D same plane)
5. Collinear (same line of action)
6. Concurrent forces( lines of action have a completion have a common
point of intersection)
7. Parallel forces
8. Gravitational forces or weight
9. Distributed forces and pressure
4.1 External and internal forces
External forces represent the action of other bodies on the rigid body under consideration.
They are entirely responsible for the external behavior of the rigid body. If unopposed, each
external force can impart a motion of translation or rotation, or both.
The internal forces are the forces which hold together the particles forming the
rigid body. If the rigid body is structurally composed of several parts, the force
holding the components parts together are also defined as internal forces.
Internal forces External forces
W = total weight
F= force of men pulling on the rope
R1 & R2 = force exerted by the ground on the truck(ground opposes downward movements)
Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces
Principle of Transmissibility
Page 29 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
This can be used freely to determine the conditions of equilibrium of rigid bodies and to
compute the external forces on these bodies. However, it should be used with caution, or
avoided, when determining internal forces and deformation.
These are conditions of equilibrium or motion that are not affected by transmitting a force
along its line of action.
P1 A B P2 = P1 A B = A B
P2
(a) (b) (c)
P2 A B P1 A B P1 A B
P’2
(d) = (e) = (f)
Notes:
1. If P2’ is moved next to P1, it meets the line of action requirement.

2. The bar remains in equilibrium
3. The internal forces in the member are changed. In figure (a) & (d), the bar is either in
tension or compression throughout the entire length. In figures (c) & (f), when the
force P2 is removed to P2’ location, the forces P1 and P2’ are applied at the same point
at one end resulting in no internal forces in the bar, which is incorrect.
Normal and Tangential forces
In mechanics, the term ―normal‖ implies perpendicular, so a normal force is applied in a

direction perpendicular to the surface.
A ―tangential‖ force is that applied on a surface in the direction parallel to the surface.
Tensile and compressive forces
A tensile force applied on a body will tend to stretch or elongated the body, whereas a
compressive force will tend to shrink the body in the direction of the applied force.
Coplanar force system
A system of forces is said to be coplanar if the line of action of all the forces lie in a two
dimensional surface. Using a cartesian coordinate system, coplanar forces can be analyzed by
taking x and y components of the forces involved.
Concurrent force system
Concurrent coplanar force systems: if the line of action of all the forces in the system passes
through a common point and lie in the same plane.
Noncurrent coplanar force system: the lines of action all forces lie in the same plane but do
not pass through a single point.
Page 30 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Parallel force systems
A set of forces form a parallel force system if the lines of action of all forces are parallel to
each other. The force maybe of opposite direction and still be considered parallel.
Gravitational force or weight
The force exerted by the earth on an object is called the gravitational force or weight of the
object. The magnitude of the weight is equal to mass of the object times the magnitude of
gravitational acceleration. The gravitational acceleration on the surface of the earth is as
follows: a.) g= 9.8m/s2 b.) g= 32ft/s2
4.2 Moment
A force vector is defined by its magnitude and direction. Its effect on the rigid body also
depends on it point of application.
The moment of F about O is defined as Mo = r * f
The moment vector MO is perpendicular to the plane containing O and the force F.
Magnitude of MO measures the tendency of the force to cause rotation of the body about an
axis along MO.
MO= rF sinϴ = Fd
The sense of the moment may be determined by the right-hand rule.
Any force F’ that has the same magnitude and direction as F, is equivalent if it also has the
same line of action and therefore, produces the same moment.
Two-dimensional structures have length and breadth but negligible depth and are subjected to
forces contained in the plane of the structure.
• The plane of the structure contains the point O and the force F. MO, the moment
of the force about O is perpendicular to the plane.
• If the force tends to rotate the structure counterclockwise, the sense of the moment
vector is out of the plane of the structure and the magnitude of the moment is positive.
Page 31 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
If the force tends to rotate the structure clockwise, the sense of the moment vector is into the
plane of the structure and the magnitude of the moment is negative.
4.3 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

Since we will be involved with only two dimensional problems, each force vectors can be
resolved into rectangular X and Y components. The moments will be determined at any
points by multiply the force by the X or Y distance.
Note: Be careful about the sense of rotation of the force about the point.
(+ccw sign convention) ------- Mo = Mz = -Fxy + Fy(x)
Sample problems
A 100-lb vertical force is applied to the end of a lever which is attached to a shaft at O
Determine: a.) moment about O,
b) b.) Horizontal force at A which creates the same moment,
c c.) Smallest force at A which produces the same moment,
d) d.) Location for a 240-lb vertical force to produce the same
the same moment, e) whether any of the forces from b, c, and d is equivalent to
the original force.
Solutions
a) Moment about O is equal to the product of the force and the perpendicular distance
between the line of action of the force and Since the force tends to rotate the lever clockwise,
the moment vector is into the plane of the paper.
Mo = Fdcosϴ
Mo = (100lb) (24in) (cos60)

Page 32 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Mo = (100lb)(12in)
Mo = 1200lb-in
b) Horizontal force at A that produces the same moment
Horizontal force: in this case, we have: d= (24in)(sin60)= 20.8in
Since the moment about O must be 1200lb-in, we write Mo= fdcos60 = (1200lb-in) (20.8in)
= 57.8lb
c.) Smallest force at A which produces the same moment
The smallest force at A to produce the same moment occurs when the perpendicular distance
is a maximum or when F is perpendicular to OA
Since Mo = fd, the smallest value of F occurs when d is maximum. We choose the force
perpendicular to OA and d= 24in. thus
Mo = fd
(1200lb-in) = f(24in)
F = 50lb
d.) Location for a 240-lb vertical force to produce to produce the same moment.
Mo = fdcosϴ
(1200lb-in) = 240lb (dcosϴ)
dcosϴ = 5in
d= 10 in
e) Whether any of the forces from b, c, and d is equivalent to the original force.
Page 33 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
None of the forces in a, b, c or d is equivalent to 100lb load. They may be have the same
moment but they do have the same magnitude, or line of action of the original force.
4.4: Moment of a couple

A couple is formed by two parallel forces with equal magnitude but opposite
directions. On a rigid, the couple has a pure rotational effect and is quantified as a
couple-moment.
Moment Ma = f@a(0) + (-)F@b(d)= 0 +(-)F@b(d) = (-)F@b(d) = F@b(d) (cw)
Moment Mb = (-)f@a(d) + F@b(0)= (-)F@a(d) + 0 = (-)F@a(d) = F@a(d) (cw)
Moment Mc = (-)f@a(d-b) + (-)F@b(b)
= (-)f@a(d) + (-)F@a(-b) + (-)F@b(b)
= (-)f@a(d) (cw)
Sample problems
1. Determine the moment about points A,B, C and D
Page 34 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
Solution
F(x) = fcosϴ = 10cos600 = 10(0.5) = 5lb
F(y) = fsinϴ = 10sin600 = 10(0.866) = 8.66lb
Sign convection counterclockwise is positive
Ma =(-)Fx(8”) + Fy(12) = (-)5(8) + 8.66(12) = -40 + 103.9lb-in
Mb =Fx(0”) + Fy(12) = 5(0) + 8.66(12) = 0 + 103.9= 103.9lb-in
Mc =Fx(0”) + Fy(0) = 5(0) + 8.66(0) = 0 + 0 = 0lb-in
Md =(-)Fx(8”) + Fy(0”) = (-)5(8) + 8.66(0) = -40lb-in
4.5: Reduction of a system of forces to one force and one couple
The equivalent force couple system is obtained by adding:
1. Adding all of the forces of a system

R = ∑F
2. Adding the moment about the reference point
Mo =∑M = ∑(Fd)
Sample problems
A 12’ beam is subjected to forces shown below. Determine the following:
Page 35 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
1. Equivalent force couple system at A

2. Equivalent force couple system at B
3. Find the distance at which the resultant would be applied to yield no moment.
Solution
a.) Equivalent force couple system at A

- We sum the forces and moments at point A
(+ upward, - downdard) ∑F = 35 + (-) 155 + 20 + (-80) = (-) 180 = 180lb downward
(+ccw) ∑Ma = 35lb(0’) + (-)(155lb)(4’) + (20lb)(7’) + (-)(80lb)(12)
= 0lb-ft + 620.0lb-ft + 140.0 in-ft + -960.0in-ft
= -1,440.0lb-ft
= 1,440lb-ft (cw)
b.) Equivalent force couple system at B
To find the equivalent force couplke system at point B, add at point B a zero vector and
sum the forces and moments at point B.
(+ upward, - downdard) ∑F = (-180) + 180 + (-180) = (-) 180 = 180lb downward
(+ccw) ∑Ma = (-)(1,440lb-ft) + (180lb)(12’) + (-)(180lb)(0) + 180(0) = +720lb-ft (ccw)
Page 36 of 37
SJWILLABO2020
c.) Find the distance at which the resultant would be applied to yield no moment
- Using the resultantfrom poit A, the force must stay the same (i.e -180lb) and a
location must be determined where the moment about point A is (-)1,440lb-ft
(+ccw) Ma = Fr d
(-)1440lb-ft = (-)180(x)
X = 8ft from point A
A 50lb force acts on a corner plate as shown below. Determine the following:
a. An equivalent force couple system at A

b. Two horizontal forces A and B which form equivalent couple found in part A
Solution
a). An equivalent force couple system at A
Fx = 50sin300 = 25lb
Fy = 50cos300 = 43.3lb
Ma = fx(d) + (-)fy(d) = 25lb(5in) + (-)43.3lb(10in) = -308lb-in
b). Two horizontal forces A and B which form equivalent couple found in part A
Mo = Fd
(-)308lb-ft = f(3)
F = -102.66lb
Page 37 of 37
SJWILLABO2020

Department of Geology University of Liberia Semester II-2019-2020

Încărcat de

Informații document

Titlu original

Drepturi de autor

Formate disponibile

Partajați acest document

Partajați sau inserați document

Opțiuni de partajare

Vi se pare util acest document?

Este necorespunzător acest conținut?

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

Department of Geology University of Liberia Semester II-2019-2020

Încărcat de

Drepturi de autor:

Formate disponibile

GEOL314LECTURE-ULSEMII-2020

Section 1.0: Index properties of soil

A soil is unconsolidated earth material in which grain to grain depends on the

1.1: Elements of index properties and relationship

where Vs = volume of soil solids

Vw = volume of water in the voids

Va =volume of air in the voids

where Ws = weight of soil solids

𝜌 = 𝑀/𝑉 and 𝜌= 𝑀𝑠/𝑉

Where ρ = density of soil (kg/m3)

Hence, from the definition of degree of saturation,

This equation is useful for solving problems involving three-phase relationships.

Where ρw = density of water = 1000 kg/m3

1.3 Relationships among Unit Weight, Porosity, and Moisture Content

Figure (1.5) Soil element with total volume equal to one

If V is equal to 1, then Vv is equal to n, so 𝑉𝑠 = 1 − 𝑛. The weight of soil solids

So, the dry unit weight equals

The moisture content of a saturated soil sample can be expressed as

1.4: Various Unit-Weight Relationships

(1.1). Some typical values of void ratio, moisture content in a saturated

Example problems on index properties

Where Dr = relative density, usually given as a percentage

e = in situ void ratio of the soil

emax = void ratio of the soil in the loosest state

γd = in situ dry unit weight (at a void ratio of e)

In terms of density, we have:

𝜌𝑑− 𝛾𝑑 𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝜌𝑑 𝑚𝑎𝑥

More problems on index properties

2. An undisturbed sample of clayey soil is formed to have a wet weight of

4. A loose, uncompacted sandfill 6ft in depth has a relatively density of

Try this below

Section 2.0:Clay minerals and index properties

f. Adsorption and Retardation of contaminants

2.1: The clay-water system

f. There is no evidence for abnormal water viscosity or Darcy’s Law of clay

2.2: The genesis of clay by weathering

Clays are also called phyllosilicates.

Decomposed granite is particularly a problem in engineering and environmental

3.0: Atomic structure of the micas (Phyllosilicates)

Silica Tetrahedral sheet

Pyrophyllite and Talc

Muscovite and Biotite

 Fewer of the Si positions in the T-Layer are filled with Al.

4.0 Rigid bodies: equivalent systems of forces

Any system of forces acting on a rigid body can be replaced by an equivalent

respect to each other.

4.1 External and internal forces

Internal forces External forces

F= force of men pulling on the rope

Principle of Transmissibility: Equivalent Forces

1. If P2’ is moved next to P1, it meets the line of action requirement.

Normal and Tangential forces

In mechanics, the term ―normal‖ implies perpendicular, so a normal force is applied in a

Tensile and compressive forces

Coplanar force system

Concurrent force system

Parallel force systems

Gravitational force or weight

The moment of F about O is defined as Mo = r * f

The sense of the moment may be determined by the right-hand rule.

4.3 Rectangular Components of the Moment of a Force

(+ccw sign convention) ------- Mo = Mz = -Fxy + Fy(x)

Determine: a.) moment about O,