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Chapter 3: Flexural Behavior

2101804
Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Structures

Assist. Prof. Dr. Pitcha Jongvivatsakul

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Content
1. Introduction
2. Basic concept
3. Behavior of RC beams under flexure
4. Doubly reinforced rectangular beams
5. Moment-curvature relationships
6. Flexural Analysis
7. Effect of section on strength and
ductility
8. Recent researches

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Introduction
▪ Basic safety equation for flexure;
Reduced nominal strength ≥ Factored load effects
Mn ≥Mu
▪ Symbols and Abbreviations

(Ref. 3.1, p. 125)

cu: assumed concrete strain on the compression face at flexural failure,

s: strain in tension reinforcement
: longitudinal tension reinforcement ratio (=As/bd)
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Basic concept
▪ Internal resisting moment
(M) equilibrates bending
moment.
▪ M results from an internal
compressive force (C) and
tensile force (T).
▪ C and T is separated by a
lever arm jd.
From equilibrium condition:
T=C (if N=0)
M=T×jd=C×jd

(Ref. 3.1, p. 127) 4

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Elastic beam theory VS stress block

▪ Moment of uncracked, homogeneous rectangular beam w/o
reinforcement can be calculated from 2 methods.
1. Conventional elastic beam equation 2. Volume of stress = Compressive
stress block

(a) (b) (c) (d)

My h
= 1
C =  c (max)   b
I 2 2
 c (max) I where
3
bh
M= I = , ymax = h / 2 jd = 2h / 3
ymax 12
 bh  2h 
2
bh3 / 12 bh 2 bh
M =  c (max) =  c (max) M = C  jd =  c (max)    =  c (max)
h/2 6  4  3  6
Moment from elastic beam theory = Moment from stress block concept
• For elastic case, the same answers are obtained from the traditional
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beam stress equation and the stress block equations.
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Elastic beam theory VS stress block

▪ However, elastic beam theory does not use in design
of RC beams because
• At higher strain values, the compressive stress-
strain relationship is nonlinear.
• Concrete cracks at low tensile stresses → Need
reinforcing steel to carried tensile force, T.
▪ Thus, the stress-block concept is better for the
design of RC beams.
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Basic assumptions in flexure theory

1. Plane section remains plane.

NA NA
NA

Undeformed state Deformed state

2. Strain of concrete and steel at the same level are the same.
• Imply perfect bond between concrete and steel
3. Stresses in concrete and steel can be computed from the
strains by using stress-strain curves from concrete and steel.

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Behavior of beams subjected to moment can be classified into
5 stages.

Stage 1: Before flexural

cracking of concrete
Stage 2: After flexural cracking
of concrete and
before steel yielding
Stage 3: Steel yielding
Stage 4: After yielding of steel
Stage 5: Ultimate state
Moment-curvature relationships

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Stage 1: Before flexural cracking of concrete
• Maximum tension stress is less than modulus of rupture of concrete.
• No crack were observed at this state.
• Behavior of beams is elastic at this stage.
• The distribution of stress and strain are linear.
• Relation of moment and deformation is linear.
• Entire concrete is effective in resisting stress (both comp. and
tension)

(Ref. 3.2, p. 70) Section Strain Stress 9

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Stage 2: After flexural cracking of concrete and before steel yielding
• When tensile stresses of concrete exceed the modulus of rupture
(flexural strength), the flexural cracks initiate at the extreme tension
fiber and propagate to the neutral axis.
• With the increase in load, flexural cracks also occur in other sections
than that of maximum moment and crack width is wider.
• Concrete in tension zone lost its tensile strength.
• The tensile force is mostly carried by reinforcing steel. Thus, strain in
steel increases rapidly.
• Steel stress is below yielding stress. fs=Ess
• The deflection of beams increases.

< y
< fy
Strain Stress
Before yielding
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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Stage 3: Steel yielding
• Steel yields when s =y.
• Moment at the point of yielding of steel is
the yielding moment (My).

= y
= fy

Strain Stress
Yielding

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Stage 4: After yielding of steel
• After yielding of steel, the strain
in steel increases very rapidly and
the stress keep constant at yield > y
strength (fy). = fy
Strain Stress
• Tension cracks in concrete widen
visibly and propagate upward.
Significant deflection of beam is
observed.

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Stage 5: Ultimate moment Cc’
• The beam fails when the strain
jd
in concrete reaches the ultimate Mu=Cc’jd
compressive strain (cu ). = fy
• This state is called ultimate
state. → “Flexural tension
failure”
• Load is only slightly larger than
yield load.
• Flexural ultimate moment (Mn)

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ In the case of large amount of tensile reinforcing steel, the strain
in concrete may reach the ultimate strain before steel yielding.
Crushing of concrete will occur.
▪ Crushing strain = 0.003-0.004
▪ This is “Flexural compression failure”.

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Behavior of RC beams under flexure

▪ Flexural compression failure is not preferred in design because...
• Steel does not yield even at ultimate state. (Steel is not effectively used.)
• Compression failure due to crushing of concrete is sudden and occurred
without warning.
▪ Failure mode can be controlled by the reinforcement ratio, .
▪  should not be too large to prevent flexural compression failure.
▪  should not be too small because RC beams might fail after the first flexural
crack.
▪ ACI specified minimum area of longitudinal reinforcement as follows:
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Beam Types
Single Reinforcement
Single Reinforcement Bar Bar Doubly Reinforcement
Doubly Reinforcement Bar Bar

d d

d d d d

b b b b

Singly reinforced section Doubly reinforced section

➢ Beams with both tension and

compression reinforcements.
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Doubly reinforced rectangular beams

Why are doubly reinforced beams required?
▪ Compression reinforcements are used where
• Concrete cannot develop enough compression
o A beam cross section is limited due to architectural or
other considerations
• Negative bending region of continuous beams & mid-span
regions of long span
o Resist the bending and reduce the large defection

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Reasons for Providing Compression

Reinforcement
1. Reduced sustained-load deflections
2. Increased ductility
3. Change of mode of failure from compression to tension
4. Fabrication ease

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1. Reduce sustained-load deflection

▪ As time passed, the deflections of beams are increased.
▪ The additional deflection is 195% for beam without
compression steel. But only 99% for beam with compression
steel (if ’= ).
▪ Creep of concrete in the compression zone will transfer to
compression reinforcement, reducing the stress in concrete.
▪ Lower stress → Less Creep

(Ref. 3.1, p.162)19

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2. Increased ductility

Adding compression reinforcement

Reduce depth of the compression

stress block

Strain in the tension reinforcement

at failure increases.

More ductile behavior.

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3. Change of Mode of Failure from

Compression to Tension
▪ When    b, fails in a brittle through crushing of compression
zone before the steel yields.

▪ When enough compression

steel is added, compression
zone is strengthened
sufficiently to allow the
tension steel yield before
the concrete crushes
(Ductile failure).

(Ref. 3.1, p.163)

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4. Fabrication ease
▪ When assembling the reinforcing cage.
▪ It is customary to provide small bars (Compression
steels) in the corner to hold the stirrups.
▪ They generally are disregarded in design, because
they have a small affect on the moment strength.

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Moment-curvature relationships
▪ Used for discuss the flexural behavior of beams. EXAM AND HW

▪ Curvature=angle change per unit length

(Mn , n)
(My , y)

(Mcr , cr)
Example

(Ref. 3.1, p. 132)

▪ Ductility = ability of a section to deform beyond its yield point without
a significant strength loss 23
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M-: Calculation procedures

Mcr  My  Mn
Where
Mcr : the flexural cracking moment,
My : the yielding moment,
Mn :the ultimate moment = flexural capacity

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Calculation of Mcr
▪ Cracking moment is the moment that causes the stress in the extreme
tension fiber to reach the modulus of rupture.
▪ Concrete can be assumed to be elastic.
▪ Effect of reinforcing steel can be neglected.
fr I g
M cr =
yt
▪ Where, fr = modulus of rupture
Ig= moment of inertia of gross section
yt = distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber
▪ The section curvature at cracking cr can be calculated using elastic bending
theory.
M
cr = cr
Ec I g

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Example 1
The following RC cross-section is given. The dimension and material properties are known.
Referring the comments,
1. Calculate the cracking moment, Mcr, in kN-m.
2. Calculate section curvature at cracking cr

Comment:
1. Use the flexural strength, f r. The contribution of reinforcing bars can be neglected.

b = 400 mm
Dimensions and material properties:
d = 100 mm
h=1200 mm, b=400 mm, d=1100 mm, d’=100 mm
A s = 5000 mm2
As= A’s= 5000 mm2
fy= f’y= 400 N/mm2 h = 1200 mm d = 1100 mm

Es= 200kN/mm2, Ec= 25kN/mm2

f’c = 30N/mm2, f r = 4.5N/mm2, As = 5000 mm2
o= 0.002

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Solution of Example 1
(1) Cracking moment, Mcr
The contribution of reinforcing bars can be neglected.
h
yt = = 600 mm (Distance from the neutral axis to the extreme tension fiber)
2
fr I g
M cr =
yt

f r = 4.5 N/mm 2 = 4.5 MPa = 4.5x103 kN/m

y=600
bh3 0.4 1.23
Ig = = =0.0576 m 4 (Moment of inertia of gross section)
12 12
(4.5 103 N/ m)(0.0576 m 4 )
M cr =
0.6 m
= 432 kN-m

(2) Curvature at cracking

M cr 432
cr = = −2
= 3 10−4 m −1
Ec I g 25 10  5.76 10
6

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Calculation of My
b  'c fc
f 's c
d' s
'
Cs
c c − d Cc 3
N.A.
d y
d −c
fy
y T
Strain Stress Resultant force

▪ s = y=fy/Es
c
Concrete in compression is assumed to be elastic.  c =  y   0'
'
▪ d −c
c − d'
▪ Reinforcing bar in compression zone is assumed to be elastic.  s = '
 y   y
d −c
▪ Resultant forces
T = As f y
c − d'
C s = A f = A E  = A Es
' ' ' ' '
y
d −c
s s s s s s

1 1 c c
Cc = cf c b = cEc  yb ( f c = Ec c' = Ec y)
2 2 d −c d −c
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Calculation of My
b  'c fc
f 's c
d' s
'
Cs
c c − d Cc 3
N.A.
d y
d −c
fy
y T
Strain Stress Resultant force

▪ Equilibrium condition: Cc + Cs − T = 0
▪ Find c from equilibrium condition
▪ Check the assumptions:  c   0 and  s'   y'
' '

▪ Calculate the resultant forces: Cs and Cc

c
▪ Calculate My : M y = Cs (d − d ' ) + Cc (d − 3 )
y
▪ Yield curvature= slope of the strain diagram:  y =
d −c
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Example 2
The following RC cross-section is given. The dimension and material properties are known.
Referring the comments,
1. Calculate the yielding moment, My in kN-m
2. Calculate the yield curvature
Comment:
(1) The contribution of concrete for tension can be neglected. Concrete in compression can
be treated as an elastic body. Need to check the strain of compressive reinforcing bar.

b = 400 mm
Dimensions and material properties: d = 100 mm
h=1200 mm, b=400 mm, d=1100 mm, d’=100 mm A s = 5000 mm2
As= A’s= 5000 mm2
h = 1200 mm d = 1100 mm
fy= f’y= 400 N/mm2
Es= 200kN/mm2, Ec= 25kN/mm2
As = 5000 mm2
f’c = 30N/mm2, f r = 4.5N/mm2,
o= 0.002
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Solution of Example 2
(2) Yielding moment, My
400  'c fc
f 's c
d'  's Cs
c Cc 3
N.A.
1100 y
d −c
fy
y T
Strain Stress Resultant force

• The concrete in compressive is assumed to be elastic and tension steels are yielding.
c
 s =  y and  c' = y
d −c
c−d'
• Assume that reinforcing bar in compression zone is elastic.  s' =  y   y'
d −c
Tension, T = As f y = 5000 10-6  400 103 = 2000 kN
fy 400 103
y = = = 0.002
Es 200 106

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Solution of Example 2
▪ Compression:
c − d'
C s = A f = A E  = A Es
' ' ' ' '
y
d −c
s s s s s s

c - 0.1 c − 0.1
= 5000 10-6  200 106   0.002 = 2000 
1.1- c 1.1 − c
1 1 c
Cc = cf c b = cEc  yb
2 2 d −c
1 c c2
= c  (25 10 ) 
6
 0.002  0.4 = 10000 
2 1.1- c 1.1 − c

From equilibrium equation,

Cs + Cc − T = 0
 c − 0.1   c2 
 2000   + 10000   − 2000 = 0
 1.1 − c   1.1 − c 

5c 2 + 2c − 1.2 = 0
c = 0.329 m or -0.729 m So, c = 0.329 m
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Solution of Example 2
▪ Check strain of compressive reinforcing bar
c − d' 0.329 − 0.1
 =
'
y =  0.002 = 0.00059
d −c 1.1 − 0.329
s

f y' 400
 =
'
= = 0.002
200 103
y
Es

 s'   y' (ok)

 c   0.329 
 c' =    0.002 =    0.002 = 0.000854   0 = 0.002 (given)
 1.1 − c   1.1 − 0.329 

▪ Compute force
c − 0.1 0.329 − 0.1
Cs = 2000  = 2000  = 594.03kN
1.1 − c 1.1 − 0.329
c2 0.3292
Cc = 10000  = 10000  = 1405.97 kN
1.1 − c 1.1 − 0.329
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Solution of Example 2
▪ Compute moment about tensile reinforcement
c
M y = M t = Cs (d − d ' ) + Cc (d − )
3
0.329
= 594.03(1.1 − 0.1) + 1405.97(1.1 − )
3
= 1986.41kN-m

(2) Yield curvature

y 0.002
y = = = 2.59 10−6 mm −1 = 2.59 10−3 m −1
d −c 1100 − 329.15

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Calculation of moment at any stress

▪ After the concrete cracks (stage 2), the stress in concrete
subjected to compression can be calculated by assuming the
function of strain following stress-strain relationship.
Concrete in compression: f’c=f1(’c)
Steel in tension: fs=f2 (s)
Steel in compression: f’s=f3(’s)

General Equation form Not only Mcr My

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Calculation of moment at any stress

by  'c
d'
c  '
s
f 's Cs y
 cy '
f 'cy Cc
N.A. y
d d − d'
d−y

fs
s T
Strain Stress Resultant force

❑Strain distribution
For a given  'c
y
Concrete;  'cy =  'c (1)
c
d −c
Steel (Tension);  s =  c' ( ) (2)
c
c − d'
Steel (Compression);  = (
'
s
'
c ) (3)
c

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Calculation of moment at any stress

by  'c
d'
c  '
s
f 's Cs y
 cy '
f 'cy Cc
N.A. y
d d − d'
d−y

fs
s T
Strain Stress Resultant force

❑Relation between internal forces and stresses

c

• Concrete; Cc =  by f cy' dy (4)

0

f cy' = f1 ( cy' )
 c' dy =
c
d  cy'
From (1); d =
'
dy then
cy
c  '
c
 c'  c'
c c
Therefore, Cc =  by f1 ( cy' )  d  cy' =  b f ( '
)  d  '
(5)
0
 '
c  '
c 0
y 1 cy cy

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Calculation of moment at any stress

❑ Relation between internal forces and stresses
• Steel (Tension); T = As f s = As f 2 ( s ) = As f 4 ( c' , c, d ) (6)

• Steel (Compression); Cs = As' f s' = As' f 3 ( s' ) = As' f 5 ( c' , c, d ' ) (7)

❑ Equilibrium equation
Cc + Cs − T = 0 (8)
M = Cc (d − y ) + Cs (d − d ' ) (9)

Where y is the distance from extreme compression fiber to Cc

c

b y f cy' ydy
1
c
c c
y =c− 0
= c −   by f1 ( cy' )  ( '   cy' )  ( ' d  cy' )
Cc Cc 0 c c
c
 'c
c 1
y = c − ( ' )   by f1 ( cy' ) cy' d  cy' (10)
2

 c Cc 0 c
By substituting Equation. (5), (6) and (7) into Equation (8) to (9), then the
unknown values of  c' , c, M are determined from two equations with one M
given value for either of them. 38
Strain
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M-: Calculation procedures

Point beyond the yield point
▪ Additional points can be determined by steadily increasing the maximum
strain in extreme compression fibers.
▪ Most concrete design codes specify a maximum useable compressive strain
at which the nominal moment strength of the section is to be calculated.
• ACI used 0.003
• Canadian and JSCE used 0.0035
(Ref. 3.1, p.138)

RC member Plain concrete

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Calculation of flexural capacity (JSCE)

1. Assumption for stress-strain relationship
Concrete Steel
fc fs
fy

k3f’c

c s
o cu y su (Ref. 3.3)
0.002 0.0035

fs=sEs when s   y
2
𝜀, 𝑐 𝜀, 𝑐
fc=k3f’c 2 − when 0   c   o
𝜀, 𝑜 𝜀, 𝑜
fc=k3f’c when  o   c   cu fs=fy when  s   y
k3=0.85 and f’c =compressive strength of concrete 40
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Calculation of flexural capacity (JSCE)

2. Ultimate moment for flexural tension failure
▪ In case of no compression steel ( As' = 0 ), for flexural tension
failure, strain conditions are  s   y and  c' =  cu
▪ For rectangular cross section by = b
▪ Substituting stress-strain relationship into Equation (5)-(7);
 c'
c
Cc =
 'b
c 0
f ( cy' )d  cy'
y 1
(5)

bc  0 

  cy'  cy' 2  '  cu
=   k3 f c  2( ) − ( )  d  cy +  k3 f c d  cy 
' ' '

 cu  0   0  0  0 
bc  0   cy'  cy' 2  '  cu ' 
 cu 3 c  0   0
=  k f   2( ) − ( ) d  cy +  d  cy 
'

 0  0 
0
Cc = bc(1 − )k3 f c' = bck1k3 f c' (11)
3 cu

where k1 = (1 − 0 )
3 cu 41
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Calculation of flexural capacity (JSCE)

T = As f y

Cs = 0

From equilibrium condition; C =T

bck1k3 f c' = As f y

As f y  fy As
Therefore c= '
= '
d , ( = ) (12)
bk k f
1 3 c kk f
1 3 c bd

 o 2 
 1 − ( ) / 6 
From Equation (10) and (11) y = 1 − cu
 c = k2 c
 2k1 
 

 0 2 
 1 − ( ) / 6 
Where k2 = 1 − cu

 2 k1 
 

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Calculation of flexural capacity (JSCE)

M n = Cc (d − y )

M n = As f y (d − k2c)
k f
Substituting c from (12) M n = As f y d (1 − 2 y' ) (13)
k1k3 f c
By substituting  0 = 0.002,  cu = 0.0035
0
We obtained k1 = (1 − ) k1 = 0.810
3 cu
 0 2 
 1 − ( ) / 6 
k2 = 1 − cu
 k2 = 0.416
 2 k1 
 
k3 = 0.85
0.416  f y
Substituting k1, k2, k3 in From Eq.(13), M n = As f y d (1 − )
0.810  0.85 f c'
Mn A f d f
2 '
= s 2 y ' (1 − 0.6 ' y )
bd f c bd f c fc

Mn  fy  fy
= (1 − 0.60 )
bd 2 f c' f c' f c' 43
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Calculation of flexural capacity (JSCE)

▪ Relating to the shape of stress distribution of concrete,
instead of using the parabolic curve as mentioned in the JSCE
code, the equivalent stress block, with the same resultant
compressive force and its location can be used because it can
produce almost same ultimate moment.

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Example 3
The following RC cross-section is given. The dimension and material properties are known.
Referring the comments,
1. Calculate ultimate moment, Mu1 based on the stress-strain relationship (in kN-m)
2. Calculate curvature at ultimate moment
Comment:
(1) Following stress-strain relationship has to be used following JSCE and cu= 0.0035.
2
 
0 ≤ c ≤ o ; 𝑓𝑐 = 0.85𝑓′𝑐 2 c − c
o o
b = 400 mm
o ≤ c ≤ u ; 𝑓𝑐 = 0.85𝑓′𝑐
d = 100 mm

Dimensions and material properties: A s = 5000 mm2

h=1200 mm, b=400 mm, d=1100 mm, d’=100 mm d = 1100 mm

h = 1200 mm
As= A’s= 5000 mm2
fy= f’y= 400N/mm2 As = 5000 mm2
Es= 200kN/mm2, Ec= 25kN/mm2
f’c = 30N/mm2, f r = 4.5N/mm2,
o= 0.002 45
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Solution of Example 3
(1) Ultimate moment, Mu1 based on the stress-strain relationship
b  'cu = 0.0035 𝑓𝑐′
d'
c  's f 's Cs y
N.A. Cc
d  d − d'
d−y

fy
s   y T
Strain Stress Resultant force

Compression in concrete, Cc = bck1k3 f c'

0 0.002
k1 = (1 − ) = (1 − ) = 0.810, k3 = 0.85
3 cu 3  0.0035
c − d' c − 0.1
Compression in steel, s =
'
 cu =  0.0035
c c
c − 0.1
Cs = As' Es s' = 5000 10−6  200 106   0.0035
c
Tension in steel, T = As f y = 5000 10−6  400 103
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Solution of Example 3
From equilibrium equation,
Cc + Cs − T = 0

bck1k3 f c' + As' Es s' − As f y = 0

c − 0.1
(0.4c  0.81 0.85  30 103 ) + (5000 10−6  200 106   0.0035) − (5000  10−6  400  103 ) = 0
c
c − 0.1
8262c + 106   0.0035 − 2000 = 0
c
c = 0.134 m = 134 mm

From equilibrium equation, M = 0

M u = Cc (d − y ) + Cs (d − d ' )

 ( 0  u ) 2 
 1 − 
y = 1 − 6
2k1  c = k2c = 0.416 c
 
 

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Solution of Example 3
M u = Cc (d − y ) + Cs (d − d ' )
0.314 − 0.1
= [8262  0.134(1.1 − 0.416  0.134)] + [106   0.0035(1.1 − 0.1)]
0.134
= 2044 kN-m

M u1 = 2044 kN-m

(2) Curvature at ultimate point (𝜺𝒄𝒖 = 𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟑𝟓),

 cu 0.0035
u1 = = = 2.61 10−5 mm −1 = 0.026 m −1
c 134

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Calculation of flexural capacity (ACI)

▪ The shape of stress block in the beam at the ultimate
moment can be expressed in term of 3 constants.
▪ k3=ratio of the maximum stress in the compression zone of
beam to the cylinder strength (k3=0.85)
▪ k1=ratio of the average compressive
stress to maximum stress
▪ k2= ratio of distance between the
extreme compression fiber and
the compressive force to the
depth of neutral axis

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Calculation of flexural capacity (ACI)

▪ k1, k2 and k3 in ACI • Experimentally observed
(Ref. 3.2, p.78)

=k1k3 = 0.72 for f’c 28 MPa

= 0.56 for f’c > 56 MPa
=k2 = 0.425 for f’c 28 MPa
= 0.325 for f’c > 56 MPa
(Ref. 3.1, p.139) 50
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Calculation of flexural capacity (ACI)

▪ Flexural tension failure (steel yields.)
C =T ’cu
k2 c
k k f bc = As f y
' C = k1k3 f c'bc
1 3 c
As f y
Therefore; c =
k1k3 f c'b
z = d − k2 c
As =  bd (i)
 f yd
c= (ii)
kk f
1 3 c
'
T = As f y

M = Tz = As f y (d − k2c) (iii)

M = Cz = k1k3 f c'bc(d − k2c ) By substituting k2/k1k3:

fy
From (i), (ii) and (iii); M n =  f y bd 2 (1 − 0.59 )
 f yd k2  f y f c'
M n =  f y bd (d − k2 ) =  f y bd (1 −
2
)
k1k3 f c' k1k3 f c' 51
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Calculation of flexural capacity (ACI)

▪ Flexural compression failure (steel does not yield.)
f s =  s Es ’cu
k2 c
 d − c   c = k1k3 f c'bc
f s =    cu  Es
 c  
 cu = 0.003 z = d − k2 c
k1k3 f c'bc = As f s
d −c
k1k3 f c'bc = As Es  cu
c
Solve for c
M = Tz = As f s (d − k2c )
M = Cz = k1k3 f c'bc(d − k2c )

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Equivalent stress block

▪ Instead of using the parabolic curve, the Codes permit the use
of the equivalent stress block.
▪ Equivalent rectangular concrete stress block is proposed by
Whitney =Whitney stress block
▪ It provides the same resultant compressive force and its
locations can be used because it can produce almost same
ultimate moment.

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Equivalent stress block

1. A uniform compressive stress of 0.85f’c is assumed distributed
over an equivalent compression zone with the height of a=1c
from maximum compression fiber. Thus, k2= 1/2.
2. The distance c from the fiber of maximum compressive strain
to neutral axis is measured perpendicular to the axis.

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Equivalent stress block

3. Values of 1

The resultant compressive force

is
C = 0.85 f c'b1c = 0.851 f c'bc

(Ref. 3.1, p.140)

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Analysis of nominal moment strength

▪ Stress and strain compatibility
Singly reinforced section
▪ Equilibrium

(Ref. 3.1, p.143)

Cc = 0.85 f b1c = 0.85 f ba
c
'
c
'

c is unknown. Check assumption

C =T

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Analysis of nominal strength

Doubly reinforced section

(Ref. 3.1, p.164)

Cc = 0.85 f b1c = 0.85 f ba
c
'
c
'
T = Cc + Cs
c is unknown. Can find c
Check assumption
Cs = As' f s' = As' Es s'
 d −c
s =   cu   y
 c − d'   c 
 =
'
s   cu
 c   c − d' 
 =
'
s   cu   y
'
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 c 
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Example 4
The following RC cross-section is given. The dimension and material properties are known.
Referring the comments,
1. Calculate ultimate moment, Mu2 based on the equivalent stress block in kN-m
2. Calculate curvature at ultimate moment
3. Draw the moment curvature diagram of this beam

b = 400 mm
Dimensions and material properties:
d = 100 mm
h=1200 mm, b=400 mm, d=1100 mm, d’=100 mm
A s = 5000 mm2
As= A’s= 5000 mm2
fy= f’y= 400 N/mm2 h = 1200 mm d = 1100 mm

Es= 200kN/mm2, Ec= 25kN/mm2

f’c = 30N/mm2, f r = 4.5N/mm2, As = 5000 mm2
o= 0.002

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Example 4
Comments:
(1) The equivalent stress block following ACI can be used. It can be
assumed that the strain of concrete in the extreme compressive
fiber is equal to cu = 0.003.
(3) The moment curvature diagram should be drawn from the
cracking point, yielding point and ultimate point.

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Solution of Example 4
(1) Ultimate moment, Mu2 based on the equivalent stress block
b  cu, = 0.003 0.85 f 'c
d'
c  ' sc 1a f ' sc Cs
N.A. Cc
d − d'
d 
fy
s   y T
Strain Stress Resultant force

Strain in compressive reinforcement is

c − d' ' c − 0.1
 =
'
s  cu =  0.003
c c

From ACI code, 28MPa < f c' =30 MPa < 56 MPa
f c' − 28MPa
1 = 0.85 − 0.05 = 0.836
7 MPa
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Solution of Example 4
Compression in steel,
c − d' ' c − 0.1
 = '
s  cu =  0.003
c c
c − 0.1 c − 0.1
Cs = As' Es s = 5000 10−6  200 106   0.003 = 3000 
c c
Compression in concrete,
Cc = 0.85 f c'b1c = 0.85  30 103  0.4  0.836c = 8527.2c
Tension in steel
T = As f y = 5000 10−6  400 103
From equilibrium condition,
Cs + Cc − T = 0
c − 0.1
(5000 10−6  200 106   0.003) + (0.85  30 103  0.4  0.836c) = 5000  10−6  400  103
c
c − 0.1
2000 = 8527.2c + 3000
c
c = 0.138 m = 138 mm
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Solution of Example 4
a = 1c = 0.836  0.138 = 0.115m
From equilibrium,
a
M u = Cc (d − ) + Cs (d − d ' )
2
0.115 0.138 − 0.1
= 8527.2  0.138  (1.1 − ) + 3000   (1.1 − 0.1)
2 0.138
= 2053kN-m

Mu1 M u1 2044
Calculation of and evaluation of effective of equivalent stress block = = 0.996  1
Mu2 M u2 2053

(2) Curvature at ultimate moment

 cu 0.003
Ultimate point (ε𝑐u = 0.003), u 2 = = = 2.18  10−5 mm −1 = 0.022 m −1
c 138

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Solution of Example 4
(3) Moment curvature diagram of this beam
2500
0.003 0.0035
2000
Moment (kN-m)

1500
1000
500
0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025 0.03
Curvature, Ø (1/mm)

Moment (kN-m) Curvature (1/m)

Cracking point 432 3 × 10-4
Yielding point 1986 2.59 × 10-3
Ultimate point (ε𝐜𝐮 = 0.0035) 2044 0.026
Ultimate point (ε𝐜𝐮 = 0.003) 2053 0.022 63
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Assignment No. 2
The following RC cross-section is given. The dimension and material properties are known.
Referring the comments, calculate the following moment in kN-m unit.
1. Cracking moment, Mcr.
2. Yielding moment, My.
3. Ultimate moment, Mu1 based on the stress-strain relationship
4. Ultimate moment, Mu2 based on the equivalent stress block
5. Calculate ratio between Mu1 and Mu2 and evaluate the effectiveness of equivalent
stress block
6. Draw the moment curvature diagram of this beam
b = 250 mm
d = 50 mm
Dimensions and material properties: A s = 500 mm2
h=500 mm, b=250 mm, d=450 mm, d =50 mm
h = 500 mm d = 450 mm
As= 1200 mm2, A s= 500 mm2
fy= f y= 390 N/mm2 As = 1200 mm2
Es= 200 kN/mm2, Ec= 25 kN/mm2
f c = 30 N/mm2, f r = 4.5N/mm2,
o= 0.002 64
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Assignment No. 2
Comments:
(1) Cracking moment, Mcr.
Use the flexural strength, f r. The contribution of reinforcing bars can be neglected.
(2) Yielding moment, My.
The contribution of concrete for tension can be neglected. Concrete in compression can be treated as
an elastic body. Need to check the strain of compressive reinforcing bar.
(3) Ultimate moment, Mu1 based on the stress-strain relationship
In this case, the following stress-strain relationship has to be used following JSCE and u= 0.0035.
2
 
0 ≤  c ≤ o ; 𝑓 ′
= 0.85𝑓′𝑐 2 c − c
𝑐 o o
o ≤ c ≤ u ; 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 0.85𝑓′𝑐
(4) Ultimate moment, Mu2 based on the equivalent stress block
The equivalent stress block following ACI can be used. It can be assumed that the strain of concrete in
the extreme compressive fiber is equal to u = 0.003. The effect of compression stress block on the stress in
compression reinforcement can be ignored (Cs=A’sfs). Check the strain of reinforcing bars.
(5) Draw the moment curvature diagram
The moment curvature diagram should be drawn from the cracking point, yielding point and ultimate
point.
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Effect of section on strength and

ductility (Ref. 3.1, pp. 135-136)

▪ As and fy
▪ Effective depth (d)
▪ f’c and b
▪ A’s
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Effect of section on strength and

ductility
▪ As and fy:
o The increases in As and fy improve moment capacity but decrease
ductility.
o Because of the ductility loss, ACI code provided upper limit of As.
o Very little effect on stiffness of section before yield

Effect of As
Effect of fy

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Effect of section on strength and

ductility
• Effective depth (d): Effect of d
o Increasing d increases
moment capacity without
decreasing ductility.
o Increases elastic stiffness
of section
o d is very important.
→ a priority item for field
inspectors

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Effect of section on strength and

ductility
•f’c and b:
o Little effect
• A’s
o very little effect on the
moment strength
o depth of neutral axis is
decreased. → a much higher
curvature → higher ductility

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Design Code
▪ General design strength equation for flexure is
Mn≥Mu

▪ Ductility is needed to be ensured.

• Moment-curvature diagram
• ACI 2002→ Limiting the permitted area of tension
reinforcement (<0.75b)
o Complex for flanged section and when prestressing
tendons are also used.
• ACI 2011 → Control the value of tensile strain reached at
the level of the tension reinforcement when cu=0.003
(t  0.005)

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Definition of Sections
ACI318-19

t = net tensile strain in extreme

tension reinforcement
For normal grade of steel, ty =0.002.

▪ Tension-Controlled Sections
(t  0.005 → t2.5y)
▪ Compression-Controlled Sections
(t ty =0.002)
(Ref. 3.4) ▪ Transition zone (0.002<t < 0.005)

• Higher factor is used for

tension-controlled sections
because more ductility and less
sensitive to variations in
concrete strength.
Tension Compression
controlled controlled
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Relationship between  and Mn, Mn

▪ The use of steels provided strain

less than 0.005 is not economical.

(Ref. 3.1, p.155) 72

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Recent researches
1. Ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete beams (Ref. 3.5)

▪ Full-scale UHPFRC beams reinforced

with conventional steel bars were
tested.
▪ Beams exhibited the ductile failure.
▪ Steel fibers resist the opening of
cracks and increase load carrying
capacity even the steel bars are
yielded.

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Recent researches
1. Ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete beams (Ref. 3.5)
▪ Numerical models were developed where concrete damaged plasticity model is
adapted to simulate the material behaviour of UHPFRC.
▪ The numerically obtained load-deflection behaviour agrees well with the
experimental results for all beams.

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Recent researches
2. Hybrid reinforcement of FRP and steel rebars
The flexural behavior of ultra-high-performance fiber-
reinforced concrete beams reinforced with glass fiber-reinforced
polymer (GFRP) and steel rebars was investigated. (Ref. 3.6)

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Recent researches
2. Hybrid reinforcement of FRP and steel rebars (Ref. 3.6)

Effect of GFRP reinforcement → The post-cracking stiffness, load carrying

capacity, and ductility enhanced when the GFRP reinforcement ratio is increased.
Effect of hybrid reinforcements in UHPFRC beams → Replacing some GFRP bars by
steel rebars can increase the post-cracking stiffness before steel yielding but led to the
lower ductility.
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Q and A

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Problems 350 mm

2.1 Determine the cracking moments for the

sections shown if f’c= 28 MPa and the
modulus of rupture is fr = 0.7f’c with f’c in h = 600 mm d = 520 mm

MPa. (Ref. 3.7, Problem 2.42, p. 62)

3#19
80 mm
2.2 The following RC cross-section is given.
The dimension and material properties
are known. Calculate the following
moment in kN-m unit.
A s = 628 mm2
1. Cracking moment, Mcr. b = 250 mm
d = 50 mm
2. Yielding moment, My.
3. Ultimate moment, Mu1 based on the
stress-strain relationship h = 500 mm d = 450 mm

4. Ultimate moment, Mu2 based on the

equivalent stress block
As = 982 mm2

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References
3.1 James K. Wight, James G. MacGregor, “Reinforced Concrete: Mechanics and Design”, 6th
Edition, Prentice Hall, 2011.
3.2 Arthur H. Nilson, David Darwin, Charles W. Dolan, “Design of Concrete Structures”, 14th
Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
3.3 Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE), “Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007
[Design]”, 2010.
3.4 ACI 318M-19, “Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete and Commentary”,
American Concrete Institute, 2019.
3.5 M. Singh, A.H. Sheikh, M.S. Mohamed Ali, P. Visintin, M.C. Griffith, Experimental and numerical
study of the flexural behaviour of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete beams,
Constr. Build. Mater., 138 (2017), pp. 12-25.
3.6 D.Y. Yoo, N. Banthia, Y.S. Yoon, Flexural behavior of ultra-high-performance fiber- reinforced
concrete beams reinforced with GFRP and steel rebars, Eng. Struct. 111 (2016) 246–262.

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