The alimentary canal is a continuous tube between

the mouth and the anus. Food is ingested into the

mouth. It is digested as it passes along the canal,

and the small, soluble molecules produced by

digestion are absorbed into the blood and lymph.

Food that has not been digested eventually passes

out of the body through the anus, in a process

called egestion.

Mechanical digestion is the breakdown of large

pieces of food into small ones. This is done by

mastication in the mouth, by churning movements of

the stomach muscles, and by bile salts in the

duodenum, which break up large droplets of fat into

small ones that can mix with water (emulsification).

Chemical digestion is the breakdown of large

molecules of food into small, soluble ones. This is

done by enzymes. Proteases in the stomach and

small intestine digest proteins to amino acids.

Carbohydrases in the mouth and small intestine

digest polysaccharides and complex sugars to

simple sugars such as glucose. Lipase in the small

intestine digests fats to fattacids and glycerol.

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Humans have four types of teeth – incisors,

canines, premolars and molars. They contain living

cells in the pulp cavity and dentine, and are covered

with a strong layer of non-living enamel. Enamel can

be dissolved by acids. Tooth decay is caused when

acids produced by bacteria in the mouth produce

holes in the enamel, which can eventually work

through to the living parts of the tooth.

Fluoride in drinking water can help to protect teeth

from decay. In some parts of the world fluoride is

added to drinking water. However, some people

think that this should not be done, as high

concentrations of fluoride may be harmful to health.

Food is moved along the alimentary canal by

rhythmic contractions of the longitudinal and circular

muscles in its walls. This is called peristalsis.

Various glands produce liquids that are poured onto

the food in the alimentary canal. The salivary glands

produce saliva in the mouth. Glands in the walls of

the stomach produce gastric juice. The liver

produces bile, which enters the duodenum. The

pancreas produces pancreatic juice, which also

enters the duodenum.

Digestion is completed in the ileum. The wall of the

ileum is covered with thousands of tiny villi, which

greatly increase its surface area. The digested food

is absorbed into the blood through the villi.

Each villus contains blood capillaries and a lacteal.

Glucose, water, amino acids, inorganic ions and

vitamins are absorbed into the blood. Fatty acids

and glycerol are absorbed into the lymph in the

lacteal. The capillaries join up to form the hepatic

portal vein, which transports the blood to the liver.

The liver changes any excess glucose in the blood

into the storage polysaccharide glycogen. It uses

some of the amino acids to make proteins. Excess

amino acids are changed to the waste product urea.

Some glucose and amino acids are allowed to travel

onwards, in the blood, to all the body cells.

The liver breaks down toxins that have been

absorbed from the digestive system, such asalcohol.3

The take-up and use of molecules absorbed from

digested food by body cells is called assimilation.

The undigested food continues along the alimentary

canal into the colon and then the rectum. In the

colon, more water is absorbed into the blood. In the

rectum, the undigested food is formed into faeces,

which are eventually egested through the anus