Letterforms Typeface Design Timothy Samara PDF

Letterforms
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© 2018 Quarto Publishing Group USA Inc.
Text and images © 2018 Timothy Samara
Photograph page 46 © Paul Waters
First Published in 2018 by Rockport Publishers,
an imprint of The Quarto Group,
100 Cummings Center, Suite 265-D
Beverly, MA 01915, USA.
T (978) 282-9590 F (978) 283-2742
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ISBN: 978-1-63159-334-5
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is available.
Design: Timothy Samara

Printed in China
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TIMOTHY SAMARA
Type design from

past to future
Letterforms

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Contents
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preface 6
heritage
11 A Very Long [Yet Somewhat
Abridged] Introduction to the
History of Letterform Design
legacies
47 Nomenclature and Current
Aesthetic Design Conventions
foundations
83 Fundamentals of Character
Structure and Optics
evolution
125 Strategies and Processes
to Help Guide the Budding
Type Designer
reinvention
165 Envisioning Structure and
Style in New Ways for Narrative
and Conceptual Expression
the state
199 A Showcase of Contemporary
of the art Directions in Typeface Design
234 Index
238 Picture Index

Historical Photographs
240 Directory of Contributors

—
About the Author
—
Acknowledgments

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preface
From the time that I first showed interest in art, drawing become nearly extinct in the majority of formal educa-
letters was of great fascination to me. Alongside other tional programs. Some naïve endeavors have yielded
subjects—dinosaurs, trains, and birds—my childhood beautiful results; but truly effective type design requires
explorations often focused on inventing type forms: by awareness of historical norms and the optical relation-
themselves, then as elements in birthday and holiday ships that drive them to adequately reinvent an alphabet
cards and, eventually, as titling for flyers or drama club for future, real-world use. No one designs the next-
posters in junior high school. I was ecstatic to find a copy generation car, for instance, without first being steeped
of The Type Specimen Book, a huge 1970s tome of type- in automotive design concepts of the past.
face styles, left in my father’s photo studio by one of his There exists a number of software applications that help
art director clients. Before I even knew what design or speed up the type design process. The most powerful
typography was, I joyfully toiled to replicate the examples tool, however, won’t help if one doesn’t know what one is
cataloged within its pages. trying to achieve with it. Clearly, technology is indispens-
I think typography’s appeal for designers derives from able for modern font creation; still, the most code-savvy
its specialized nature, not generally shared by other kinds type designers will tell you that they start off drawing by
of art-making; or, because letters embody the abstract, hand. This book is not about how to use font-design soft-
mystical fusion of beauty and utility that is fundamental ware, nor even the mechanics of engineering individual
to the design ethos; or, perhaps, that drawing alphabets characters, as presented in other books. Instead, the
links contemporary makers to those of ancient times focus here is foundational: growing the ability to see
along an uninterrupted continuum. It is most likely a complex visual relationships and building manual skills
combination of all these things. that contribute to a holistic understanding and feel for
Historically, type design was the purview of a privileged form—whether one wants to create utilitarian text faces
class of artisans who closely guarded their knowledge. or to extrapolate those skills to develop experimental
The chance to enter into this secret club was one of the and expressive display faces, titling applications, or
factors that determined where I would study after high letter-based brand symbols and wordmarks that nonethe-
school—at a design program in which “letterforms” was less respect the craft’s heritage while reimagining it.
a core, year-long course, not merely a cursory elective. In my studio sits the remains of a sawed-off door that
Creating new, custom typefaces became possible as a I found on the street—for me, a reminder of letterforms’
result but, more importantly, the course revealed type concrete connection to the real world; of their potential
as an image, and its nuanced interaction of positive to unexpectedly reveal themselves in the everyday; and
and negative shapes, details, and texture as the under- of their power to capture the imagination in the most
pinnings of typographic layout and the metaphorical unexpected, and unlikely, of places.
qualities of a designed text.
The desktop computer appeared while I was in school
during the 1980s, and membership in that secret club
exploded a thousand-fold; pioneers like Zusanna Licko
and Jeffrey Keedy demonstrated that anyone could
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make their own typeface. Despite this laudable demo-

cratization—introducing a new diversity of overlooked
aesthetic voices into what has been described as a
window into the soul of a culture—type design has

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letterforms

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letterforms
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An assortment of vintage
wood and metal type
specimens from the 19th
century, printed for this
book by Gregory Paone
of Papo Letterpress.

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letterforms
The modern alphabet’s standardized shapes

and nuanced details are the culmination of
a 10,000-year progression from pure image-
making for representation to a notational
system of abstract symbols, or writing. Its
roots lie in the day-to-day recording of market
transactions and inventories of grains and
livestock; over millenia it has evolved into a
sophisticated medium whose visual character-
istics, in the stylistic qualities of one typeface
or another, capture the loftiest thoughts and
transmit them from present to future—not
only in the functional sense, but metaphorically
coloring them for readers. Crafting an effective
typeface by today’s aesthetic standards first
depends on knowing how those standards came
to be, and why.
Heritage
a very long [yet
somewhat abridged]
introduction to
the history of
letterform design

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Spoken language is said to have evolved But it was commerce, rather than codifi- approach was needed: Small clay tokens,
among our ancestors 150,000 years ago, cations of law or the desire to disseminate representing the kind and quantity of
but writing evolved only relatively recently. learning, that initially gave rise to writing: goods, were sealed inside a compact clay
Like all cultural adaptations, the impetus The first acknowledged civilization to pocket, its surface directly inscribed with
to represent spoken language in visual formulate a system of marks for commer- simplified, linear images to describe the
form required specific conditions: People cial purposes was that of the Sumerians transaction, and then baked. Eventually,
stopped nomadically following food sources, (nestled between the Tigris and Euphrates the tokens were discarded and the pocket
learned to farm and herd animals, and rivers in present-day Iraq). Around 3200 simply flattened into a small slab to make
settled in large groups. For organization bce, they began to exchange small clay the process easier. More importantly,
and governance, protection, and sharing of strips, impressed with pictures rolled from using images to represent objects opened
resources—or civilization—more complex carved stone cylinders that identified the the way to proto-writing, or pictographic
architecture, trading practices, material completion of a transaction and its partic- communication.
storage, and laws of social conduct initiated ipants—delivery notes to “seal the deal.”
methods to inform, instruct, and record Initially, these exchanges were between
information more flexibly, permanently, high-ranking officials and merchants who
and on a large, newly public, scale. could afford the time and expertise needed
to carve such an intricate recording device;
as commerce popularized, a more efficient
EMPIRES OF THE WORD

The Origins of Western Writing /
Ca. 3300 BCE–500 CE
A cylinder seal (left), of produce a relief (right)

the kind found in the that identified a particu-
Sumerian city of Ur, lar actor in a transac-
dates to around 3500 tion—a sort of early
BCE. It was pressed into bill of lading.
clay and rolled to
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letterforms / heritage
The evolution of Cuneiform nonpictorial marks to From the earliest slab 1600 BCE), a process
writing from pictographic represent words) can be (top, left, from around of simplification and
(using images to represent seen in the sequence of 3200 BCE) to the stone standardization is
ideas) to abstract and artifacts above. inscription immediately clearly evident.
logographic (a system of above (from around
Business, as ever, demanded continual mostly triangular marks, aligning them Sumerians had whittled their written
improvements in efficiency. It’s not very into linear sequences to improve readabil- language to roughly 200 word-signs, or
efficient to memorize thousands of pic- ity and avoid time-consuming guesswork logographs, written horizontally.
tures—and to still be left wanting when when laying them out. This writing is Along the way, people recognized writing
unfamiliar ideas come up; neither can known as cuneiform, after the Latin word as valuable for recording accumulated
everyone draw equally well. Over the for wedge, cuneius. knowledge of the natural world, plans and
subsequent 1,200 years, the Sumerians Second, the Sumerians changed the mean- instructions, and proclamations of law;
solved these problems by streamlining, ing of the marks from representational to important writing of this latter kind were
by evolving purely pictorial signs into linguistic—standing in for the sounds of committed to stone carving for durability—
more stylized ones and restricting the short phrases and then words. Each step in hence, the notion of inviolable rules as
variety of their shapes. Eventually, they that succession reduced the overall number being “set in stone.” People who could
settled on a wedge-shaped stylus to create of signs to be mastered and made the sys- write formed a new class of laborer that
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tem modular, meaning that the signs were was accorded some prestige; they became
like building blocks, able to be combined known as scribes.
in different ways to communicate new
ideas as needed. By around 1500 BCE, the

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At left is the character individual sounds.

set of the Ugarits, greatly Below is a Phoenician
simplified from its inscription in stone from
Cuneiform inspiration. around 800 BCE—the
The characters are first truly phonetic
believed to have repre- writing in the West.
sented words and
The Sumerians weren’t the only ones employers’ ideographic signs for their own
developing complex writing systems. The language, used logographically. Around
Egyptians, located along the Nile River and 1400 BCE, people of Ugarit, in western
its delta on the northern coast of Africa, Syria, developed writing for their language
also had developed a pictographic approach based on cuneiform’s wedges—and a highly
beginning around 3100 BCE. Evidence reduced character set. A combination of
suggests their hieroglyphs (Greek for sacred these two, possibly related, experiments
carving or God’s writing) functioned in influenced the growing culture of Canaan,
several ways: sometimes as pictographs or the city-state of the Phoenicians, located
ideographs; as logographs,* as were cunei- where Lebanon is today.
form’s later versions; and occasionally, as Once again, commerce helped push things
grammatical aids called determinatives. along. The Phoenicians were formidable
In general, they remained picto- and ideo- traders nicknamed Phoinikia (“the purple
graphic. Still, Semitic people from the people”) by the Greeks because they pro-
Sinai pensinsula, working and soldiering duced an expensive purple dye that was in
for the Egyptians, adapted some of their demand by nearly all royalty in antiquity.
Between 1100 and 800 BCE, they set up a
shipping empire networking the major
Egyptian writing, seen Along with other signifi-

here on a scroll frag- cant cultural innovations,
ment from 2000 BCE, the Egyptians introduced
remained primarily papyrus as a writing
pictographic until the substrate—a precursor to
Egyptians merged their paper. Papyrus is made PICTOGRAPHIC LOGOGRAPHIC
writing with a variation from flattening wet flax Depicts physical Stands in for
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of Greek, called Coptic, reeds and beating their objects/places sounds of words/
in the 2nd century CE. fibers into a continuous short phrases
surface.
IDEOGRAPHIC PHONETIC
Represents complex Represents
concepts individual sounds
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The Greeks listed their letters in order of

assigned importance, creating the first true
abecedary, or alphabetic writing system.
It was especially useful because the vowels
made the language even more compatible
with those of their varied trading partners,
allowing the Greeks to become a dominant
force in the Mediterranean. They evolved
the use of papyrus scrolls, folding them
into accordions and sandwiching them
between boards for protection to create a
codex, the early form of the book.
Mediterranean economic powers: the Egyp- A grave marker from writing systems before
tians, the Greeks, the Carthaginians, the around 700 BCE shows continued development,
an example of early exhibits a lot of variation
Etruscans, the Mesopotamians (formerly, Greek writing—clearly in character shaping
Sumerians). Their script became the back- influenced by Phoenician and arrangement. Alpha Nu
bone of intercultural communication, the characters and, like other
Beta Xi
language of business—unforgivingly pared
to 20 characters that represented individual Gamma Omicron
sounds, rather than words, and rigorously
based on circles, triangles, and fletch marks. Delta Pi
Phoenican was a modular, flexible kit of
Epsilon Rho
parts that was easy to learn, draw, and use.
The written version of Phoenician contained Zeta Sigma
only consonants, however. Vowel sounds Eta Tau
were considered connective tissue and not
given symbols. When the Greeks—whose Theta Upsilon
own cultural and trading empire was on the
Iota Phi
rise in the 800s BCE—acquired Phoenician
writing, they modified it to include repre- Kappa Chi
sentations of seven vowels. Following a
Phoenician custom, the characters (letters) Lambda Psi
were named for important things: the Mu Omega
Phoenician aleph, for A, became the Greek
alpha, originally a pictograph of a cow, the
Compare the regularized
most critical commodity; Phoenician beth, Greek inscription at left,
for house, became beta. from around 500 BCE, to
that of the grave marker
shown above it. By this
time, the structure of
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Greek writing had been
standardized—as had its
alphabet of 24 phonetic
characters, above.

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Greeks established colonies around the waves of conquest. By 400 BCE, the
Mediterranean, bringing their alphabet— Roman Empire stretched northward to
and such cultural innovations as democ- what is now England, westward into
racy—to the Etruscans, a still-mysterious what is now Turkey, and south across the
people on the upper Italian peninsula, who northern African continent. As brutal as
were neither Semitic nor Latin, like those were their military campaigns, the Romans
in south-central Italy. The Etruscans had yet were sensitive, if calculating, cultural
developed their own culture and writing, strategists: They intermarried and assimi-
but absorbed much of what the Greeks in- lated the beneficial aspects of local cultures
troduced, as did most of Greece’s colonies. even while imposing their own religion,
The Greeks enjoyed a cultural and military laws, and written language—adopted from
hegemony in the area for several centuries. those of the Etruscans and Greeks, as was
By the 700s BCE, however, the Latins of their architecture and use of plumbing.
the south had established a city-state called Rome built an infrastructure of stone
Rome; 200 years later, the democracy- roads, ensuring rapid access to, and easy
based republic into which the city evolved control of, their vast domain.
overran the surrounding Italic city-states
and spread outward during successive
As Rome’s empire grew

and its culture became
more sophisticated, the
writing of Latin followed
suit. Above is shown the
evolution of selected
characters, from simple,
linear, lapidary carving
(ca. 300 BCE) to highly
refined forms painted by
a scribe to plan a layout
on stone before carving.
Their uniform geometry,
based on the proportion
of a square, reached its
Romans adopted the the time of the Roman culmination in the
Greek method of lapidary Republic—around inscription of the Trajan
(inscribed stone) writing, 400 BCE—just before the column (113 CE), left.
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as well as several charac- expansion of Rome’s

ters from their alphabet. empire across Europe.
This tablet dates from

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The Romans further cemented cultural by the brush angle’s uneven distribution
unity across their empire by standardizing of pigment as it was dragged across the
their writing. A young culture when they surface. Accompanying this shading
first encountered and tried to emulate the among the characters were small, sharp
Greeks’ writing, the Romans first inscribed marks created by scribes’ easing their
their language, Latin, onto stone tablets brushes into and out of the strokes; instead
rather roughly, without preliminary plan- of editing them, carvers reinforced them.
ning. With an eye for beauty and, in the Scribes considered these marks—later to
face of an increasingly complex bureau- become serifs—not only as pleasing, but
cracy in far-flung locales, the Romans saw also functional, helping the reader to more
a need for greater uniformity in their fluidly proceed along the written line.
developing alphabet. It is no wonder that, Together with their geometric, proportional
within 200 years, these consummate regularity, serifs, and shading, the refined
organizers established a strict geometry for Quadrata, or Square Capitals, became the
the proportions and stroke shaping of their formal benchmark for Western typography
letters, based on a square defined by the for the next 2,000 years, despite a minor
letter M and the circle that describes it, the interruption in the arc of European history:
O; secondary characters were proportioned the Middle Ages.
on the half-square. All were spaced evenly
by one class of scribes—who first planned
and then painted texts onto the stone sur-
face—and then chiselled into eternity by a
second (less prestigious) class of scribes.
Painting letters with a flat brush intro-
duced a new visual effect that the Romans A variant of Roman the permanence of stone different distribution of
capitals, shown here, carving. These so-called weight among the strokes
found aesthetically pleasing: a rhythmic were used for copying Rustic Capitals, or Rustica, and a more condensed
thinning and thickening of strokes, created out literary works and, were typically painted character width that
sometimes, for formal on parchment; a steeper economized space and,
documents not requiring brush angle resulted in a by extension, materials.
Stone carving was Roman generals in the

reserved for official field used a wood frame
Imperial inscription; filled with heavy wax—
letters and other a slate—to convey orders
day-to-day transactions to their troops. The wax
used a rapidly-drawn was engraved with an
casual form, called iron stylus. When new
a cursive, that evolved orders were to be given
after. The example out, the wax was heated
at left is from around and previous orders
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100–300 CE. scraped away: hence, the
idea of “starting with a
clean slate.”

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Political partisanship, and a decadent, self-

serving aristocracy who neglected to govern,
eroded Roman imperial authority and the
strength of its military. Between 100 BCE merovingian script / 600 ce east merovingian / 700 ce
and 350 CE, a new religious faith devoted

to a single deity and His resurrected Son
gained ground among the lower classes,
creating further disruption. Not surprisingly,
the empire endured successive invasions
by so-called “barbarians,” Teutonic peoples
emigrating west from the area east of the
Alps. Huns, Visigoths, Ostragoths, Kazaks, merovingian transitional / 780 ce pointed anglo-saxon / 700 ce
and armies from a variety of other such
tribes dismantled Roman infrastructure
and spread Rome’s defenses thin across
the continent.
The empire crumbled in 476 CE. A free-for-
all of warring factions, led by new regional
kings, fragmented Europe. Isolated castles
and manors, and the small territories they italian book script / 700 ce irish half-uncial / 700 ce
protected, provided refuge for peasants in
exchange for servitude. Eking out a living in
Above are a number of

disparate script forms
that proliferated across
romanesque semi-cursive / 600 ce Europe after the Roman
empire fell and standard-
ized writing was lost.
At left: the remains of a
LOST AND FOUND papyrus scroll showing
From the Fall of the Roman Empire to the one such new writing
form—Pontifical Script
End of the Middle Ages / Ca. 500–1300 CE from the 6th century—
used by the upper
hierarchy of the Catholic
Church in Rome for
Papal decrees.
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Warfare, strife, and pesti-

lence notwithstanding—
never mind ignorance
of classical Roman writ-
ing—ecclesiastical scribes
of the Middle Ages
produced astoundingly
beautiful manuscripts on
vellum, sheets of dried
sheepskin, using scripts
with which they were
familiar. Most, like the
page detail from around
745 CE shown here, were
elaborately painted and
decorated with gold leaf,
The peoples who a runic form known as the British Isles, and
a treatment known as
conquered Rome and the Futharks. Its use was Scandinavia, where they
illumination.
disrupted the empire confined primarily to the primarily settled.
brought with them their areas that correspond to
own ideographic writing, northern Germany,
squalor and poverty left learning and phi- highly differentiated scripts proliferated
losophy to the nobility, and to the priests of across Europe. So disconnected were the
the new religion—Christianity—protected abbeys by war and distance that the scripts
from violence to some degree by fear of di- were often illegible from one locale to the
vine retribution and cloistered into abbeys. next. It didn’t matter much; no one except
From there, they attempted to exert a moral for priests and a handful of nobility could
influence aimed at curtailing the worst of read anyway. Literacy rates during the
feudal behavior and offering the relief of Middle Ages fell to around 5% of the pop-
an eternal afterlife. It was the Christian ulation, who came to depend on pictures
church that saved much of Rome’s accu- and spoken sermons for their understand-
mulated knowledge, as well as their writing ing of the world and their place within it.
system. But they kept it under wraps as a Typography, in effect, became a gateway to
now-sacred component of glorifying their power, and its distribution, as well as the
deity through the careful copying of holy teaching of reading, was closely guarded.
texts. Generation after generation of priests
and monks wrote and rewrote the gospels
of the faith’s long-dead founders. And, gen-
eration after generation of copies of copies
of copies spawned deviations in the letters’
forms from region to isolated region—
such that, by the early 700s, some fifty-odd
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carolingian / 780 ce carolingian / 1150 ce
Above, a portrait of Alcuin, From left to right, above, it evolved over the course show evidence of their
the Anglo-Saxon abbot are examples of the of four centuries. Split rounded, Anglo-Irish her-
credited with developing Carolingian script, first in into three separate em- itage—began to undergo
the emperor Charlemagne’s its original form and then pires after Charlemagne’s variations in different
standardized script in the subsequent iterations as death in 814, the stan- regions, becoming more
early 800s. dard forms—which first
Between the late 600s and the mid-700s, in running his empire. He is said to have
the breadth of fighting diminished, and commissioned Alcuin of York, an Anglo-
smaller monarchies steadily consolidated Saxon abbott who headed the palace school
into larger ones. Among the more success- in Charlemagne’s capital, Aachen, to
ful of these was Francia, the kindom of a devise a script combining Roman cursive
Germanic tribe that had settled western and insular scripts in use in England and
Europe, ruled by the Merovingian family. Ireland. The Carolingian script consisted
In 749, after various intrigues, then Pope of two forms for each letter: one of a larger
Zachary ended the Merovingian dynasty by scale (majuscules) and one of a smaller
installing Pepin, of Carolingian descent,as scale (miniscules), with rounded, uniform,
king; Pepin’s son, Carolus, succeeded him yet clearly distinguishable shapes. The
in 768 and embarked on a series of military miniscules also exhibited strokes extending
endeavors that reunited most of Europe. above and below the body, or ascenders
Carolus (or Charlemagne, as he is more and descenders. The use of majuscules
commonly known) was crowned Emperor to begin texts, spaces between words, and
in 800 by Pope Leo III. early instances of punctuation (such as the
Charlemagne is believed to have been illit- question mark) became standard.
erate, but understood the value of learning The new script spread rapidly through
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and instituted a number of educational re- western Europe and was far-reaching in its
forms during his tenure as emperor. Chief use: the 10th-century Freising manuscripts,
among them was his directive to create an which contain the oldest Slovene language,
imperial standard for writing, to assist are written in Carolingian minuscule.

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Charlemagne died in 814 and the empire The short version of this story is that nine
was split between his three sons. During European campaigns over 300 years—
the ensuing centuries, the Carolingian the Crusades, or Reconquista—ultimately
script would undergo variation, including failed to accomplish that goal. Of far
becoming more condensed and formed greater consequence are other results of
from heavier, vertical, pointed strokes that those campaigns: New trade routes and
suggest some influence from the Futharks; access to Arabic and far-Eastern science
cultural interaction between the Carolin- and technologies like the astrolabe (a kind
gian empires and that of the Visigoths of compass for navigating); paper and
eventually began to evolve the script into printing; the introduction of spices and
the form known as blackletter, or Gothic other food-preservation techniques; the
script, around the 12th century. rediscovery of numerous, intact Roman
In the meantime, however, yet another artifacts (with capital inscriptions) and the
political and religious power arose east of works of the Greek philosopher/naturalist,
carolingian, early gothic / 1200s ce
the Mediterranean. The prophet Moham- Aristotle; the notion of the university (the
med founded Islam and united much of first in Europe was established in 1088,
the Arabian peninsula by the time of his in Bologna, Italy); and the assimilation of
condensed and sharply by Visigothic writing and,
drawn over time. Gothic most likely, the runic death in 632. This influence spread to the algebra and Arabic numbers: a base-10
scripts, or blackletter Futharks on which they northwest Indian subcontinent, across system using modular digits to represent
forms, derived from later were based. the values between 1 and 9, and a mark
Carolingian scripts as Central Asia, the Middle East, North Africa,
southern Italy, the Iberian peninsula and to represent zero—a previously unknown
they became influenced
the Pyrenees. Jerusalem, a city considered mathematical concept.
sacred by Christians, Muslims, and Jewish
people, was taken during a siege in 637.
Beginning in the 8th century, European
monarchs began campaigns to retake
Jerusalem as the frontier between Chris-
tian and Arab territories became more
and more hostile.
This illustrated book

from the 11th century,
called an incunabulum,
Roman numerals—letters Arabic notation for the
employed two new
assigned values—require year 2018 with the Roman:
technologies discovered
complicated arrangements MMXVIII. The diagram
during the Crusades:
to convey middle values. below reveals the clever
paper and printing. In
The modular Arabic (in basis for the Arabic numer-
such books, both images
truth, Hindu) numbering als' shapes in the number
and text were carved
system is far more efficient of angles in each form.
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from page-sized blocks
and flexible: compare the
of wood and then inked.
The process was still
quite time-consuming;
even so, it significantly
sped up the process of
reproducing publications.

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The influx of new knowledge and goods or Roman alphabet. A new kind of
encouraged exploration in science, art, “middle-class” of artisans and laborers
and philosophy, engendering a cultural sought amusement and knowledge from
Renaissance—literally, a “rebirth” of pamphlets, books, playing cards, and
intellectual activity—that celebrated Earthly other games. Printing was laborious
life and its endeavors, a stark contrast and struggled to keep up: A single page
to the Medieval worldview. A merchant of text and images had to be carved from
class arose, establishing trading posts at a solid block of wood (in reverse), which
crossroads that drew people from the coun- could take weeks—and each time, the
tryside and grew into towns, adding to the block would need to be inked for a
stability of evolving nation-states. single impression. Needless to say,
Paper—first produced in Europe in people began looking for a more effici-
Fabriano, Italy, in 1238—replaced vellum ent way to produce publications.
as an inexpensive substrate for writing; The solution was movable type: Small
together with printing (both Chinese inven- blocks, each carrying the relief of a single handwritten textura / 1400 ce
tions), the dissemination of information character, to be arranged, inked, and then
expanded as broadsides and books became pressed all at once onto paper. The first
more readily available. Still, the library movable type system is credited to Bi Sheng
at the University of Oxford, in England (990–1051) of China, around 1040; it used
(established in 1167), is said to have boasted ceramic blocks, or slugs. Bi Sheng also
a mere 140 volumes by the mid-1200s. is credited with evolving the use of wood
Within 300 years, that number would blocks around the same time.
multiply by the thousands. Whether anyone in Europe was aware of
During the 13th century, miniscules were this system before Johannes Gutenberg,
incorporated with the rediscovered Roman a German goldsmith, worked it out in
capitals and Arabic numbers, and designed 1450 using letters cast in lead is unknown.
together as character sets following a Being a goldsmith, Gutenberg would have
consistent style—the modern Western been aware of coins and other artifacts
from antiquity that were stamped with Steel punch Matrix
symbols, which were his likely inspiration.
BY LEAPS AND BOUNDS Gutenberg designed a character set in the
The Renaissance and the Enlightenment / common Textura blackletter style, cutting
Ca. 1300–1790 CE each letter, in relief, from a block of steel,
called a punch. The punches were pressed
into a softer metal matrix to form individual
moulds; lead, softer still, was poured into
the moulds, casting individual slugs. A bit
of antimony was added to the lead to help Hand mould
harden it when it cooled.
Proof 1 2 3
Above, elements of the

moveable type system as
developed by Johannes
Gutenberg in 1450. At
left are individual letter
slugs composed on the
bed of a press.

Letterforms_interiors_001-045 c2_C2.indd 22 Job: 13209 Title: #301570_Letter Forms (RP)15/3/18 11:40 AM
23
gutenberg ’ s printed textura / 1455 ce
By arranging the slugs in lines and stabiliz-

ing them with strips of lead between, and
blocks of wood around them, a page of text
could be composed within several minutes.
Gutenberg developed a press—derived
from the kind used in cheesemaking—
t0 apply even pressure across the entire
area of a composed page, resulting in
remarkably even color. Using his knowl-
edge of alchemy and chemistry, he formu-
lated an oil-based ink from lamp-black that
adhered well to the slugs’ surfaces. He
printed an edition of 200 Bibles in about
a month.
So regular in character shape, spacing,
and color was Gutenberg’s output—and
produced so rapidly—that religious autho-
rities accused him of dabbling in the
occult. A costly trial to prove the process
to be nonmagical—which grew to encom-
pass a conflict over authorship with his
assistants—vindicated him, but his for-
tunes declined afterward. Still, his legacy
is profound: Uniformity in character pro-
portion, weight, spacing, and texture are
the guiding principles of type design to this
The 42-line Bible that arrived at the visual uniform color, character
Proof 1 2
day; and printed typography became ubiq-
Gutenberg printed in characteristics for type- crispness, even line
1455 is considered a setting and print quality spacing, and integrated uitous—by 1530, there were 5,000 presses
watershed in the evolu- that are still held up as proportional relationships churning out publications across Europe.
tion of typography and the ultimate exemplar among column widths,
print production. In one today: uniform character gutter, and margins.
fell swoop, Gutenberg proportion, unified style,

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24
Most of the type-design work that followed

Gutenberg’s focused on evolving the now-
desirable qualities of regularity that his
Bible had established, in tandem with
refining the stylistic attributes of the letters.
As the Renaissance unfolded in Italy,
France, the Netherlands, and England, the
needs of an increasing number of read-
ers intersected with the aesthetic goals of
type designers. New printing type designs
initially followed Textura as a model, but
Europeans outside German-speaking
areas were more familiar with scripts of
the rounder, Carolingian variety; further,
rotunda blackletter / 1450s ce humanist script / 1450s ce humanist scholars privileged such scripts
as embodying that philosophy because of
their organic shaping and formal similarity
The rounder, more open counterparts like the any intrinsically greater toward more organically to Roman type forms—classical culture
Rotunda variant of Fraktur, Textura, and legibility, as has been shaped writing that
blackletter forms became Bastarda—more for ideo- argued in the past. Italian was closer in form to
was an ideological touchstone. By the
more popular than its logical reasons than for humanist scholars of the Roman examples. 1470s, most type designers had transi-
dense, pointed, northern Renaissance gravitated tioned to rounded, humanist script forms
as a model.
The sample of humanist,

Roman serif type shown
here is from the 1470
publication De Evangel-
ica Praeparatione. The
type and the book were
designed and printed by
Nicolas Jenson, of France,
working in Venice, Italy.
It is considered remark-
able for its consistent,
comfortable rhythm and
balanced proportions,
raising the standard of
typography to the level
of fine art.
Proof 1 2

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25
humanist cursive / 1500s ce
Throughout the 1500s and into the 1600s,

the way language was presented continued
to change. Along with an increasingly con-
sistent application of punctuation, publish-
ers began to introduce visual differences
between discontinuous text components to
help readers navigate. Titles were distin-
guished by their size and presentation all
in capitals; subtitles might be set smaller This title page shows inno- and sense of different
vations in typographic levels of text. New styles
and more widely spaced; body text was set layout that developed that integrated different
with the lowercase, with capitals to begin during the 16th century: weights and italics
sentences. Type designers began to develop visual differentiation resulted in an effort to
faces of heavier and lighter weights for to convey hierarchy or provide additional
the relative importance varieties of emphasis.
greater variety in emphasis, although not
yet as integrated families—printers would
simply combine a bolder weight face and
an unrelated regular-weight face. Added to
the mix was a new class of Humanist font,
based on the slant of handwriting, that
came to be known as italic. Its slope and
more condensed, forward rhythm imparted
a pronouncedly organic quality and could
be effective for emphasis, as well as for
distinguishing a given portion of text as As types used for exten- illuminated manuscripts)
different from others. sive text evolved toward also flourished. Above
Proof 1 2
simplicity, others that is a decoratve capital printed humanist italic / 1600 ce
could be used as decora- designed in 1556 by
tive embellishments Vespasiano Amphiareo,
(like those of medieval a Franciscan monk.

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26
This elegantly typeset

page is from a 17th-
century treatise on insect
biology and behavior,
the Micrographia—an
early instance of scientific
writing from the Age of
Enlightenment.
The prevailing desire to better understand

the natural world would be aided by several
inventions during the 1600s and 1700s,
like the microscope (revealing invisible
aspects of physical reality) and spurred new
investigative methods that drew conclu-
sions from observed evidence—which
often contradicted accepted notions about
how the world worked. During the same
time, new political and social philosophies
suggested that existing class structures
might bear some rethinking.
Much to the consternation of monarchs
and clergy, such information was circu-
lating freely through extensive prolifera-
tion of printed matter. In more than one
instance, monarchies came to require that
all prospective publications be reviewed
and ideologically cleansed before being
produced—under threat of death. King
Louis XIII of France went a step further,
decreeing that approved texts be set in
official types provided by the court. Several
prominent type designers were commis-
sioned to produce such types—named
Romain du Roi (the king’s book type)— This title page is from a In addition to his
publication designed by typographic innovations,
including Claude Garamond and Robert John Baskerville, using Baskerville is also known
Grandjean. To impart a quality of regal the transitional serif form for improving the quality
authority, they designed character sets for which he is renowned. of paper by introducing
constructed on elaborate geometric grids, It is considered the first sizing—a mixture of
clear evolution of serif starch and clay—into its
Proof 1 2
Above are the construction with exaggerated shading, that evoked the faces away from Oldstyle formation, resulting in
grid and a specimen of the majesty of the Roman Imperium. Romans toward a more a tighter fiber structure
Romain du Roi designed
rational form. that allows for finer
by Robert Grandjean and
detail when printing.
Louis Simmoneau in 1702.

Text SLC Page: 26
27
These publishing sanctions were eventually heaviest weights of the curved strokes—
lifted. Typographers, however, became fas- heretofore situated lower on the left and
cinated with the Romain du Roi’s elegance, higher on the right of a circular character,
precision and contrast, perceiving its stead- evidence of the brush angle—were oriented
fast geometry and sharpness of detail as horizontally across the vertical 90° axis.
refuting the primitive heritage of the brush, Types of this kind evolved first in England,
potentially expressing the rationalism of through the work of John Baskerville
the evolving scientific age. Individual letter and William Caslon, and culminated in
didot / 1785 ce
proportions narrowed and were made more types of extreme contrast and sharpness
consistent in overall width; serifs changed designed by Giambattista Bodoni in Italy
from round to angular and thinned; thick and François Didot in France, who each
strokes became thicker, and thins, thinner. arrived at these “modern” or “rationalist”
The height of the lowercase, relative to their styles independently in the 1780s—just
accompanying caps, was enlarged (open- in time for the next big thing.
ing the spaces inside the letters); and the
walbaum / 1803 ce
A page spread from

Giambattista Bodoni’s
Manuale Tipografico
(Manual of Typography)
from 1818, showing
specimens of his name-
sake character style
and its usage in titling.
Proof 1 2
Comparison of changes
in curved-form axis from
oblique (top) to upright
(bottom), from the 1500s
to the late 1700s.

Text SLC Page: 27
28
In 1778, James Watt of Scotland perfected

a steam engine that could power a rotary
device at high speed, with great force, and
with little human intervention. Advances
in metallurgy, chemistry and, eventually, Examples of so-called
“fat faces” of super bold
electrical power generation, initiated the weight and exaggerated
mass production of goods. People left their thin/thick contrast,
agrarian lives to work in factories. Despite derived from Rationalist
horrific conditions and long work days, serifs and designed to
grab viewers’ attention in
many workers could yet enjoy a bit of the context of a new kind
leisure time and disposable income—which of medium: advertising.
they used to buy products; they were now These specimens were
consumers. Manufacturers worked hard printed by Gregory Paone
of Papo Letterpress.
to attract consumers’ attention (and their
money) away from competitors’ products;
they hired artists and printers to create
leaflets and posters, pamphlets and signs,
all geared to be as enticing as possible.
The 1800s saw the birth of advertising,
and artists who produced promotions used
every visual trick in the book to get their
audiences to take notice. Alongside attrac-
tive illustrations, one of the most effective
means of doing so was through typography.
This apparently
unassuming specimen
produced by the Caslon
foundry in 1816 includes
Building on the extreme contrasts of the an earth-shattering
modern serifs, typographers began first to innovation in letter-
A BRAVE NEW WORLD create super-exaggerated versions of excep- form design: the sans
serif, named “Two Lines
Innovations of Industrialization tional boldness, then to decorate fonts and English Egyptian,” in
and the Transition to the Modern Era / introduce illustrative elements into their the center. Sans serif
structures. In 1816, William Caslon IV faces would not become
1790–1950 CE accepted as valid forms
(following in his ancestors’ footsteps)
until the latter part of
offered a specimen of fonts for advertising the 19th century.
french antique (designer unknown) / 1862 ce
display that included something wholly
unexpected: a font with no serifs, in which
all the letters’ strokes were uniformly bold
in weight.
Proof 1 2
latin (designer unknown) / 1870 ce

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29
A signage type form,

designed by Hector
Guimard (famous for the
French Metro [subway]
station gates, exemplifies
the organic Art Nouveau
style of the 1880s.
Aesthetes, alarmed, declared Caslon’s font form followed function, and followed a
so ugly that it heralded the end of civiliza- unified visual language—whether the
tion. It would be 75 years before this odd design in question was a piece of furniture,
type style would be accepted. Recognizing wallpaper, or typography. This approach,
its value, however, designers invented a given the name Arts & Crafts, also sought
new stylistic class by retrofitting the sans to close a rift between designer and manu-
with thick, blocky serifs, similar in weight facturer widened by industrialization and
to the strokes themselves—the slab serif. to reintroduce a reverence for nature into
The sans serif debacle wasn’t the only the filthy, mechanized, urban environ-
backlash. Confronted by what they saw as ment. The English looked to medieval art
visual pollution (crowded advertising bill- as a model for this approach; in France,
boards defacing architecture) and aesthetic the pronature rebuke of industrialism gave
confusion (a mish-mash of unrelated, over- rise to a fluid, organic style of image and
worked decorative styles), English artists typography based on curling plant forms
and philosophers like John Ruskin, William called l’Art Nouveau (New Art).
Morris, and Edward Burne-Jones called
for a stylistically pure approach in which
Industrial-era, Victorian
advertising, such as
the poster shown at top,
deployed exceptionally German engineer Peter
ornamental letter styles— Mitterhoffer’s Schreib-
typically mixing several maschine (or writing
in one layout. The two machine) of 1864 is one
specimens immediately of the precursors of the
Proof 1 2
above date from the modern typewriter (left).
same era, around the Such writing appara-
The Linotype was invented by
1860s. tus with a keyboard,
Otto Merganthaler in 1886. As its
each printing a specific
operator types on a keyboard, the
character, allowed for
machine organizes matrixes on
other innovations like the
the fly, into which lead is poured
Linotype (right).
to cast a single line of lead type.

Text SLC Page: 29
30
The true visionary of the Arts & Crafts of the 19th century. Designers—typo-
movement, William Morris was the most graphic or otherwise—slowly adapted to,
prolific and wide-ranging of practitioners and embraced, the implications of industri-
in his output; his namesake company alization. They warmed to the qualities of
produced his designs for wallpaper, glass, the mechanical, positing that mass produc-
furniture, and other objects, and remains tion could, in fact, be a vehicle for introduc-
extant to this day. In the 1890s, he turned ing beauty and quality into everyday life.
his attention to typography and the book An art colony in Darmstadt, Germany,
arts, seeing that the quality of book design (funded by the Grand Duke of Hesse)
had become degraded in similar ways as brought together a group of like-minded
had other kinds of design. In doing so, modernists keen to explore the intersection
Morris led the way for a revival in book and of art and industry. Among its leading
text-face design, basing his work on the aspirants was Peter Behrens, an architect
15th-century faces of Nicolas Jenson. and painter from Berlin who had begun
The notion of uniting form and function, his career in the Art Nouveau oeuvre, but
and closely integrated stylistic gestures, whose work rapidly transitioned toward a
took hold across Europe in the last decade more geometric form language to express
Layout (top) and page for designers to be crafts-

detail from The Story men; to use visual style
of the Glittering Plain, to fit a given purpose,
designed and published rather than to decorate;
by William Morris’s and to unify the visual
Kelmscott Press in 1891. language of a work,
Morris sought to close rather than mix them.
Proof 1 2
a rift between design His inspiration was the

and production engen- Middle Ages, but the A page from Peter serif type (Bertholdt’s
dered by the Industrial results formed the basis Behrens’s 1901 book, Akzidenz Grotesk) as
Revolution; he advocated of Modernism. akzidenz grotesk family / 1896 ce Lebens in Kunst text, accompanied by
(Living with Art), the initials and page borders
first use of sans of his own design.

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31
berenschrift (peter behrens) / 1902 ce
the desirability and transcendence of the

industrial. The machine, together with the
idea of systems that it implied, became a
spiritual avatar for designers.
In 1896, the Berthold type foundry released
the first font family consisting of multiple
weights, as well as italic versions of each,
designed with this kind of systematic idea.
The sans serif Akzidenz font was labeled
grotesque—the legacy of Caslon’s attempts
died slowly—but it came into relatively
wide use once Behrens used it to set the
text of a well-received art-philosophy book.
Behrens would continue to play a major
role in the evolution of graphic design over
the next half century, but his work, and
that of Morris, immediately influenced art Two posters designed type design—following
and design in Austria, where malcontents by Hungarian designer a strict, highly stylized
Koloman Moser of the geometry—that would
left the stuffy Viennese academy to pursue
Viennese Secession show set the stage for the
a revolutionary, geometric expression in the radical, avant-garde Modern movement in
imagery, as well as typography. The output approach to imagery and the 20th century.
of the Vienna Secession, as it was called,
would set a new standard for avant-garde
experimentation and systematic form,
influencing the information design work
of Edward Johnston for the London
Underground subway and the typographic
designs of Eric Gill, both in England.
Proof 1 2
hoffmann block (josef hoffmann) / 1908 ce underground (edward johnston), top / 1916 ce
gill sans (eric gill), bottom / 1928 ce

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32
The quest for modern expression contin-

ued into the 20th century. Cubism, an
approach to painting that fractured reality,
was the first of many experimental move-
ments (Futurism, De Stijl, Constructiv-
ism, and Vorticism, to name a few). Each
pursued its own philosophy, but all shared city (georg trump) / 1930 ce
an emphasis on geometry in one way or
another. Book types, intended for extensive
reading—even those that were based
closely on classical Roman archetypes—
exhibited the influence of this formal purity,
albeit somewhat tempered for usability.
Designers of display types, on the other
hand, went for geometry whole hog.
stymie (morris fuller benton) / 1931 ce
The exuberance of early Modernism was
This catalog cover for designed by the Dutch
interrupted by World War I, but it came an exhibition devoted De Stijl architect
roaring back afterward, as Europe got to Cubism features a and artist, Theo van cabaret culture, adding to the fun with
down to rebuilding (and partying really custom, almost modular, Doesburg, in 1916. outlandish acrobatic feats, air shows, magic
geometric typeface acts, and comedians—and a new genre
hard) during the 1920s. The United States
joined Europe in celebration; city dwellers of music called jazz.
emulated Berlin’s and Paris’s raucous Type design of the 1920s was bold and
stylishly geometric. Posters, ads, and maga-
zine titling presented forms decorated
with exotic patterns and traced with geo-
metric inlines, often taking on the quality
of streamlined, mechanical surfaces and
The highly geometric,

decorated capitals above
are characteristic of type
centaur (bruce rogers) / 1914 ce
designs popular during
the 1920s; they are deriv-
atives of Broadway (small
specimen), designed by
Morris Fuller Benton, of
American Type Founders,
in 1928.
Proof 1 2
kombination (josef albers) / 1923 ce Qualities of luxury,

elegance, and modernity
emanate from the titling
face in this car ad from
the 1920s (right).

Text SLC Page: 32
33
architectural detailing seen in household a mindset of order—a response to the rise of Fascism, and a second world war
products, vehicles, and buildings designed cultural disarray of the time. They inves- promptly followed. Type designers’ output
in the Art Déco aesthetic. tigated stricter geometry in sans serifs of during WWII fell off, especially in Europe.
Even after the global economic depression increasingly uniform weight and classical In the United States, typefaces retained
that began in 1929 put a dent in the festivi- proportion, as well as modular fonts, built their streamline characteristics until after
ties, type design continued to explore qual- with parts that could be flexibly rearranged. the country entered the war in 1941; new
ities of elegance. Condensed faces, with Of the former, Futura, designed by Paul display faces designed during that period
sharp detailing and exaggerated propor- Renner in Germany in 1930, captured reflected the war effort mindset, with
tions, and sleek, sturdy slab serifs, offered cultural imagination, becoming a standard forms that riffed on industrial stamping
escape to a (hopefully) future world where for geometric sans serif faces, thereafter. and stenciling of a military quality.
comfort, luxury, and style would once again Unfortunately, things got worse before
become the norm. Type designers also they got better. Poverty and social unrest A poster produced by
an artist of the Works
made attempts at suggestively introducing in Germany and Italy set the stage for the Progress Adminsitra-
tion during the Great
Depression.
futura (paul renner) / 1930 ce
prisma (rudolph koch) / 1931 ce
mechano (designer unknown) / 1930s ce

stencil (vernacular) / 1940s ce
Proof 1 2
Continued fascination line-shaded Prisma
with geometry during the (middle). Another kind
1930s found expression of experiment, Mechano
element (max bittrof) / 1934 ce
in Paul Renner’s sans (bottom), yielded an
serif (top), which spawned early modular typeface.
derivatives like the
signboard gothic (designer unknown) / 1940s ce

Text SLC Page: 33
34
From 1945 into the 60s, Europe and the

United States were each reckoning with
WWII’s aftermath. America, emerging
from war and the Depression as a military
and economic powerhouse, perceived its
cultural values validated. Wartime industry
had invented a slew of new products that
could be marketed in peacetime. TV din-
ners, toy chemistry sets, synthetic textiles
for carpets, and the like brought prices
down and comfort home. Business peddled
aspiration to the good life’s status quo;
cocktails, conformity, and keeping up with
the Joneses were paramount concerns. The
visual landscape was awash with paternal-
istic, illustrative pastiche and text-heavy
advertising. That state of affairs turned
out well for type designers, who were in
demand for new faces—especially ones
that would capture the dreamy postwar
happiness that everyone wanted.
UP FOR FUN, DOWN TO BUSINESS

Reenvisioning the Future After World War II /
1950–1980 CE
Proof 1 2
Post-WWII advertising to create a narrative

made use of corny illus- of pleasure and conform-
trations and stylish ity in American culture.
faces, especially scripts,

Text SLC Page: 34
35
choc (roger excoffon) / 1955 ce brush script (robert e. smith) / 1942 ce al-bro (alexey brodovitch) / 1950 ce
banco (roger excoffon) / 1951 ce rocket script (designer unknown) / 1950s ce ad lib (freeman craw) / 1961 ce
Much of the imagery produced for advertis- Of course, there still was a need for subtler,
ing in this context focused on illustration, more restrained faces that could be used
often drawing on references to cartooning for text. Very often, graphic designers
and both Abstract Expressionism and would turn to existing, well-worn fonts—
Surrealism, two prevalent visual gestures so-called “workhorses” like Garamond or
of the time. Type designers responded with Caslon, Franklin Gothic or Akzidenz or
faces that would capture both the freer, Futura—but a number of new serifs, in
visual qualities of these visual languages, particular, attempted to cross the boundary vendome (françois ganeau) / 1951 ce
in particular script forms. Scripts offered between fun and function by playing with
a carefree, spontaneous quality; some kept rhythmic elements and stroke details.
their references to the brush—a nod to The heavier strokes in the serif Vendome,
vernacular languages like supermaket- for example, are slightly irregular in their
promotion sign painting—while others contours and shift the weight within them
veered toward the industrial and more into a slightly forward-leaning emphasis,
tightly controlled, characteristic of detailing creating a kind of pronounced “loopiness.”
and nameplates on automobiles.
Along with scripts, there also appeared melior (hermann zapf) / 1952 ce
during the late 1940s–1950s other playful
faces based on sans serifs, which offered
bolder and more muscular options for
display while adding the playful element
The IBM Selectric II type-
in the form of irregularly shaped counter- writer, icon of the office
forms, stroke contours that escaped the secretary and American
confines of being parallel or more classically corporate culture in the
modulated, and graphical details appended 1950s and 60s.
to stroke terminals.

Text SLC Page: 35
36
A page detail from Haas

Type Foundry director
Eduard Hoffmann’s helvetica (max miedinger) / 1957 ce eurostyle (aldo novarese) / 1962 ce
notebook, showing
preliminary tests of what
would become Helvetica
(accompanied by
Hoffmann’s notations for
further development).
univers (adrian frutiger) / 1957 ce antique olive (roger excoffon) / 1962 ce
This poster, designed imagery and type that

in Switzerland in 1954, came to be so character-
exemplifies the reductive, istic of the European
refined approach to International Style.
Europe, on the other hand, was rebuilding. The so-called International Style that
Design and business were both seen as embodied these ideals initially evolved in
Utopian, benevolent forces working to Switzerland, but quickly gained adherents
elevate the quality of life, not merely as in Germany, Italy, Spain, and the Nether-
commodifying influences. European de- lands. Its approach was heavily typographic;
signers—in particular, the Swiss—came at its outset, designers gravitated toward
to favor neutral, diligently structured Akzidenz Grotesk—until Max Miedinger, a
messaging through meticulously finessed freelance designer, and Eduard Hoffmann,
form—a visual rebuke to the regionalism the president of Haas Type Foundry (in
and exclusionary narratives that had given Münchenstein, Switzerland), set about to
rise to the war itself. Communicating create a font with no intrinsic meaning in
clearly, with respect for the audience’s its form. Haas Type Foundry released the
intelligence and sociocultural interconnec- result, based on Akzidenz, as Neue Haas
tion, was paramount. Grotesk (later renamed Helvetica) in 1957.
That same year, a second neo-grotesque
family appeared—Univers, designed by
Adrian Frutiger for Deberny & Peignot, in
Paris. Like Helvetica, it was also based on
Akzidenz Grotesk and neutral in its form,
Proof 1 2
suggesting no meaningful associations.

These two sans serifs became the jugger-
nauts of the International Style.

Text SLC Page: 36
37
As the American and European economic

markets became increasingly intertwined,
American business took note of the pow-
erful example set by Europeans; American
executives saw Swiss companies like Geigy,
a chemical and pharmaceutical operation,
succeed through a monolithic, strikingly
visual, branded presence. Both Helvetica
and Univers were deployed ubiquitously
in the development of corporate branding
systems throughout the 1960s and 70s.
Not all of the design establishment was Geigy, a Swiss pharma- through its monolithic a promotional brochure,
wrapped up in neutralism. Jan Tschichold, ceutical and chemical corporate branding both designed by Steff
a Swiss designer who—while working in company, was instru- program, which reached Geissbuhler in the late
Germany in the 1920s and 30s, almost mental in disseminating every continent where it 1960s, using Univers and
the International Style did business. Shown here Helvetica Compressed.
single-handedly established the basis for and sans serif typography are packaging (left) and
asymmetrical design and sans serif typo-
graphy—fomented controversy by renounc-
ing that approach as Fascist. In tandem
with returning to classically symmetrical
layouts, he also designed Sabon, a serif
based on the work of Claude Garamond
in the 1600s. Hermann Zapf, a German
designer working for the Hallmark Greet-
ing Card company in the U.S. introduced
a number of calligraphic faces, among
them: a script, Chancery; a serif, Palatino,
derived from the work of Francesco Griffo
in the 1500s; and Optima, a sans serif
neu alphabet (wim crouwel) / 1967 ce sabon (jan tschichold) / 1967 ce with strokes that thickened and thinned
as though drawn with a pen. Typographic
voices such as these, in counterpoint to
the aesthetic austerity of the International
Style, suggested there might be unacknowl-
edged cultural undercurrents with which
to be reckoned.
vromgevers (wim crouwel) / 1968 ce optima (hermann zapf) / 1958 ce
Proof 1 2
International Style design- pervasive throughout At the same time, a
ers, like Wim Crouwel Europe in the 1950s and return to more classically
of the Netherlands, 60s. Above are two of his derived forms surfaced as
were enthralled by the experimental typefaces a counterpoint to strict
precepts of reduction and that carry these ideas to Modernism.
neutralism that were their extremes.

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epps evans (timothy epps) / 1969 ce sintex (aldo novarese) / 1973 ce itc machine (ronne bonder, tom carnase) / 1970 ce
At left is an assortment
of quirky, stylized type-
faces that were in wide
circulation as a rebuke
baby teeth (milton glaser) / 1968 ce artone (seymour chwast) / 1968 ce stop (aldo novarese) / 1970 ce to Modernism during the
1960s and 70s. Below, a
magazine ad from the
era showcases a headline
drawn in another of these
expressive styles.
There ensued, during the late 1960s and Font design went everywhere in a quest to
70s, the inevitable backlash. The veneer acknowledge marginalized subcultures
of the “good life” began to fracture under and neglected aesthetics; the notion of “taste”
a variety of pressures: an escalating Cold underwent heavy scrutiny. New typefaces
War; class and racial tensions; and assas- drew from the vernacular of car-graphic
sinations of political and cultural figures. detailing, computer punch cards, varsity
All of these, and more, fed the anxiety sweater lettering, cartooning, science fic-
of a disaffected youth culture and a rift tion, Art Nouveau, Art Déco, the Viennese
between the generations. The visceral beat Secession, and industrial Victoriana.
of rock ’n roll, helped by a certain set of In defiance of “neutral” came narrative,
gyrating hips from Tupelo, Mississippi, metaphor, and idiosyncracy. Type design
crossed racial boundaries and instigated experienced its own version of free love.
a sexual revolution. Taboos fell and irony
ruled as art-world images of tomato soup
cans, car crashes, and gender benders
critiqued long-held values while sordidly
celebrating them.
To paraphrase designer Paula Scher in
Gary Hustwit’s documentary, Helvetica
Proof 1 2
(2008), International Style Modernism

equated with “the Man.” Younger design-
ers began to seek alternatives everywhere—
especially in the design of type.

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Although flashier, idio- Still, the Modernist impulse toward clarity

syncratic fonts were in and usability continued with the develop-
high demand for popular
advertising, seriously ment of typefaces that addressed issues of
well-crafted ones still legibility in specific contexts—such as for
were necessary for road signs and printed telephone direc-
utilitarian purposes, like tories, as well as for more day-to-day text
information design.
Adrian Frutiger, the applications like editorial work. A number
originator of Univers, first of type designers, like Edward Benguiat, in
developed the sans serif New York, worked at bridging that divide,
seen here as a design pro- merging idiosyncratic and expressive
posal for the Charles de
Gaulle airport in Roissy, elements with more rigorous structuring,
France. Like Univers, it is as can be seen in a variety of his typefaces
based on the forms of a that became exceptionally popular during
Neo-Grotesque, but the 1970s.
exhibits greater modu-
lation in its strokes and All along the way, technology was keeping
rounder curves, shifting step with, and often opening up, new
it toward a classification
known as a humanist possibilities, for type designers’ aspira-
sans serif. The font was tions. Most typesetting was still accom-
rejected by the airport’s plished with lead, limited to a size of 72
administration, but was points, or about 1 inch (2.5 cm) in height;
used by the Swiss Na-
tional Roadway authority achieving larger sizes meant enlarging
for highway signage— settings of that size photographically and
and a huge number then cleaning up the results by hand, with
of corporate branding paint or marker. Phototypesetting—in
designers ever since.
which type was “cast” as film negatives
avant garde (herb lubalin) / 1970 ce eras (edward benguiat) / 1976 ce and exposed onto photographic printing
paper—allowed for larger sizes to be set,
as well as for some interesting manipula-
tions in their exposure.
That, however, was about to change.
bell centennial (matthew carter) / 1976 ce benguiat gothic (edward benguiat) / 1979 ce
During the 1960s, introduced the CRT

typesetting production typesetting station.
began to shift from In essence, an operator
lead-based letterpress input codes into a key-
Proof 1 2
methods to photographic board terminal that
and electronic ones. The instructed an imagesetter
advent of phototypeset- to expose photographic
ting allowed for setting paper with characters of
sizes above 72 points. The a particular style—via
Merganthaler Company glass templates like the
that had introduced the one shown at far right.
Linotype in 1886 also

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40
In short order, conceptual experiments

of the 1970s colored the thinking of even
the staunchest of Modernists. Grid-based
sans serif layouts (famously denigrated by
Katherine McCoy as “mere housekeeping”)
were replaced by multilayered ones in
which type and imagery traded identities,
reshaped in ambiguous spaces—a man-
nered, Postmodern process termed decon-
struction. Typical only of display uses,
pictorialized type forms suggested new
possibilities, maybe even for text faces—
building on, yet abstracting, their classical
Roman understructures.
Enter: the Macintosh personal computer in
1984. Decades of tech company work had
moved computing from huge mainframes
to the desktop with varied commercial suc-
cess—the Olivetti Programma 101 (1965);
the IBM SCAMP (1973); the Tandy TRS-80
(1977); and the Commodore 64 (1982).
The critical difference was that the Macin-
tosh (or Mac) displayed what computer code
described in a modular field of pixels that
a user could manipulate directly; design-
This iconic poster by Deconstructivism— ers rapidly took advantage of its potential.
William Longhauser taking apart, layering, Most important in this new environment,
exemplifies the Post- and pictorializing its type
modern typographic forms to communicate
perhaps, was typography—fonts of differ-
approach known as narrative ideas. ing styles could actually be seen onscreen
PARADIGM SHIFTS
New Technologies and Postmodernism /
1980s to the Present
To the far left, a typical

DOS-code computer ter-
minal showing command
lines of program code— oakland (zuzana licko) / 1984 ce
the standard before the
graphical user interface
(GUI) introduced by the
Proof 1 2
Apple Macintosh in 1984

(near left).
emperor (zuzana licko) / 1985 ce

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41
In the early Mac operating triplex serif (zuzana licko) / 1989 ce The Postscript language
systems, control panels and improved display
coordinated various func- technology led to
tions (much like system rapid advances in the
preferences in its current complexity of typefaces.
OS)—including those of The ones shown here are
third-party software. One second-generation, ex-
of these was Type Manager, ploiting that technology
which turned fonts on and remedy (frank heine) / 1991 ce for both greater precision
off and enabled the anti- and more decorative
aliasing feature. possibilities.
dogma (zuzana licko) / 1994 ce
and altered. Early adopters like Zuzana their working process. But now designers
Licko, a Slovakian-born designer educated could independently create bespoke faces
at Berkeley, in California, experimented with to enhance their projects—as could those
creating fonts that specifically addressed who were self-taught, or who were not
the Mac’s display and output capabilities— even designers by trade at all. Free from
or, its limitations. “The challenge,” Licko the constraints of formal type education,
recalled once, “was that...you really had to type designs that pushed the boundaries
design something special...It was physically of accepted form and taste multiplied like
impossible to adapt 8-point Goudy Old wildfire. Compared to the roughly 2,000
Style to 72 dots to the inch. In the end you fonts available through traditional found-
Bitmap vs. vector (exaggerated) Anti-aliasing couldn’t tell Goudy Old Style from Times ries in the early 1980s, more than 50,000
Roman.” Licko’s bitmap fonts led the way were in circulation by the mid-1990s.
to an independent font foundry, Emigré Design tools and display quality increased
(which she formed with her husband, Rudy with the Adobe Systems introduction of
VanderLans), and a lasting, critical influ- the Postscript® page- and font-description
ence on the design of typefaces. During programming language. The vector-based,
the late 1980s and early 90s, it was nearly line-segment “hinting” it incorporated
impossible to find a work of graphic design allowed for the crisp rendering of smooth
chicago (susan kare), bitmap and postscript / 1984 ce that didn’t include an Emigré font. curves and more accurate stroke and count-
Aside from the obvious—defining a new er control without showing the evidence
Onscreen type suffered to be drawn and dis-
language of construction for the form of of the square pixel.
from poor resolution and played more accurately,
bitmap construction until using less information. A typefaces—the work of Licko and other
Adobe Systems intro- further development was early digital typographers liberated font
duced the Postscript page- that of “anti-aliasing,” design from established foundries and
description language in a new feature for screen
put it in the hands of...well, anyone. Of
Proof 1 2
the late 1980s. Postscript display that softened the
is based on vector points boundary between font course, classically trained, professional type
whose coordinates and area and page space, us- designers assimilated the technology into
attributes hint at, and ing a progression of gray
direct, the shape of line pixels to create smooth
segments that connect curves and details.
them. It allowed for fonts

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Throughout the 1990s, the proliferation of

new font designs continued unabated. In
the independent, Postmodern quarter, work
by Emigré and like-minded font adven-
turers unabashedly explored narrative and
conceptual terrain that derived from diverse
inspirations: quilting and embroidery;
medieval architecture; highway signage;
disturbed psychological states; scientific
diagramming; photographic processes; and
ethnographic appropriations (these latter,
in particular, fueled by a rising, popular
concern for multiculturalism). Aided by
Improvements in Desktop font-design soft-
early desktop-platform font design software imaging and font design ware became popularly
like Fontographer, new foundries appeared software during the available in 1996, giving
on a regular basis; the number of available 1990s helped designers access to high-quality
typefaces quadrupled. visualize new kinds of editing techniques to just
forms (as in the poster about anyone who was
by Rick Valicenti, at left, interested.
from 1993).
blur (neville brody) / 1991 ce house gothic (house industries) / 1993 ce
template gothic (barry deck) / 1991 ce platelet (conor mangat) / 1993 ce

Proof 1 2
suburban (rudy van derlans) / 1993 ce interstate (tobias frere-jones) / 1993 ce

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43
In the establishment type design quarter, could be interpolated to derive a number

high-resolution scanning technology and of “in-between” states, very much like
powerful software tools allowed for detailed image morphing (readers will recognize
analysis, comparison, and reinterpretation this idea in recalling the 1991 sci-fi film,
of classical sources. Designers like Kris Terminator 2: Judgement Day).
Holmes, Robert Slimbach, Carol Twombly, Its development was spearheaded by
Sumner Stone, and Erik Spiekermann Sumner Stone (then Director of Typogra-
presided over these new offerings from phy at Adobe), who deployed it to expand
monolithic foundries like Adobe and Lino- his Stone Typeface Family in 1987; it also
type: updated Roman capitals and drawings figured significantly in creating the Adobe
by Jenson, Garamond, Baskerville, and Originals type library as the 1980s transi-
Caslon—as well as fonts that hybridized tioned into the 1990s. Another early
serif and sans serif characteristics. application came in 1994 with Penumbra
In the mid-1980s, Adobe Systems began (created by Lance Hidy, a freelance graphic
exploration of a new technology (first devel- artist and member of Adobe’s Type Advi-
Below, a page spread from
type designer Jonathan
oped by the German company URW++) sory Board), blending traits from classical
Barnbrook’s monograph, by which two or more design variations, forms like the Trajan inscription and Paul
The Barnbrook Bible or “axes” (for instance, weight and width), Renner’s geometric sans serif, Futura.
(2007), which catalogs
his visionary output from
the late 1980s onward.
The experiment above interpolation of four

by Lance Hidy, from the master drawings (in red)
development process of to efficiently generate
Penumbra, demonstrates an expansive family of
the power of Multiple weight and serif variants.
Master technology: the
trajan (carol twombly) / 1989 ce
The technology, named Multiple Master, was

short-lived, but profoundly far-reaching.
Along with helping generate comprehen-
sive families more rapidly, it facilitated the
return of optical sizing, whereby fonts are
redrawn with alternate traits for use at differ-
ent sizes (less contrast and larger counters,
meta (erik spiekermann) / 1991 ce
for captions, or greater contrast and finer
details, for display). Most importantly, it
was the source of the later TrueType and,
eventually, OpenType protocols and related
Proof 1 2
programming languages, like Python, with
which fonts are developed today.
The year 1994 was also significant for the
appearance of a little bit of technological
penumbra (lance hidy) / 1994 ce innovation called the internet.

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44
hoefler text (jonathan hoefler) / 1991 ce dolly (underware) / 2001 ce
georgia (matthew carter) / 1996 ce fedra (peter bi'lak) / 2001 ce
verdana (matthew carter) / 1996 ce archer (jonathan hoefler, tobias frere-jones) / 2003 ce
Ah, the internet. Today, we take the idea

of globally networked (and now, wirelessly
portable) computer connectivity for granted.
The fact of web- and cloud-based computing
is not so important, other than that access
to fonts that were well-designed specifically
guardian egyptian (paul barnes, christian schwartz) /
Stag, by Christian Schwartz, and made more practical
for screen use in web contexts became a 2005 ce
exemplifies the “superfam- by advances in character
priority. The model for screen-conscious ily,” an extensive array of interpolation.
typeface detailing was defined by an old- variants, inspired by Adrian
style serif, Hoefler Text, that Apple incor- Frutiger's Univers (in theory)
porated into their Mac operating system in
1991. Matthew Carter, of Bell Centennial
fame, was tapped by Microsoft in 1993 to
create a serif font (Georgia) and a sans Indeed, the OpenType format, and its capa-
serif (Verdana), to be bundled with its city to allow fonts to respond “smartly” to
Windows® operating system, both released text conditions as they are generated on the
in 1996. Hoefler Text provided many of the fly—for instance, automatically selecting
OpenType features (before OpenType exist- different alternate characters, or ligatures
ed) that contemporary font designers accept between characters, depending on their
as de rigeur: alternate character designs, sequence in text—is one of the hallmarks
ligatures, and small capitals. of font designs created in the subsequent
twenty years. It has proven exceptionally
useful for designers of script fonts, which
have enjoyed a resurgence in popularity in
recent years, to overcome the recognizable
Proof 1 2
artificiality of identical, repeating charac-

ters. The OpenType paradigm has also
A test layout for
The Guardian newspa-
per, using the bespoke
superfamily designed by
Commercial Type.

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45
akkurat (laurenz brunner) / 2004 ce lÿno (karl nawrot, radim peško) / 2010 ce
le sonia monochrome (pierre di sciullo) / 2008 ce kade (david quay) / 2011 ce
brandon grotesque (hannes van döhren) / 2010 ce infini (sandrine nugue) / 2014 ce
Contemporary designers from different, alternate by Alejandro Paul of
have embraced the characters depending the foundry Sudtipos.
OpenType format for its on their context—as in
“smart” features, like the case of the script
the ability to choose specimen here, designed given rise to “superfamilies,” extensive of years of evolution that have led to each
arrays of variation in weight, width, pos- kind of creative possibility to be considered.
ture, and detailing. These are ideal for Type designers of any ilk ignore that history
intricate distinctions in informational at great risk of their work being sidelined
hierarchy demanded by such complex to the bin of irrelevance. And all, from the
editorial applications as newspapers and aspiring beginner to the most accomplished
magazines—whether of the traditional master, can only benefit from the lessons
print or purely digital variety. of that history as they work to move their
As of this writing, approaches to the design craft forward, wherever that may lead, into
of letterforms continues its pluralistic jour- the future.
ney, much as it always has. Today’s typog-
raphers are as fascinated by the precedents
established thoughout history as they are
with opportunies afforded by changing aes-
thetic notions and new technologies. But,
all approaches—from rigorously utilitarian
to irreverently expressive, for text or display
application—owe a debt to the thousands
Proof 1 2
prismaset (james goggin) / 2010 ce

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Proof 1 2

Letterforms_interiors_046-081_c2.indd 46 Job: 13209 Title: #301570_Letter Forms (RP) 9/3/18 2:48 PM
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letterforms
Over time, like any other discipline with a

long history, typeface design has developed
a set of conventions. Some of these are
related to how characters—letters, numerals,
punctuation, and glyphs—are structured
for clear recognition and legibility; others
have to do with cultural expectations of what
makes a comfortable, readable style, or how
a particular style conveys emotions or feel-
ings or even appears “beautiful,” based on
historical context. And, of course, all of the
parts of a typeface, from character shapes to
individual components in each form, have
had names given to them over the centuries—
type designers are consummate wonks for
their jargon. Designers who want to walk
the walk must talk the talk (so to speak) and
school themselves on the basics of their
chosen craft.
Legacies
nomenclature
and current aesthetic
design conventions

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the very basics
the stroke
The shape of a character or other letter is Vertical Stroke

defined by lines, called strokes, each with
a particular gestural movement, arranged
in a specific combination: an H is made of
two vertical strokes, joined by a horizontal
stroke; a D consists, in essence, of a vertical Horizontal Stroke
and a curved stroke. Every stroke is itself a
shape, consisting of a beginning, middle,
and end. The visual quality of a stroke Diagonal Stroke
derives from how it is formed: the kind of Dominant (left)
Subordinate (right)
tool used; its thickness, or weight, relative
to the height of the drawn form; the angle
at which the tool is dragged across the
surface; and the degree of pressure applied, Circular Stroke
from the beginning of the stroke to its (and Semicircular)
finish. The stroke is the positive form that
establishes a character’s archetypal shape,
for recognition, and its general texture.
Ogee Curve or
Wave-Form Stroke
(a single form
made from two
joined semicircles)
A limited vocabulary of
only five stroke shapes
define the forms of all
characters.
Entry A stroke comprises two An individual stroke Stroke formation may

basic parts: the body, its may be consistent in its be continuous—made
main component; and Consistent, or uniform, thickness or weight (A); without lifting the tool
the terminals, its ends. weight or it may be modulated, from the surface—or
The beginning terminal changing in weight from it may be interrupted,
Body
is called the entry or the beginning to end (B). where the tool is lifted
attack; the terminal at Modulated The relative rapidity of and repositioned after
which the stroke ends is (inconsistent weight) change in thickness is Continuous Interrupted each stroke is made.
called the finish. described as ductus.
Finish
The frontline is the lead-
ing edge of the stroke The strokes of well- Drawing direction is typ-
as it’s being formed by formed characters are ically from left to right
Frontline the drawing tool, whose designed to flow into and top to bottom, but
Proof 1 2
dimensions define the and out of each other it sometimes reverses,

paths of the stroke’s to appear inseparable— as it does in the lower
outer contours. The con- even when they join lobe of this lowercase a.
tours follow each other abruptly. The portion of a stroke
as the frontline moves that resumes “normal”
through the gesture. direction is called a
Stroke Return
return.
direction
Letterforms_interiors_046-081_c2.indd 48 9/3/18 2:50 PM

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letterforms / legacies
the counter
Equally, or perhaps, more important for

a character’s definition are the spaces
created between and around the strokes
as they’re formed: the negative areas or
counterforms (typically called counters, for
short). While strokes establish a character’s
shapes, counters define its overall propor-
tion—width versus height—and, therefore,
its density and rhythm: how much dark
versus light it exhibits; how compressed or
open it appears; and how much space will
be appreciated as the eye traverses from
left to right. In general, the more counter
that exists, the easier it is to rapidly identify
the shapes and arrangement of strokes
and, so, read the character efficiently.
The counters separate The internal counters

strokes at recognizable in a well-crafted typeface
intervals. Their ratio is are systematically
reciprocal: The more designed to be similar to
stroke information pres- each other in apparent
ent, the less counter— volume, despite the vari-
and vice versa. ety of stroke shaping.
Differences in stroke/ To create even “color” or

counter ratio dramatically texture, a font’s default
affect character density spacing responds pro-
Proof 1 2
and rhythm—and, portionally by tightening
ultimately, the spacing (top) or loosening (bot-
within continuous text. tom) to optically match
that of the counters
inside the letters.

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50
the very basics
structural groups Archetype Groups Symmetrical Asymmetrical Two-Story

Characters Characters Characters
Characters of like structure—those consist-
ing only of vertical and horizontal strokes,
for instance—can be grouped for consider-
ation of their shared visual qualities during Verticals and horizontals
the design process.
The majority of the capitals, or uppercase
forms, are bilaterally symmetrical: that is,
their stroke formations mirror each other
across a central axis from top to bottom. Diagonals only
Other characters are asymmetrical from
left to right, but most often are symmetri-
cal from top to bottom.
Some characters are composed of struc-
tures that repeat from top to bottom, and
are described as having two storys, like Verticals and diagonals
a building: the capital B, E, K, and P, for
example, as well as the lowercase a and e.
The lowercase a is sometimes drawn with
a single story—a circular stroke combined
with a vertical one, both of the same
Diagonals and horizontals
general height. It’s not the only one that
appears in several structural variations; the
uppercase G, M, Q, and W may be made
in several ways that all conform to their
respective, general structures.
The term character set describes the selec-
Circular strokes only
tion of characters—and which kinds—that
are included in a typeface’s design.
*
Circular strokes and verticals
**
Vertical strokes only
* The modern capital R is ** Although the modern

Proof 1 2
formed with a diagonal capital J is drawn with a

(the leg) that was originally curved hook to better
built as a quarter circle— differentiate it from the
hence, its appearance in capital I, its original form
this category. was a single vertical
stroke that descended
below the baseline.

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51
Common Structural Variations Character Set
Alphabetic
Characters
(including
Straight or Crossed Crossed and accented
Archaic Spurred alternates)
Canted or Modern or High Vertex Uppercase (or Capitals)

Angled Vertical
Linked Tail Crossed Appended Open or

Tail Tail Script Form
Running Interrupted Lowercase Ligatures
Running Interrupted, crossed, or

Numerals
“Germanic” form
Modern, or Lining, figures Oldtsyle, or Text, figures
Single story Two story
Fractions
Tailed or Cruciform
Conventional
Punctuation
Oldstyle or Modern or
Serif Style Sans Serif Style
Glyphs or
Analphabetic
Proof 1 2
Closed Open and Open and Characters
Angled Vertical
Curvilinear Angle/Curve
Hybrid

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the very basics
body
Type designers refer to the overall pro- Ascent Line

portion of characters—their width/height
proportion—as their body, a term that
Cap Line
derives from the general size of a letter’s
slug, as cast in lead. The body includes the
aggregate of the width and height of the Mean Line
uppercase and the lowercase (miniscules
or small letters). Even in digital fonts, a
character’s body includes a little space on
either side of the character that, in lead
form, helped space each character evenly,
relative to others, in a line of set text—
the sidebearing. Midline
A typeface’s body, in totality, can be de-
scribed as wide or narrow (relative to that
of other faces); individually, each character
in a typeface also exhibits its own body
proportion. Baseline
The characters in any given font may be

designed with variable bodies, changing
based on the individual character’s width;
or they may all be designed to fit within
a single body measure. Such faces are Descent Line
referred to as fixed width or monospaced.
Lead type slug Sidebearing
The body of most fonts

flexes in width from char-
acter to character, designed
to ensure even spacing
within text—what is called
optical, or variable-width,
body. Some fonts have
a fixed body width for all
the characters; these are
sometimes referred to as
monospaced fonts.
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53
font, face, and family
These three terms usually confuse design- Most font families consist
ers because they are often used inter- of four basic variants to
changeably, and because they’ve been used provide options for styling
Regular or Roman Italic text of different function or
to mean different things at different times. of different levels of impor-
For the record: The word font refers to the tance within a hierarchy.
design of a single character set, all sharing
the same proportional and stylistic quali-
Bold Bold Italic
ties. The word face means the same thing,
although it’s often used to refer to all the
variations of a character set’s style—mean-
ing, the light, bold, italic versions. This
latter usage is best described as a family, Some font families com-
meaning the group of varied character sets prise an extensive number
39 of variants—those that vary
that all share the same proportions and
in weight and posture, as
stylistic details. well as width. The typical
number of family variants
Type designers will often refer to what 45 46 47 48 49 has increased dramatically
they call the cut of a font or face—the spe- in recent years, aided by
cific interpretation of a font style as created automated functions in
by one designer or foundry or another. font design software; many
53 54 55 56 57 58 59 contemporary font designs
For example, one might speak about the
comprise these so-called
Stempel foundry’s cut of Garamond in superfamilies.
comparison to that cut by Claude Gara- 63 64 65 66 67 68
mond himself, or that produced by some
other foundry. The word cut (not surpris-
ingly) is a reference to the steel master 73 74 75 76
punch that created the typeface’s moulds
for casting in lead. The original Univers family
Each cut of a face or font is usually distin-

guished by its designer’s specific focus on
aspects of the font’s structure, proportion,
and detailing that he or she found inter- The three typefaces shown
esting, or on some external desire that here are all based on the
form known as Garamond,
informed how they went about reinterpret- and all are set in the Roman,
ing the form—for example, an exception- Adobe Garamond Pro
or regular, weight at the
ally large lowercase and increased contrast same point size. Even a
between thin and thick strokes is charac- quick comparison reveals
significant differences
teristic of the ITC (International Typeface between each of these three
Corporation) cut of Garamond. cuts, released by different
ITC Garamond
foundries: heavier or lighter
weight; larger or smaller
lowercase; and relative
Proof 1 2
sharpness or softness in
the shape of the terminals,
among others.
Stempel Garamond

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anatomy & nomenclature
the parts of letters

Overshoot
All of the individual components of letters
(as well as of numerals) have names, given to
them over the past 2,000 years. The terms
for these parts are general and apply to
instances in every character that incorporates
them into its structure.
Stem or
Cap Height Main Stroke Serif Beak Apex Shoulder Shoulder
Ascent Line Aperture
Cap Line
Mean Line Spine

Counter Waist
Baseline
Joint(s) Leg Leg

Descent Line
Crossbar Thin Stroke Thick Stroke Tail

or Thin or Thick
x-Height Camelback
Ascent Line Crotch
Cap Line
Branch Tittle Ascender Eye Ear Eye Arc Arm
Mean Line
Aperture
Tail
Baseline
Counter Descender Link Return Leg

Descent Line
Proof 1 2
Descender:
Loop or Bowl

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55
To compensate for weight The weights of strokes are

buildup in joints, strokes situated differently, left to
at these locations are often right, in the curved forms of Swash
minutely tapered, or have a a given typeface—establish-
tiny notch “carved” out. ing an axis for those forms.
Ostensibly, the notch helps The axis may be perpendic-
absorb ink when the letter ular (90° to the baseline),
is printed (hence, ink trap), or oblique (slanted off
but it’s really about optical vertical, usually to the left:
Ink Trap evidence of drawing with
lightening of the joint.
brush or pen).
Crotch Arm or Crossbar Shoulder Shoulder
Upper Lobe
Waist
Stem Lower Lobe

Bowl
Vertex Stem Axis Bowl
Throat
Spur
Terminal:
Serif
Brush serif
Shear or cut Pothook
Tail
Tail
Return Descender: Axis Taper Ligature Font Slope

Tail (Italics)
Proof 1 2
Terminal: Vertical
Teardrop serif Midline

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anatomy & nomenclature
terminal shaping
Stroke terminals from face to face exhibit a Serif

huge range of shaping possibilities. Espe- Variations
cially in older typefaces, these differences
express evidence of the tool used to draw
them. As technologies changed, designers
could decide on terminal attributes inde-
pendent of the tool. The shaping of stroke Brushed Pen Wedge Flag Pear
terminals is one of the most pronounced
stylistic characteristics of a typeface—
despite how small a detail it may seem.
Teardrop Ball Hairline Slab Flared

Terminal Stem (Unbracketed)
Fillet
Bracket
Notched Sheared Beaked Split/ Swash

Bifurcated
Sans Serif
Variations
Structural Balancing Square Cut Sheared Rounded Rounded Round/Cut

or primary serifs (90° to stroke axis) Abrupt Smooth Hybrid
serifs
Proof 1 2
Concave Notched Flared Bulbed Semi-Serif

Hybrid

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joint formation
Similar to terminal shaping, the way that Apex/Vertex

strokes come together within the char-
acters of a particular face—how they are
joined—can also vary tremendously. The
attributes of the joints among different
characters within an alphabet contribute as
profound an influence on that typeface’s Pointed Flat Curled or Overshot Notched
overall style as do its terminal shapes; and Curved
these two elements must usually be visu-
ally related to support characters’ stylistic
cohesion within the set. Crossbar
Strokes join at particular places in different
characters and, in each—in the A, for
instance, as opposed to in the K or B or
R—the kinds of strokes that are merging
may be very different (a diagonal and a
vertical, for example, versus a vertical Uniform Modulated/ Rounded Notched Disconnected
Concave or convex
and horizontal, or a vertical and a curve).
When designing, it’s important to compare
each instance of a joint from character to
Waist
character to consider how the formation of
these junctures will be able to share some
attributes, as different in general structure
as they may be.
Smooth Smooth Abrupt Offset Pointed/ Connected

Curvilinear Horizontal or Disconnected
Branch
Smooth Abrupt Abrupt Notched and Disconnected

Curvilinear Curvilinear Rectilinear Angled
Lobe
Proof 1 2
Sloped Sloped Horizontal Reversed/ Chiseled
Smooth Abrupt Returned

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design variables
style weight contrast
This broad term can describe several differ- The strokes of a face’s characters can be The strokes within a given typeface may
ent aspects of a typeface: whether it has serifs thick or thin overall, relative to their height. all be drawn to appear the same weight,
or not; its historical or formal characteristics; The design of most typefaces begins with or thickness; or they may vary in weight
how reserved or expressive its qualities are; developing a medium, or regular, weight— within each character. The degree of
and its intended use, whether for extensive one whose stroke thickness results in weight difference between the thin strokes
reading or short display applications. an even alternation between stroke and (or thins) and the thick strokes (or thicks)
counter that produces the appearance of defines the face’s internal contrast. The
a uniform gray value when set in text. more extreme a typeface’s contrast, the less
even will be its color when set in text.
01 / Style: Structural Class

The characters in a face
of uniform weight are
designed to appear all
the same thickness,
whether the face is over-
Serif Sans Serif Script Thin Extra Light Light all light or bold.
02 / Style: Historical Class
Contrasting stroke weights,

Oldstyle Transitional Neoclassical Book Regular or Bold or shading, is typical of serif
Medium faces. Thin strokes may be
relatively similar in weight
03 / Style: Relative Neutrality to thicks (diminished con-
trast) or far lighter than the
thicks (extreme contrast).
Neutral Stylized Black or Heavy Extra Black, Super,

or Ultra
04 / Style: Functional Use
Historically, regular, or As noted earlier, individual
medium, stroke weight strokes may also exhibit
is one in which the contrast in weight, called
stroke’s thickness is 1/7 modulation. The rapidity
the height of the capital I. of change from heavier to
Text Display Some faces establish a lighter weight in the stroke
Proof 1 2
medium that is lighter or body is called ductus, which

heavier in weight. may be slow and fluid, or
quick and abrupt.

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59
width posture case
The characters of a specific face exhibit an A typeface may be structured such that the Following the Renaissance model, most
overall width, relative to their height. This stems of its characters are perpendicular to fonts are designed with two forms for each
width may be regular—historically defined as the baseline (or of Roman posture); alterna- letter—a majuscule, capital, or uppercase
a square of the height of the capital M—or, tively, the characters may slant to the right form; and a miniscule or lowercase form.
it may be narrower (condensed) or wider (ex- (Italic posture), usually at an angle of 10 to Sometimes, a font includes a set of small
tended) than that proportion. Contemporary 15° off vertical. The characters of most italic capitals (uppercase forms that are similar
faces are typically designed based on the M’s serif faces are drawn with their own forms; in height and weight to the lowercase);
width being about 80 to 90% of its height. sans serif italics are most often created some fonts are designed as “unicase,”
by simply slanting the Romans, creating a mixing uppercase and lowercase structures
posture called oblique. within a single character set.
Fundamental
stem structure
perpendicular
to baseline
Roman Uppercase or Capital [Majuscule]
Fundamental
stem structure
slanted, 12–15°
to the right
Condensed Regular Extended
Italic Lowercase [Miniscule]
Fundamental
stem structure
mechanically
slanted
Roman Proportion Modern Proportion Oblique Small Capital (compared to capital and lowercase)
In the classical Roman Contemporary width Slant is to the

model, characters are proportion is slightly left, rather than
designed to be of either more condensed overall, to the right. In
Proof 1 2
square or half square and characters are this case, the
proportion. designed to be visually slope angle is far
equivalent in width. greater than the
norm of 12–15°
Reverse Oblique or Backslanted Unicase

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style classification
serif
Oldstyle / Garalde
The serif form is the first major stylistic Minimal stroke contrast Small x-height, relative
classification for typefaces—first, because Rounded serifs with to cap height
it is the oldest form of Western writing. Its generous brackets Deep ascent/descent
chief characteristic is that of small, hori- Smoothed joints measures
zontal, linear details at the terminals of its Most extreme, oblique
strokes, sometimes referred to as “feet.” axis in curved forms
Various serif styles are typically categorized

by their characteristics based on when Oldstyle / Venetian
those attributes appeared historically, as Minimal stroke contrast Small, but slightly taller,
they represent the definitive evolution Slightly sharpened, as x-height than Garaldes
of type forms from primitive to more well as rounded, serifs Deep ascent/descent
advanced. Subcategories have been estab- with restrained brackets measures
lished to describe regional differences in More abrupt joints Oblique curve axis
serifs’ visual characteristics as well.
In general, serif faces display the evidence
of the brush or pen originally used to make Transitional
them, especially in the shaping of stroke Pronounced stroke Increased x-height
terminals and joints; the height of the low- contrast Reduced ascent/descent
ercase, relative to that of the uppercase, is Sharply cut, angular measures
smaller the older the face, and increases in serifs with rapid ductus More upright curve axis
height over time. Most serif faces present in the brackets
an uneven, offset distribution of weight in
the curved forms, like the O, resulting in
the rotation of their internal counters off
Rationalist (also: Modern, Neoclassical, or Didone)
the 90° vertical axis—again, a characteris-
tic of their drawing with brush or pen. Extreme stroke contrast Markedly increased
Unbracketed, hairline x-height
Contemporary serif designs often merge serifs and occasional Reduced ascent/descent
stylistic qualities of prior classes, together ball serifs measures
with those of sans serifs, simplifying them Perpendicular curve axis
for a cleaner, less organic quality.
Inscribed or Glyphic
Minimal stroke contrast Relatively large x-height
and instances of uniform Reduced ascent/descent
stroke weight measures
Minimal, wedge-like Abrupt joints and visible
serifs with minimal angularity in curves, as
Throughout this section, bracketing
guide lines and curve axes though chiseled
for each specimen are Oblique curve axis
diagrammed in light gray,
where appropriate; callouts Contemporary
Proof 1 2
in red isolate elements of

interest for comparison. Minimal stroke contrast Very large x-height
Small, less varied serifs Shallow ascent/descent
with rapid ductus in the measures
brackets Generally upright axis in
Abrupt joints the curved forms

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sans serif
Grotesque
The sans serif form is the second, major Relatively bold weight Curved joints with
class of typeface style. They are principally Moderately condensed abrupt ductus
characterised by their lack of serifs (“sans”, body and compressed Reduced ascent/descent
in French, means “without) and an overall counters measures
uniform stroke weight. As discussed in the Noticeable stroke Instances of serif forms,
first chapter, sans serifs were first devel- contrast as in the lowercase g
oped in the early 1800s, but didn’t gain
wide acceptance until the early part of the Gothic
20th century.
Slightly bolder than More abrupt joints
Subcategories of the sans serif classifica- historically regular Reduced ascent/descent
tion, developed within the past 100 years or weight measures
so, generally are defined by visual attri- Medium body width Instances of serif form,
butes of their formation—how rigorously Greater stroke weight as in the lowercase g
geometric they are, for instance—although uniformity
such characteristics are usually also related
to specific time periods: the Humanist
Geometric
sans serif form, for example, first came
Conventionally medium Moderate ascent/
about in the 1910s.
weight in the regular descent measures
Because sans serifs came to be after the Slightly extended width Pronounced circularity
evolution of the serif, they tend to exhibit Greater regularity in in curves and nearly
characteristics of the later serif variants, width among characters isometric (45°) angles
in the diagonals
like those of Rationalist style: a large Fluid branch joints
x-height and a 90° curve axis. Modern g form
Neo-Grotesque
Conventionally medium Very large x-height and
weight in the regular further reduced ascent/
Slightly extended width descent measures
Further increased reg- Less purely circular

ularity in width among curved forms than in a
characters Geometric sans
Humanist
Slightly lighter than Slight modulation in
typical weight in the stroke weights
regular or Roman Greater variation in
Slightly condensed curve formation
body widths Instances of serif forms
Rectilinear or Machined
Proof 1 2
Constructed solely of Slightly condensed
angular strokes and, width
sometimes, from a Abrupt joints
repeated module shape
Reduced ascent/
descent measures

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slab serif
Grotesque or Antique
Technically, most slab-serif typefaces— Heavy slabs, oftentimes Compressed counters
an invention of the Industrial Revolution awkwardly so, without Large x-height and
when sans serifs were declared unaccept- bracketing diminished ascent/
able—are sans serif faces with serifs stuck Generally bold or descent measures
back onto them. Like their serifless coun- extra-bold weight
terparts, their lowercase characters tend to
be quite large, relative to the height of the
uppercase, and their curved forms most
Scotch or Clarendon
often show weight distributed evenly left to
Overall lighter weight Greater stroke contrast
right across the characters’ 90° axis.
Extended width Includes serif charac-
Following their initial appearance in the teristics
Serifs are of the weight
early 1800s—when their form was new of the thins, with The term Scotch refers
and not yet well-resolved—slab serifs restrained bracketing to a style of transitional
increasingly came to follow the character- of rapid ductus serif faces with heavier
serifs than are typical
istics of sans serif styles; subclassifications
are also described as being Geometric,
Modern or Geometric
Neo-Grotesque, or Humanist, depending
Conventionally medium Fluid or abrupt branch
on which sans serif style they’re based.
weight in the regular joints
A somewhat recent development in slab Slightly extended width Pronounced circularity
serif designs is an exaggerated rectilin- Greater regularity in in curves and nearly
earity in their curves, coupled with abrupt width among characters isometric (45°) angles
in the diagonals
joints between vertical and curved elements.
Neo-Grotesque and Humanist

Members of this as well as their joints,
subcategory tend to tend to be unbracketed
follow the characteris- and abrupt; those in
tics of their sans serif Humanist forms tend to
counterparts in most be bracketed and more
respects. The serifs in curvacious.
Neo-Grotesque forms,
Italienne (also called French Clarendon)

Pronounced reversal Typically abrupt,
of weight between verti- unbracketed serifs
cal stems and horizontals Generally condensed
(generally, the serifs, rath- width
er than among crossbars
or waists).
Rectilinear
Proof 1 2
Emphasis on vertical Slightly condensed

stems width
Squared-off curves of Abrupt joints
tight radius and rapid Reduced ascent/descent
ductus measures

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script
Cursive / Spencerian
The script form derives from informal writ- Deep, horizontally Exaggerated ascent/
ing, as made on the fly, rather than from inclined slope descent measures
formal inscription models. Its origin lies in Relatively condensed Relatively light weight
Roman cursives used on a daily basis for body width and pronounced stroke
notes, letters, and invitations, as opposed Small x-height contrast
to other writing structures that were meant Fluid, extended finishing
strokes for connection
for permanance. In essence, a script is
about handwriting. Chancery
Historical nomenclature notwistanding, Pronounced pen- Exaggerated ascent/
the term cursive describes a script with shaping in terminals descent measures
fluid, interconnective strokes between More upright slope More conventional
letters—as would occur if writing sponta- Medium stroke contrast medium weight
neously with a pen. The chancery style is a Larger x-height Abrupt stroke finishes
formalized version of the cursive, distin- that do not connect
characters
guished by clear separation of its charac-
ters, an evoution that dates to the Middle
Upright
Ages. The remaining subclassifications
Pronounced lack of Exaggerated ascent
have more to do with characteristics of
slope (perpendicularity) measure falling below
style, referring to the English Spencerian the capline
Unusually small x-height
period or, later, post-Industrial periods. Near-vertical axis in
Pronounced stroke
The most freeform of the scripts is that contrast curved forms
which is designed to emulate natural hand- Fluid, extended finishing
writing—which, surprisingly, is the most strokes for connection
contemporary of script concepts. These
Industrial
fall into the category known as “casuals,”
More upright slope Minimal stroke contrast
scripts that are less regimented in their
form (and often derived from vernacular, Curves of tight, squared- More contrived, less
off radius and rapid spontaneous/organic
or “undesigned” sources); their freshness ductus terminal shaping
relies on the creation of alternate versions
Strong horizontal Generally smaller x-height
of characters to prevent easily noticed repe- emphasis Pronounced descent
titions of recurring characters—and, so, measure
avoid an artificial quality.
Casual (includes Handwritten and Graffiti forms)
Strokes drawn with Great variety in stroke
brush, pen, marker, or terminal and joint
spray paint characteristics
Generally noticeable (at Moderate to large
a minimum) to extremely x-height, when lower-
dramatic variation in case are present
character height, width, May be mixed case
and overall shaping or unicase
Letterforms_interiors_046-081_c2.indd 63 9/3/18 2:50 PM Proof 1 2

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display or ‘graphic’: embellished

Stenciled
Display faces are those that are designed These faces are, self- open and apertured forms
with expressive, even ostentatious, visual explicitly, drawn as if (as opposed to closed ones,
characteristics for titling, callouts, and other made using a stencil— like the D and O). Any basic
major stroke formations style may be stenciled.
accentuating typographic applications— are separated by a small
not for continuous reading, for which their space, even including
distracting optical qualities would make
them unuseful.
Display faces can be divided into two Outline / Inline
major categories; the first might be said to An outline face is one When the contours
include those that are, in essence, straight- that essentially appears become thick enough
forward serif, sans serif, or slab serif forms “white” or “transpar- that the strokes appear
ent,” its contours solid—but retain an
that are somehow decorated or embel- described by relatively interior linear counter—
lished. This kind of display face typically lightweight lines. they are called inline
follows the rules for character proportion, faces.
stroke weight and contrast, curve logic
and diagonal architecture that apply to
Chiseled / Engraved
text faces—it’s just that they also integrate
The terms chiseling and may run vertically along
graphical elements that supersede their
engraving refer to linear the stems (and so, may
fundamental construction. These elements embellishments that also be characterized
may be as simple as an outlining of the appear to be drawn on as an inline face), or
core structure; they may involve decoration the surfaces of the char- horizontally, creating a
acters. Such chiseled linear pattern.
of characters’ internal surface area.
or engraved detailing
The subcategories shown here describe
general distinctions; as always, there are
Decorated
plenty of hybrids and deviations to be
found in this, as well as other, stylistic A tremendous variety in nature, or extremely
of fonts is embellished geometric in their pat-
classification categories. with complex, detailed terning. Such decoration
ornamentation across is typical of serif display
their surfaces. These fonts created during the
may be florid, calligraph- 16th–19th centuries.
ic, and even pictorial
Shadowed
A shadowed font is one the appearance of a
in which the characters’ cast shadow under-
primary stroke informa- neath. When set in a
tion appears “white,” page environment, the
or invisible against the primary stroke material
background—defined by is transparent.
Two-Toned / Chromatic
Proof 1 2
These are faces that the appearance of being

integrate positive and cast or extruded from
negative strokes within solid material, and
each character. They sometimes incorporate
can appear flat or chiseled or engraved
dimensional, giving details.

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display or ‘graphic’: abstracted

Distorted / Textural
At the other extreme of the display clas- Thousands of display organic or geometric
sification are forms that fundamentally faces fall into this in quality) and textural
violate established structural norms—that category, which is chiefly deformations.
characterized by irregu-
is, they’re not really like a basic serif, sans lar contouring (whether
serif, slab serif, or script that has been
decorated or embellished.
Instead, typefaces in this class of display
forms flout conventions of construction Constructed: Modular
through a variety of means, from distortion These are faces whose The shapes themselves
of expected character contours to con- character formation is may be geometric or
struction based on modular or illustrative clearly contrived and organic in their quality.
built from combinations
components; or drawing styles based on of one, two, or more
reference to forms that aren’t fundamen- basic shapes.
tally classical in their derivation, like those
based on embroidery.
It’s an unfortunate state of affairs that Constructed: Nonmodular
most historical forms, like the blackletter This kind of face also not based on the same
or ancient Greek Boustrophedon, must be calls attention to the building blocks. As a
relegated to this category—because their fact of its structure, but result, their internal
in contrast to those of language appears more
stylistic qualities are no longer familiar
the modular variety, the highly varied and less
enough to qualify them for easy read- shapes used to form mechanical.
ing, and because they carry a significant the strokes are typically
amount of narrative baggage.
As wild as the form of any display face be- Illustrated
comes, however, the same considerations Any typeface in which parts, and animal
one must resolve to ensure rhythmic and the characters are or human figures—or
stylistic logic for text faces apply here. formed using pictorial anything else, for that
images of objects— matter (sometimes in
which may consist of combination).
plant matter, machine
Vernacular
Typefaces whose signpainting), or purely
strokes are formed from nontypographic sources
graphical languages (like stitch patterns in
that are associated with sewing or embroidery)
specific technologies are called vernacular,
(like typewriter fonts), meaning “from the
naïve methods (like common or everyday.”
Archaic
Proof 1 2
Most of the older because their forms are
forms that consitute so decorative, narrative,
the evolution of writing and unfamiliar to con-
and typographic design temporary eyes.
may now be considered
display faces, simply

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formal conventions
ideal mechanics / the capitals
A hefty portion of this book—the following The ideal Roman super-

chapter, especially—is devoted to seeing structure is a rectangle
how the optical qualities of letters’ strokes whose dimensions are
defined by the capital H.
and counters must be judged on a case-by-
case basis, because they do things to our This master rectangle
is divided in half, along
eyes in such a way that defies relying on the form’s vertical axis,
measured, mathematical construction. and again, along the
horizontal axis—creat-
The reality, though, is that the master ing four quadrants of
structure governing alphabetic form boils equal proportion. The
down to a simple, geometric framework: stroke information of
the letter body is a space broken into letters is distributed
more or less evenly
four quadrants. Each quadrant contains among the quadrants.
a portion of a letter’s structure, and these In serif forms, the base
portions more or less mirror each other, rectangle is defined by
top to bottom and left to right. It’s one of the outer sides of the
stems, not including
the hallmarks of the Western alphabet that the serifs.
its letters are so modular—varied enough
for distinction between characters, but easy
to memorize as a set because they’re so
closely related in structure.
A quick review of early Phoenician, Greek,
and Roman writing in the previous chapter
will reveal that primitve letter structure
was formed mostly of angles—primarily
because they’re easier to carve into stone
An ideal italic form is
than curves. Once curves came into the based on the same
picture, and as proportional logic began to quadrant formation,
change, the same basic idea remained as a but the base rectangle
standard to achieve. is skewed to the right,
forming a parallelogram.
The optical manipulations discussed later Interestingly, the 12°
on, therefore, are all aimed at making sure slant typical of most
italics derives from a
the letters appear, or feel like, they uphold number sacred to
this symmetrical quadrant structure, even Christian numerology.
though they mathematically can not.
Proof 1 2

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The majority of upper-

case characters are
bilaterally symmetrical,
evidence of their earlier
invention. The aspect ratio of the The diagonals in other
base rectangle (how letters, such as the A,
wide it is compared to V, M, and R cannot
its height) is described usually be drawn at
by a diagonal from up- the same angle and
per left corner to lower still maintain optically
right corner. This diag- consistent width in
Several characters onal axis is the source these characters—still,
are symmetrical from of the primary diagonal they are often adjusted
top to bottom. Stroke language in the font—as in different ways to feel
elements in their right- defined by the diagonal more closely related to
hand quadrant areas are stem in the N. that of the N.
typically extended further
and given extra weight
to help them seem more
bilaterally symmetrical.
Some characters are

rotationally symmetri-
cal, meaning that their
stroke formations and
densities are mirrored
between the corner
quadrants. Joints between strokes
are designed to appear
at the same height and
to mimic each other in
angularity and shaping.
The capital O in geomet-
ric and neo-grotesque
sans serif fonts, as well
as in Rationalist serifs,
tends to be bilaterally
symmetrical (left); in
fonts with oblique curve
axis, the O tends to be
rotationally symmetrical.
In angled forms with and volume. In the

repeating structures, the crossed-form W at far
downstroke (dominant) right, the smaller and
Proof 1 2
angles are parallel, as larger of the crossed
are the upstroke (sub- counters “add up”
oridnate) diagonals. in their combined vol-
The counters in such ume to match that
forms, as with all the of the counters at left
letters, are designed to and right.
mirror each in shape

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68
formal conventions
ideal mechanics / the lowercase
The construction of lowercase forms, being Ascent Line

a late addition to the official alphabet, fol-
lows a different kind of logic. Some of the
Cap Line
characters—a, e, k, m, o, v, x, s—do still
Ascent height
refer to the symmetrical, quadrant relation-
ships of the capitals (and it might stand out
that these sometimes are simply reduced Mean Line
versions of their uppercase parents, and
they also tend to represent the most basic
sounds of speech).
x-Height
The visual ideals to which designs for the
lowercase forms aspire are more holisti-
cally about their relationship to each other
than they are to a fixed structural model;
the bulk of typographic design is made
up of lowercase text that must facilitate The aspect ratio, or Baseline
extensive reading. Even so, the lowercase height-to-width relation-
Descent Depth
exist in relation to the capitals, and so must ship, of the lowercase
characters should follow
be designed to correspond to them. that of the uppercase.
Most specifically, the body of the lowercase Descent Line
must share proportion with that of the up- The height of the lower-
case is defined by that
percase, having a similar height/width as- of the letter x, which is
pect ratio, so that the capitals don’t seem to the only character that
pop out as different when they occasionally comprises flat-topped
appear. The height of the lowercase must stroke terminals at its
left-most and right-most
accommodate greater density in stroke boundaries.
information, yet still allow enough room
The ascent and descent
above to fit the ascending strokes within measures are, in essence,
the capital body, ensuring easy horizontal defined by the x-height.
flow. The descent measure should mirror Ideally, these two mea-
sures should be identical
that of the ascent so that descenders hug
so that ascenders and
the line and avoid conflict with ascenders descenders seem propor-
in a line of text below. tional in relation to each
other, and to the capitals;
and so that they remain as
close to the line of text as
possible to minimize their
sometimes distracting
qualities.
Between these three their respective struc-

faces, compare the tures results in radically
Proof 1 2
effects of their varied different densities and

x-heights, aspect ratios, spacing rhythm that is,
and ascent/descent each time, characteristic
measures. In each case, of the given font.
this confluence of inter-
related variables in

Text SLC Page: 68
69
Note the overshoot

of curves and angles
both at the mean
line and the cap line.
The loop extending from

the link in an oldstyle
g typically rests on, or
rides, the baseline.
The majority of the low- dense characters like the

ercase characters’ struc- a and e), the ascent line
tures is contained within is sometimes pushed
the area of the x-height. higher than the capline
The area above the to provide more room
mean line, extending to for the f’s shoulder. In
the cap line, is the basic any event, the depth of
As in the design of the measure to be used for descending characters is
uppercase, major joint ascending strokes. If the the same as (or very
structures in the lower- x-height is somewhat slightly less than) that of
case are designed to large (to accommodate ascending characters.
be identical in position
and shaping.
Most of the lowercase join with vertical (in which the curves
characters exhibit an stems—like the b, d, p, branch from a stem and
emphasis on the circular and q—are directly then join a subsequent
component of the derivative of the O in stem) compress the
structure. Those with their curvature and o’s curve to maintain
more completely circular outer widths. Those a consistent counter
Proof 1 2
elements, or lobes, that like the n, m, and r shape and interval.
Lowercase forms are differentiated—the
rhythmically more result of their heritage in
regular than their upper- miniscule forms of the
Several lowercase forms
case counterparts, but Middle Ages.
are simply reduced versions
also are more greatly
of their capitals with minor
detail changes.

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formal conventions
standard weight distribution
In every typeface—even in display fonts—

each kind of stroke in a letter is charac-
tersitically heavier or lighter in weight,
regardless of style. The standard for which
kinds of strokes are heavier, and which
are lighter, originates in their drawing by
brush and pen: the flat edges of these tools,
deposit more ink or paint in very specific
places along a stroke, depending on the
Horizontal strokes are
angle at which the tool is held, and the always lighter in weight,
direction the stroke is being drawn. relative to any given ver-
tical. How much lighter
The conventional distribution of heavier, they are depends on the
thickly weighted strokes (or thicks) and relative weight contrast
those that are of lighter weight (thins) in among strokes within a
certain places is so heavily ingrained in our Vertical strokes are particular style. Dominant, or downward
always heavy in weight. directional, diagonal
asethetic appreciation of type that devia-
They form the basis of strokes are always heavy
tions appear awkward or illformed. This is most letters, and so this in weight.
true even in those faces that are designed weight defines that of
to appear as though their characters’ other dominant strokes
in characters made up
strokes are uniform in weight throughout.
of diagonals or curves.
Reversing established Other exceptions include

weight immediately makes the Z, the U, and the
a letter appear awkward and numeral 7. In the case
wrong (like the H), or that it of both Z and 7, the rea-
is backward, like the A. soning behind the weight
Two important exceptions reversal is that it accen-
are the capital N and M. If tuates the character’s
drawn following the logic dominant stroke. In the
noted above, the results U, it’s about maintaining
would deviate significantly consistent heavy/light
from surrounding forms— alternation in the form
all of the strokes in the N that is prevalent in other
would appear heavy, as characters; it also follows
would all but one in the M. from the logic of the V,
The source for this logic is with which the U shares a
in these characters’ archaic linguistic, as well as visual,
forms, which were both relationship.
Proof 1 2
drawn as sets of diagonals.

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71
Curved strokes always

comprise two weights,
transitioning from light
weight as the curve
moves from a horizontal
direction to heavy as the
curve proceeds into a
vertical direction. In the wave-form, or
joined half circle, stroke—
the kind that forms the
S—the weight within the
stroke transitions from
light to heavy to light,
following the same logic
Subordinate, or upward This logic follows the as seen in the formation
directional, diagonal weight relationship of simple, semi-circular
strokes are always light- established by vertical curved strokes.
er in weight; in a given and horizopntal straight
typeface, the subordi- strokes, respectively.
nate diagonals are the
same optical weight as
the horizontal strokes.
It’s easy to see how

weight differences are
distibuted within a serif
style (because there are
thicks and thins) but
less so in a sans serif
of purportedly uniform
stroke weight. These
enlarged sans serif
characters show that
the historical legacy of
a brush-drawn form still
governs the design of
modern faces. Each
is accompanied by a
small point-size version
for comparison.

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72
formal conventions
proportional regularity visual stability
The chief goal in any typeface design is Despite variation in the kinds of shapes
the appearance that all the characters are and structures that make up each letter,
the same height, the same width (or, more they must feel stable: upper stories should
accurately, that the strokes seem all the appear centered over lower stories, and
same distance apart, separated by spaces seem top-heavy; from left to right, char-
that all appear the same dimension). In the acters should feel evenly weighted, even
lowercase, ascenders and descenders, as when they’re asymmetrical.
previously noted, should appear equivalent
in their respective height and depth.
All of the uppercase Characters that com-

characters should prise an upper and
appear to be the same lower half should appear
height—as should symmetrically divided
all of the lowercase along the horizontal
characters that don’t axis. The upper story
incoprorate ascenders should be centered visu-
or descenders ally over the lower one.
As different in form as
they are, all of the char-
acters in a font should
seem as though they’re
the same width; strokes
Asymmetrical, as well as
should appear separated
symmetrical, characters
by the same amount of
should appear evenly
counter throughout.
weighted from left to right,
and establish a similar
sense of overall width as
compared to characters
that are defined by strokes
on both left and right.
The height of the
ascenders should
match the depth
Proof 1 2
of the descenders

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gestural continuity consistent counter presence
Within each letter, the strokes move into The counters among different characters
and out of each other with continuous and should appear to be of the same volume;
related kinds of thrust, appearing interde- each of the two or more counters within a
pendent and inseparable. As each kind of single character should appear equivalent;
stroke pushes or pulls inward or outward and the volume of counter, relative to the
in one location, threatening instability, amount of stroke density, in each character
strokes in other locations must correspond- should appear the same. This similarity
ingly pull or push back to restabilize the in stroke/counter ratio should be optically
form. Joint and terminal shapes should equivalent between uppercase and lower-
relate to gestural thrust and be similar case forms, as well.
among all the forms.
The little directional arrows on a character finds an Strokes that meet in joints The counters in these Within an individual cases, the ratio of counter
on top of the characters, opposing counterpoint in should fluidly appear to uppercase and lowercase character, internal presence (compared to
above, describe the thrust another location. This ges- merge into each other, as forms have been isolated counter components character body and stroke
Proof 1 2
direction of individual tural correspondence also though each is growing and disconnected to are relatively similar in material) is also roughly
strokes and their contours is expressed in terminal from, or is a continuation better compare how volume or visual mass; equivalent.
in particular places. Note and joint details, identified of, the other stroke. overall similar each is to the same is true, in
how the outward push by the small circles. the others in terms of aggregate, between the
of a curve, or the way it relative visual volume, counter(s) in one char-
raises and lowers along despite how different in acter and the others;
an axis in one location shape they all are. and, between the two

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74
formal conventions
consistent angularity consistent curve shaping
The diagonal strokes among angled letters All of the curves in a character set should look
should appear, or feel, as though they are as though they are of the same radius, no
of the same angle, relative to the vertical matter where they appear, or how relatively
axis—even though this condition is phys- larger or smaller they are—again, a physical
ically impossible if the characters are also impossibility, given how the curves will have
to appear the same width. The angularity to interact with other kinds of stroke structures
of the diagonals should be reflected in in different forms. Curves along an interior
the cut, or shear, of the terminals and in counter always “track” those of the exterior
the relative pointiness or flatness of joints of the stroke, widening steadily as the stroke
between angled strokes. moves from horizontal orientation to vertical
and back again.
The stroke angles

among the diagonal
characters are designed
to mimic each other
in angularity, relative
to the master body, as
closely as possible.
The relative circularity of The O defines a “master” In asymmetrical charac-

the curves among forms— curve, which is (in essence) ters, the curves tend to
not their mathematically scaled to different propor- mirror each other from
The terminals in measured radii—is the tions to define other curves. top to bottom.
most fonts are finished critical factor in creating
in such a way that the unity within a given face.
angle at which they
90° 90° are cut corresponds to
the kind of angularity The interior curves
found among the diago- of strokes abutting
nals’ strokes. counters track those
of outer contours.
75° 75°
Similarly, joints between Large, structural curves

straight and angled are typically mirrored
strokes refer to overall in radius and ductus
Proof 1 2
angularity, and are con- by smaller curves that

sistent from character appear in details (such
to character. as one finds in joints
and serif brackets).

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75
consistent weight and contrast consistent modulation and ductus
All of the characters in a font should In typefaces whose strokes modulate, or

appear to be the same weight, whether the taper in thickness from one end to the other
characters are without contrast (of uniform (as opposed to being parallel), the degree
stroke weight) or show variation in weight or “speed” of change from thick to thin, or
(shading, or the presence of thicks and vice versa—the ductus—should appear the
thins)—in which case, the gestalt, or same in every character. Curvilinear forms
visual aggregate, of thicks and thins in one in every typeface show modulation, even if
character, should appear the same as that the stems don’t; in such cases, the ductus
in any other. Thicks should be the same should reflect the relative lack of change that
thickness—and thins the same thinness— the stems exhibit.
throughout.
All of the characters in Slow or fluid ductus

a given typeface should
appear to be the same
weight—none lighter
or darker overall. This
is true of fonts that are
uniform in weight, as
well as in those with
strokes of contrasting
weight (thins and thicks).
In a typeface with con-

trasting stroke weights,
the thin strokes should
be equivalent in weight
(wherever they appear),
as should the thick Rapid or abrupt ductus
strokes.
Thick
Thin
Serifs should all appear

the same size and
weight; in general, they
Proof 1 2
are designed to match
the weight of the thins,
although sometimes
they are designed to be
slightly lighter.

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76
formal conventions
correspondence between cases similarity of variations
The lowercase forms should appear to be Within families that include variants in As weight changes from light to bold, the
of the same proportion as their correspond- weight (light, medium, and bold ver- overall width of the forms should remain
ing uppercase—neither more extended sions, for example) or width (condensed, optically consistent; as width changes
nor condensed. Uppercase and lowercase medium, and extended)—or both—the from condensed to extended, the weights
forms within a single character set should differences between each variant should of the characters from width to width
appear to be the same weight (whether uni- be not only appreciable, but similar in should be the same.
form or contrasting). The stroke/counter degree—that is, for instance, that the Italic variants should appear the same
ratio, again, should be similar between the difference in weight between the light width as their Roman counterparts.
two cases—in both forms of a single letter, and medium should be equivalent to that
and from letter to letter. between the medium and bold.
In general and, as closely These three characters

as possible, the aspect from the same font
ratio of the uppercase family appear to be
and lowercase should the same width, even
strive to be identical. though their weights
are different.
It’s worth noting again Conversely, these three

that the weight(s) of characters (also from
the lowercase forms the same font family)
should appear identical appear to be the same
to those in the upper- weight, even though
case forms. Because their widths change.
there’s more stroke
information compressed
into a smaller area in
the lowercase, this usu-
ally means their strokes
must be mathematically
a tiny bit lighter.
Although clearly physically

wider than their Roman
Appreciated in aggre- counterparts because they
gate, the relative ratio slant, the apparent width
between stroke in of the italic examples is the
counter should be the same as that of the Roman.
Proof 1 2
same in the lowercase This appearance, as noted

as in the uppercase. on page 66, is the result of
optical similarity in stroke
separation, rather than of
measuring of any kind.

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77
well-made italics and scripts modular and fixed-width forms
Needless to say, the apparent heights, usually benefit from the inclusion of Although typically designed for industrial
widths, weights, curvatures, angularity, alternate characters to prevent noticeable or electronic application (typewriters,
and stroke/counter intervals among italic repetitions that might be appreciated as text-reading software, and digital bill-
characters in a set should be consisent artificial or mechanical in feeling. boards), these rigidly constructed faces
throughout. Further, the apparent slant, offer narrative potential and pose several
or slope, of all the characters should challenges to type designers because of
appear identical. their mechanical limitations. Of chief con-
Script forms, intended to mimic the cern are character recognition and overall
fluidity of handwriting, are typically color consistency, given the constraints
designed with extended finishing strokes such faces impose.
to connect characters in sequence, and
Special care must be readily identifiable, and

taken in structuring not easily confused with,
All of the characters in characters made from other similar forms.
an italic font should modular forms (whether
appear to slope at the pixel-based or not) to
same angle. ensure that each is
A script is generally
considered well made
when it includes finishing
strokes that mimic the
fluid continuity of hand-
writing to some degree.
Proof 1 2
Fixed-width, or counter rhythm and, somewhat bolder than
monospaced, typefaces therefore, color. In other characters. Word
present challenges with most such faces, dense spaces, on the other
regard to achieving characters like the m hand, usually appear far
consistent stroke/ (of both cases) always bigger and more open.
appear condensed and

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78
formal conventions
macro/micro style logic
Consistent character structure, proportion, This contemporary serif

weight, contrast, and posture within any face includes a lot of
typeface define the minimum conditions stylistic variation in de-
tailing for a text face, but
for stylistically integrating all the members notice how they appear
of a character set...but perfection is in the in different combina-
details. It’s when the big picture of gestural tions among the letters
movement and shaping are reflected in the to create more cohesion
among them overall.
smaller elements—the shear of terminals,
the turning radius of brackets in serifs,
even the shape of a tittle—that the holistic
interrelationship of the forms within a font
comes to life and unifies them as a totality
of expression.
A well-resolved typeface expresses analo-
gous logic between macro and micro levels
of form, as well as among the tiny details
as a subset of the overall idea. Depend-
ing on a font’s relative neutrality of style,
this analogous logic may be more strictly
limited in its variation (the parts are more
similar), or show a wider range of differ-
ent kinds of logic details that intermix in
different combinations. The nature of con-
sistency in formal logic, as in any system,
is flexible: It may be simpler and more
regimented or more complex and organic.
Most scripts incorpo- Looking closely, however,
rate a staggering range will reveal remarkable
of variation in their similarity among deci-
structural and stylistic sions. The designer has
details—it’s the nature made an effort in the
of the beast, an attempt opposing direction: that
to impart the form with of ensuring the forms
the organic spontaneity feel related anyway.
of natural handwriting.
Like the serif shown

at top, this sans serif
exhibits a wide array of
details that aim to give
it a more expressive
Proof 1 2
personality—unlike the
neutral sans serif above
ALI SCIANDRA / USA
PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
Timothy Samara, instructor

Text SLC Page: 78
79
This sans serif face, in

contrast to the serif above,
exhibits greater regularity
in its detailing, which
is one of the reasons it
feels exceptionally clean
and neutral.

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80
formal conventions
rhythmic regularity and color
As far as fonts that are intended for in-

depth, extended reading are concerned,
the ultimate goal of all the consistency in
proportion, stroke interval, and detailing
under discussion is a relentlessly even
texture that won’t distract readers from
reading—given how intellectually labor-
intensive reading is, the brain will look
for any way to get out of it that it can. This
texture, or “color,” should resolve itself, at
a glance, as a middle-value gray without
interruption: no big bright spots, created
by counters that are too large, nor dark
clusters of strokes being too close together
or mistmatched in weight.
At left, the text shown The evenness of color The effect is the result In the bottom example,
above is shown again, that the text specimen of tinkering with the the repeated, lightly
but reduced to a con- at top produces is minutiae of character tinted instance of the
ventional text size. The considered ideal, the structure such that every specimen shows the
gray rectangles below goal to be achieved heavy stroke—those heavy strokes called out
Proof 1 2
approximate this text’s when designing a font within characters, and in red to illustrate this
visual effect—that of an for extended reading. between characters condition emphatically.
uninterrupted texture. when the text is properly
spaced—appears equi-
distant.

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81
Text color in sans Sans serifs usually

serif faces tends to be benefit from being
of greater density and spaced a little more
darkness than that of loosely in text to help
serifs: the body of the alleviate this density,
lowercase is larger, fill- which can seem
ing more of the line; and a little aggressive.
there are no thins.
Fonts with extreme con- Very often, the dis-

trast in their characters’ traction produced by
stroke weights create flicker or strobing can
spotty, uneven color— be significantly reduced
what is often called by increasing interline
strobing or flicker. space (more leading)
While they’re excellent between lines of text.
for headlines or callouts,
text set in such fonts
usually suffers from
appearing overly active.
Rationalist serifs and
many scripts fall into
this category.
In similar need of atten- different in width—mak-

tion when setting them ing counters in curved
in text are geometric forms appear as large
sans serifs, especially holes, and creating
those based on Roman situations where vertical
proportion. Their un- strokes are sometimes
even color results from close together and
characters being much sometimes far apart.
Super condensed fonts, comfortable to read for

especially ones of extended periods. When
bold weight, create an used at large sizes in
extremely dense color titling or headlines,
in lines of text. Usually, tightening their spacing
loosening the spacing helps improve the
a little helps make dynamism of their
such faces a little more appearance.
Proof 1 2
Even display faces with specimen at left—which
unusual proportions is great for stylistic unity,
and a variety of gestural but not so much for
movements may exhibit continuous reading.
a recognizably consis-
tent rhythm, as does the

Text SLC Page: 81
82
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 82
83
letterforms
One might assume that familiarity with the

basic standards and conventions of typeface
construction would be sufficient to start
designing a font. What those conventions
don’t reveal, however, are the challenges they
impose in achieving them: Designing a font for
extensive reading that requires a consistent
gray texture, in which all the letters appear to
have the same proportion and strokes of the
same weight, for instance, is not an exercise
in measuring. The variety of stroke shapes
and their individual kinds of movement, of
joints between them, and of the counters that
glue them all together, necessitate throwing
out the ruler. Ultimately, letterform design is
a game of optical illusions that compensates
for these differences to ensure the perception
of consistency—what is and what appears to
be are almost never the same.
Foundation
fundamentals of
character structure
and optics

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84
form perception
shape, mass, and space
Form is optically deceptive. Every kind of

shape affects our perception of it differently
than does another: it intrinsically embodies
a particular heaviness, or mass; its specific
contours produce individual kinds of move-
ment to track; it pushes into, recedes from,
or reshapes adjacent spaces in its own
way. Much of type design revolves around
taming these differences to achieve the
appearance of similarity—assuming the
goal is to make sure all the different kinds
of parts among characters look like they
belong to each other.
That means having to relearn how to see—
and, more critically, how to accept what
is seen, rather than measured, as true: If two
shapes are intended to be the same size,
but don’t look the same size, they’re not.
It’s extremely challenging to ignore math-
ematical facts when we’re aware of them;
worse, the differences to be evaluated
are usually tiny. One might think these
would be inconsequential when type forms
are reduced to a small size, but the oppo-
site is true: they become exaggerated. As
one develops a character set, regularly test-
ing their appearance at a common text size
(10 or 12 points, for instance) is critical.
Shown here are some basic optical relation-
ships among shapes and spaces to consider
as a starting point.
The square, circle, and kinds because all their in measure, the triangle A negative, or reversed
triangle in the grouping sides are clearly defined. also appears somewhat form (the white circle),
at the top of the page Circular forms appear narrower in width than looks larger than the
are mathematically the to contract because the does the square. same positive form
same height (check eye can’t fix on a specific In the grouping closer (the black circle), even
the guide lines). You’ll location anywhere on its to the bottom of the though they are math-
notice, however, that continuous curve. The ematically equivalent
Proof 1 2
page, the sizes of the

the square appears diagonal sides of the circle and triangle have in size (top). In the
larger than both the triangle, similarly, pull been adjusted—and lower example, the black
circle and the triangle. the eyes away from the the base of the triangle circle has been slightly
Rectangular forms form’s apex, causing it widened—so that all enlarged so both appear
appear larger than other to appear shorter than three forms appear to to be the same size.
the square; even though be the same size.
its sides are equilateral

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letterforms / foundation
In a form with an Forms that are mathe- The semicircle at top is In the top grouping of When two equivalent
aperture (top), the inte- matically centered within precisely half the width three lines, the middle forms are positioned
rior counter will appear a larger form (as is the and mass of the full circle one is mathematically directly above and
larger than one of the white square within the in the middle—but ap- centered between the below each other, the
same dimension that black square at top) will pears slightly condensed. upper and lower ones. upper one will appear
is completely enclosed appear lower than center. In the example at bottom, Similar to the example larger and heavier than
Proof 1 2
(middle). The enclosing In the lower example, the a little bit more of the with the square (at left), the one below it (top).
form itself will also white square has been original circle has been it appears lower than In the lower example,
appear more extended. raised very slightly so that revealed, resulting in a center. In the bottom the top circle has been
The lower example has it will appear centered semicircle that appears to example, the middle line slighlty reduced so that
been adjusted to correct within the black square. be an actual semicircle. has been raised slightly both will appear to be
for this illusion. so that it will appear to the same size.
be centered.

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86
form perception
line identity and perceived weight
Issues of mass and shape are generally

important with regard to overall character
proportion (and within exceptionally bold
characters) but, for the most part, the
design of type forms focuses on strokes—
it’s really all about lines.
Just like planar masses, the identity or
character of a line affects how we perceive
it. A vertical line, for instance, does things
to our eyes that are different than what a
horizontal, diagonal, or curved line does.
The primary difference that we perceive
among lines of differing character is that
of weight change—which happens to be
the most important thing to consider.
The fact that all of the characters’ strokes
within are the same thickness (or the same
combination of thicknesses) is what makes
that character set overall bold or light;
further, visual consistency in the color, or
density, of a type’s strokes as they repeat
sequentially is paramount in a text face,
to ensure uninterrupted eye movement
across a line of characters.
In a display face, or within a limited set of
characters in a logotype or an ad’s head-
line, even pronounced weight variation
among strokes may be desirable; still, the
specific relative stroke weights will need to
be evaluated to ensure clear, unified rhyth-
mic and stylistic logic in that grouping.
The vertical stroke force of gravity. (This Diagonal lines are will be perceived as
and the horizontal one misperception is the tricky. Compared to a lighter; conversely, the
are exactly the same same kind that affects vertical line, they will closer its angle is to true
weight, mathematically the centered square seem slightly heavier in horizonal, the heavier
speaking (top). Yet, the and line examples on weight; compared to a it will appear. The two
horizontal stroke appears the previous page.) The horizontal line, they will diagonals at top are
heavier than the vertical horizontal stroke in the seem lighter. The angle the same mathematical
Proof 1 2
one. This illusion results lower example has been of a diagonal affects weight as the horizontal
from our perception lightened in weight so how its weight is per- and vertical to the left;
of horizontal forms as that it appears to be ceived in comparison to in the lower pair, their
related to the horizon of the same thickness, or a vertical or horizontal weights have been
the Earth—that they are weight, as the vertical. line. As a diagonal’s adjusted to make them
affected by the angle becomes more appear equivalent.
acute, or upright, it

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87
In the same way that a and horizontal strokes. In the grouping below Following the logic At top is an enlarged
circular form appears A circular or curved that, the weights of the described at left, the diagram of the two cir-
smaller than a same- stroke that is moving various strokes have weight of a circular cular forms immediately
sized square form, horizontally will appear been adjusted so that all stroke must be thinned above, overlapped to
a circular stroke will heavier than a similarly- appear the same weight. where it moves hori- show this difference.
generally appear lighter weighted vertical, and a zontally (at cap line and The circle at left is
Proof 1 2
than either a horizontal vertically moving stroke baseline, essentially), uniform in weight all
or vertical stroke—but will appear lighter. otherwise the stroke will the way around, while
again, the direction of In the grouping at top, appear heavier at these the one at right has
its arc will affect how all of the strokes are of locations than it will been thinned at top
its weight is perceived the same mathematical in the lateral, vertically- and bottom.
relative to that of vertical thickness or weight. moving portions of
the curve.

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88
form perception
optical effects of stroke interaction
Once strokes combine to form structures,

their individual characteristics begin to
influence each other—making things just
a little more complicated. Comparing any
two kinds of strokes in close proximity calls
attention to their individual characteristics
and the contrast between them, which
causes those differences to appear more
exaggerated than if they’re separated from
one another. The more strokes (and the
more kinds of strokes) that appear within
a single character, the more challenging
it will be to resolve the effects produced by
their interaction.
In addition to their relative weights, the
direction each stroke is moving will change
perception of their relative lengths. In the
case of two diagonals appearing near each
other, not only will the apparent length
of each come into question, but also the
similarity of their angles—a downstroke
and an upstroke diagonal, for example,
will appear to be of different angle even if
they are the same, mirroring each other.
In a sequence of parallel, vertical strokes,
the first two will look closer than will the
second and third; a stroke that crosses
another may appear broken or discontin-
uous and of different length on either side
of the stroke it’s crossing; the inventory of
optical effects goes on and on, as you’ll see
here and on the following page spread.
Vertical strokes tend to In comparison to a The same effect occurs In both of the repeated
appear shorter than hori- horizontal stroke of the among diagonals with examples lower on the
zontal ones of the same same mathematical respect to verticals of page, the lengths of the
length (top); in order to length, a diagonal identical height. diagonals have been
appear the same length, stroke will look shorter, All three strokes (a extended to appear
a vertical stroke must especially if its terminals horizontal and two equivalent to those
usually be lengthened are sheared to match of the horizontal and
Proof 1 2
diagonals) toward the

slightly (bottom). those of the horizontal. top of the page are vertical, respectively.
This effect is somewhat identical in length, as
alleviated if the diag- are the vertical stroke
onal’s terminal edges and its accompanying
are perpendicular to the diagonals to the right.
angle of the stroke, but
not much.

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89
Curved strokes—relative More diagonal tricki- in weight. However, the When a curved stroke effect will generally general, abstract way, so
to orthogonal (vertical ness: strokes of oppos- downstroke appears of generically circular make aligning the arc that it can be considered
or horizontal) strokes— ing, or mirrored, angle just the slightest bit radius extends from a with the rest of the char- independent of any
exhibit much the same appear to be of different heavier in weight. These vertical, straight one— acter below it somewhat specific kind of instance.
kinds of effect as shown angle. The left diagonal, illusions will hold true as it might in the case difficult. To compensate, In each example, the
among the diagonals on or downstroke, in the no matter the order of of a lowercase a or f— the arc must usually be uncorrected version
Proof 1 2
the opposite page, left. pair at top appears to the strokes. it acquires a weirdly pinched into a tighter appears to the left, and
In the lower grouping, be slightly less acute, or In the lower example, optical momentum that radius, both at the the corrected version to
the lengths of the curved vertical in its angle, than the downstroke has causes it to look like it’s point where it leaves its right.
strokes have been adjust- does the right diagonal, been slightly rotated and exceptionally extended, the vertical and at its
ed to appear equivalent or upstroke. In addition lightened to optically or like it’s “flying away.” terminal. Rather than
to each other, as well as to being identical in match the appearance In the aforementioned specific characters, the
to the straight strokes. angle, these two diag- of the upstroke. characters (but in other above examples show
onals are also identical instances, as well), this this optical illusion in a

Text SLC Page: 89
90
form perception
optical effects of stroke interaction /
continued
Diagonal strokes to be less acute than the In general, you’ll find to the right, past the Horizontal strokes If a horizontal stroke
extending upward and bottom diagonal (more that this same illusion lower element—but appear to change length is situated evenly, left
downward from a single horizontal in angle). comes into play be- also appears larger (as when they join with to right, over a vertical
joint must be different In the example lower tween any two stroke well as heavier). other strokes. All of stroke, it will appear
lengths in order for their down on the page, these configurations or forms In both cases, the the horizontal stroke longer to the left of
right-hand terminals to optical illusions have that are situated one repeated examples to- elements above are the vertical than to the
appear to align. In the above the other. In both equivalent in length right (top). In the lower
Proof 1 2
been corrected. ward the bottom of the

upper example, the top of the examples at the page have been cor- (the top-most one is the example, the left arm
diagonal appears to top of the page (the one rected to compensate “master” for compari- of the T-form has been
jut further to the right; that looks like a B, and for these illusions. son), but all seem very shortened to appear
additionally, it appears the other, which looks different in length. the same length as the
like an R), the upper right arm.
element appears not
only to extend further

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91
When three parallel, A diagonal stroke that shifted slightly downward Horizontal strokes, or will appear to stick out
vertical strokes are evenly crosses another (whether (middle example). This crossbars, that are of iden- past the other two. In
spaced (mathematically) it, too, is diagonal or optical effect will be more tical length as they extend either case, the upper
in a horizontal sequence, not) will appear broken, exaggerated the greater from the upper and lower crossbar will need to be
the first two appear or discontinuous—as the difference in weight ends of a vertical (or, more shortened, and a central
closer to each other than shown in the example between the two strokes specifically, along cap line crossbar will need to
Proof 1 2
do the middle and third at the top of the page. (as shown in the bottom- and baseline) will appear be shortened even more,
ones. This effect also To correct for this illu- most example). to be different lengths: if the crossbars are to
occurs if the lines are sion, the crossing stroke the cap line crossbar will appear to be the same
angled. Again, the lower must be actually broken, appear longer, jutting out length. As usual, the
example in each pair has and its right-hand side past the one at the base- corrected versions of both
been optically corrected. line. If there also happens examples are the ones
to be a central crossbar of lower on the page.
identical length present, it

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proportion
geometry: overall height and width
Keeping in mind the optical variables Here, a little reminder

discussed in the previous few pages, let’s that circular and
triangular forms must
begin to look at how they come into play be enlarged to appear
with regard to actual characters. equivalent in size to a
Mathematically equivalent Optically equivalent square form.
The first determinations a designer will
have to make when constructing a new face
are the general proportions of the charac-
ters as a set—how condensed or extended
they’ll be, relative to their height. That’s the
easy part. The difficulty arises in realizing
that the characters within the set all must The implications of
such optical illusions
appear to be the same height and width. are explicit in these fun-
And so, the fundamental identity of each damental forms—the
character’s shape must first be addressed. rectilinear H, the circular
O, and the triangular A.
Every character is, in its essence, a rect- An A and O are always
angle (square), a circle, or a triangle. As mathematically wider
we’ve seen, these shapes require a little than an H; the upper
and lower curves of an
adjustment in their relative sizes to make O must overshoot the
them appear optically equivalent—and cap line and baseline,
that means the same adjustments must respectively; and the
be made among characters whose overall apex of an A must
typically overshoot the
shapes correspond to those generic, geo- cap line.
metric forms.
Proof 1 2
Shown here are an H, a serif (bottom)— The overshoot of the Even the flat-topped
O, and A set in different simply for the sake O above the cap line apex of the sans serif A
typefaces than in the of comparison. (in red) is similar in rises slightly above the
main example above— both faces. cap line.
a sans serif (top) and

Text SLC Page: 92
93
The H, O, and A shown These three charac-

on the opposite page ters are set in a very
are overlapped here to condensed typeface—
compare their relative showing that as a font’s
widths, which are quite overall width becomes
different. The more fun- more condensed, the
damentally geometric relative difference in
the letters in a typeface, width among characters
the more exaggerated also decreases. The
will be their width typeface in which these
differences. characters is set is so
The three characters’ condensed that the O
relative widths are also itself is more rectangular
diagrammed by the than it is curved—so, it
overlapped, horizontal is almost as condensed
bars immediately above as the H.
the letters. To the right are the
left-hand edges of the
same O and H, greatly
enlarged to show how
small their width differ-
ence really is.
It’s easy to note here determining basic width For instance—how does
that the serifs of the H relationships. You’ll no- one think about width
extend past the outer tice that the H’s stems in a face such as this
contours of the O in are still well within the script, below?
this type style. Although outer contours of the O.
the presence of serifs Still, the stylistic aspects
influences the apparent of many faces will often
overall width of a require some adjust-
character on which they
Proof 1 2
ment in thinking about
appear, they’re generally these fundamental
considered secondary width relationships—
structures with regard to especially in faces that
aren’t so generically geo-
metric in their structure.

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94
proportion
optically consistent width
Visually matching the heights of different The capital H defines

characters is relatively straightforward; the the “master” width for a
real concern is how similar in width they face because its stems
define a clear, absolute
are or, rather, how close together their width that can be easily
outer strokes appear—and, in concert, how appreciated and used to
similar are the relative sizes of their inter- evaluate the widths of
nal counters. In type design, consistent other characters.
width isn’t about physical distance from
the left-most side of a character to right-
most side, it’s about density and interval:
how a certain volume of space separates
a certain amount of stroke information,
left to right, in a way that appears the same
in every character, after accounting for
general geometric identity.
Characters in faces
of Roman proportion
are of demonstrably
different width—some
are square in propor-
tion, while others are of
half-square proportion.
The result is that their
stroke/counter intervals
are inconsistent. It looks
great, but it’s not useful
for extended texts.
Characters in faces
of modern propor-
tion—in particular the The forms above are H because their open and so the B, P, and
lowercase—have varied primarily vertical in their counters cause them to R are usually a hair
empirical widths so that structure, and are most appear extended. The narrower in width.
their heavier, dominant, similar in width to the H B, P, and R should be
vertical strokes all The T is the odd man
because they’re basically wider than the H—their out in this set: It’s phys-
appear to be equidistant orthogonal (despite curves should need
when set in text, making ically wider than the H
the curves in the B, P, to extend past the H’s
Proof 1 2
for even color and because its stem divides

and R, which can be right-hand stem—but, its crossbar into two
rhythm that enhance interpreted as rectangles because the H’s two
readability. apparently narrow arms
of a sort). The E and parallel stems are joined that visually contract.
F are typically more by a crossbar, it always
condensed than the seems more condensed,

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95
The basic width relation- variants in all the char- continual balancing act it is formed with two the H, but not by much: relationships. The X is The M is the widest
ships between rectan- acters. But, of course, between every interde- strong stems that clearly its arm reaches the H’s pure diagonal move- of all capitals, simply
gular H, circular O, and all the other effects of pendent variable. define its width, must right-hand side and ment, pulling inward because it contains
triangular A are at play stroke identity and inter- These variables begin be drawn wider than the its leg extends further and pushing outward the greatest number of
in this face, as expected. action must be taken to complicate matters H because its diagonal but, like the E or F, its simultaneously—so its strokes. These must be
Again, this fundamental into account. Getting when they involve stroke is so dynamic open right-hand counter triangular qualities are pushed apart to ensure
proportional idea is a the dominant strokes diagonals and extreme that it visually pulls the and diagonal “pulling” in full effect, relative similar stroke/counter
starting point, and is in various characters to stroke density, as hap- stems closer together. effect counteract its to the H’s rectangular alternation, as is found
useful for comparisons appear equidistant is a pens in the characters The K also is wider than triangle-to-square stability. in the other characters.
among similar form below. The N, although
Of the curved characters, too extended otherwise.

other than the O, the C The S is a study in
and S are the only ones conflicts. Its wave-form,
that contain only curves ogee curve is so active
in their structures. The that it pushes the char-
C, like other characters acter’s upper and lower
with large apertures, is lobes outward, but its
mathematically more spine pulls its apparent
condensed than is the O width inward.
because it would appear
Like the B, the D and condensed than the O, the bowl optically pulls
G present curves that but more extended than them closer together,
are joined to stems, the H. The U, in which necessitating a slightly
Proof 1 2
but their curves are full the bowl curve is joined more extended width.
height. Because there’s to two verticals, is just
a rectilinear element in slightly wider than the
each (the stems), the D H. Its stems define a
and G are typically more clear, similar width as
do those of the H, but

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96
stability
top-to-bottom balance
It’s important that all the letters in a face The crossbar of the H
seem visually stable as they rest upon the at far left is mathe-
baseline to minimize vertical activity and matically centered on
the character’s height.
emphasize horizontal fluidity, facilitating The crossbar of the H
the ease with which lines of text are read. at near left is optically
Most alphabetic characters are bilaterally centered. The difference
symmetrical (see page 66); but a good in their height locations
is shown by the two
number are divided top to bottom, and colored bars at right.
these will potentially introduce up-and-
down movement in a line of text that con-
flicts with the need for horizontally empha-
sized rhythm. To mitigate this problem,
type designers, over time, have established
The crossbar in the A at upper counter (which is
that such characters should be divided far left is mathematically enclosed and, therefore,
in half at the midline between cap- and centered, but appears visually smaller) such
baselines: symmetry is visually restful. too high: This is be- that it becomes optically
cause the lower counter, equivalent in size or
That seems like an easy kind of consistency being open to the space volume to the lower
to accomplish. In fact, it’s surprisingly below the character, counter.
difficult: First, because a mathematically is visually larger to
begin with. Lowering the
centered stroke division will appear lower crossbar enlarges the
than optical center; and second, because
of the variety of structures that form the
upper and lower stories of the various
letters. The challenge is further compli-
cated by the fact that the upper stories of In the K at far left, the
many such characters are closed, while the joint is clearly above
bottoms have counters that are open to the the midline. In the serif
surrounding space. Even more frustrating K (near left) the offset
joint positions some
is that the strokes involved are all different stroke information
in identity and direction. below the midline, and
some above, to achieve
As with optically-consistent width,
an overall visual center-
achieving the appearance of top-to-bottom ing (detail at right).
balance means adjusting the locations of
midline crossbars and the relative sizes of
upper- and lower-story counters (as well
as stroke weights) until a state of visual
similarity is achieved. The lower crossbar of The crotch of the upper-
an uppercase F is typi- case Y, on the other
cally at the character’s hand, is most certainly
actual midline. This below the midline. Sim-
causes it to appear ilar to the F, dropping
lower than center, which the joint so low brings
helps keep the character weight into the lower
Proof 1 2
from appearing top- half of the letter so that

heavy and unstable, it doesn’t seem like it
as there’s no baseline will topple over, given
stroke information. how much stroke infor-
mation is up top.

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97
The empirical size of The return of the P’s

these letters’ lower lobe to the joint at its
halves is larger than that stem is situated below
of their upper halves, the midline, adding
both in depth and width. weight to the bottom
The enlarged speci- half that helps stablize
mens, showing the it, much like the Y.
letters split at their mid-
line, confirm the top-to-
bottom size disparity—
as do their respective,
isolated counters: the
upper counter in each
is clearly smaller than
the lower. The red lines
below mark the widths
of each letter’s lower
half, compared to that
of its upper half.
In the uppercase D, Achieving balance in heavier in weight than

top-to-bottom stability the uppercase G usually the curved stroke.
is typically achieved by depends on two strat- The second strategy that
orienting greater weight egies: First, the throat is often implemented is
in its curve below the stem and/or crossbar the same as that for the
midline. Looking closely (when present) is uppercase D, in that the
Proof 1 2
will also reveal that typically dropped below maximum weight in the
the upper part of the midline; in the case G’s bowl is concentrated
counter is narrower than of the high-contrast below the midline.
the lower counter. serif form at right, the
throat stem has been
made significanrtly

Text SLC Page: 97
98
stability
lateral balance / right-angle forms
Characters also must appear stable from The arms of the sans
left to right. Once again, the strategy of serif T at far left are
choice over time has been to divide charac- lighter in weight than its
stem, which ensures that
ters symmetrically along their vertical axis it won’t appear top-heavy.
from cap line to baseline, so that the same The arms are different
amount of stroke information appears on widths, as well, to offset
either side. Achieving this lateral balance is the optical illusion that
attends this structure
relatively simple in the capital H—both of (see page 9o).
its stems are identical. The capital T, on the
In the serif form at near
other hand, presents a bit of a problem to left, not only is the right-
solve. Keeping it from appearing top-heavy hand arm wider than
happens almost automatically (remember the left, but its serif is
that its crossbar must be physically lighter heavier in weight through
the bracket; it also
than its stem to appear the same weight; descends to a lower
in most serif forms, its crossbar is of a depth from the cap line.
markedly lighter weight). But we’ve seen
that the optical relationship of a horizontal
centered over a vertical means that one
side must be wider than the other (see
page 90); it also typically means that the
longer dimension must be heavier.
Asymmetrical forms, like the capital E, F,
and L require additional maneuvers.
Our familiarity with these forms means
we expect them to be fundamentally unbal-
anced and weighted on only one side. We
understand that, unlike an H, they have no
right-hand stroke to stablilize them. Even
as we accept that condition, however, we
still expect these forms to feel as though
they’re balanced, which may mean widen-
ing them more than is expected and, in the The minute tolerances
under discussion are
case of serif forms, adding extra weight to shown here. The light
their right-hand sides by exaggerating the gray bar denotes the
weight and activity of their serifs. measure of this slab-
serif T’s left-hand arm;
the red bar denotes
the measure of its right-
hand bar. At this size,
the difference in length
is, perhaps, a millimeter
or so at most.
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 98
99
To think about (and, The uppercase F plays The design of the upper-
further, to see) an asym- a similar game with the case L is a different
mterical character like contrast of its stable story altogether. When
the E as being balanced stem and its extended the width of its baseline
from left to right is a crossbars as is experie- stroke is the appropriate
strange proposition— nced in the uppercase E. measure, the character’s
to be sure. It’s clearly Its lower crossbar is counterspace comes
more heavily weighted noticeably shorter than into a state of propor-
on its left side, by virtue its cap line crossbar tion that consists of two
of a vertical stem that (more so than in the squares: again, a case of
must be heavier than its E) and so introduces a hidden visual math.
crossbars. But, it’s the point of comparison for
contrast of the cross- the brain to ponder. It’s
bars’ horizontal move- probably a stretch to say
ment, their cantilevered this, but it’s the added,
quality, that creates this unconscious intellectual
sense of balance: static involvement with the
solidity on the left, irreg- letter’s right side that
ularity and movement balances it out.
on the right.
The presence of weighted weight; the serifs bring the F and L, where there’s
finishing serifs (in a added contrast to the less stroke information to
serif form, of course) form’s right side; and carve out subtle geomet-
adds to the balancing each crossbar’s length ric spatial relationships.
attributes already on is clearly very different— The baseline serif of the
hand in the structures adding to the degree of uppercase L is, perhaps,
Proof 1 2
of sans serif forms. In visual activity that the one of the most exagger-
this high-contrast E, for character’s right-hand ated serif forms in the
instance, the delicate, side offers in comparison world of type design.
hairline stroke weight to its static left-hand side.
of the crossbars creates The scale and weight of
an exaggerated contrast the finishing serifs are
with the stem’s bold even more exaggerated in

Text SLC Page: 99
100
stability
lateral balance / curved forms
Generally symmetrical, circular forms— A very slight right-

the O in particular—seem relatively easy to ward push of the O’s
balance, just like the angular symmetrical counter against its right
shoulder is visible in
ones. An O, after all, is an ellipse whose comparison to a purely
curves mirror each other, right? mathematical ellipse
in the center; it helps
Guess again. Even among faces designed fix the eye at that curve
with uniform stroke weight and an upright, and, in so doing, creates
rationalist axis, subtle adjustments must a sense of solidity.
be made in the curves to ensure the The curves in the bowl,
appearance of uniformity: As should be on the other hand, are
expected, the horizontally-moving (cap line essentially identical,
introducing restful sym-
and baseline) curves will be lighter than metry on either side of
those traveling vertically, from top to bot- the O’s central axis.
tom. Yet, even in upright-axis curves,
a very slight difference in curvature must
be enforced to make them actually appear
upright (the familiar expectation of an
oblique axis is so ingrained that mathemat- Note that the bowl
ically symmetrical curves appear somehow portion is wider and
not quite right). heavier than the
shoulder portion, below
Laterally balancing the curved forms the midline, providing In the C and G of the
top-to-bottom stability. same face, as with the
becomes a more complex endeavor when
O to the left (top), the
the axis is clearly oblique; the form will loss of symmetrical
appear to rotate to the left as its vertically- weight on the right—
oriented curve weights shift downward due to the breaks in the
curves (the apertures)—
on the left and upward on the right.
is offset by a more pro-
Forms that are primarily curves, but have nounced rightward lean
in their arcs and beaks.
apertures and/or connect their curves to
The beaks in both
vertical stems (the C, D, G, and U, the low- forms are empirically
ercase g, and numerals like the 2, 3, 5, and heavier than the maxi-
6) impose the balancing considerations of mum stroke weight
in the bowls. In the G,
their angular counterparts on top of those
the presence of the
related to the curves. The S, notoriously, is This serif O, in contrast
throat and crossbar
to the one above, has
the bane of all type designers. Its rotational a pronounced oblique
add information to fur-
symmetry and lack of a strong bounding ther balance the form.
axis; the weights of its
form make it a wily character to tame. curves are rotated below
the midline on the left,
and above, on the right.
The lower-right portion
of the bowl, however, is
ever so slightly flattened
and pushed downward
Proof 1 2
to achieve a similar sta-

bilizing effect, as seen in
the sans serif O.

Text SLC Page: 100
101
The serif S above has accentuate that adjust- Compare all the same
an oblique axis, which ment with diagonal, out- elements described for
should cause the form ward shears. The spine the two forms to the left
to lean backward, to the itself cuts downward in the upright, high-con-
left. To compensate, the through the body at a trast form above.
arc at top right and the steeper angle, optically
tail at bottom left are pushing back against
pushed outward, and the oblique stress.
the finishing terminals
As with the O, and most Because the spine is The activity of the termi-
other symmetrical formed from a wave, or nals in this S are further
forms, the largest part ogee curve—in which made to seem stable
of the form (and the curves from the shoul- through their flat fin-
heaviest stroke weight) der and from the bowl ishes, and also through
is situated below the enter in a fluid motion a subtle inward turn
character’s midline. and aren’t as circular of the interior counter
But the real stabilizing as the curves at top edges that redirect the Analyze the numerals diagonal spine (weighted rightward lean, as in the
element in the S is its and bottom, the spine eyes inward, rather than and the lowercase g below midline) and its uppercase G; and the
spine, which carries the “reads” as a kind of outward. in this group; look for wide baseline stroke; tight aperture at lower
greatest stroke weight diagonal that spans the specific details that the number 3’s heavy left in the lowercase g,
Proof 1 2
overall, and which reach- character’s body width correspond with those terminals and leftward- which helps create the
es its maximum weight and so pulls attention used to balance the thrusting central stroke; impression of a closed,
just above the lower away from the “fly-away” other forms shown in the contrast in move- symmetrical form
right-hand bowl. curves at its terminals. this spread. In particular, ment between the 5’s below, as well as above,
take note of the number upper left stem and its its baseline.
2’s more explicitly bulbous bowl; the 6’s

Text SLC Page: 101
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stability
lateral balance / diagonal forms
As with the right-angle forms, diagonally- The stroke formations

structured characters also should seem in the A/M pair imme-
balanced across their vertical axes. Achiev- diately to the left and
the pair below, in the
ing this condition, not surprisingly, is less middle of the page, are
challenging for those characters which are essentially symmetrical,
bilaterally symmetrical: the capital A, M, V, a result that is typical
X, W, and Y. The challenge remains, how- of such characters in a
monoline, or uniform
ever, because the upstroke and downstroke stroke-weight, face.
diagonals of these characters are typically
Still, you’ll notice subtle
of different weights (even among those in discrepancies in the left/
monoline, or uniform-weight, fonts), and right positions of the
because the alternate directions of these crotches and vertices
strokes affect their apparent angles (refer of the M in both sets—
these adjustments
to page 89). derive from tapering
Rotationally symmetrical characters, such and shifting of the inter-
nal strokes to improve
as the N and Z, present additional consid- the apparent similarity
erations for achieving lateral balance, as of the three triangular
do those forms that are asymmetrical from counterforms.
left to right: the uppercase K, for instance, The real balancing
as well as the lowercase y, and numerals act occurs in the two
characters below, a
like the 4 and 7. function of their extreme
contrasts in stroke
weight. Remember that
downstrokes appear
less upright than do
upstrokes; this effect is
exaggerated between
angles of different
weight. Rotating the
downstrokes upward
alleviates that optical
illusion. In the M, it
also helps enlarge the
left-most triangular
counter and pulls the
right half of the letter
further left, evening out
its rhythm. In the A, it
helps optically balance
the sizes of the upper
and lower counters and
helps better center them
over each other, even
Extremely bold forms, though the apex and
such as this slab serif, interior top counter joint
tend to exaggerate the are off center.
Proof 1 2
stroke balancing shifts

off true vertical center.

Text SLC Page: 102
103
While the top crossbar In the sans serif N,

of each Z is narrower the right-hand stem is
than its respective base- heavier than the left; but
line stroke, neither is its diagonal thickens as
centered: In both cases, it moves upward into
it has been shifted the top-left corner. In the
slightly to the right so serif N, the two joints
that it optically appears are formed differently.
to center, rather than In both cases, these
jutting out to the left. adjustments derive
from the need to make
the triangular counters
more similar in size.
To balance the enoro- In the serif K to the

mous, open counters right, the leg is again
and dramatic arm and heavier than the vertical
leg diagonals with its stem; the arm, however,
static, stable stem, the being an upstroke, is
arm and leg both flare thin—and so weight is
as they extend rightward added in its finishing
from the joint. The red serif, both in its expan-
line above the arm com- sive brackets and in its
pares the thickness of extreme width. Compare
the stem to that of the the locations of its serif
arm at its terminal. terminals, fillets, and
Also note how the leg overall position relative
kicks out further to the to the finishing terminal
right than does the arm. below it at the baseline.
In both of these lower- right, the descender The sans serif numeral flat, or sheared, joint
case y forms, each of a moves to a more stable, 4 at left employs an between the diagonal
different style, you’ll no- central position under extremely low crossbar and crossbar. A similar
Proof 1 2
tice a slight deviation in the crotch. that overshoots its strategy appears in the
the right-hand stroke as stem, pulling the serif numeral (but with
it moves downward past leftward thrust of the a sharp joint).
the baseline. By turning diagonal back to the
its angle slightly to the right. Also note the

Text SLC Page: 103
104
structure
diagonal architecture
Perhaps it seems counterintuitive to Along with the need The other exceptionally
explore proportional relationships before to help position outer influential aspect with
examining structure itself—but propor- stroke material such regard to how diagonals
that internal counters are formed is the optical
tional goals influence the structure of among characters are illusion that their angles
any given character, which must bend to similar, one of the most are different, depending
achieve what proportion demands. influential aspects of the on whether they are
diagonals on structure downstrokes or up-
This flexibility in structure is most evident is their apparent weight strokes. Their apparent
in the characters whose identities are relationships to vertical angles are also affected
defined by diagonals. The general body and horizontal strokes by their weights.
as they rotate.
width of every font expresses an intrinsic
“master” diagonal gesture, based on its
aspect ratio (see pages 66–68), that is
characteristic of that font. However, the
capital N is the only character whose diag-
onal stroke will actually follow that angle—
simply because the N’s two stems define
the body width and its diagonal connects
their terminals.
In essence, diagonal strokes must be
angled whatever way is necessary to build
each character’s structure such that it
conforms to the optical width and stroke/
counter alternation that has been deter-
mined for the font. As the diagonals rotate
from character to character, their perceived
weights will change. And, as they join oth-
er strokes in different ways, their apparent
lengths, weights, and angles will change.
The variables are so numerous and interde-
pendent, it’s easier to show the effect of a
universal diagonal on character formation
(at right, the top sequence), compared to
the diagonals in a typically well-designed
typeface (immediately below those). Each
instance in a different character presents
particular aspects for consideration.
It’s almost a silly angle and, further, all At a quick glance, it’s their angularity in some
exercise, but it makes of the same weight. easy to see the results: instances; compare the
Proof 1 2
an important point very The incidental horizon- Every character appears apparent angles of the
clearly—so it’s worth tal and vertical strokes to be a different width K, for instance, with
looking at: All of the also are mathematically and a different weight those of the N to its left
forms in red, above, equivalent in weight overall. Even though the and the W to its right.
were drawn using diago- to that of the diagonal diagonals are, indeed,
nal strokes of the same strokes. identical throughout,
they come to appear
radically different in

Text SLC Page: 104
105
Every typeface exhibits from the master angle in

a general, “master” one direction or another.
diagonal angle that Much time is spent
derives from the aspect making adjustments to
ratio of the face’s body. the opposing sides of
It’s most explicit in the the diagonal strokes, as
uppercase N and X. The well as to their joints, to
challenge in structuring help them seem more
the other diagonal-based like the master angle as
characters is that their closely as possible in
proportions require their each character.
diagonals to rotate away
Additionally, all of the

horizontal strokes appear
Proof 1 2
too heavy, relative to the
weights of the diagonals;
and all of the vertical
stems appear too light.

Text SLC Page: 105
106
structure
visual dynamics of angularity
The angles of the various diagonals (in

those forms that feature them) are what
drive their other features: If the angle of a
diagonal stroke is more horizontal than it
is vertical, for instance, it will need to be K’s arm
lighter in weight than will the angle of a (left and right
contours)
more vertically-oriented one—and so on.
But wait! A diagonal stroke has two con-
tours—one to the left and one to the right
(or an outer and an inner, or a top and a
bottom—however you want to describe it).
Because most diagonals join another stroke
(or strokes), and these joint shapes all have
different attributes, the two contours of a
diagonal stroke are almost never parallel.
(You saw that coming, right?)
V’s downstroke
In some instances, as in certain versions
(left and right
of the Q), the diagonal is free from joints contours)
at both terminals. In others—for instance,
the R of many serif forms—the diagonal
is revealed by curves (one at the leg’s joint
at the waist, the other trailing off the leg’s
finishing terminal). All these variables
inform the actual angle of the diagonal
within a given character.
X’s downstroke
(left and right
contours)
The greatly enlarged speci- Overlays of characters with Instances of specific left
mens of these characters— apparently similar stroke and right stroke contours
whose diagonals, at a text angles permit comparison are also provided, with
size, appear nominally simi- of their respective general each set color-coded for
lar—reveal the subtle compen- angles as well as the angles reference when it appears
sations in angularity among of these strokes’ left and in different locations.
stroke contours to achieve right contours.
Proof 1 2
such optical consistency.

Text SLC Page: 106
107
A’s upstroke
(left and right
contours)
The leg of the uppercase angle to appear more These two characters proportion. Although
R always presents an upright, and so “point” from a geometric sans the actual angle of each
interesting challenge in at the character’s upper- serif both manage to character’s diagonal ele-
terms of maintaining a left corner—mimicking, achieve a similar logic ment is appreciably dif-
similar diagonal angle, to some degree, the as- in the angles of their ferent, they correspond
relative to other forms, pect ratio angle. In other respective diagonals: to the same structural
Proof 1 2
because of its need to forms (bottom left), Each describes the idea and so can be
join to the character’s the curves that append aspect ratio angle of its considered unified in
upper lobe in the waist. the nearly vertical leg particular character’s that way.
Sometimes, in serif cause its angle to appear width. The Q is virtually
forms (as in the top less upright, and so circular, making it more
example at left), acute follow the angle of extended, while the R
flare on the leg’s interior another prevalent form, is slightly more vertical
optically pushes the the capital A. and condensed in its

Text SLC Page: 107
108
structure
curve logic
Curves are heavily dependent on the body For comparison:

proportion. The uppercase O is typically a A mathematically
starting point for defining the curves; it’s circular dot form.
the widest curved form and, much like the
N, suggests a kind of template for the qual-
ity of curves to be developed within other
curved characters.
There are three primary considerations to
address in establishing this “master” curve:
First, and most important, is that its overall
circularity (meaning, how truly circular is
its radius, as opposed to how oval, or ellip-
Punching a purely ellip-
tical) should correspond to the proportion tical counter through a
of the master width, based on its geometry dot or circle creates the
(squarish, condensed, or extended); the odd appearance that
This ovoid form—in Any combination of ex-
O’s master curve must translate into more the form is flat along its
which its curves transition tending the length of the
shoulders and bowls,
complex forms such that it will appear and pointy at the cap
into its side contours transitions (slowing the
similar in radius, even when split into directly at 90°—demon- ductus) by pushing the
line and baseline.
strates another optical midpoint of the curve
semicircles or joined to stems or crossbars. illusion known as the upward or pulling the
The second consideration is the fluidity of “bone effect”: the shape’s juncture downward—as
vertical contours appear well as bowing the sides
the curves—they should appear uninter- to bow inward, and the outward, even slightly—
rupted by bulges or flat spots. curved portions appear will remedy the bone
to bulge outward. effect, as shown in the
Lastly, it’s important to remember that a corrected form, above.
curved stroke embodies two, differing To counteract this optical
(but related) arcs simultaneously, on either illusion, the curve radii
side of the stroke’s body. These should must be pushed outward
in all four locations, as
always flow away from each other as the shown here.
stroke widens in its vertical direction and
The enlarged, transparent
toward each other as it narrows toward specimen (below) super-
its horizontal direction. The radius of an imposes the original,
interior, or counter curve, is always smaller uncorrected form in gray,
and the corrected form
and of more rapid ductus, than is its
(with its adjusted radii)
corresponding curve on the exterior of the in blueish gray.
character, as defined by the stroke itself.
Remember that curves must

track each other as they tran-
sition from horizontal orienta-
tion to vertical. If the interior
radius of a curve is identical to
that of the exterior, the curve
will become unacceptably
Proof 1 2
heavy between the two radii

(upper left). A tighter interior
radius corrects this problem
in the example to the right.
Letterforms_interiors_082-123 c2.indd 108 12/3/18 9:27 AM

Text SLC Page: 108
109
A squarish body width Another option is to

(shown by the H form) tighten the curve radius
generally suggests a overall—in essence,
more truly circular mas- squaring it out. This is
ter curve—a classical, a more contemporary
Roman proportion option and typically
approach. That has results in a mechanical
implications for the or overly rectangular
semicircle (fundamental expression for all the
to the lobe formation characters.
of the B) which, in
turn, will affect how the
designer achieves an
optical width for the B
that is similar to that of
the H.
Multiple possibilities for also creates specific This stacked set of

shaping a master curve, relationships between examples shows how
based on a condensed the resulting semicircles interior and exterior radii
body, are shown here. and a stem that will of differently-styled Os
Each offers specific qual- influence the remaining change as their weight
ities that a designer may curved forms in both and width change.
find desirable at any the capitals and the The upper examples
given time—but each lowercase. show curves of a more
generically circular
radius; those toward
the bottom of the page
show curves of a tight,
or squared-off, radius.
Similar kinds of options different ways, given its
Proof 1 2
for curve logic in rela- respective radius—as
tion to an excpetionally well as the implications
extended body width for the semicircular
are shown here. Note structure.
how each one supports
the height of the H in

Text SLC Page: 109
110
structure
translating the master O curve The master O curves
among other uppercase forms are extremely circular,
and the counter’s curves
The curves of the uppercase O are given are rotated, creating an
precedence in the design process because, oblique axis. The lobes
as noted, it embodies a primary geometric of the B follow suit; the
upper one overshoots
form (the circle); as such, it’s one of the the cap line to maintain
originating forms of the Western writing the soft radius without
system (the capitals); it also represents one pinching the lobe.
of the more basic vowel sounds in most
languages, accorded a privileged status.
In terms of form frequency, however, its
The master O curve in
expansive, full-height curvature is very rare this italic is elliptical and
among the various characters that contain slightly condensed; its
curves. Most of the curves in the modern weights are distributed
alphabet are found among the lowercase somewhat evenly left to
right, with slow ductus
forms (compressed into a small area, from thin to thick. The
and usually joined to other strokes). The corresponding B’s lobes
uppercase C, D, and G carry the master show a similar elliptical
O curve most explicitly, but all the other quality and ductus.
uppercase characters that incorporate it
(B, P, R, S, and U) do so in the form of
semicircles that often interact with other In this condensed slab
kinds of stroke. serif, the master O curve
is relatively tight, but its
Still, the general simplicity of these forms ductus into the vertical
(as compared to those of the lowercase) portion is slowed by
extending it further in
offers an opportunity to compare how they each direction: down
each translate the master curve in different from the cap line and
ways to maintain both similar radius and up from the baseline.
ductus, as well as overall consistency in
body width and stroke/counter interval.
Shown here are a selection of the curve-
based capitals in five faces whose master This bold slab serif
curve logic is radically different. emphasizes the mass of
its stems, so the curves
are of tight radius. On
the exterior of the form,
the curves are bowed
outward to soften the
shoulders and bowl;
the interior radius is
much tighter.
Similar to the bold slab

above, this condensed
face privileges the vertical.
Proof 1 2
The sidebearing curves

are essentially vertical
stems. Unlike the con-
densed slab serif shown,
the curves are relatively
circular; in the B, they
become more squared.

Text SLC Page: 110
111
Among these three char-

acters, the bowl curve
in the U is the most
different. It squares off
slightly in the bowl so
that it can join smoothly
to the stems and main-
tain consistent stroke/
counter interval.
Each respective S in its
stylistic group exhibits
a wave-form curve that
corresponds to the
semicicular translation
A similar overshoot to of the O’s master curve;
the B occurs in the D the S is, in essence, a
and G. Note the spur pair of joined half circle
on the G’s throat—the forms, smoothed into a
mirror of the overshoot continuous curve. One
as it intersects the verti- can also consider the
cal stroke. The D’s curve stabilizing quality of its
is more like that of the spine in each case—
O; the U’s curve, more always heavier in weight
like that of the B. than even the heaviest
points in the O’s curves.
Interestingly, the S
Among these charac- spines (when seen as
ters, the U’s curve is, diagonals, as described
once again, the most on page 101), each
different—here, because bear some relation to
it doesn’t need to the master N diagonal
transition abruptly into of their respective
an angled joint. Note typefaces. As that diag-
how the G’s upper curve onal rotates from more
drastically thins as it acute, or upright, to
approaches its beak. more horizontal, so too
does the spine in the
corresponding S-form.
The one exception to
Of all the faces shown this observation can
here, the curves among be found in the bold
the characters are the slab serif. While the
most consistent in N’s diagonal describes
radius and ductus. This the aspect-ratio axis,
is because all are made the S’s curve is forced
to turn rapidly into ver- into a more horizontal
ticals that define a more orientation so that the
regular overall width. character will maintain
its exterior verticality
and overall width, while
ensuring its interior
counters are shaped and
The curves in these sized similar to those in
characters are a close the capital B.
second, in terms of
Proof 1 2
consistency, after the
bold slab above. Note
the abrupt, angled joint
between the G’s bowl
and its throat.

Text SLC Page: 111
112
structure
intricacies of curve formation
within the lowercase
Although the majority of the curves in a

full character set are found in the lower-
case, it’s also true that the curves in these
characters are all modified from that of the
master curve by virtue of their interaction
with other strokes—vertical stems and
horizontal crossbars—and, further, by the
individual structural conditions imposed
by dense stroke information (the a and e),
ascenders and descenders (the b, d, f, g,
q, and p), and occasionally condensed
widths (the f, r, and t).
Compounding those issues in most serif
forms (and, often, those of a humanist,
sans serif style), is the presence of an
oblique weight axis. As with the architec-
ture of diagonals (see pages 102–107) and
that of the uppercase curves presented prior,
the curved components of the lowercase
must be allowed to flex organically in order
to achieve not only an overall similarity in
radius and ductus, relative to the master
O curves, but also meet their respective
characters’ structural requirements and
maintain apparent width, proportion, den-
sity, and rhythmic consistency with each
other, and with the uppercase.
Some fundamental, optical aspects to con-
sider in the lowercase curves are illustrated
The overarching logic more clearly circular pansive, o-like curve that
in detail on this page, using characters of a that describes the curve all around, supporting extends its ascender
humanist sans serif with a slightly oblique variation in this—and the basic curve, while far to the right, but this
axis; on the opposite page are examples most other—lower- others force the curve to condition is atypical of
of the lowercase from each of the five faces case character sets is join vertical stems. This the character—most of-
that of a “pinching” of pinching is most evident ten, its shoulder radius
used to illustrate curvature in the upper- the master O curve. in the branched forms is quite severe.
case on the previous page spread. It happens in varying (n, m, r) and in the link
degrees from character and bowl of the g. The f
to character: some are here shows a more ex-
Proof 1 2
In a sans serif of upright other, in all locations,

axis and more geometric from arm to bowls to
consistency, the curves lobes to descender.
of the lowercase a and g
very much mimic each

Text SLC Page: 112
113

Text SLC Page: 113
114
light and dark

proportion and structure to rhythm,
density, and color
Within a given typeface, body proportion Each of these typefaces

and intervals between stroke and counter, exhibits a characteristic
left to right, establish its characteristic color and rhythm—
established, as we have
rhythm—it may be loose, open, and expan- seen, by its unique to-
sive, or tight, compressed, and concise. tality of width, shaping,
These variables also establish a color, or contrast, and stroke/
textural gray value, that is similarly charac- counter interval.
teristic: A single font may be relatively
light or dark compared to another (see
pages 58, 75, and 80).
Each face also exhibits a fundamental
weight—the relation of its strokes’ thick-
ness (or thicknesses) to its height. Stroke
weight, like all other variables in type
design, must fluctuate from character to
character to maintain consistent density
among all in the set, accommodating for
each one’s particular structure.
Further, each varied face within a family
(Roman and italic, medium and bold, con-
densed and extended) must share struc-
tural and rhythmic attributes, even as their
color and proportion change. With regard
to text families, the goal is to ensure that
the visual continuity of rhythm in a line
of text remains undisturbed as specific
elements within that text are emphasized
through style changes—styling them as
italic in a line of Roman text, for instance,
or calling them out with a bold weight
within a book- or medium-weight line of
text. This brings us to the last of the funda- The specimens above The top specimen The specimen in the The bottom example
show the interaction shows how the Roman middle, above, presents presents similar con-
mental optical issues of type design, that (and integration) of and italic forms support words (in dummy text) sistency in weight, but
of light and dark. stylistic variants within each other in color that are differentiated by the words change in
a family. and rhythm, despite weight—yet still main- width—from super-
their posture and width taining the appearance condensed at the far left
differences. of overall stroke/counter of the line to extended
interval and rhythm as at the far right.
styles change from extra
light to extremely bold.
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 114
115
In all the specimens The specimens of upper-

above, some interaction case R and lowercase e,
between the weight of at left, hint at the answer:
the characters in each there must be some cor-
style variant and the respondence between
width in each must be at the width of a character
play—how else could and its weight.
each line of mixed styles
Proof 1 2
be continuous in its
rhythm and color?

Text SLC Page: 115
116
light and dark

the interrelationship of
weight and width
At its most basic, the width of a character

and its weight respond to each other in a Thin
Extra Light
reciprocal, inverse relationship. The more
Light
extended a character is, relative to another,
the heavier its strokes must be, so that it Book
appears to be the same weight as a more
condensed counterpart (because its larger Medium
counters will appear to lighten it); con-
versely, the more condensed a character, Bold
the lighter its strokes. This fundamental
Black
logic becomes more complicated when re-
solving stroke-weight consistency between Extra-Black
curved and angular forms, forms with
contrast among strokes, and forms of rela-
tively different amounts of internal stroke
information—but it remains a consistent
logic, nonetheless.
It follows, therefore, that the widths of
bold-weight characters must be math-
ematically greater in measure than the
widths of regular-weight and light-weight
counterparts in the same family; and again,
conversely, that the stroke weights within
extended characters must be mathemat-
ically heavier, overall, than those of their
regular-width and condensed-width coun-
terparts. This visual reciprocity is easiest to
see (and the most revelatory) in an upper-
case, sans serif E—which, not surprisingly,
perhaps, was the first exercise with which
I was tortured in my college Letterforms
class (and why the E shown in the Preface
is so sentimentally important to me).
Proof 1 2
Medium

Text SLC Page: 116
117
These three stylistic

variants in the same
font change in weight—
from light, at the far
left; to medium, in the
middle; to bold. The
light E’s strokes open its
counters dramatically,
so it must be purposely
condensed to remain
visually the same
width as the middle E.
Conversely, the bold
character’s strokes
compress the form’s
counters, causing it to
visually contract—and
so must be purposely
extended in width.
These three characters

are of the same weight,
but their widths are
different: condensed at
the far left, regular width
in the middle, and
extended on the right.
Here, the opposite is
true: The condensed
form causes its counters
to contract, making it
appear bold—so its
strokes must all be
purposely lightened in
weight; because the
extended E’s strokes
expand the form’s count-
ers, the character would
become visually lighter—
and so, its strokes must
be made heavier to
compensate.
exmexm
Proof 1 2
To maintain continuous color
in relation to its Roman
counterpart, the oblique set
of forms at far right—which
are typically condensed—
are slightly bolder in weight.

Text SLC Page: 117
118
light and dark
stroke growth, width, and density
When the strokes of characters expand

from lighter to bolder weight, they do
so in a particularly organic way: growing
outward from the basic, archetypal
skeleton of their given character—almost
as if their heaviness bleeds outward
from their hairline, linear architecture,
or appends muscle mass to a bone.
This outward expansion, however, is
tempered by the necessity of maintaining
overall width dimensions (not just within
a particular weight variant, but also
between weights, to ensure consistent
rhythm across a line of text in which
instances of heavier and lighter variants
might appear in sequence). For that reason
(as you’ll see in the capitals shown here),
most of the aforementioned bleed is
concentrated inward: The counters become
steadily smaller and more compressed as The greatest expansion they can’t grow laterally
the character becomes heavier, while the in stroke weight within too much before sacri-
outer widths generally remain more consis- these characters takes ficing width- and stroke/
tent in their dimensions. place internally: The counter interval continu-
strokes bleed inward, ity between the lightest
As a result, the structural adjustments in compressing the counters and boldest weights in
each character that compensate for their as their weights increase. the family.
This is because these
weight change can be quite dramatic; three forms are among
curve radii and ducta become sharper and the most extended in
diagonal strokes, especially, must rotate their typeface—meaning
considerably to retain their structural and
stylistic qualities.
The already compressed a great deal of stroke

structure of the B forces information in their
the counters to become structures—such as the
extremely small as its R, the M, and the lower-
Proof 1 2
strokes expand in weight case a, e, and g—must

from light to black. As be given careful consid-
a result, characters like eration when developing
the B that incorporate weight families.

Text SLC Page: 118
119
Forms that feature diago- In the K, the most pro-

nals as their primary nounced changes occur
structure undergo the in the arm: as its weight
most radical changes as increases, its angle ro-
their weight increases— tates upward to keep the
but not very consistently stroke expansion from
with regard to the loca- widening the character.
tions of such changes. The same is generally
In the uppercase Y, the true for the leg, which
change in the angles can be seen to rotate
of its arms is quite inward, to the left—but
pronounced, while its not quite to the same
centrally-located vertical degree as in the arm.
stem area accepts the
weight expansion with-
out really affecting the
character width at all.
These specimens, sty-

listic variants within the
same sans serif family—
light and heavy forms of
regular width first, then
light and heavy forms
of condensed width,
following—demonstrate
the impact of weight
and width variation on
overall spacing. As the
counters in each style
expand, so too does
their normal, or comfort-
able, spacing. As their
internal counters
become compressed,
the opposite occurs.

Text SLC Page: 119
120
light and dark
weight correspondence between

uppercase and lowercase
Weight and width compensations among

individual characters, as well as between
lighter and bolder, condensed and extended,
variants in a family notwithstanding, the
lowercase characters in a set must appear
to be the same weight as their uppercase
counterparts. In general, the rule of thumb
is that the strokes of the lowercase in any
given face tend to be a hair lighter than
those of the uppercase, in every respect.
It’s simply a matter of the lowercase
stroke information being concentrated
within a smaller area: Just as the strokes
of a condensed capital must be lighter
in weight than those of a corresponding
regular-width character to maintain a
similar density of stroke/counter ratio.
In an overall light-weight face, the differ-
ence in stroke-weight measure between
upper- and lowercase characters is minimal;
the heavier a face becomes, the more exag- Even though the ascender At a small size, the capital
gerated the difference in weight between of the lowercase h is free and lowercase form appear
uppercase and lowercase characters. Ex- from the stroke density more similar in weight.
of its x-height tall, branched The greatly enlarged
tremely bold faces often necessitate unusu- component, it still must specimen, below, shows
al adjustments in lowercase proportion and remain similar in weight to the relatively minimal
structure: Because their width dimension those components. difference in stem weight
can’t increase too much without sacrificing between the two forms.
line rhythm, sometimes the x-height of the
lowercase is marginally enlarged so that
the volumes of their internal counters, rel-
ative to their stroke density, can remain in
similar ratio as found in the lighter-weight
family variants. Other options, including
radical thinning of internal strokes, as
compared to those that define a character’s
exterior, as well as tapering and exagger-
ated notching between stroke joints, may
also come into play.
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 120
121
Just as with the upper- As the overall stroke

case forms, differences weight increases from
among the weights of lighter to bolder among
strokes of rectilinear, weight variants in a
circular, and triangular family, the resulting
or diagonal identity are compression of counters
found in the lowercase. necessitates that con-
The darker colored- trasts in stroke weight—
block here is the relative especially at the charac-
weight of the vertical ters’ joints—becomes
stems; the middle-value more pronounced. In
color represents the these examples, the red
weight of the diagonals bar represents the maxi-
in the k; and the widest, mum stroke thickness in
light-valued block shows each character of a given
the relative thickness of weight; the gray bar
the o’s curved strokes. represents corollary mini-
mum stroke thickness.
When the weight range necessary to increase characters, while still

within a family becomes the x-height of the bold- maintaining a similar
extreme—especially er weights’ lowercase stroke/counter ratio at
toward the extra bold in order to accommo- the same time.
end of the spectrum— date the dense stroke
it sometimes becomes information among its

Text SLC Page: 121
122
light and dark

compensating for weight gain
at the joints
Locations where strokes come together

intrinsically carry more weight than do the
individual strokes themselves—no real
mystery there. The challenge is to alleviate
such excess weight without sacrificing the
prevailing stroke architecture and weight,
or the stylistic elements of the face (as it
has been defined) in each instance.
To do so, type designers employ a vari-
ety of strategies. Most often, strokes are
subtly tapered as they approach the joint in
question. In other instances, the counter
enclosed by the joining strokes is imper-
ceptibly (or perceptibly, if it’s a stylistic
idea) extended into the joint area—what
is called a “notch” or “ink-trap.” Occasion-
ally, the challenge is best met by altering
the structure of a joint more dramatically
by shifting its parts, altering the angles or
radii of the strokes entering it, or radically One option for alleviating A common strategy, In this G, the throat The curves of the B’s
excess joint weight is to especially for joints stem is shortened so upper and lower lobes
thinning them. These kinds of adjustments
force the counter around or between diagonals, is to that the bowl’s curve converge into a single,
must be supported by similar formal ele- under the joint to intrude taper the strokes as they returns upward to meet lighter-weight horizontal
ments in other structural locations among into the joint area—either approach the joint so it in a fluid joint; the crossbar at its waist—
characters in the rest of the set. subtly (top), or as a bold that, when they do cross illusion of continuity it after first thinning out
notch or ink trap (bottom). into each other, the com- creates alleviates the as they enter the return
bined weight is similar to perception of weight from top and bottom.
that of the heavier ends gain in this location.
of the strokes.
Characters with or- Instead of simply break-

thogonal joints—those ing the upstoke of this X
between vertical and and offsetting it across
horizontal strokes— the downstroke (see
rarely require any page 91), both diagonals
weight adjustments Rather than introducing
a notch or ink trap, are actually broken and
because the natural the counters from all
another strategy is to
Proof 1 2
weight relationship four directions push into

between thinner cross- slightly offset the meet-
ing place of converging them slightly.
bars and heavier
stems obviates it. strokes so that the joint
just isn’t as heavy.

Text SLC Page: 122
123
In the lowercase a, Unless the stroke of a

below, joint areas are branch originates from a
simply thinned using a stem at a lighter weight
common logic: the arc than that which it will
is the heaviest of the achieve once it extends
three horizontally- into the branch’s curve,
oriented curves; the the joint will appear
middle stroke is lighter; uncomfortably thick and
and the return, at bot- heavy, as it does in this
tom, is the lightest. example. Below, at left,
is the typical structure
for this kind of branch-
ing form. Further below
is an exaggerated shift
in weight from branch
origin outward that is
typical of exceptionally
bold forms.
In the monoline Q In this Q, the tail em-

above, the tail crosses anates from the lower
the bowl. As it does so, portion of the bowl and
it is pinched ever so extends horizontally
slightly to lighten the along the baseline. Its
area where it crosses— origin point is treated
seen more clearly in the like a branch, beginning
enlarged detail. at a lighter weight before
thickening as it extends
to the right.
In extremely bold forms,

such as this slab serif
a, the only option is to
radically exaggerate the
thinning logic described
for the lighter, monoline
a shown above it. Even
though these internal
strokes are exceptionally
different in weight from
the rest of the letter, be-
ing flexible this way with
their weights allows this Above are a variety of The return of the lobe to The link between the descender, while the
form’s exterior weight to joint structures that are the stem in this heavy eye of the lowercase g bowl strikes, or rides
correspond more closely possible within a K-form slab-serif b demon- and its bowl (or loop) is along, the baseline. In
Proof 1 2
to that of its counter- that may help minimize strates the possibility often a location where many older-style and
parts in the typeface. weight gain at its joint. of a super-exaggerated weight increases undesir- serif-form versions,
notch. This idea follows ably. In modern g forms, the eye is raised above
similar logic employed like that to the left, above, the baseline, with the
in the lowercase a the strategy is usually to link cresting along the
shown to the left. thin and deepen the baseline instead.

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124
Proof 1 2

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125
letterforms
With a firm grasp of character structures and

the optical aspects that inform their creation,
the next step is to actually go about designing.
But where does one begin, and what process
should one follow to get from an initial idea to
a sound, stylistically cohesive end result?
Whether the plan is for a complete text or
display face, or a finite set of letters as a brand
wordmark, the first thing is to get comfortable
with making letters by hand. Eventual digital
production aside, most type designers work
manually. Hand-drawing simultaneously
builds manual control and visual sensitivity
to form while working to achieve the desired
goals previously described. Deciding on a
particular style follows; then a process of
defining its characteristics; and, ultimately,
adjusting them, character by character, until
all within the set appear visually related.
Evolution
strategies and
processes to help
guide the budding
type designer

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exercising eye & hand
learning to write (again)
Everyone learns to make the letters of

the alphabet in grade school. As a result,
day-to-day writing is so second nature that
properly forming archetypal, alphanumeric
characters proves surprisingly difficult for
many designers. The challenge is often
exaggerated for many younger designers
because they don’t often do much physical
writing—mostly typing. The spontaneous,
gestural lyricism of writing is, nonetheless,
fundamental to the liveliness of designed
fonts, and yet one must still be able to con-
trol character formation with purpose.
Drawing fuses neural pathways between
input (seeing) and output (making)—
through practice, analysis and intuition be-
come one, effectively allowing the maker to
physically feel what is seen and to see what
is felt, on the fly, as it is happening in real
time. In the jump from refined drawn or
painted forms to clicking around a screen
adjusting Bézier points in software, this
well-developed synesthetic facility eventu-
ally allows a designer to better understand
the moves he or she is making on screen,
despite the disconnection between mouse
and creation space.
A student’s early The student’s lack of egginess in the circular stroke,” it’s easy to see
attempt at drawing confidence in confront- forms; and inconsistent here the initial need to
formally constructed ing standard structure stroke weight. sculpt each form by
archetypes shows and proportion—as Although these issues redrawing and correcting
how unusually difficult well as the discomfort were eventually over- strokes with an eraser to
this seemingly simple with manually using a come, and the student help discover them.
task may often be. tool to draw—comes
Proof 1 2
was able to compose DESIGNER UNKNOWN / USA

through in different a page of characters in PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
ways: awkward shaping; one shot or, “at a Timothy Samara, instructor
inconsistent character
height, width, and
spacing; flatness or

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127
letterforms / evolution
tools
The physical act of drawing characters also It’s helpful to have two For brush or pen draw-
invokes the individual characteristics of the different erasers on ing, any black calligraphy
tool being used; very often, it’s the quality hand: a white, hard, ink will do. Bottles of ink
graphic eraser (top) for sometimes come with
of each medium’s special marks that drives major corrections; and droppers in their caps—
the stylistic quality of a font—qualities that a soft, kneaded eraser which can also be used
are likely to be overlooked if one is simply (bottom) for more as a drawing tool.
building characters with line segments delicate corrections.
in a software environment. In addition to
simply becoming competent with character
formation, it’s important to experiment
with a variety of tools to interrogate their
potential for stylistic influence—simply by
becoming aware of them through use.
A selection of pencils nd modulation when Charcoal is a great Designers will want a pressure, as well as for A calligraphy pen (I) is
with different weights, desired. Lighter densities alternative to graphite, variety of brushes for filling stroke areas that ideal for sharper, more
or densities, of graphite, (H, 2H) are good for especially for looser or different purposes: Flat have been first drawn refined drawing, as well
is useful for different marking guide lines. more gestural drawing. brushes (F) are ideal for with pencil. Chinese or as for stroke wriitng. Dif-
purposes. Darker Pencils may be sheathed It comes in three forms: basic stroke drawing; it’s Japanese brushes (H) ferent tips, or nibs, may
densities (3B to 9B) are in wood (A) or, alterna- as a sheathed pencil (C); best to have a range of were made for calligraphy. be used for different
best for stroke writing tively, unsheathed (B) as in vine form (D), which widths—¼", ½", and 1". kinds of stroke shaping.
(discussed on the solid graphite sticks. is very light in density; Rounded brushes, like
page spread following) and as compressed those used for watercol-
because they help exag- sticks (E), which is dark. or (G) can be used for
gerate stroke density a stroke formation when
one wants to modulate
E the stroke by changing
A B D H I
F G

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stroke writing / pencil
As a first step in developing the rigorous

eye/hand coordination needed to draw
and refine type forms, no exercise is more
Desired Goals
effective than stroke writing. This meth-
od enforces strict goals to be achieved: Vertical strokes must be unequivocably The overall weight of the curved strokes
beginning with making individual strokes vertical (perpendicular to baseline). (and their internal weight modulation) must
exhibit a specific weight and dark/light match that of the straight strokes—but in
Diagonal strokes must appear to be of
modulation, and further, maintaining the reverse (heavy in the body and light at the
equivalent angle—whether “downstrokes”
stroke quality while ensuring consistent entry and terminus).
(dominant) or “upstrokes” (subordinate).
proportional relationships throughout a
Curves must be circular—not elliptical or Independent strokes must be evenly spaced
sequence of characters.
“egg-like”—without bulges or flatness. and of optically similar overall proportion.
This writing should be done with a dark, Once letters are formed, every letter must
3B-density (or darker) graphite pencil All strokes must appear to be the same maintain consistent proportion (clearly full
(which makes weight control more difficult). height, regardless of their respective shapes or half square, if drawing forms of Roman
Each character is drawn “at a stroke”— or directional movement. proportion, or clearly optically even in
in one motion, without erasing—and the A consistent overall weight must be width, if modern in proportion).
designer then analyzes the result, correct- achieved in the straight strokes (whether Letters in sequence must maintain con-
ing discrepancies in subsequent, newly orthogonal or diagonal) and specifically sistent cap-height, spacing interval, and
formed characters. In this way, one comes modulated: heavy at the attack or entry, baseline—without rising or falling across
to objectively appreciate successes and lightening into the stroke body, and heavy- the line, left to right.
overcome the influence of failures until ing up again at the finish, or terminus—
the hand intuitively gravitates toward with smooth, unbroken transitions.
“rightness” in the forms.
Drawing
direction
Reverse direction
to draw opposing,
right-hand curves
Proof 1 2
Horizontal stroke
Vertical stroke Dominant diagonal or Subordinate diagonal or Curved stroke Curved stroke
“downstroke” “upstroke” (semicircular) (ogee curve or
“wave-form”)

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129
Many letterform instruc- Continue row after

tors have their students row down the page.
begin with independent, From there, introduce
single strokes, but it’s additional angle-based
less abstract, and more forms—E, F, K, T, X,
immediately relevant, A, and so on—being
to start with two basic careful to maintain their
capitals—the H and N. respective full or half
From left to right, draw square widths, as well as
an alternating sequence consistency in all other
of these two letters at variables. Alternate
full-square porportion; among the various char-
the spaces between acters in random order.
the letters should be
half their width. Begin-
ners will want to do so
on drawn guides for
cap line and baseline
(it’s okay); after a while,
however, continue with-
out guides to more
rigorously train the eye
and hand.
Next, get comfortable This exercise begins

drawing the curves, with Roman square
beginning with the C proportion; it’s good to
(the semicircle) then the start this way because
O (conjoining opposing evaluating width and
semicircles), and finally, spacing is initially
the S (two half-size easier, due to the strict
semicircles joined in a geometry of the forms.
fluid, continuous ges- After you’ve become
ture, forming a wave)— accomplished at consis-
before moving on to the tently rendering letters
combination structures, of Roman proportion,
like the R, B, and P and however, transition into
the G, D, U, and Q. drawing sequences of
Keep mixing up the letters in modern, or op-
order of the letters to tically even, proportion.
avoid repetitions and At this stage, introduce
patterns from line to lowercase letters (which
line, which can confuse don’t exist in Roman
the eye and direct the square cap alphabets),
hand to repeat errors. following the same
methods and looking to
achieve the same kinds
Proof 1 2
of regularity among all
their variables—and in
comparison with those
of the uppercase.

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stroke writing / brush or pen
Writing with pencil establishes basic The straight strokes—

structural control; writing with brush or whether vertical, horizontal,
flat-nibbed pen builds on that skill and or diagonal (downward or
1 upward)—are made in a
introduces the variables of weight and single motion from cap line
contrast to be mastered. Thus begins the 25° A tool angle of 20°–25° to baseline. Given the width
from horizontal yields a
process of understanding the organic of the tool and its angle,
historically subtle weight the stroke terminals will ex-
interaction of light and dark, and the contrast between vertical hibit a triangular shape and
relationship between stroke contouring and horizontal strokes. so must typically overshoot
and counter shapes. the cap line and baseline.
The primary concerns at this stage are
the angle of the brush or pen—which can
2
be explored for its effect on the relative
weights of thins and thicks—and the con- 0° Holding the tool at 0°,
oriented at pure horizontal,
sistency of the wrist’s position, which creates extreme weight
must remain constant despite changes contrast between thicks
in stroke shape and direction. and thins.
Any black calligraphic ink works well; use 3
1
a flat brush or pen nib width that feels
appropriate for the size at which you’ll work 4
and the overall weight you’d like to explore. Full-circle forms are made
Begin writing with a constant pressure; as 65° Angles greater than 45° using two semicircular
you become more accomplished, investi- will reverse the historical strokes—left side first,
weight relationship between followed by right side. For
gate changing the pressure you apply—and strokes—verticals will be letters like the C, the sec-
when—to add yet another dimension to light and horizontals, heavy. ond stroke stops short to
the quality of the strokes. create the form’s beak.
2
In a historically-based from the elbow forward.

approach, not only is the Together, these two strate-
tool held at a consistent gies ensure that the tool
angle, but the wrist is also deposits stroke weight in
kept stiff, without rotating, the conventional places
as the hand moves through even as the stroke changes 1
the stroke, regardless of shape or direction.
its direction; hand, wrist,
and forearm act as one
Similar to pencil writing,

the spine of the S is drawn
as an uninterrupted wave
(really, a fluid joining of two
semicircles, as previously
shown). Terminals to the
left and right of the wave’s
Proof 1 2
central axis can be added

2 with shorter, truncated
opposing curves as in the
C above.

Letterforms_interiors_124-161 c2.indd 130 Job: 13209 Title: #301570_Letter Forms (RP) 12/3/18 9:29 AM
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131
Experiment with different

tools—this character
was written with a soft,
wide-nibbed calligraphic
marker. Along with
changing pressure, tool
angle and wrist rotation
will also create different
effects on stroke termi-
nals, joints, and contrast.
Understanding how they
do so reveals possibilities
for refined formal concepts
later on.
As with pencil writing, begin Maintaining consistency or extended body width,

simply, with basic angle forms among the usual variables less or more thick/thin
(H and N) before adding in a particular study set contrast—for exploration
Proof 1 2
more complex ones, then is critical for developing in a different set. Once you
curves, and then proceeding patience and control: decide what those qualities
to the lowercase. consistent height, width, will be, however, stick with
weight, contrast, spacing. them throughout.
But don’t let that stop you
from defining different vari-
ables—a more condensed

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132
toward a new design
visual interest and inspiration
There’s no better reason for wanting to It’s not really about “doing it better than
Up-and-coming type this photograph, taken catalog—one of which
design a new typeface other than “I want Grandjean did,” or simple hero worship— designer Tré Seals is in 1948 during a march is featured in the last
to design a new typeface”—the question, the goal is to reveal some quality hiding interested in typographic in support of the iconic chapter, on page 216.
really, is what that typeface is going to look in the source. Sometimes, this impulse is expressions that surface Argentine first lady
during protest marches and activist Eva Perón,
like: Serif, sans, slab, or script? Should it guided by a desire to refresh a font of some
and political demonstra- provided inspiration
be for text or display? Bulbous and fluid pedigree that, because of its historical tions. The banners in for several fonts in his
or rigidly geometric, or a little bit of both? context, deviates from currently-desirable
What makes you tingle creatively? norms—a 15th-century serif with a tiny
The inspiration for a new face can come x-height that could become more useful
from anywhere. Absent the directive of a if its lowercase were enlarged, for example.
design brief for a real-world project, the In looking for an idea to pursue, one might
first place one can look is within studies uncover a rarity: an obsolete, custom drawn
produced during stroke-writing practice; logotype; a specimen cast only in lead and
maybe there’s a particular combination of never digitized; or one that appeared as a
shaping, weight, and tool-mark details that headline in an old catalog, but was never
catches your attention because it stands seen again. As cultural aesthetics change
out from others. over time, typefaces of one style or another
Another source for inspiration might be inevitably go out of fashion. Reviving a
something seen in the neighborhood or disfavored style, or one that enjoyed only
coming and going from work: a few char- limited use, can be especially fulfilling,
acters seen on a grocery store sign (how and the results may resonate with contem-
would the rest of that alphabet evolve?) or porary audiences.
the numbers of a building’s street signage.
Alternatively, it might be a question of
visually translating a feeling—“I want to
make letters that are powerful, or slinky,
or elegant, or dangerous, or sexy.”
Not so surprisingly, many type designers
are fascinated by the history of the craft:
A huge number of newly-developed type-
faces are based on historical precedents. Nothing beats method-
Many designers, deeply enamored of a ical exploration as a way
of identifying interests.
particular historical period or innovator, Beginning with a rote
choose to reinterpret such sources in their investigation of basic
own way, focusing on specific aspects characteristics, such as
that interest them. character width (as is
shown here), can help
corral overwhelming
possibilities into more
finite categories for con-
sideration. In working
this way, one discovers
very quickly what one
Proof 1 2
really likes (and doesn’t).

DESIGNER UNKNOWN / USA

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133
The Garamond face—

a specimen of the
original’s capital and
lowercase A is shown
at left—is famously
popular for revival. At
last count, there were
more than 100 cuts
produced in the inter- For some reason, when
vening 400-odd years I doodle (which is often),
since Claude Garamond the lowercase f captures
first drew it. Four such my attention. Drawing
reinterpretations are different variations of the
shown below the origi- form of a letter that one
nal; all four exhibit a happens to like a lot is
modern convention— both good practice and a
a significantly enlarged way of mapping intuitively
x-height—but each appealing traits that could
presents a unique take Combing through old ultimately lead to a new
on its source. advertisements, one is font. At left is a random
certain to find a variety selection of such doodles.
of custom logotypes
with interesting traits
that could easily inspire
a complete character set.
Outdoor signs, building

numbers, even a single
digit from an old catalog
like the one seen here, can
provide enough source
material for developing a
complete character set.
Although such sources Never overlook a happy
might lead to a revival, accident! A slip of the
their basic traits need not hand while stroke-writing
necessarily become the produced a curved crossbar
basis for a historical period that this student designer
piece. A contemporary de- found intriguing. A process
of pencil sketching and
Proof 1 2
signer can translate such a
source’s features as he then hand-painting led to
or she likes, easily creating the refined set of characters
a new font that is engaging at right.
to contemporary audiences. MATTHEW ROMANSKI / USA

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134
toward a new design
wishful thinking
Yet another approach to defining an idea The designer of this face

for creating a new face is allowing oneself determined that he’d
to simply wonder: “What if?” like to develop a slab
serif of medium, rela-
Despite the availability of roughly 200,000 tively uniform weight—
fonts, there are a lot of gaps in the offering. but with notched and
wedge-shaped serifs,
Try to find a super-condensed sans serif instead of the usual
with extreme stroke-weight contrast, for abrupt or curved-bracket
instance; there are, perhaps, five such faces sort that is far more
of any quality. “What if I made something common.
like that?” Identifying a set of characteris- ANDREW SCHEIDERICH / USA
tics that don’t already exist in combination Timothy Samara, instructor
presents the delightful possibility of mak-
ing something that no one has seen yet.
Such inquiry into the unknown can be
driven by purely visual interest, or ideas
that are more conceptual, or even narra-
tive, in nature: “What would the offspring
of a particular serif and sans serif face
look like?” or “How would a typeface that
captures the essence of George Orwell’s
dystopian novel, 1984, appear?”
In 1988, German graphic
designer Otl Aicher devel-
oped a four-part super-
family called Rotis, based
on the idea of hybridizing
Univers, a neo-grotesque
sans serif, and Times Ro-
man, a transitional serif.
One of the four families is
an actual hybrid—a semi-
serif, shown here.
Here, a selected set of

extra-condensed, sans
serif characters with
extreme contrast in the
stroke weights—which,
incidentally, I designed
in my Letterforms class
while I was in college.
Proof 1 2

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135
confronting a challenge
A last (or perhaps, first?) possibility for In developing Operator,

determining the paramaters of developing a new font offering,
a new typeface is that of resolving some font house Hoefler & Co.
decided to tackle a couple
acknowledged problem or difficulty in how of challenges posed by
some class or style of face is constructed. typewriter type, a form
that—while instantly
One will find, for instance, that certain recognizable and popu-
characters in faces with extreme character- larly appealing (despite
istics—say, those that are super bold and the fact that typewriters
exceptionally condensed or extended—are haven’t been in use for
a few decades)—isn’t all
often, frustratingly, out of step with their that flexible.
character counterparts because of conflicts
First up: Creating a broad
between their required stroke formation range of weights for the
and the aesthetic requirements imposed by style, which is notorious
the font’s overarching visual language. for having only one.
Second: Introducing
Still other challenges that may offer oppor-
an equally robust italic
tunities involve how font styles are affected version (actual typewriter
by the medium in which they appear; as italics tend to be some-
well as fundamental difficulties that attend what anemic) in all the
weights available in
a font’s basic structural framework—for
upright form.
instance, achieving improved evenness of
Last: Addressing the
color in a monospaced typeface. form’s mechanical
heritage, its fixed-width
construction. Or, rather,
throwing it out: Operator
is designed with natural,
optically consistent
widths and spacing.
Still, a determination was
made that a true mono-
spaced version might be
desirable after all, so a
companion family was
created. It still exhibits
some of the frustrat-
ing characteristics of
fixed-width forms but,
ultimately, these were
mitigated through clever
character shaping and
subtle weight variations,
resulting in a remarkably
even color in text.

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136
construction methods
freehand pencil sketching
It’s possible, of course, to begin develop-

ing a new font by working directly from
roughed-out characters made with a brush,
pen, or other tools, but constructing (or
reconstructing) them more methodically
with pencil and eraser provides far greater
control—whether working investigatively
and testing as one goes or attempting to
distill a rough idea into one that is more
specific in its characteristics.
Drawing is a very personal skill, and all
of us are comfortable doing so in our own
way. Two different approaches are recom-
One way of drawing
mended here, but feel free to draw in the letters is to grow the
way that works best for you. However you mass of a character’s
do it, the most important aspect to address strokes outward from
in visualizing the forms is to be able to units archetypal skeleton.
Start with delicate lines
derstand the relationship between positive to rough out the char-
solidity and negative counter shaping. acter’s basic shaping
and proportions, and
then continually add
more stroke mass.
Use a white graphic
eraser or pink eraser
to delete darker marks;
use a kneaded eraser
to smooth edges or
remove lighter marks
without disturbing the
darker ones.
Proof 1 2

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137
Most people focus on Using an eraser to edit What will be lacking Spend some time dark- contour lines at joints
contours when they drawn contours will from the contour ening in the stroke areas or other locations
draw; it’s easier to plan help sharpen and clarify approach is being able defined by the contours inside the stroke areas
and see the overall them. Again, use a hard to see the positive/ as you go. You can always themselves (they can
shape this way than eraser for more aggres- negative relationship correct later, but being inaccurately influence
it is by following the sive, corrective work between stroke and able to tell how dark or the appreciation of
beefed-up skeleton and a kneaded eraser to counter—until after light the strokes really movement). If necessary,
method described on fine-tune, as needed. the contour has already are, earlier on, is more shade or crosshatch
the opposite page. been drawn. informative. In any event, again, but darker, and in
cross-hatching or diago- an alternate direction.
Proof 1 2
nal shading both work
well to generate an
adequately solid stroke
form. Be sure to cover

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138
making a stroke library
Another means of discovering a new

typeface concept’s DNA is to construct
characters using a selection of premade
marks, in different combinations. Gen-
erating an inventory of different stroke
shapes, weights, and tool-mark details
that can be mixed together in a variety
of combinations offers an opportunity
to compare the visual effects of such com-
binations to help determine which might
be the most interesting—without the
pressure of trying to achieve a specific
result from the outset.
The more marks with

different attributes, the
better. Along with mak-
ing individual, isolated
strokes, also consider
including continuous,
rhythmic elements.
These can be useful for
extracting connective
material to help with
serifs and joints, as well
Proof 1 2
as for suggesting overall

rhythm—especially if a
script form is the goal.

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139
Elements created as a
library can be combined
physically—by scanning
or photocopying them
and then splicing them
together manually—or
purely digitally, by
bringing scans of
the elements into an
image-manipulation
software program.

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140
refined painting
Now, however, we’re gonna kick it old school.

Yes (of course), it’s possible to proceed from
a refined pencil sketch—or even a rough
brush drawing—directly into digital construc-
tion. But coming to know even more specifi- Tools and Materials
cally what one’s intentions are by translating
prelimianry studies into an exceptionally 2- or 3-ply hot-press (smooth)
clarified state can only ease the process. That illustration board
translation means committing to pure posi- A set-square (triangle): Translucent
tive/negative visualization in the form of plastic, with one edge measuring
painting the letters on boards. at least 10" (4.5 cm)
The process outlined here is intended to 1
Studio knife and (steel) ruler
make one’s visual intentions clear and Use tracings of pre-
Pencils: HB and 3B weight drawn letter sketches
understandable—not to simply produce
to define a uniform size
clean forms for the sake of cleanliness. White drafting or artist’s tape
for the boards that will
Painting refined forms on boards helps Plaka (tempera paint): One bottle accommodate all of the
identify decision points for resolution letters to be painted
each of black and white
(“Are this stroke’s contours parallel from at a height of 4" to 5"
Ruling pen (8 to 10 cm). Be sure to
cap line to baseline or not?”) and, so, pro- account for wide letters,
vides more accurate (and physically stable) Two no. 6 round brushes like the M and W, and
masters to scan for later digital work. provide enough depth
Two containers for water for the ascending and
Two small plates or palettes descending characters.
for mixing
Plaka is a casein-based It’s important to become an issue if

tempera that dries to a keep the two colors either the black or
velvety matte finish and separate, hence the two white becomes tainted.
won’t reconstitute when brushes, the two water Further, Plaka takes a
it gets wet—which makes containers, and the two little while to completely
it ideal for correcting. small mixing palettes dry. A hairdryer can help
Mix in enough water to suggested above. This speed up that process;
achieve a consistency like obsession with separate- or, you can enjoy a little
that of heavy cream while ness is solely about rest between each round
remaining opaque. not compromising the of painting. At the same time,
ability to appreciate pure the boards should
positive against pure be narrow enough in
negative—which will width that the letters
painted on them can be
reviewed and evaluated
side by side as close to
each other as possible,
but still with comfort-
able space between.
Proof 1 2

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141
2
Before cutting the Cover the board from will undo the warp and,
boards from a larger edge to edge in one once dry, the board will
sheet, prime the working direction with generous, return to being flat.
side with white Plaka: even strokes, working Priming the board with
Use a wide brush with quickly to lay a thin film white Plaka creates a
extremely soft bristles of the Plaka cross the ground of the same
(one with bristles made surface in one direction, color that will be used
from rabbit hair is ideal). and—while it’s still for corrections so that
Mix the white Plaka with wet—do so again in the any color difference
enough water to achieve opposing direction. The between the board and
a consistency like skim board will warp slightly the Plaka itself won’t be
milk (thinner than the from the moisture in the distracting.
consistency you’ll use Plaka (that’s okay).
for corrections later). When the working side
is dry, flip the board over
and repeat the process
on the back; doing so
3
After the board is dry, boards. Use a sharp, and descent line. Repeat
measure out one master H-weight pencil for this method until all the
letter board at the size greater accuracy. boards have identical
you have established. Mark the cap line, mean guides drawn across
Use a set-square (tri- line, baseline, and them. Use the triangle
angle) to establish true descent lines along the and a ruler to ensure all
perpendicularity in the master board’s left-hand the guides are parallel.
measurements. edge; use the triangle
Cut out the master letter to extend them very
board with a studio knife lightly, with the pencil,
Proof 1 2
or utility knife. Then, use left to right, across the
the master board as a board. Position a new
template to trace out the board to the right of
dimensions of the other the master and match
the positions of the cap
line, mean line, baseline

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142
refined painting [continued]
6
After the contours of
the straight strokes
are drawn, use the
appropriate brush to fill
in the blank areas of the
straight strokes. You can
always correct mistakes
with white Plaka later,
but be as careful as you
can to minimize the
need to do so.
4
If you haven’t already, (For characters without
carefully trace the sketch vertical stems, you’ll
of each letter onto have to eyeball it.)
tracing paper with the Use small pieces of
H-weight pencil. white tape to gently
Turn each tracing over adhere the tracing to
and, with a 3B-weight the board. Using the
pencil, scribble on the H-weight pencil once
reverse side to cover all again, retrace the con- 5
the areas described by tours of the letter; this
the traced form on the will transfer the darker, Time to paint! Mix black Draw the contours of
front side. 3B graphite from the Plaka (using the brush, the letter’s straight
back of the tracing sheet palette, and water des- strokes with the ruling
For each letter, choose
onto the board itself. ignated for black). The pen, held against the
a board marked with
Use the triangle when consistency of the Plaka edge of the triangle.
guide lines. Turn the
tracing vertical and should now be viscous, When you get to
tracing of a letter back
horizontal contours. more like heavy cream corners, cross them (as
over (right-side-up)
in consistency. shown above). You’ll
and position it to rest
Fill the brush and drag remove the extra line
on the baseline. Use
it across the tines of the lengths by covering
the triangle to ensure
ruling pen to deposit them with white Plaka,
that its stems are truly
the paint between them. which will help you
vertical to the baseline.
Tighten or loosen the achieve sharp corners.
adjustor nut to open
Proof 1 2
them such that the pen

will draw a line roughly
1 point in weight.

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143
A no. 6 round brush If the Plaka gets too

works best for this paint- thick and lumpy, use a
ing process. fine-grit sandpaper to
sand it down.
8
Then, using the white Work back and forth
Plaka, begin the task between white and black
of correcting weights, to continually edit the
widths, and curve forms, comparing them
shapes as needed (us- to each other in groups
ing the brush, palette, as you go.
and water designated
for white Plaka). This
process will take some
time (especially for the
curved forms).
7
Once the straight Take your time and be as
strokes are filled in, precise as you can, but
paint any curved strokes keep your hand moving
freehand, carefully fluidly. If you make a
following the transferred mistake, remember that
contours on the board. you’ll be able to correct
It’s okay to rotate the it later with white Plaka.
board when painting While one character’s
curves—or, for that strokes are drying on its
matter, when filling in board, go on to another;
Proof 1 2
the straight strokes— repeat steps 5 through 7
there’s no rule that the for each board until all
board must remain the letters are painted
oriented toward you in in black.
any particular way.
Completed boards for
two different styles of
capital R.

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144
prepping for digital work
All font-design software allows for working 1 2 3 First, scan each character
directly—jumping intuitively, so to speak, at full size, at a resolu-
into defining stroke, character width, weight, tion of at least 300 dpi —
or higher. The scans
and shaping parameters—using a program’s should be grayscale to
drawing tools, without reference. On the capture the maximum
other hand, they all also allow for importing amount of information.
scans to serve as a basis for construction, Next, open the scans in
and it’s a good idea to proceed this way. an image manipulation
program and alter the
It doesn’t really matter whether scanned levels to achieve a high-
characters are relatively rough or highly contrast version of the
refined (although it’s easier to start working image (this will also
sharpen its contours).
effectively if the scanned models are, in fact,
Last, readjust each im-
very tightly developed). What’s important is age’s levels so that white
how the scanning is accomplished so that areas remain absolutely
they’re as useful as possible once one starts white—but so that black
working with them. areas lighten to a 20%
gray value. Doing so
will allow you to see
Bézier points and their
line segments on top of
the scanned reference
images more easily.
The information in a
low-resolution scan of
only 72 dpi (top) will
not likely be sufficient
to accurately trace
subtle forms with
vector drawing tools;
note the detail that is
present in a 400 dpi
scan of the same form
(bottom).
Once all the characters Scale any characters
are scanned, enlarge that are slightly off in
the canvas or artboard. size, taking into account
Proof 1 2
Position a cap line and overshoots for curves or

baseline (mean line, if diagonals.
needed) and arrange all
the individual charac-
ters’ images along the
baseline guide.

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145
Along with general ad- When tracing the

justments to ensure the scanned reference, use
images are a consistent as few Bézier points as
size, also address their possible, but position
verticality: Position them where the greatest
vertical guides along a control will be needed.
given character’s outer Curves usually require
and inner stem contours control at locations
for reference; rotate where they change in
and/or skew the images radius or direction,
until their vertical stems especially near joints.
are perpendicular to the
baseline and parallel to
the vertical guides (if
that’s desirable for the
design concept).
Avoid the urge to Every step along the way

autotrace the character presents options for
images (whether you’re clarifying one’s intention
working in a general for the characters’
drawing application or attributes. One can
one specifically designed easily alter the direction
for font work). Auto- a design will take by
tracing will introduce making a decision about
too many Bézier points how it is traced, as seen
along the scanned here in the vector out-
image’s contours to be lines based on the same
useful; too many points scanned character.
can also potentially
Proof 1 2
confuse the software
and corrupt the file.

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146
process strategies
beginning with the capital H
No matter how one is going about it—

sketching and then scanning or refining
through painting beforehand—the crux
of designing a font is about making basic
decisions about attributes for a limited
selection of characters, and then carrying
them out among the remaining ones.
Master measurements
For newbies, the best place to start with
this decision making is with the rectilinear
forms, because they are the simplest and
will provide the clearest, most concrete
of defining characteristics. Of these, the
capital H is the most informative: One can
clearly see its height to width relationship,
its stroke weights, and basic terminal- and
joint-shaping without confusion. As new
kinds of characters are added, the designer
will be forced to compare their logic with
that already defined—implying a continual
revisiting and retrofitting of newly discov-
ered characteristics to forms previously
developed.
The process outlined here can be followed
through a process of drawing, painting,
tracing, cutting and pasting, or by purely
digital means, as a designer’s skill and
interest warrants.
Decide on a general style. Build the remaining Working at a cap height

Construct the H at a cap right-angle forms using of 4" (8 cm), stroke
height of 4–5" (8–10 cm), the master measure- weights may vary from
ments to start: Knowing 1/ "– 3/ " (1–2 mm)
establishing its width, 32 64
weight, contrast, and any that all the characters’ thicker or thinner; char-
characteristic features, in- widths and stroke weights acter widths, by as much
cluding modulation, terminal are the same, it will be as 1/8" (6 mm), or slightly
The measurement in easier to first appreciate more, narrower or wider.
question will need a and joint shaping, serifs, and
their resulting visual
3
finely detailed ruler with so on. The steps shown here

increments as small as begin with an H of bold, rela- differences—and will pro-
1/ " (0.4 mm).
64
tively uniform stroke weight. vide a sense of how much
Proof 1 2
these measures may need

Measure the character’s to change in each.
overall width and those of its
stems and crossbar.
Yes: Measure them.

147
As first constructed on the

opposite page
Among sans serif forms—in which the A may be

The same forms, corrected made with a flat or pointed apex—the A’s angle may
be defined generally in the two ways shown above.
Among serif forms, the A’s angle is often defined

as falling from a point at the center of the N’s body,
along cap line, to the N’s right stem at baseline.
First construction (left) Note variants of M structure

and corrected (right)
Compare the widths and Use the aspect ratio of the The width of this N will The angle of a diagonal There are three simple
weights of the right-angle H to rough out the master be too extended—more varies (see pages 104– ways to help determine
forms, as derived from the diagonal for the N at the than is needed to optically 107) but, basically, there the A’s angles from the
master measurements, and same measured weight as match the width of the H. are two kinds: the one N; these relationships are
correct for discrepancies. the H’s vertical stems. Further, the joints will defined by the N (the fairly consistent among
Consider joints for shaping Instead of forcing the likely be heavy, even if for aspect ratio) and another, type styles (top).
and opportunities for sty- diagonal to meet the width a light-weight face. Thin more acute, angle that After the A is formed,
listic qualities. The joints in of the H, orient it over a the stems and/or notch characterizes the A. construct the remaining
this character set are neutral copy of the H stems as or taper the diagonal All the other diagonal diagonal characters, bas-
in their shaping. shown. It will overshoot to ease the weight in the forms’ angles fall between ing their angles, widths
corner joints. these two extremes,
Proof 1 2
the right stem; reposition and stroke weights on the
it to meet the left corner which can be used to help information provided by
of the right stem at the construct them. First, the A or the N as seems
baseline. therefore, develop the A. most appropriate.

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148
process strategies
beginning with the capital H [continued]
First construction (left)

and corrected (right)
Next: the curved forms. The roughly constructed O Use the corresponding Add the G’s crossbar. Test tail options on the O
Explore the radii of different will be light and condensed quadrant curves of the Test its height position, to build the Q.
ellipses, focusing on the upper- compared to the H. Adjust refined O to form the relative to the height of Translate the curve logic of
left quadrant of the body, to the stroke weights and shoulders and bowls of the stem and the depth the C, D, G, and U into the
identify the desired curve width of the O to optically the C, D, G, and U. of the beak above it, as hook of the J; consider the
logic for the font. Duplicate match those of the H. Delete portions of the well as its horizontal Q’s tail shaping with regard
the radius into the remaining Compare the counters to right-hand side to create dimension. Consider to the J’s tail length and
quadrants to form a rough ensure similarity in overall apertures for the C and whether it should be shape, as well.
O; use the master width and volume relative to the G; copy the H’s stem spurred or not.
stroke measures of the H to stroke density. and position it on top
initially organize and weight of the curves of the D,
Proof 1 2
the quadrant curves. G, and U to determine

the locations of these
letters’ respective vertical
elements.

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149
Cutting and splicing Tracing and splicing Digital scaling
Use the right-hand Each method has acquiring a leg—the Build the S by inverting Test the overall unifor-
shoulder and bowl of the its pros and cons; angle of which can be the upper B lobe and mity of the characters by
O to discover the lobe you’ll need to tweak determined from the connecting it to the lower ordering them in a variety
and waist formation of the curves and their diagonal of the N or lobe with a thick spine. of random sequences
the B. You can do this by weights either way the A as a rough begin- Compare the diagonality and reproducing them
tracing each (or cutting so that the curve is ning. Consider the of the curve to primary at different sizes to see
a copy apart) and then smooth (if spliced) and transition of the R’s leg diagonals, like those of where individual forms
overlapping them so so that the upper lobe from the waist, as well the N or X—the curve stand out compared to
they’re spliced together; is slightly smaller than as the shaping of its should appear, flow the others; continue to
as an alternative, scan the lower one. finishing terminal, for through the spine, and correct the characters in
the O and, in imaging or stylistic possibilities. come to resolution the set as needed.
Proof 1 2
The B’s lower lobe
drawing software, scale it makes a good reference around that diagonal
vertically, compressing it for the P (which will such that the axis of the
to about half its height. need to be condensed curve feels similar to
slightly); the P then the literal diagonal.
gives rise to the R by

Text SLC Page: 149
150
process strategies
beginning with the capital R
For designers who are more accomplished Sans serif or serif—and How does the cross-
or, at least, more comfortable with the what kind? Bracketed or stroke transition into
complexities of form, beginning with the unbracketed? Horizon- the shoulder? What’s
tal joint, or sloped and the radius of the shoul-
capital R allows one to establish all of a modulated? der’s curve? How rapid
font’s characteristics at once: body propor- is the ductus into and
tion, curve and diagonal shaping, transi- out of the curve?
tions between straight strokes and curves,
Does the crosstroke ex-
and several kinds of joint. tend in a truly horizonal
direction? Is it the same
It’s a lot to consider all at once—especially
weight as the vertical?
for beginners—but, on the other hand, How far does it extend
taking into account all of these variables in (and so, what kind of
one character from the outset means less width is it establishing
for the entire form?
back-tracking from discoveries made later
during the process. The roadmap that the
capital R delineates is far more comprehen- Is the stem of uniform Does the bowl of the
weight or modulated? upper lobe mirror the
sive, even if it requires more complicated
shoulder, or is it shaped
evaluation in the initial development stage. Are the two cross strokes differently? When does
the same weight or dif- the bowl turn into the
At right are a series of questions posed by ferent? Are they thins, as middle cross stroke?
each major element of the capital R to the compared to the stems,
designer. The answer the designer gives as thicks?
to each question provides a clue as to how
that roadmap will be revealed.
How is this joint formed— Does the leg extend

from a horizontal, a curve abruptly from the
and a horizontal, or from upper lobe or transition
two curves? Does it meet the smoothly from it? Is
stem or is it detached? If it’s the leg a true diagonal
detached, how far is it from or is it a curve? How
the stem? far does the leg extend
past the lobe above it?
Is the baseline terminal Are the contours of

the same as, or differ- the leg parallel? Does
ent than, the cap line the leg itself flare
terminal of the stem or modulate? Is its
above? baseline terminal flush
Proof 1 2
to the baseline or is it
sheared? Does the leg
turn outward and trail
off or does it turn and
end abruptly?

Text SLC Page: 150
151
This medium, sans corner to upper-left

serif R is constructed of corner. The curves of the
mostly neutral geom- lobe are distanced from
etry. Its strokes are of the vertical stem by truly
uniform weight, the cur- horizontal cross strokes
vature of the upper lobe that extend relatively far
is more or less circular, from the stem before
and the leg is a nearly the curves begin.
isometric diagonal that
points from lower right
There are so many variables In this sans serif R, contour of the shoulder result of the leg being a
that comprise an uppercase R which is slightly overshoots the cap line straight diagonal. Unlike
condensed in its width, and then dips slightly the sans serif specimen
that it would be impossible the stem and leg are before rising again into above, the lobe and leg
here to map the results of every noticeably modulated. its joint with the stem, join each other at a lo-
decision that could be made This modulation follows in the upper-left corner cation that is quite close
about them. in the curve of the upper of the form. The upper to the stem, without
lobe, especially as it counter is semicircular, significant cross-stroke
Instead, the process outlined moves leftward to join but the bottom one is formation.
here will focus on the specific the stem. The upper purely triangular, the
characteristics of five highly
differentiated styles, and how Even more condensed segue into the stem with quality of the leg is only
they’re translated across the than the form above, brackets of a relatively appreciable for a short
various uppercase forms. this serif R also shows sharp radius and ductus. distance before it curves
a waist joint that occurs The transition from the into the waist and up-
That discussion focuses on close to the stem. This upper-left corner into ward from the baseline.
major structural categories, form is shaded, having the shoulder, however, is The leg is finished with
rather than a step-by-step pronoucned contrast a little more fluid, with a a small ball-like serif.
between thins and slower ductus. The leg is
process (as outlined in the thicks. Its serifs are constructed of a curve—
previous section), but the relatively extended, and or, rather, the diagonal
same process logic may still
be applied.
This slab-serif R is weight. Its strokes are into the waist, and
unusual for its rectilin- generally uniform in outward, along the base-
ear formation, which weight, although the line, where the stroke
extends to the shaping horizontals are slightly finishes abruptly in a flat
of its curves—all of lighter. The angle of terminal that is cut at
a tightly squared-off the leg is more upright; 90° to the direction of
radius and rapid ductus. as with the specimen the stroke.
Overall, the character above, its angularity is
is slightly bolder than somewhat absorbed by
a medium or regular curves in the transition
This R is exceptionally right joint between lobe

condensed. As a result, and leg is deeply cut to
Proof 1 2
its counters appear alleviate weight gain.
vertically elongated, and The leg in this R is a
are only twice as wide purely vertical stem that
(or less) as the width of transitions in a rapid
the stem. The character curve from the waist,
is also sans serif and of mirroring the radius of
uniform weight; the far- the shoulder and bowl.

Text SLC Page: 151
152
process strategies
beginning with the capital R [continued]
The capital R defines attri- proceed to the remaining right- While the R’s upper lobe pro- translated among its accom-
butes for different archetypal angle forms as outlined on vides information for shaping panying forms in each case. In
structural groups, and any one pages 146 and 147. similar forms in this group, particular, compare the over-
of them can be the first area of Note how the character widths, these forms also benefit from shoots of the modulated sans
focus for development—but stroke weights, modulation, seeing how the right-angle serif (second from top) and
beginning with the right- and joint shaping are each forms develop in terms of their the upper-left joints between
angle forms is easier, especially reflected among the right-angle widths. The overall width of shoulder and stem.
for beginners. characters that accompany the these forms is driven by how The shaping of the J’s tail is
Even though the R is asymmet- respective R styles. far the R’s horizontal cross- also a detail that responds very
rical left to right, its right-hand strokes (or, lack thereof ) sepa- specifically to the R’s curvature
side offers enough informa- rate the lobe from the stem. in each case, most noticeably
Proof 1 2
tion to derive the width of the Notice how the relative circu- in that of the condensed serif
capital H. Once that width larity or squareness of the R’s set (middle row).
has been established, one can shoulder and waist curves is

Text SLC Page: 152
153
The curved forms among the condensed serif set (middle Last, but not least, the diagonal the R is sufficiently stylized
characters in each style reflect row), they are ovoid—their R’s structures. The leg of the R in that it doesn’t provide much
the radius, ductus, axis, and upper lobe is also generally each style is radically different information for defining the di-
shading of the R in each case. circular, but its condensed in its formation. In the sans agonals in the other forms. For
In the modulated serif style width requires similar condens- serif at top, the leg is very that purpose, the N must be
(second row from top), the lift ing throughout, which com- nearly the same angle as that developed first, based on the
of the R’s shoulder, creating presses the O, Q, and other of the N’s master diagonal; the width of the H, in order to de-
the overshoot above the cap curved forms. other angle forms also show termine how the diagonals will
line, is reflected in a slightly Note the deep beaks of the C, diagonals that are more closely be best expressed throughout.
oblique axis in the other forms. G, and S in the super con- related in angle. In most of
the other sets, the angles are
Proof 1 2
The curved, uniform-weight densed set in the bottom row.
not so similar to that of their
sans serif forms in the top row respective R’s leg: in the three
are nearly true circles; in the bottom-most rows, the leg of

Text SLC Page: 153
154
process strategies
building the lowercase from
established capitals
In those limited, formal courses devoted to Before proceeding, test

typeface design, the capitals are always the the implications of the
starting point in the process of designing a developing x-height on
font (because their construction, as compli- the a and e, the two most
cated as it may be, is yet simpler than that challenging characters
of the lowercase). because of stroke density.
Once the uppercase character set is
designed, the next step is to develop the
lowercase characters that will accompany
them. The most important relationships
to be established between the lowercase
forms and their uppercase parents is
discussed in detail in Chapter 2: Legacies.
What follows here is a methodology aimed
at simplifying the very complicated process
of designing lowercase forms once an
uppercase character set has already been
developed.
Map the aspect ratio of Compare the n-form to the Duplicate the geometric
the H from the already- H; its strokes will appear n-form. Close its baseline
designed capitals to estab- heavy and its counter more counter and split it in half
lish an approximate pro- vertical because there’s with horizontal strokes to
portion for the lowercase. more stroke information approximate the density
Rather than an x, draw a in a smaller space. Adjust of the a and e that will
rectilinear n-form whose the n-form accordingly. eventually develop.
stroke weights match Place the H and the ad- Adjust the closed form’s
those of the H. It is easier justed n-form side by side: stroke weights and, if
to understand the lower- the counter above defines necessary, enlarge its
case width by using this the prospective ascent height to help alleviate
Proof 1 2
simplified form. and descent measures. excess density. Doing so

will affect the ascent and
descent measures.

Text SLC Page: 154
155
Remove the extra strokes Draw an x to optically Shrink the capital O to coming to a finish just Repeat the n and overlap
from the closed n-form match the n’s height, match the optical height as it strikes the left-hand its strokes to build the m.
and compare it to both width, and weight. Take of x and thicken its stem, instead of benefit- Cut the n’s branch to
the H and the original, into account the potential strokes to match. Replace ing from the full width of reveal the rough r.
rectilinear n-form. need to offset the x’s the n’s flat top with a the o’s outer curves.
upstrokes on either side similar, tighter curve that Adjust the counters and
Check the resulting as- the branch weights among
cent/descent measures to of the downstroke. flows from its right-hand
stem back to its left-hand these three forms as
see if they will accommo- At this point, cut a stem needed to compensate
date future forms like the from the H to create the stem. The curve of this
rough branch will need for the differing amounts
f and g. lowercase l; duplicate the of stroke info in each
to be pinched slightly
Proof 1 2
Don’t design the a and e l and cut it to the x-height character.
to create the i, minus its because it’s turning from
yet—some more informa- a vertical and, technically,
tion is needed. tittle. The tittle will be
added in a later step.

Text SLC Page: 155
156
process strategies
building the lowercase from
established capitals [continued]
Direct reversals from the p
Corrected characters
Place the i-stem over the The reversals will reveal To make a rough f, extend Now, with the discovery of To form the t, invert the f
left-hand curve of the o subtle discrepancies in the r’s stem and shift the so much curve and joint and raise the crossbar to
and extend it downward branch-joint weight and branch upward to the logic, take care of a few hang from the meanline;
to the established descent counter stability among cap height; delete the simple issues: shape the ascender as
line to roughly form the the lobed forms—keep flat terminal and thicken Examine options for shap- desired.
p, the basis for the lobed the heavier branch at the the branch to match the ing and height position of For a modern g, trace the
forms (p, b, q, d). Finesse mean line and expand the curves in the o. the i’s tittle; differentiate f ’s shoulder and upper
the transition from lobe inner counters downward Add a crossbar of the the lowercase l from the stem. Invert and compos-
into stem, using the n’s to lighten the branches at appropriate weight, uppercase I; duplicate ite with the q. Copy the
branch for reference. the baseline. positioned to hang from the i and rotate the upper o’s lower bowl and over-
Flip and reverse the p to the mean line. shoulder of the f to roughly lay as shown; drop the
Proof 1 2
rough out the b, d, and q. define the descending loop to the descent line;
hook of the lowercase j. then adjust the curves.
For an oldstyle g, see the
steps outlined on the
page opposite.

Text SLC Page: 156
157
Reduce the capitals C, S, V, When thickening these char- Many contemporary sans Trace or digitally composite
W, and Z to the established acters’ weights, keep in mind serif fonts incorporate an old- elements of the g, s, and n
x-height. how strokes grow from center style lowercase g (along with to roughly construct the a;
For the k, reduce only the outward, horizontally (refer other serif attributes). This smooth and join the parts,
arm and leg of the capital to page 118). kind of g starts with the o, as needed.
as a unit. Adjust the Invert the n to form the u. stacked and reproportioned Duplicate the o and splice
weights and widths of to create desired upper/lower in a crossbar to form the e.
these forms and integrate counter balance and to fit the Compare the shoulders,
any relevant characteris- descent depth. A lowercase bowls, and counters of these
tics, such as joint notches, s, slightly rotated, provides to each other, and to those
great potential for designing
Proof 1 2
tapering, and spurs of the g and n.
or serifs. a conventional link—but it
might be useful to look at As with the uppercase, test
joints in the uppercase R, A, the characters by ordering
and K, as well as link options them in a variety of random
in a variety of faces. sequences and words.

Text SLC Page: 157
158
process strategies
beginning with the lowercase
Anyone who has ever read anything will

immediately realize that the bulk of all
typographic text is disproportionally rep-
resented by lowercase forms. It stands to
reason, therefore, that it would make sense
to begin designing a typeface intended
for extensive reading by developing the
lowercase character set first.
Yes! That is a good idea—but it’s one best
approached once one is already competent
in the basics (meaning, structuring capitals
first and evolving the lowercase after)—
mostly because the number of variables in-
volved is multiplied (more kinds of shapes,
and greater irregularity among them).
Still, if one is feeling up to the challenge,
beginning with the lowercase characters
is an excellent way to suss out the func-
tionality of a font design, and many of the
parts of the lowercase letters are somewhat
similar, so components of forms designed
earlier on in the process can basically be
flipped, left-to-right or top-to-bottom, to
generate rough forms of other characters.
All along the way, of course, it will be
necessary to compare the results of such
mechanical construction methods and ad-
just them, as needed, to ensure the various
forms’ visual stability and stylistic integrity.
Define the height/width Working from the h, use the r to develop the
ratio and curvature of the develop the branch forms f, j, l, and i; use the f to
o, as well as the desired n, m, and r, following the develop the t; and then
degree of contrast. Decide steps described on page the f, q, and o to work
on general style, too: serif 155. Use the p to develop out the g (if of the sans
or sans serif. the other lobed forms serif variety, as described
Explore the relationship b, d, and q, following the on page 156, or see page
between verticals and the steps on page 156. 157 to develop a serif,
curvature to define the Once these characters or oldstyle, g).
branch and lobe forms, are resolved with respect Invert the n to form the u.
using h and p as controls. to their relative widths,
Proof 1 2
The upper terminal of the weights, contrast, and

p defines the prospective shaping, follow the steps
x-height and, therefore, on pages 156 and 157:
also the prospective ascent
and descent measures.

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159
From this stage forward, The s may be drawn Draw the x: its height Map the aspect ratio of the
use parts from the char- freehand or, alternatively, derives from the baseline n from the lower-left edge of
acters already defined to first constructed mechan- of the h and the flat its left stem, extending the
create the a and e. ically by splicing together terminal of the p. diagonal upward to the right
Refer to the methods the shoulder of the q and Use its proportion, stroke and through its branch corner
described on page 157 to bowl of the p within the weights, and optical to meet the cap line defined by
help guide these charac- established x-height (the compensation strategies the h ascender. Separate the
ters’ development. arc of the a can also be to help establish the arm left stem from the h; duplicate
helpful) before smoothing and leg of the k, and the it and orient the two stems to
out disconnections. v, w, and y. correspond to the aspect ratio
diagonal. Split the form top
Proof 1 2
Invert the x downstroke to to bottom with a crossbar to
generate the z upstroke, form a capital H.
which may require some
adjustment in angle and Then, proceed to develop the
weight to optically match. uppercase as described on
pages 146–149.

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160
process strategies
on to the numerals and
analphabetic symbols
Numerals (or numbers) follow the same

structural, proportional, and stroke-weight
logic as letters and should exhibit all the
formal logic that is established for the
alphabetic characters in an evolving font.
However, there are two distinct structural
possibilities for the design of numerals:
those that are based on the body of the lower-
case and, like those characters, include
ascenders and descenders—what are called
Oldstyle or text figures—and those that are Two examples of Old- and characters of the
more closely derivative of the capitals in style, or text, figures are corresponding lower-
compared here to show case. Note the variation
proportion, called lining figures. Oldstyle, the stylistic relationship in the ascender and
or text figures, set seamlessly within between the numerals descender forms in
lowercase text; lining figures are designed the 3 and 5
for mathematical applications in which
figures need to appear vertically aligned
for value comparison or tabulation. Most
contemporary typefaces include both
kinds of numeral.
Analphabetic symbols (more popularly
referred to as glyphs) include symbols
like the ampersand, the “at” sign, percent
sign, punctuation—the exclamation point,
question mark, quotes, comma, period,
brackets, and so on—and accent marks,
or diacritical symbols. All of these should
appear to be visually related to the pro-
portions and shaping details established
by the letters in a character set.
All three sets of lining times, are drawn slightly to help more clearly
figures, above, corre- shorter than the height differentiate the numer-
spond to the uppercase established by the cap als from the capitals,
forms in their respective line (as is true for the as these often appear
styles—but all are set of numerals in the together in acronyms,
clearly more condensed example in the middle). notations, and in tables
in width and, some- The strategy here is of numerical data.
Proof 1 2
Differentiating the upper- These two sets of The zero can be distin- counter. An oldstyle zero
case I from the lowercase characters are easily guished from the capital is typically distinguished
l presents a challenge confused at a glance, O in a number of ways. from a lowercase o by
that is compounded especially when set in Sometimes, it’s given being drawn with a uni-
by the similarity of the small sizes. The pres- a slash; alternatively, a form stroke weight.
number 1. ence of angles in the small dot is positioned
numbers helps. in the middle of its

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161
Again, the general Above is a comparison Diacritical marks, or the tilde and cedilla,
approach to developing of selected glyphs and accents, also follow the correspond in curvature
analphabetic symbols, letters in their respective visual attributes estab- and gestural rhythm to
or glyphs, is the same typeface styles. lished by the letters in the larger curves, and
as it is for any other their particular font. details like tails in the J
characters: they should and Q, or the finishing
reflect the width, stroke/ Dot-like marks typically
reflect the shaping and stroke of the R’s leg.
counter alternation, Diacritical marks are
overall weight, contrast, relative proportion of
the lowercase i’s tittle; generally simply cen-
curvature, and angularity tered over their letters.
Proof 1 2
present in the letters. angle forms, like the
circumflex, translate the
angles and joint shaping
of the diagonal forms;
curved elements, like

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162
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 162
163
letterforms
One of the most fascinating aspects of letter-

form design is how robustly flexible it is—the
basic shapes of characters may be revised and
reformed in almost infinite ways, creating
new styles from within a strict, and seemingly
limited, number of variables. This freedom
can be attributed to the iconically distinct
recognizability of the various letters’ forms.
If an A looks enough like an A, for example,
it will read as such, and it takes a lot of mani-
pulation to render an A unrecognizable.
Taking liberties to transcend mere function
and impart meaning, or narrative, is funda-
mental to developing display faces, titling, and,
most especially, brand marks, where convey-
ing ideas beyond the explicit is critical.
Designers who understand historical prece-
dent are, oddly, in a better position to liberate
their investigations from historical models
and so innovate new forms with great integrity,
formal sophistication, and resonance.
Reinvention
envisioning structure
and style in new ways
for narrative and
conceptual expression

Text SLC Page: 163
164
riffing on fundamentals
exploring intrinsic geometry
A specific, geometric configuration of This extensive study

strokes is what makes a letter identifiable of an uppercase K first
for what it is—but that geometry also of- explores the possibilities
inherent in only the vari-
fers wide latitude for new versions of what ables associated with
it could be. Within a single-letter archetype, the joint between the
each stroke’s shape, angle, weight, joint stem, arm, and leg.
formation, and detailing expresses one pos-
sibility of many; even slight alterations to
any one of these characteristics can create a
dramatically new form.
Investigating the geometric relationships
of structure and stroke formation in a par-
ticular form archetype depends on identi-
fying the kind of structure intrinsic to that
archetype: Is its structure defined by angles
(and what type?) or curves? Where do its
structural components join? And, what can
happen when these limited variables are
pushed to their extremes?
In this study, all vari- In the bottom row, The study below inves-
ables remain consistent, the designer examines tigates the possibilities
except for the relative the effects of obscuring afforded by digital
lengths of the strokes— strokes from around distortion, creating the
in the top row, arm and the area of the joint illusion of planar per-
leg lengthen, shorten, or outward. spective in the form and,
disappear altogether. sometimes, as a result,
In the middle row, the altering its posture, from
stem grows from base- reverse oblique to italic.
line to cap line, and then
recedes upward.
Proof 1 2
The K studies on these pages

were graciously provided by
Jerry Kuyper.

Text SLC Page: 164
165
letterforms / reinvention
Testing the basic

variables of weight and
extension, in combi-
nation, results in a
comprehensive look at
how much variation is
The column of regular- possible in the most
weight forms (far left) fundamental aspects
compares the effect of the structure.
of different terminal
shapes in the arm and
leg; the second column
(near left) shows the
exaggeration of those
effects when the form is
significantly bolder.
This study examines

the effect of changing
weight distribution
among the stem, arm,
and leg.
Contrasts between con-

tours reveal additional
interesting possibilities.
Here, the designer in-

vestigates the contours
of the form as outline
and inline strokes, and
the effect of weight
changes to the structure
of the joint.
The deep understanding

of a particular letter’s
geometric structure
allows a designer to see
possibilities for creating
rich, inventive letter
signs, as in this logo for
a stationery company
called Kids Art Cards.
Proof 1 2
TIMOTHY SAMARA / USA
In this group of related
studies, the designer
tests a variety of serif
formations.

Text SLC Page: 165
166
exaggerating norms
Most variation in the look of different

typefaces results from the slight emphasis
of particular aspects: one is a little more
extended, or its serifs are sharper, and
so on. Radically accentuating such basic
formal qualities will immediately result
in new, wildly expressive forms. Extremes
of width, weight, and contrast in stroke
weight may be just the beginning. Other
possibilities might include altering the
top-to-bottom proportional relationship
in characters so they are top-heavy or
bottom-heavy; skewing an italic form’s
angle axis far past the customary 12–15°
0ff vertical; or super rotating the interior
counters of curved forms to create exces-
sive tension between their outer and inner
elliptical contours. Stroke terminals also
are elements that can be super stylized,
as are joint shapes.
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 166
167
These hyperbolic of the capital E and B,

characters exaggerate and in the diagonals
the contrast of stroke of the lowercase x. The
weights and the size of energy of this face is
their dot-like forms— further compounded by
balancing serifs, tittles, its setting on a rising
and punctuation. In baseline.
addition, the flare of MADELINE DENEYS / AUSTRALIA
curves within strokes OLD SCHOOL NEW SCHOOL
overtakes what are typi- Victoria Grow, instructor
cally straight strokes,
as seen in the baseline
In these condensed
sans serif characters, a
pronounced contrast
in stroke weights accent-
uates the extreme
rotation of the curved
forms’ axis off center.
The x-height of the lower-
case is unusually large;
and the lower stories
are clearly larger than
the upper ones.
ERIKA FULTON / USA
A relatively restrained return to, and cross past, The face is further charac-
character set with min- their stems; further, the terized by the exaggerated
imal contrast in weight diagonals of the R’s leg size of the upper stories
gains added interest and the N’s dominant and counters, evident in
Proof 1 2
through an exaggeration stroke, as well as the leg the R, N, and K, and in the
of circularity, established of the K, are drawn as low rise of the G’s throat.
by the Q. Note the curves; the upper-left MAXIMILLIAN POLLIO / USA
extension of the R’s and joint in the N reveals a PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
B’s shoulders as they curvaceous terminal. Timothy Samara, instructor

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168
reinterpreting archetypes
Of course, just because a particular charac-

ter is archetypally configured from particular
shapes doesn’t mean it must always be
made so. It’s important to recognize that a
character’s form is not ncessarily wrapped
up in the presence of curve, diagonal, or
stem—what is truly important is that the
stroke information made available in its
design corresponds to readers’ expectations
of what its parts do, in relation to each
other, to elicit recognition of the form as
one character or another. A rectangle, trian-
gle, or irregular blob can replace a curved
stroke, for example, so long as it can be
interpreted as fulfilling the structural func-
tion of the stroke that has been replaced.
In looking at this logo The success of this

for a financial services mark lies in its design-
firm, one is reminded er’s recognition of a
how little information is simple truth: that any
really necessary to rec- two dots describe a line
ognize a letter—in this between them.
case, a capital W. MOVING BRANDS / UK
This character set

reimagines all of the
Proof 1 2
lowercase forms as
structures composed of
disconnected, parallel
lines whose terminals
are softly rounded.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES /
USA

Text SLC Page: 168
169
This array of variations the limited number

on the form of a capital of iterations shown
G suggests how far here, one could envision
the characteristics of brand marks for a
a form’s archetype variety of clients.
might be pushed.
Although this study
was developed without
a brief in mind or for
any particular project,
it demonstrates how
liberating such thinking
can be, and how useful:
Consider each of these
a letter-based logo,
for instance. Among
This logo for a Swedish The many alternate char-

construction firm acters created as part
builds an S from angled of this font illustrate,
planes—a complete in practical terms, how
reversal of the charac- varied the archetype of
ter’s archetype, which is even a single letterform
fundamentally about a can be reinvented.
single curve. TYPOTHÈQUE / NETHERLANDS
ATIPO FOUNDRY / SPAIN

Text SLC Page: 169
170
imposing a visual idea
It’s a short leap from exaggerating a Contrary to convention,

structural norm, or reinterpreting how the weight in these
an archetype can be changed and remain forms is located around
their joints, creating
recognizable, to feeling free enough to in- an interesting tension
troduce a purely formal gesture, or conceit, between geometric and
into the visualization of letterforms. Such organic qualities.
imposed conditions might be structural in DESIGNER UNKNOWN / USA
their basis—for instance, altering the char- Timothy Samara, instructor
acters’ conventional distribution of stroke
weight—or it might be more surface-
related—interrupting the characters’ basic
shapes with a pattern. Given that conven-
tional drawing media impart specific mark
shapes and textures, allowing evidence
of such media can even be considered a
visual conceit if they demonstrably affect
the shaping of characters and aren’t simply
textural embellishments.
A pattern of lines, in the

negative, interrupts the
continuity of the charac-
ters’ stroke formation in
this experimental face.
Further, the characters
themselves have had
a specific weight logic
imposed on them: the
left-hand side of the
characters is constructed
of a lightweight stroke or
strokes, while their right-
hand side is made of
heavy ones. The reversed
line pattern creates the
impression of secondary,
positive line patterns,
as well.
Proof 1 2


Text SLC Page: 170
171
The character set shown

here was derived from a
project about water scar-
city; the visual idea was
to reduce the amount of
stroke information— Two visual ideas were
especially at the joints— imposed on the char-
to convey the idea of acters of this set: First,
drying out. The remain- the forms are primarily
ing heavier elements, rectangular and skewed
smoothly modulating to appear in perspective;
into nothingness, seem second, their internal
to be getting absorbed counters have been
into cracks in the surface. skewed in the opposite
direction.
In this character set, reg- Second, the forms are

ularity of proportion and made using a pen or
shaping take a backseat marker, and that tool’s
to two imposed visual casually varied line
traits. First, the overall weight is retained to
language is one that em- impart a softer, more
ulates crystalline planes, organic counterpoint to
creating facets within the geometry of the
each of the letters. facet-like construction.

Text SLC Page: 171
172
extreme mash-ups
In the previous chapter, the idea of hybrid-

izing characteristics from different style
classes was discussed as an option for in-
venting a new typeface. The assumption in
that context was that the intention in doing
so would be to seamlessly integrate those
characteristics and still frame the desired
design outcome in terms of a conventional,
unified text style.
Why stop there?
By all means, see what happens if one
carries that thinking a little further—or
much further!
This typeface merges

what appears to be rem-
nants of a Spencerian or
cursive script with geo-
metric, bitmap forms.
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 172
173
This hybrid of transitional about the disconnect

serif forms with those between its stylistic
of a rounded, geometric components, allowing
sans serif, was designed their boundaries to crash
by P. Scott Makela—a into each other and,
designer aligned with the sometimes, their formal
Post-Structural move- elements to cross those
ment of the 1980s and boundaries.
90s. It makes no bones
At first glance, this bold,

extended, rectilinear
sans serif seems quite
normal—especially
compared to the other
specimens shown on
this page spread. Closer
inspection reveals a sim
ple, but effective, hybrid
solution that integrates
hard-edged, linear
strokes with irregular,
textured brushstrokes.
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 173
174
getting spontaneous
It’s hard to let go. Designers often forget A script alphabet with
that typography’s origins lie in calligraphy a rough, calligraphic
(okay technically, that’s not true, but the approach that embraces
the texture of a dry
point here is more important than that). brush, finds elegance
The point is that type is about writing; in the form of curled,
writing is gestural and spontaneous, and swash-like terminals
a type designer can embrace that visceral and a delicate sway in a
number of the stems.
truth as a starting point, even if the out-
come is a tightly regimented translation
of written form that isn’t even a script.
Greek and Roman writing, if one recalls,
were originally hacked, primitvely, into
the surfaces of stones—and are inarguably
beautiful as a result.
So, one might just accept the visual power
that gestural writing offers, warts and all,
in the quest for a new kind of form. That
might mean keeping the textural evidence
of the tool as part of the design, or elim-
inating it altogther in favor of a refined
form that yet retains the spontaneous
quirks of its source.
Working spontaneously
to generate rough forms
as part of an investiga-
tion may point the
way toward an overtly
calligraphic approach
in the end—but it just
as well may not. The
rough study at far left,
made using a piece of
inked cardboard, could
simply suggest unusual
structures and details
to incorporate into
Proof 1 2
a more refined or con-

structed face, as shown
in this character.

Text SLC Page: 174
175
Taking a slightly different

tack, the forms in this
character set aim for a
suggestion of control as
a counterpoint to their
extremely aggressive
gesture by enforcing
a contrived, triangular
structure on the curves.
Both of these script forms revealing of its pen-

retain clear evidence of drawn origin as are its
their calligraphic origins, sharp, flat terminals.
despite having their The script immediately
contours cleaned up above is less refined
and their proportions with regard to width
regularized. and weight consistency,
Proof 1 2
The script at top follows allowing the irregulari-
a chancery model that ties of its drawing to live
displays an occasional as they were made.
inline—a detail just as

Text SLC Page: 175
176
new tools, new options
retooling the oldschool
Familiarity with using studio tools to The character studies

accomplish specific tasks can blind one to to the right were made
their potential if used in unexpected ways. with an eyedropper
to help the designer
For instance, the form language most understand the variety
typical of a wetly inked brush is one of slop- of marks it could make
ing, wiggling, curvaceous, interconnected, among different forms.
river-y blobs—but see what happens if the After extensive inves-
brush is slapped onto the working surface: tigation, the designer
a new kind of mark! Investigating how selected those attributes
that provided the greatest
varied the possible uses of a tool may be formal consistency
can yield critically important knowledge. and translated them into
the character set below.
Tools typically used for one purpose can She chose to keep
also be appropriated for other purposes, some explicit evidence
like drawing. An eyedropper, for exam- of the dropper’s inking
ple, exists to deposit drops of liquid; if irregularities while
refining other elements
it’s dragged across a surface while being in the set.
squeezed, it makes lines, not drops— DESIGNER UNKNOWN / USA
and these can be changed by altering the PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
duration and force of compression on
the dropper’s bulb.
Printing methods, including cutting reliefs
from potatoes (and inking them), as well as
using stencils to alter how one is affecting
a drawing surface underneath, both offer
beautiful alternatives to directly gestural
mark making.
Dramatic new effects

can be achieved with an
exceedingly familiar tool
by simple means:
The N at far left was
drawn by cinching two
brushes together with
a rubber band. The E
to the immediate left
was made by covering a
toothpick with paint and
rolling one end of it.
DESIGNERS UNKNOWN / USA
Proof 1 2

Text SLC Page: 176
177
Paper offers wonderful

potential as a drawing
medium—from a
conventional approach
(ripped strips) as seen
in the large A below; to
more inventive ones,
as with the set R E A to
the left, made by gluing
a white sheet to a black
sheet and then peeling
off the top layer. In the
image at the bottom of
The characters in the set the page, stencils and
below were created by spray paint were used to
inking a block of wood— investigate texture.
pulled from the furniture DESIGNERS UNKNOWN / USA
of a letterpress. PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY

Text SLC Page: 177
178

graphical alterations
Instead of drawing forms from scratch,

manipulating existing ones offers yet
another avenue for discovering unexpected
typographic ideas. The emphasis here is
on the word “unexpected”: rather than aim
for a predetermined effect, test a multitude
of alterations without a goal in mind to
remain open to a greater array of options.
Choose a single capital or lowercase letter
with which to work. The letter selected may
be of any style, but keep in mind that its
particular formal qualities will be affected
by graphical explorations in different
ways than might another. In that regard,
it might be helpful to test alterations on
two or more differently styled specimens.
Arrange several instances of the letter(s),
at a height of roughly 2–3" (5 to 6 cm), on
a single page and print a relatively large Any basic strategy—for The K to the left was
number of copies. example, slicing—can traced onto a thin,
be explored in a number spongy surface, cut out,
Perform a different manipulation on of ways each yielding and then sliced in multi-
each instance of the letter(s), making sure a different effect. The ple directions. Scanning
the result of each is clear and dramatic. K above was sliced it and increasing its
horizontally with a stu- contrast simplified the
Manipulations may be accomplished digi- dio knife and its parts results into a solid,
tally but, again, overfamiliarity with soft- shifted laterally. Had it purely positive/negative
ware can sometimes limit one’s thinking— been sliced vertically, or image.
get out of your comfort zone and explore at an angle, the effect on The K at lower left was
its structure would have simply ripped and then
manual techniques that you’re less likely to been different.
be able to control. photocopied in succes-
sive generations to pull
out a gritty texture along
its ripped edges.
Proof 1 2
Letter studies on these pages

KEVIN HARRIS / USA
SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS

Text SLC Page: 178
179
The manipulations if not thousands, of

shown here comprise unique strategies may
a number of hand- be invented and tested
generated solutions individually or com-
that range from cutting bined. An abridged list
and reordering parts, to of possibilities is pro-
pasting printed graphic vided as a jumping-off
elements together, to point at lower right.
crumpling, to redrawing
with a marker and ruler.
With a little time and
imagination, hundreds,
Sample Strategies
Scribbling / Rough tracing /

Outlining / Contour drawing / Erasing /
Shredding / Smearing / Folding /
Tearing / Disintegrating /
Scratching / Scoring / Rubbing /
Roughening / Slicing and dicing /
Shifting parts / Soaking / Puncturing /
Perforating / Burning / Spattering /
Photocopy degeneration /
Remaking with foreign elements /

Text SLC Page: 179
180
modular construction
On the other hand, pursuing entirely dig- A square grid of two

ital investigations is certainly an option— different resolutions—
and there’s no more fundamentally digital one coarse, or made of
fewer modules (far left)
formal structure than that of the pixel or, and one that is much
considered more expansively, working with finer (near left) show
a repeated module to build letterforms. the effects of this funda-
mental characteristic on
It goes without saying that drawing and the possible complexity
image-making software are ideal for this and detail of the letter
kind of approach because of their facility made with each.
for automated repetition—copying and
pasting, rotating, inverting position, and
so on. The process can be extremely rapid
and generate a huge number of variations
to compare in a short time.
Further altering the field
One chief consideration when using a of modules by reducing
modular approach is the “resolution” the number of units left
of the grid—how many units high, how to right—in essence,
enforcing a condensed
many deep. The fewer units there are, the
character width—greatly
more challenging it will be to differentiate exaggerates the difference
similar forms, like an O and a D, especially in overall presentation
because curves may not be available. Still, that the letter will achieve.
working with a square, pixel-like module
isn’t the only option. The module itself
may be any shape, and one need not nec-
essarily restrict oneself to only one module
shape. For that matter, the modular
elements need not be arranged on a grid
structure at all.
Modules need not

necessarily be square
or follow the notion of
a pixel. Here, two faces
Proof 1 2
each use a module of

differing shape and
complexity, although
both order the modules
on an orthogonal grid.

Text SLC Page: 180
181
Another variation to In the extended typeface

explore is the use of below, a rounded line
more than one kind of segment, a dot, and a
module shape. In the diagonal detail element
typeface to the right, two merged in a some-
basic forms—a square what binary, or digital,
and a trapezoid, or a formation.
sheared rectangle—were
recombined, sometimes
being allowed to overlap
to create the appearance
of other shapes.
Modularity can also be level’s horizontal axis

conceived as a kind of was also made available
dimensional construct, to help introduce strict
Proof 1 2
as in this typeface. The horizontal strokes into
characters’ strokes are the forms.
selected instances of
the parts of a wireframe
figure (above); each

Text SLC Page: 181
182
digital manipulation
Software tools themselves offer an abundant Whether one chooses

source for altering letter shapes to find new to construct a few
kinds of form. Most designers tend to be basic character shapes
with which to work or
comfortable using such functions as distor- simply set a few from
tion or warping, or filter operations, on an existing font, the
pictorial material, but they are often reluc- vector-based tools of
tant to examine the effects of these tech- an illustration program
provide the most direct
niques on type. Less experienced designers means of interacting
(in particular, students) and those who lean with type forms in a
toward dogmatic thinking tend to be overly digital environment—
concerned with what they perceive as type given that these forms
are vector shapes that
forms’ sacred quality. Get over it—and get consist of points, the
your digital freak on. line segments that join
them, and their interior
fill colors.
Bitmap-based imaging splices of shapes in that

software encourages blend positive and nega-
photographic, or contin- tive in unexpected ways
uous tone, experimenta- to creating distortion
tion which, based on the and textured surfaces.
pixel as its medium, can
range from softening
Proof 1 2
of contours to creating
pattern forms, and from
overlaying transparent

Text SLC Page: 182
183
Selecting points or
segments around a type
form and moving them,
or transforming selected
parts using the editing
transformations (such
as scaling, warping, and
shearing) are several
of many options such
software allows. Another
is to apply filters to the
selected outline forms.
As ready-made effects
that are commonly
recognizable (and,
sometimes, somewhat
cheap or cartoonish),
the filters require testing
how altering their
respective parame-
ters might yield less
expected results (for
instance, increasing or
decreasing the number
of generators in a
wave-texture filter, or the
amplitude and direction
to be applied). A single
filter can transform the
same target in hundreds
of ways—and there are
hundreds of filters.

Text SLC Page: 183
184
photographic strategies
The interplay of light and dimensional

form that photography entails offers unique
possibilities for altering letter structure.
The medium of photography is now,
essentially, a digital one. Trying to find an
actual film camera is difficult and usually
expensive; developing and printing photo-
graphic images from film negatives, even
more so (as well as being time consuming,
and requiring specialized expertise).
In recent years, however, digital cameras
and their software (even inexpensive ones,
or those integrated into smartphones—
have been developed to include functions
that mimic some of the effects that were
possible with conventional film cameras:
long exposures to allow blur as the camera
is moved while the shutter is open; mul-
tiple-exposing two images in one frame;
allowing light to leak into the camera; flash
Photographing the play The characters above photographed scenes, lighting cut-out letters to
effects; and so on. of light across volumes were created this way, and then composite cast shadows and doing
It’s important to keep in mind that image in space and then using an image of a them; equally interesting the same. The images
masking them into ex- metal, roll-down security is the tactic of projecting captured can then be
scanners and photocopiers, as well as cam- isting forms is a simple gate as a source image. letters across objects or processed to change
eras, are photographic technologies. These strategy for involving Another strategy, and environments to deform their densities and
can be used to generate chance effects by photography. somewhat more com- them, and then photo- contrast as one likes.
moving a letter image across the imaging plicated, is to isolate graphing them—or
bed while being scanned; holding a print components from
of a letter away from the bed, or at an
angle, or inserting some kind of refractive
material as interference, can also affect the
scanned image in interesting ways. Last,
but not least, of course, the photographic
filter operations in imaging software are One of the most readily more continous warping
ripe with potential. available strategies— effects (as shown at
and one that is excep- left), while abruptly re-
tionally fun—is moving positioning the subject
subjects on the bed of a will typically introduce a
scanner or photocopier choppy, staggered, and
as the input head moves fractured result in the
from one end to the image.
other. Moving the sub- KEVIN HARRIS / USA
ject slowly will produce SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
Proof 1 2

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Because the photo- The added benefit is

graphic medium is that, like filters in vector-
now inherently digital, based drawing software,
imaging software is an photographic effects
easy go-to for generating filters also may be con-
visual effects that riff on trolled as to how they
those one could only affect subject matter
create with a camera in through options for
the past. Blurring, for changing their param-
example, is more easily eters. All three of the B
accomplished by using specimens here, for
the tools of such a example, are instances
program than it is by of different kinds of
shaking a camera blur control.
during a long exposure.
High-contrast photo- Fortunately, changing The characters shown in generating photo-

graphic film that exposed the value and density here began life as rough graphs that revealed the
only the highlights and levels of an image using forms cut from tissue crumpling in exceptional
Proof 1 2
shadows in an image, software will accomplish paper that was then detail. The images were
while leaving the mid- the same effect—and crumpled; the designer altered digitally and,
tones out, used to be more varied ones— tested different lighting eventually, different
the only way to achieve within seconds. situations and, in com- parts were composited
a detailed, high-contrast bination with rubbing together.
image of the kind above. charcoal onto some of RHIANN IRVINE / USA
the surfaces, succeeded PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY

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telling stories
feelings made visual
Both pictorially and nonpictorially derived This bold, italic slab serif
strategies may be used to powerful effect leans engagingly to the
in the formation of letters. The intrinsic right; its thick, rounded
strokes feel soft and
form language of a typeface, established by cuddly, but perky.
its stroke-and-counter alternation, weight,
width, and details, automatically carries
nonpictorial narrative. Interpretations of
elegance, romance, or sensuousness attend
typeface styles that are lighter and more
linear, express fluidity in the modulation
of weight in their curves. Light, extended
typefaces seem graceful, open, and calm, The font at right The light, extended
while bold ones read as aggressive, author- combines script ele- sans serif below is
itative, or loud. ments—which impart relatively stately, but it
an unstudied, honest also exudes a sense of
Beyond such basic formal qualities, though, quality—with an excep- calm—because of its
a designer might also incorporate abstract or tionally large lowercase wide dimensions—
illustrative elements that evoke a variety whose proportions and directness, which
seem almost childlike. results from its light-
of emotional experiences or states of mind.
weight, open counters,
The specific tool used to make the forms and crisp terminals.
will itself add its own language of effects—
in concert with, or even independent of,
the designer’s choices of proportion and
formal detail. The diagonal, linear pattern
of a brush over a textured surface may
lend a sense of connectivity, as well as
environment, to a bold, authoritative face.
These fonts, on the other holding them in place

hand, come across as so they don’t escape.
sinister or dangerous. The specimen at the
The top specimen bottom is formed of
conveys these qualities bold verticals that
through its torn, seem- descend from shallow
ingly violated contours crossbars and terminate
and the unreliable in pointy shapes,
distribution of weights; suggesting an iron gate.
some of its counters are It also makes reference
also eye-like. to gothic or blackletter
The specimen in the types from the Middle
middle also exhibits Ages, which are com-
Proof 1 2
disturbingly irregular monly associated with

contours, as well as films of the horror genre.
strange growths from its
strokes, suggesting ten-
drils, or perhaps pins,

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These two typefaces feel

fragile; the exceedingly
light sans serif (top)
seems brittle, as though
it’s about to come apart,
while the textured sans
serif (bottom) could be
interpreted to be formed
from glass or ice.
In these typefaces,
unsual stroke shaping
and graphical details
might be interpreted as
exotic, mystical, or alien,
depending on the con-
text in which they might
be encountered.
The grouping of fonts of power) and an exag-

above feel dynamic in gerated backslant, which
different ways: through causes the forms to feel In this grouping, all
energetic, diagonal as though they’ve sud- of the faces convey a
splicing that causes denly, and unexpectedly, quality of artificiality or
the forms to vibrate, lurched—the feeling is contrivance, mostly be-
almost electrically enhanced by the intru- cause they appear to be
(top); through extreme sion of sharp, angular purposely constructed
extension and sleek, counters (bottom). of disparate elements—
monotone strokes the elements don’t seem
that expand with great likely to have come
velocity across the page together naturally. The
(middle); or through ex- middle example has the
treme boldness (always quality of a machine or
a contributor to a sense toy; the one at bottom
Proof 1 2
shows evidence of
having been hewn from
a surface.

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telling stories
evoking time and context
Whether it’s in fulfillment of a project’s The font immediately to

design brief and communication goals, or the left is a translation, or
just for the pure fun of it, investigating reinvention, of an ancient
Greek form. It has been
typographic forms from other eras, somewhat stylized and
cultures, or locales can be a solid basis on made more regular in its
which to develop a new font. First, consider rhythm than is true of
that the formal aspects of many existing, its historical precedent.
Below it, however, is a
older typefaces are characteristic of the geometric reinterpretation
time and place they were created, as well that carries this historical
as of specific technological conditions. baggage, but casts it in a
more contemporary voice.
For a given project that requires it—say,
designing a titling treatment for a poster
about a Baroque architecture exhibit—
a designer may be more apt to follow the
relevant historical model more closely,
producing a kind of “period piece.” On
the other hand, reinterpreting the form
language of a historcial face in a less refer-
ential way, by simplifying or abstracting it,
can lead the way to creating an appropriate
allusion to the historical subject that is,
nonetheless, fresh and contemporary.
Similar to the examples extreme and its details

at the top of the page, also have been simpli-
these two typefaces are fied. Further, the lower-
based on blackletter case has been enlarged
forms. The one to the left to a more contemporary
is a systematic, highly proportion; and the sty-
reduced interpretation. listic logic between the
The one above is more uppercase and lowercase
referential of its source, has been brought into a
although its stems have greater state of unity or
been thickened to an correspondence.
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189
Both of the fonts above The specimen immediately

are likely to remind one above is constructed of
of the 1950s, for different graphical forms that refer
reasons. The top speci- to the same period’s most
men is an industrial script prevalent artistic genres—
that refers to automobile Biomporphism and
styling from that era. Abstract Expressionism.
All three of the specimens In differing contexts, they

above exhibit qualities might come across as
that convey notions about historical or even campy,
technology and, perhaps, like a B-grade science
of science or the future. fiction movie, or as rather
forward looking.
These three specimens of English Art Nouveau; period-relevant archi-

speak to the Victorian the specimen in the mid- tectural styles, like the
age in England and dle is similar to many Arts & Crafts or Mission
Proof 1 2
the U.S., the period wood-type slab serifs style, as well as wrought
roughly from 1880 to that gained popularity ironwork that was char-
the early 1910s. The top in England and the U.S. acteristic of architecture
specimen captures the during that period; the in Chicago and New
geometric organicism specimen at the bottom York at that time.
combines details from

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telling stories
vernacular messages
The tool or method used to visualize a new Of all well-liked vernacular

type form may itself derive from some references, typewriter
commonly understood source, typographic type is probably the most
beloved. It occupies a
or otherwise—a vernacular experience. strange territory in cultural
Designers might draw inspiration from consiousness, somewhere
all manner of day-to-day, “undesigned” between nostalgia and
visual sources: the dot-matrix printing of old-school mechanical
chic; a kind of office-punk
sales receipts and customer information realm that is both prosaic
on airline tickets; a supermarket’s painted and weirdly symbolic.
promotional signs; street graffiti; forms
used by scientists to diagram or model a
particular kind of data; and so on.
Many branches of
science have their own,
particular graphical
gestures for visualizing
aspects of the natural
world. This typeface
draws upon methods
used to represent
molecular and atomic
structures, like benzene
rings and peptides.
Much like chemistry
itself, it assmebles a
palette of elements—
solid strokes and inline
strokes, strokes with
flags for terminals and
those with dots—and
organizes them in a
near-modular structure
to form the characters.
DANIELLE WEINBERGER / USA
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191
Next to (or, perhaps,

ahead of) typewriter type
in the lexicon of designers’
typographic indulgences
are graffiti forms that first
surfaced in the late 1970s
in urban America—reviled
as vandalism and then,
later, accorded a place of
prestige in the art world.
Graffiti walks a line between
display face and script form.
Like other major classes
of letter style, it too occurs
in a variety of subclassifi-
cations that encompass
calligraphic styles, block
lettering, inlines, outlines,
and shadow styles, as
well as decorated and
illustrative ones.
As a script, it’s the most
contemporary kind in
a long continuum of such
faces—and likely the
edgiest of them all.
Day-to-day, commonly The realm of home

lived experience is the crafts and housekeeping,
backbone of vernacular especially that which
expression. People from occupies a fond place
all walks of life, working in collective memory,
in the home or in an is a wellspring of charm-
office, are always making visual languages.
ing things; if they’re not This typeface evokes
artists or designers by one such trope: hand-
education or profession, embroidered samplers
Proof 1 2
those things come into of a bygone time.
being from a place of
honesty and authentic-
ity, never mind a little
naïvete.

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telling stories
conceptual narratives
Yet another option for narrative story-

telling through the design of a font lies in
incorporating pictorial, as well as abstract,
formal gestures that capture more complex
associations. A face that is intricately con-
structed of industrially-evocative details,
for instance, may refer to iron architecture;
irregular contours and weight changes may
suggest a rough-hewn material, like stone;
sharp, partially edited outlines may suggest
the unknown in a difficult experience. The
more stylized the form, the more specific
or concrete its message is likely to be.
This approach is exceptionally well-suited
for developing a bespoke house face as
part of a branding system, but especially
for the development of a client’s identify-
ing wordmark. The details of a complete
typeface will give specific character to the
communications produced as part of such
a system; used to visualize a single word
or short phrase—like a logotype or a book
title—the letters’ form language will un-
pack its multiple potential meanings and
emphasize a particular understanding.
Even a single word with The example at top uses the geometry of a square, The example at the
an apparently unequiv- volumetric forms that a hypermodern aesthetic. very bottom, which
ocal meaning, such as speak to architecture’s In the fourth example includes characters that
the one above, can be play of mass and light. from the top, small are missing strokes and
unpacked, shaded, and The second example blocks suggest bricks others that are blunt
otherwise transformed hints at dimensionality and the modularity of cut, express the mono-
into a conceptual allusion lithic and primitive
Proof 1 2
and enclosures of space. construction.

to some specific aspect In the middle, hairline heritage of building or,
of its meaning. strokes articulate mini- perhaps, suggest the
malist apertures within architectural style known
as Brutalism.

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This character set was

designed to represent
Cancer Management
Centers, its disappear-
ing strokes meant to
suggest the disap-
pearance of tumors
and a progression to
remission.
DONALD BRADY / USA
In this typeface, devel- The massive stroke area

oped for BioBank, a life of each capital form en-
sciences, company, the closes (and appears to
designer established a protect) dot-like, cellular
group of robust capitals details and circuit-like
whose shaping mixes linear counters.
sharp, technological an- DESIGNER UNKNOWN / USA
gles and sloping, organ- PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
ic forms, alternating in
their relationships from
character to character.
A house face for the the same level, creating

High Line, an urban a space that suggests
park reclaimed from a path through a dense
an elevated train track, city environment.
references the iron PHILLIP WONG / USA
couplings and luminous PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
Proof 1 2
sheen of the tracks; a
horizontal inline detail
visually connects the
uppercase letters all at

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telling stories
objects as inspiration—or form itself
At the most image-like and extremely This illustrative display

narrative end of display-font design options face deploys stylized,
are those whose stroke structures are de- iconically simplified
schematics of shipping
rived from pictorial forms. A designer may boxes—whose parts are
choose to pursue this idea in a very literal organized on a modular
way (assembling characters’ strokes with grid—to form bold, fun
actual images of objects, whether naturalis- letter shapes.
tic or stylized); alternatively, he or she may
prefer a less direct visualization, opting
instead to identify recognizable formal
qualities of the objects under consideration
and then translate them more abstractly.
Although it’s important to keep an eye on
the legibility of exaggerated experiments,
it’s equally important to remember that the
alphanumeric characters are remarkably
resilient when it comes to manipulation—
designers often have a lot more leeway for
experimentation than they may initially
suppose. Ultimately, it’s this robustness
of the Western alphabet’s structure that
allows for reinterpreting its forms, and so
continually evolving it in new ways.
The inspiration for this Much of the designer’s and weight changes
character set, developed attention concentrated would appear in every
in relation to a poster on finding consistencies character. The result is
promoting a rock-climb- in the contrasts that oc- a somewhat seamless
ing organization, was— curred in each instance, overall weight, shaping
well, rocks. A combina- despite the fact that and proportion logic
tion of irregularly round- sharper and rounder that carries throughout.
Proof 1 2
ed forms and sharper, forms would confront ANDREW SCHEIDERICH / USA

jagged ones interact each other in different PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
in different ways from locations. Further, the
character to character. irregular weights of
each character were ad-
justed so that relatively
similar weight values

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Similar to the font Further, each letter

inspired by stones on incorporates three line
the opposite page, these weights and a more
letters play with the massive element to
tension between organic establish uniformity
irregularity and system- from erratically organic
atic relationships. Note material.
the similarity in propor- JESSICA DEANGELIS / USA
tion and ovoid shaping PURCHASE COLLEGE SUNY
between the eye of the
lowercase e, the lower
story of the lowercase
a, and the upper lobe of
the capital R.
Photographs of is technically a modular

bicycle-chain segments construction. An inter-
were processed into esting tension arises as
high-contrast outlines to a result of the individual
construct the characters character shapes being
of this font. Using limited by the physical
images of the actual mechanics of the chains
object imparts a casual, themselves: a modular
comfortable naturalism concept, disturbed by an
to the characters, while imposed irregularity.
maintaining a slightly
industrial edge. As a sys-
tem of lines made from Even the most prosaic
joined dots, the typeface of office materials can
find their way into the
formation of typographic
shapes that elevate the
lowly object—even while
Proof 1 2
they bring the highbrow
notion of type design
back down to Earth.

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196
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197
letterforms
Since 1990, the number of available

typefaces has increased more than tenfold—
from perhaps 30,000 to nearly 500,000,
based on some current estimates. Add to
that an uncountable number of letter signs,
wordmarks, and titling treatments, and
the magnitude of typographic exploration
approaches the astronomical in scope.
Assembled here are examples of typeface
design and lettering recently produced for
all kinds of application. Whether created
for extensive reading in an editorial context
or for a single product name on packaging,
each exploits knowledge of the discipline’s
history and respects its precedents. This is
so even when the goal is to fight them and
reinvent accepted forms to create a newly
conceptual experience.
The State of the Art

a showcase
of contemporary
directions in
letterform design

Text SLC Page: 197
198
coma display face tremolo family

BARNBROOK / UK TYPOTHÈQUE / NETHERLANDS
This bold, geometrically An extensive range of

constructed inline face wryly calligraphic semi-serifs
comments on popular incorporates solid-stroke,
culture with elements that inline, shadowed, and
evoke electronic networks two-tone variants—along
and toys, pill cases, and with idiosyncratic details
sporting apparel. (note the tittles!)—to
offer numerous expressive,
yet craftsmanly, options
for the typographer.
beverage branding
MUCCA DESIGN / USA
This wordmark for a brand

Proof 1 2
of energy drink brewed from

guayusa (an Amazonian tree
leaf) employs inline detailing
to suggest its regional heri-
tage in a contemporary, sans
serif presentation.

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199
letterforms / state of the art
canela family
COMMERCIAL TYPE / UK
This warm, quietly confi-

dent serif began life as an
interpretation of Caslon,
but shed its explicit serifs
in favor of gently flared
terminals that recall the
classical texture of stone-
carved Roman types.
real estate branding

SOMEONE / UK
A handsome and sober,

yet elegant, monogram for
a refurbished and repur-
posed multiuse property
(Devonshire Quarter)
concisely merges the two
letters of its initials.
quarto family from controlled contrasts:

HOEFLER & CO. / USA
strong verticals and lavish
This robust serif draws curvature; steadfast
from 16th-century Dutch rhythm and sudden, sharp
display faces created by turns; heavy thicks and
Hendrik Van den Keere. razor-bright serifs.
Its arresting design results
art auction house beauty & lifestyle

branding branding ANAGRAMA /
THIRST / USA (TOP) MEXICO (BOTTOM)
Proof 1 2
A high-contrast, all-capital, Extreme contrast, pro-
italic form with intriguing nounced joint details, exag-
ligatures and missing gerated proportions, and a
strokes conveys credibility unifying diagonal lend chic
and a sense of risk taking. energy to this exquisitely
classical serif wordmark.

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200
mr. k script face ideal sans family

JULIASYS STUDIO / GERMANY HOEFLER & CO. / USA
Julia Sysmälainen, the Instead of rigid austerity,

designer of this fluid, this humanist sans serif
energetic script, exploits family exudes warmth and
OpenType’s capacity for organicism by flouting
extensive alternate glyphs geometry in favor of clas-
to generate a specimen sical, hand-drawn details
that is at once tightly and proportions.
refined and yet very
humanly spontaneous
in its presentation.
Proof 1 2

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201
jasan family variation in joint details

STORM TYPE FOUNDRY /
CZECH REPUBLIC
contribute to a sense of
honesty and accessibility
This contemporary sans in the family’s extensive
serif also approaches its weight and width variants.
design from a calligraphic,
less-machined standpoint.
Subtle modulation and
telecom branding
MOVING BRANDS / UK
A friendly, dimensional,
script-form logo gives
rise to an equally friendly,
bespoke, sans serif family
by lending its signature
Proof 1 2
curves—especially in un-
conventional locations.

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202
hotel branding
MUCCA DESIGN / USA
The house type style of a

boutique hotel—rooted
in the square-shouldered,
industrial sans serifs of the
early 20th century—draws
upon the ad hoc mixing
of multiple widths and
weights by job printers
during that era to render
a visual language for the
brand that is both casual
and rigorously mechanical.

THIRST / USA
An algorithmic generator
is used to continually
reconstruct the logotype
of a high-end commercial
developer.
Proof 1 2

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203
francis family
TYPOTHÈQUE / NETHERLANDS
Although the members of

this high-contrast, sans
serif family may be used
effectively in a more con-
ventional way for extensive
text applications, the
critical innovation here is
its gradient options, which
allow for rhythmic com-
pression and expansion of
text on the fly.
Proof 1 2
icoh font Its unforgivingly mechan-
SEALSTUDIO / USA
ical quality is offset by
This experimental display a number of alternates
face by up-and-coming that include condensed,
type designer Tré Seals riffs extended, stenciled, and
on drawing templates once filled-counter options.
used by architects.

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204
lifestyle branding mortal whiteline

CHERMAYEFF & GEISMAR family STORM TYPE
& HAVIV / USA FOUNDRY / CZECH REPUBLIC
This letter-sign logo for a The relentless geometry

fashion company called of this family’s proportions
Beehouse reconstructs the and structure comes alive
company name’s initial in in its angularly cut termi-
the hexagonal form of a nals—truly visible only in
beehive’s honeycomb. its bolder weights, or in the
light weight when set at
large sizes—and in an in-
line version that is almost
electronically luminous.

CHERMAYEFF & GEISMAR
& HAVIV / USA
Another letter-sign logo,

this time for a luxury, urban
high-rise building—
The Parkhouse—reveals
its signature initial from an
interrupted configuration
of concentric circles.
architecture firm
branding PARALLAX /
AUSTRALIA
A clever deconstruction
Proof 1 2
of architectural details
yields a brandmark that is
exacting in its iconography,
yet playful and creative.

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205
editorial headline
treatment FAITH / CANADA
Letterforms constructed
from sartorial details—
buttons, seams, collar
yokes, and so on—provide
a fun take on the craft
of tailoring in the headline
treatment for a fashion
magazine article.
vivho display face

ESTUDIO PONCE CONTRERAS /
SPAIN
The designer of this topically- investment firm

branding SOMEONE / UK
informed typeface brings a
note of optimism to what is This type-driven identity
usually a morose matter conveys the notions of
Proof 1 2
through bold, almost child- interconnectivity and build-
like forms that mix anxious ing (of wealth) through a
sharpness and effusive cir- bespoke, inline sans serif
cularity, lightning-like danger that integrates a modular
and romantic iconography. construction approach.

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206
cultural festival
branding THONIK /
NETHERLANDS
The identity program for

the most recent iteration
of a longstanding Dutch
cultural festival trades
on a stencil font that, in
addition to its inherent
stencil mix display for every character or characteristics, features
face ESTUDIO PONCE glyph. All are unified by a tremendous selection of
CONTRERAS & UN MUNDO
FELIZ / SPAIN virtue of their drawing character ligatures.
as stencil forms.
Very simply, here is a dis-
play font that provides an
array of letter styles, each
available as an alternate
Proof 1 2

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207
dala floda family

If there’s any font offering

of the stencil variety that
has captured the imagina-
tion of designers in the past
five years, it’s this one—
unexpectedly, and elegantly,
based on Rationalist serifs
of the 18th century.
euclid stencil display

face SWISS TYPEFACES /
SWITZERLAND
This stencil variant distin-

guishes itself with stroke
breaks that are indepen-
dent of the letters’ joints.
real estate branding the graphical inclusion that

ANAGRAMA / MEXICO
substitutes the E’s middle
A high-contrast, stencil crossbar—and the visual
approach ligates characters completion of the R by the
in this sharply austere, E’s detached serifs.
elegant wordmark. Note
editorial titling fashion & lifestyle

treatment FAITH / CANADA branding
MOVING BRANDS / UK
The extreme contrast—
and unusual weight distri- This monogram for a com-
bution—in these numerals pany called Material World
Proof 1 2
elicits a sense of historical is a concise, well-crafted
continuity and forward- hybrid of the initials of the
looking futurism. client’s name.

Text SLC Page: 207
208

THIRST / USA
The logo and flexibly pro-

portionable modular alpha-
bet designed to promote
a high-end rental property
draw from the building’s
architecture and 1930s
financial services typographic experiments
branding from Italy.
MOVING BRANDS / UK
The dynamic interaction

of two cubic forms re-
imagines the inital S of the
client’s name and suggests
a percent sign.
entertainment
branding
& HAVIV / USA
This letter-sign logo for

Screen Gems integrates
the forms of an S and G
with an iconic representa-
tion of a film reel.
Proof 1 2

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209
cultural entity branding

PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES / USA
This letter-sign for the Greater

Philadelphia Cultural Alliance
(a nonprofit organization)
merges the entity’s initials in
a single form, supported by a
graphical language suggesting
its community influence.
steel trading
branding
& HAVIV / USA
A custom, squared-off
sans serif wordmark
accompanies an abstracted
letter-sign, both evoking an
robust, industrial quality.
krsna display face together with a set of more

SWISS TYPEFACES / SWITZERLAND
conventional set of geometric,
A bizarre set of character sans serif capitals to create a
alternates—some combining font with unusual possibilities.
linear, modular structures and
others that incorporate pointy,
diagonal strokes—come
art exhibition
branding FAITH / CANADA
This wordmark incorpo-
Proof 1 2
rates alternating widths,
beauty & lifestyle high-contrast stroke
name to form its terminal weights, and idiosyncratic
branding BARNBROOK / UK character, the N. Together details to capture the
The brandmark for Japanese with the type style’s classical, Surrealism of an art exhibi-
fashion house Shiseido’s Roman construction, the tion’s subject.
men’s fragrance reorients the result is an elegant, but
Z character of the product robustly masculine, style.

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210
pictopia display font provides an edgy feel for

UN MUNDO FELIZ / SPAIN
text and headlines without
Created to support a series compromising the icons’
of sociopolitical icons, massive, aggressive visual
this irregularly contoured, qualities.
condensed sans serif
druk family
Too extensive to show

here, the Druk family of
dramatic sans serifs com-
prises a system of some
ten weights, each available
in a variety of widths and
intended applications—
condensed and wide styles
for text; super condensed
and super extended styles
for display; and everything
in between. The family’s
overall stylistic qualities
are derived from Dutch
printers’ grotesques from
the first part of the 20th
century and, so, carry with
them the imprint of that
stylistic era—updated for a
contemporary sensibility.
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restaurant branding
MUCCA DESIGN / USA
These type families were

developed to publicly char-
acterise an Italian trattoria
in New York City, respond-
ing to its casually elegant
Italian country décor.
The challenge was to retain
the authenticity unique to
informal dining expe-
riences in Italy without
establishing a contrived
quality for the brand.
The serif and sans serif
families both deploy idio-
syncratic details in their
characters’ contours—and
subtly purposeful inconsis-
tencies in character weight
and proportion—to deliver
a recognizable brand
character that still feels
charming and personal.
sangbleu families high-contrast, Rationalist
serif; to the Sunrise version,
For some time, the Sangbleu its semiserif counterpart
family has been expanding (second from top); to the
to provide new possibilities original BP versions released
Proof 1 2
in color and expression. All a few years ago, consisting
of the members of the family mainly of exceptionally light,
exhibit noticeable stylistic calligraphic forms (third
elements that, while slightly and fourth from top) with
divergent, all carry a kind of eccentric details.
delicate romanticism—from
the Empire version (top), a

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art biennial branding

THONIK / NETHERLANDS
A custom sans serif with

structurally-dependent
add-on strokes conveys the
industrial character of a
contemporary art festival’s
cultural context and its
various venues.
equipment manufac-
turer branding
& HAVIV / USA
This clever letter-sign logo

encapsulates the product
offering of the client, Magi-
rus, who produces ladders
for use in the construction
industry.
digital art gallery

branding BARNBROOK / UK
Punctuation (the brackets)
effects a sophisticated play
on words in this logo for an
online gallery of art works
that, technically, don’t exist.
wine producer
branding PARALLAX /
AUSTRALIA
This monogram for

Ministry of Clouds, a
premium vintner, is based
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on cloud classification
symbols and the crystal
structure of ice.

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newsletter masthead
Abstracted characters live

side by side with letter-like
elements from musical
notation to create a unified
character set in this titling
treatment for a music organi-
prototype display face zation’s periodical publication.
BARNBROOK / UK
A hybrid font offering

whose specimen text,
below, pretty much
captures its intent.
municipal develop- system, a decidedly

ment branding contemporary letter-sign
SOMEONE / UK
is paired with an updated,
Proof 1 2
To capture both the heri- 19th-century grotesque
tage and future of an iconic sans serif characteristic of
London neighborhood— the neighborhood’s indus-
King’s Cross—as part of trial background.
a promotional branding

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brownstone
ornamental text font
SUDTIPOS / ARGENTINA
This text face integrates

script-like details in its
characters’ joints, along
with swash elements and
decorative flourishes.
obsidian family was iterative: the tools

HOEFLER & CO. / USA revealed opportunities for
This display family is the code enhancements and
exciting result of an exercise unexpected qualities that
in balancing 19th-century were allowed to reshape
Proof 1 2
decorative engraving with the design brief itself.

object-oriented program- It escapes the limitations
ming that defined the of its historical style
characters as volumes while honoring its best
affected by the play of traditions.
light. The design process

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215
emily-in-white
script face
JULIASYS STUDIO / GERMANY
This delicate, ephemeral

script, like all of the designer’s
complementary work, capital-
izes on the intuitive algorithms
of the OpenType format to
create a stunningly fluid and
natural hand.
titling treatment
FAITH / CANADA
Medieval blackletter and

decorative interlace forms
provide inspiration.
laundry services
branding ANAGRAMA /
MEXICO
Precise stenciling, extreme

contrast, and slickly formed
Proof 1 2
ligatures elicit feelings of
reliability and quality in this
logotype.

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evita family
SEALSTUDIO / USA
This typographic celebra-

tion of an iconic political
leader evokes vernacular
protest sign lettering from
the relevant era.
cassanet family
A multiweight family in
two widths captures
the aesthetic essence of
French advertising posters
from the period between
the two World Wars.
restaurant branding serif with echoes of the

Proof 1 2
MUCCA DESIGN / USA

script’s curves—set the
Vintage-inspired, com- tone for the visual identity
plementary type fami- of a New York City eatery
lies—one, a casually curly opened by a Milanese
upright script, and the restaurant outfit with a
other, a geometric sans 1930s origin.

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217
inkwell family
HOEFLER & CO. / USA
This new superfamily is

based on the idiosyn-
cracies of writing, but is
carefully systematized for
the serious typographer.
It incorporates the expres-
sive aspects of scribbled
notes (including reinking
of important points),
as well as more florid
elements, like a blackletter
and an outline version.
Each variant offers a range
of weights and alternate
characters for compelling
authenticity, and can be
used interchangeably.
calcula family fashion house

TYPOTHÈQUE / NETHERLANDS branding ANAGRAMA /
MEXICO
An extensive range of
ornamented, geometric This wordmark for a sports-
sans serif faces that oriented fashion label
incorporate solid-stroke, alludes to the brush-drawn
inline, shadowed, and signage that is vernacular
two-tone variants—along to California beachside
with idiosyncratic structural concessions and the surf
alternates to offer numer- culture of the 1960s.
ous expressive, stylish
typesetting options.

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neubau akademie
family NEUBAU / GERMANY
This studiously drawn
sans serif, inspired by
Theinhardt’s Royal
Grotesque (which later
became Berthold’s
Akzidenz), presents a
comfortable, even rhythm
and surprising warmth,
given its rigorous
construction.
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219
telecom branding
SOMEONE / UK
Straightforward circular
terminals and transparent,
overlapped stroke joints
contribute feelings of
directness and friendly
sharing in the logo and
house font developed
for the client.
bariol & bariol serif weights and corresponding

families italics, provide a wealth
of stylistic options that
These complementary can support complex text
families, each with a hierarchies.
comprehensive range of

Text SLC Page: 219
220
priori acute
serif display face
BARNBROOK / UK
This face balances sturdy,

classical serif construction
with an inline component
that produces an impossible
spatial disconnect, similar
to that of an optical illusion
known as the Penrose
Triangle. Some time after it
was developed, the studio
found an ideal use for it—
in their design for a book on
Surrealism in architecture.
youth orchestra stroke angle for characters

branding formed with diagonals.
Proof 1 2

The face’s near-Roman
This reductive, monoline proportion lends it a
sans serif suggests musical classical quality while
notation by replacing remaining contemporary
crossbars with dots and in overall feel.
enforcing a universal

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221
brrr display face both italic and backslanted

postures—give text set
An extended stance and a in this face a quirky rhythm.
host of unusual details— At a glance, it appears
brittle stroke joints, over- quite streamlined but, on
reaching arcs and extended closer inspection, reveals
tittles, diagonal elements a cold, jumpy bounce
in unexpected places, across the line.
variable character widths,
and the appearance of
wind family the font also enables full

360° rotation (clockwise or
The first published typeface counterclockwise), offering
of Hansje van Halem, this
Proof 1 2
unprecedented possibili-
experimental display face is ties for exploring repetitive,
intended for intriguing, lay- textural patterns.
ered optical effects in large-
scale headlines. Four static
styles are provided, but

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music ensemble
branding THIRST / USA
The simple structure of
a geometric sans serif
capital set takes on new
life through exaggerated
top/bottom proportions,
partial, unjoined strokes,
and an inventive use of
circular forms to reenvision
several of its characters—
producing a serious, runic
quality, tempered with
a bit of whimsy.
musac blackletter editorial titling

display font ESTUDIO treatment FAITH / CANADA
Proof 1 2
PONCE CONTRERAS / SPAIN

Pure geometry constructs
Bloated curves interact with this wordmark, cleverly
heavy, angular cuts, creating extending its diagonal lan-
a unique hybrid of blackletter guage into the O (the only
and sans serif structure. circular character) to
better unify its four glyphs.

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223
editorial
titling treatment
FAITH / CANADA
This composition of forms

draws from the language
of Japanese kawaii-culture
hiragana writing to give
clear context to the subject
of this headline’s article
without simply aping the
style in a facile way.
poster titling
UN MUNDO FELIZ / SPAIN
Basic shapes combine to

create simple, engaging
letters in this detail of an
exhibition poster.
newspeak family
BARNBROOK / UK
Merging culturally appro-

priated forms in a sensitive
way is a challenge, admi-
rably accomplished in this
display face that refers to
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period-specific architecture
and a non-Roman alpha-
betic system.

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core stencil family

SEALSTUDIO / USA
Both variants of this

font family derive from type
found on hand-drawn
protest posters created
during the American civil
rights movement.
wine producer
branding
PARALLAX / AUSTRALIA
The flared strokes of this

semiglyphic serif logotype,
together with a sharp,
editorial titling partial outline shadow,
treatment FAITH / CANADA impart a robust, elegant
Above, a florid homage to classicism in this updated
the typographic innovations branding program.
of the French Art Nouveau
era of the late 1800s.
corporate branding in the combination of an

ANAGRAMA / MEXICO
industrial fat face and a
Proof 1 2
This consulting firm’s quirky, cleverly integrated

competent, buttoned- amspersand.
down integrity, willingness
to look beyond convention,
and meticulous attention
to detail find expression

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225
dracula family
STORM TYPE FOUNDRY /
CZECH REPUBLIC
Vintage blackletter types

typically combine majus-
cules and miniscules of
wildly different proportion.
This new one unifies them
in a slightly condensed
drawing that also features
a relatively large lowercase,
designed for contemporary
setting, and includes both
solid and inline versions.
book cover titling

MUCCA DESIGN / USA
Custom characters in-

spired by the sleek types of
the Art Déco period grace
the cover of this book, de-
voted to the mixiology of a
storied hotel’s golden era.
restaurant branding by slyly enforcing a subtle,

FAITH / CANADA
strict repetition of angles
This comfortable, upright among its verticals and in the
script mark for a pizzeria directional axes of the curves.
Proof 1 2
exudes casual accessibility
in its rounded terminals
and soft joints, but hints
at a heritage of serious,
Old World craftsmanship

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226
melancholia family
BARNBROOK / UK
A subtle sans serif that

introduces a sense of
wistfulness into the form
through controlled, calli-
ligraphic gestures, a slight
cracking of the curves,
and the remnants of serifs.
The family includes a set
of true italics influenced by
old-style serif italics, along
with stylistic alternates
and swash characters.
rubén display face

SEALSTUDIO / USA
This all-uppercase, irregularly-

weighted sans serif with
rectangular curved forms
was inspired by banners
carried during the National
Chicano Moratorium march
on August 29, 1970, and the
death of renowned Latino
activist Rubén Salazar.
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beauty & lifestyle kautiva family

branding SUDTIPOS / ARGENTINA
MUCCA DESIGN / USA
This modern sans serif
A fresh, ownable retains a clean, rational
typographic program for quality, balanced by softly
the Sephora cosmetics pinched curves and slight
company retains an asso- modulation in the strokes.
ciation with style genres
typically associated with
the fashion industry
(high-contrast Didones)
but alters the axis and
thickens the thins to
ensure robust repro-
duction across media
platforms. The serif is
joined by a complemen-
tary sans serif and two
scripts that pay homage
to the heyday of fashion
editorial work.
thesaurus family forms, and increased

Proof 1 2
modulation. The result is
This new serif blends the a versatile face that is both
vintage features of metal humanistic and rational,
types used by the Estienne bridging the past and the
family in Paris and Geneva present.
with contemporary ones:
a large x-height, narrower

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228
beauty & lifestyle condensed, upright charac- editorial titling

branding ters and fully circular curved treatment FAITH / CANADA
MUCCA DESIGN / USA
ones lends a sexy, somewhat Swirling serifs and circular
The overall light weight, retro flare to the identity of counters invade this bold
sharp terminals and joints, a cosmetics house. wordmark to evoke the mu-
and exaggerated difference sic scene of the 1970s with
in proportion between a syncopated, percussive
arrangement of dots.
klimax family easily interchanged in a

Proof 1 2
body of text. The counter-
This family’s two variants, measures of the heavy
Plus and Minus (the heaviest variant are equivalent to
and lightest possible styles) the stroke weight of the
are optical opposites, but light variant.
they share similar metrics
and spacing, so they can be

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229
archia family on the g (among others)—

that help it maintain the
This reserved, geometric style’s characteristic purity
sans serif incorporates without becoming cold and
unexpected details—the mechanical or stuffy.
spur on the lowercase a,
a squared-off descender
peristyle family
HOEFLER & CO. / USA
Carefully translating the

formal characteristics
of historical styles that
inspired this super con-
densed, high-contrast sans
serif family resulted in wine producer
branding PARALLAX /
a face full of drama that AUSTRALIA
is very much of the present,
Hyper condensed and
neither old fashioned nor
Proof 1 2
extreme in contrast, this
eccentrically futuristic.
wordmark brings an Art
Déco heritage into the
realm of bar codes and
binary programming
language—old and new
in one delicious eyeful.

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furniture design
branding FAITH / CANADA
A striking, variable logotype
for Ranbir Sidhu’s design
studio organizes geometri-
cally abstracted letterforms
under a modular system
in a range of options, some-
times supporting—and
at others, challenging—
legibility. The designer
worked in collaboration
with the client and Denise
Cole of Juliet Creative.
salomé family
This bold, robust, serif

family includes options
with differing degrees
of stroke information
(all of extreme contrast),
along with alternate
display capitals that
incorporate decorative
swash junctures.
mordi special serif brings a sleek,

ABIGAIL HAWKINS /
AUSTRALIA
engaging quality to the
OLD SCHOOL NEW SCHOOL characters through an
Victoria Grow, instructor elegantly extended body,
Inspired to create a face rounded terminals, and
Proof 1 2
for a local Melbourne slightly tilted crossbars.

pizza shop, the designer
of this monoline sans

Text SLC Page: 230
231
marian family
Classics of the typographic

canon—forms created by
Austin, Baskerville, Bodoni,
Garamond, Granjon,
Fournier, van den Keere,
and Kiš—are reduced to
their skeletal essences.
The family includes nine
serifs (accompanied by
their respective italics) and
a blackletter variant.

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museum branding
SOMEONE / UK
The removal of selected

strokes creates an alphabet
of code-like glyphs for the
identity of a spy museum.
design festival
branding PARALLAX /
AUSTRALIA
This densely constructed

modular alphabet expresses
Proof 1 2
its grid with units of various

sizes, creating tension
between mass and texture
at differing scales.

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architecture biennial by the theme (and used

branding as the basis for campaign
THONIK / NETHERLANDS
images) gave rise to a
The theme of the 6th modular alphabet; walls of
Urbanism/Architecture woven type were used to
Bi-City Biennale in Shen- mark the different sections
zhen was “re-living the in the exhibition.
city” and advocated a new
kind of urbanism in need
of a hunter–gatherer men-
tality. A woven bag inspired

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234
A C – correspondence between uppercase D

and lowercase, 120–121
Abecedary (alphabetic writing Cap line, 98 – interrelationship of width and, Deberny & Peignot, 36
system), first, 15 baseline and, 96, 98 116–117
Didot, François, 27
– line identity and perceived, 86–87
Adobe Systems, 41, 43 vertical strokes and, 128
– overall height and, 92 Digital design
Advertising, 28, 34–35 Capitals. See Uppercase forms analphabetic symbols, 160–161
Charlemagne, 20–21
Akzidenz, 31 Carolingian script, 20–21, 24 beginning with
Christianity, 19
– capital H, 146–149
Akzidenz Grotesk, 36 Carter, Matthew, 44
Codex, 15 – capital R, 150–153
Alcuin of York, 20 Case, 59, 76. See also Lowercase – lowercase, 158–159
Color, evenness of, 80
forms; Uppercase forms building lowercase forms with
Analphabetic symbols in digital
Commerce and Western writing uppercase forms, 154–157
design, 160–161 Caslon, William, 27
consumerism and, 28, 34–35 development, 40–45
Angularity Caslon, William, IV, 28–29
Greeks, 15–16 numerals, 160–161
consistency of, 74 Chancery, 37, 63 Phoenicians, 14–15 photographic strategies, 184–185
visual dynamics of, 106–107
Character sets, 50–51 Sumerians, 12–13 prepping for, 144–145
Arts & Crafts, 29–31
Character structure Construction methods software manipulation and,
Asymmetrical characters, 50 balance from top-to-bottom, 96 freehand pencil, 136–137 182–183
body proportion and intervals, making stroke library, 138–139 Display typefaces
114–115 prepping for digital work, 144–145 abstracted, 65
B
curved logic, 108–109 refined painting, 140–144 embellished, 64
Balance of characters diagonal architecture, 104–105 See also Digital design See also Typefaces
lateral of essential shape of, 92
– curved forms, 100–101 Contrast and weight, 58, 75 Ductus, 75
exaggerating norms, 166–167
– diagonal forms, 102–103 Counter presence, consistency
– right-angle forms, 98–99 formation of curves in lowercase,
of, 73
112–113 E
from top-to-bottom, 96 Counters (counterforms), 49
going beyond hybridizing
Baseline characteristics, 172–175 Egyptians, 14
Cubism, 32
cap line and, 98 lateral balance Emigré, 41, 42
Cuneiform development, 12–13
character stability and, 96 – of curved forms, 100–101 Etruscans, 16
character stem and, 59 – of diagonal forms, 102–103 Cursive typefaces
– of right-angle forms, 98–99 about, 63
Baskerville, John, 27
making library of strokes, 138–139 elements of well-made, 77 F
INDEX Behrens, Peter, 30–31 manipulation of, 178–179 Curves Face, about, 53
Benguiat, Edward, 39 optical consistency, 76, 83, 94–95 consistency of shaping, 74
optical effects of stroke Family, defined, 53
Berthold type foundry, 31 formation of, in lowercase, 112–113
interaction, 88–91 Fixed-width typefaces, 52, 77
Bi Sheng, 22 logic of, 108–109
reinterpreting archetypes, 168–169 Font, about, 53
Blackletter (Gothic script), 21, 22, 24 uppercase O, 110–111
shape, mass, and space
relationship, 84–85 Cut (of font or face), 53 Freehand pencil sketching, 136–137
Bodoni, Giambattista, 27
translating master uppercase O, Frutiger, Adrian, 36
Body, 52
110–111 Futura, 33, 43
Books, early forms, 15 visual conceits and, 170–171
visual dynamics of angularity,
106–107
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weight and
– adjustments to compensate for
changes in, 118–119
– compensating for, gain at joints,
122–123

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235
letterforms / index
G J M P
Garamond, Claude, 26, 37 Jenson, Nicolas, 30 Mac (Macintosh) personal Palatino, 37
computers, 40–42, 44
Gestural continuity, 73 Johnston, Edward, 31 Paper, 21, 22
Majuscules, 20, 22
Gill, Eric, 31 Joints Penumbra, 43
compensating for weight gain Mathematical notation, 21
Grandjean, Robert, 26 Phoenicians, 14–15
at, 122–123 Mechanics
Graphic typefaces Photography in design, 184–185
formation, 57 capitals, 66–67
abstracted, 65 Phototypesetting, 39
lowercase, 68–69
embellished, 64
Pictographs, 14
See also Typefaces L Miedinger, Max, 36
Postscript® (Adobe Systems), 41
Greeks, 15–16 L’Art Nouveau (New Art), 29–31 Miniscules, 20, 22
Posture, described, 59
Grid resolution, 180–181 Latin, standardization of writing, 17 Modernism, 32–33
Printing
Griffo, Francesco, 37 Letters Modulation, consistency of, 75
development, 22–24
Gutenberg, Johannes, 22–23 exaggerating norms, 166–167 Monospace typefaces, 52, 77
new ideas and, 26
geometry of strokes, 164–165 Morris, William, 30, 31 page navigation, 25
going beyond hybridizing Motivation, sources of, 132–135,
H characteristics, 172–175 Proportionality, regularity of, 72
194–195
Haas Type Foundry, 36 grid resolution and, 180–181
Movable type, 22
Hand-drawing manipulation of existing forms, Q
178–179 Multiple Master technology, 43
letter formation and, 126 Quadrata (Square Capitals), 17
objects as inspiration, 194–195
refined painting, 140–143
parts of, 54–55 N
stroke writing
– with brush or pen, 130–131 reading, 163 R
reinterpreting archetypes, 168–169 Neue Haas Grotesk, 36
– with pencil, 128–129
Numerals in digital design, 160–161 Renaissance, 24
tools, 127, 140 use of photography in design,
184–185 Renner, Paul, 33, 43
Helvetica, 36
visual conceits and, 170–171 Romain du Roi, 26, 27
Hieroglyphs, 14 O
Licko, Zuzana, 41 Romans, 16–18
Hoefler Text, 44 Oblique posture, 59
Logographs, 14
Hoffmann, Eduard, 36 OpenType protocol, 43, 44–45
Louis XIII (king of France), 26 S
Holmes, Kris, 43 Optima, 37
Lowercase forms
Humanist font, 25 Sabon, 37
beginning digital design with,
158–159 Sans serif typefaces
correspondence with uppercase about, 61
I
forms, 76 Adobe Originals and, 43
Ideographs, 14 digital building of, with established Akzidenz, 31
International Style, 36, 37, 38 capitals, 154–157 early, 28–29
formation of curves in, 112–113 Futura, 33
Internet, 43–44
ideal mechanics, 68–69 grid-based, 40
Islam, 21 structure of, 50–51 International Style, 36
Italics weight correspondence between Optima, 37
development, 25 uppercase and, 120–121
Proof 1 2
posture of italics, 59
elements of well-made, 77 Tschichold and, 37
in first font family of multiple Verdana for Windows® operating
weights, 31 system, 44
posture of, 59
Scher, Paula, 38
Scribes, 13

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236
Script typefaces T Cultural Entity branding, 209 Neubau Akademie family, 218
about, 63 Cultural Festival branding, 206 Neue Haas Grotesk, 36
Terminal shaping of strokes, 56
Chancery, 37, 63 Dala Floda family, 207 Newsletter Masthead, 213
elements of well-made, 77 Textura, 22, 24 Design Festival branding, 232 Newspeak family, 223
Serif typefaces Tools Digital Art Gallery branding, 212 Obsidian family, 214
about, 60 hand-drawing, 127, 140 Dracula family, 225 Optima, 37
development, 33, 35–36, 37, 44 repurposing, 176–177 Druk family, 210 Palatino, 37
first, 17 TrueType protocol, 43 Editorial Headline Titling Peristyle family, 229
Treatment, 207 Pictopia display font, 210
Georgia for Windows® operating Tschichold, Jan, 36
system, 44 Editorial Headline Treatment, 205 Poster titling, 223
Two-story characters, 50
posture of italics, 59 Editorial Titling Treatment, 222, Priori Acute serif display face, 220
Twombly, Carol, 43 223, 224, 228
Romain du Roi and changes, 27, 28 Prototype display face, 213
Typeface consistency Emily-in-White Script face, 215
slab, 29, 33, 62 Quadrata, 17
of angularity, 74 Entertainment branding, 208
See also Sans serif typefaces Quarto family, 199
of counter presence, 73 Equipment Manufacturing
Shaping, terminal, 56 Real Estate branding, 199, 202, 204,
branding, 212
of curve shaping, 74 207, 208
Slimbach, Robert, 43 Euclid Stencil display face, 207
logic between macro and micro Restaurant branding, 211, 216, 225
Spiekerman, Erik, 43 levels, 78–79 Evita family, 216
Rubén display face, 226
Spontaneity, importance of, 174 of modulation, 75 Fashion House branding, 217
Sabon, 37
perception of, 76, 83, 94–95 Fashion & Lifestyle branding, 207
Square Capitals (Quadrata), 17 Salomé family, 230
rhythmic regularity and color, 80–81 Financial Services branding, 208
Stone, Sumner, 43 Sangbleu families, 211
Romans and standardization, 17 Francis family, 203
Square Capitals, 17
Strokes of weight, 75 Furniture Design branding, 230
Steel Trading branding, 209
about, 48 Futura, 33, 43
Typefaces Stencil Mix display, 206
contrast, 58 Georgia for Windows® operating
Adobe Originals and, 43 Telecom branding, 201, 219
exaggerating norms, 166–167 system, 44
Akzidenz, 31 Thesaurus family, 227
geometry of, 164–165 Helvetica, 36
Akzidenz Grotesk, 36 Titling Treatment, 215
joining, 57 Hotel branding, 202
Archia family, 229 Tremold family, 198
making library of, 138–139 Icoh font, 203
Architecture Biennial branding, 233 Tschichold and, 37
optical effects of interactions, Ideal Sans family, 200
88–91 Architecture Firm branding, 204 Vendome, 35
Inkwell family, 217
reinterpreting archetypes, 168–169 Art Auction House branding, 199 Verdana for Windows® operating
International Style, 36
Art Biennial branding, 212 system, 44
terminal, 56 Investment Firm branding, 205
Art Exhibition branding, 209 Vivho display face, 205
using to Jasan family, 201
– evoke feelings, 186–187 Bariol & Bariol serif families, 219 Wind family, 221
Kautiva family, 227
– evoke time and context, 188–191 Beauty & Lifestyle branding, 199, Wine Producer branding, 212,
– tell stories, 192–193 Klimax family, 228 224, 229
209, 227, 228
weight, 58 KRSNA display face, 209 Youth Orchestra branding, 220
Beverage branding, 198
writing with Laundry Services branding, 215
Book Cover titling, 225 Typography
– brush or pen, 130–131 Lifestyle branding, 204
Brownstone Ornamental text font, Charlemagne and standard-
– pencil, 128–129 214 Marian family, 231 ization, 20
Structural groups, 50–51 BRRR display face, 221 Melancholia family, 226 Christianity and differentiation, 19
Style Calcula family, 217 Mordi Special, 230 development of digital, 40–45
described, 58 Canela family, 199 Mortal Whiteline family, 204 Gutenberg and uniformity, 23
Proof 1 2
logic of, 78–79 Cassanet family, 216 Mr. K. Script faces, 200 historical overview, 6
Chancery, 37, 63 Municipal Development Islam and mathematical
Sumerians, 12–13 Branding, 213
Coma display, 198 notation, 21
Symmetry, 50–51 Musac Blackletter display font, 222 number of available typefaces, 197
Core Stencil family, 224
Museum branding, 232 See also Typefaces
Corporate branding, 224
Music Ensemble branding, 222

Text SLC Page: 236
237
letterforms / index
U Western writing evolution

Arts & Crafts and l’Art Nouveau
Ugarits, 14 (New Art), 29–31
Univers, 36 Christianity, 19
Uppercase forms Cubism and, 32
beginning digital design with, Egyptians, 14
146–153 Etruscans, 16
correspondence with lowercase Greeks, 15–16
forms, 76 International Style, 36, 37, 38
digital building of lowercase forms Modernism, 32–33
with established, 154–157
1960s and, 38–39
ideal mechanics, 66–67
official types, 26–27
structure of, 50–51
Phoenicians, 14–15
translating master uppercase O,
110–111 rationalist styles, 27
weight correspondence between Renaissance, 24
lowercase and, 120–121 Romans, 16–18
Sumerians, 12–13
Ugarits, 14
V
Vienna Secession, 31
Vellum, 22 Width
Vendome, 35 described, 59
Vernacular messages, 190–191 fixed, 52, 77
Vienna Secession, 31 height and, of characters, 92
interrelationship of weight
Visual conceits, 170–171 and, 116–117
Visual stability, 72 maintenance as weight grows,
Vowels, 15 118–119
modular, 77
optical consistency, 76, 94–95
W
Windows® operating system, 44
Weight
compensating for gain at joints,
122–123 Z
consistency of, 75 Zapf, Hermann, 37
contrast and, 58, 75
correspondence between uppercase
and lowercase, 120–121
described, 58
first font family of multiple, 31
interrelationship of width and,
116–117
line identity and perceived, 86–87
similarities of variations in, 76
Proof 1 2
standard distribution, 70–71
structural adjustments to compen-
sate for changes, 118–119

Text SLC Page: 237
238
The images in this Creative Commons The images in this group

group are in the public through a deeded do- are also in the public domain,
domain, all made nation. The Museum’s acquired from various sources
available by the Metro- acquisition credits via Creative Commons. Credits
politan Museum of Art accompany each image. are provided as available.
in New York through
Rogers Fund, 1923 Theodore M. Davis Collection, Fletcher Fund, 1926 Source unidentified
Bequest of Theodore M. Davis,
1915
Rogers Fund, 1923 Rogers Fund, 1923 Museum Accession Source unidentified
Rogers Fund, 1923 Fletcher Fund, 1924 The Cloisters Collection, 1999 Source unidentified
Purchase, Raymond and Fletcher Fund, 1926 Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1926 Austrian Gallery Belvedere
Beverly Sackler Gift, 1988
PICTURE INDEX
HISTORICAL PHOTOGRAPHS
Rogers Fund, 1959 Fletcher Fund, 1926 Bequest of Phyllis Massar, 2011 Rijksmuseum / Van Moorsel
donation, 1981
Proof 1 2
Rogers Fund, 1958 Fletcher Fund, 1926 Harris Brisbane Dick Fund, 1917 Archivo General de la Nación,
Argentina

Text SLC Page: 238
239
The images in this group defined by the Creative Credits are provided as These images were ac- notes no known restric-
were acquired from Commons Attribution- available. quired from the Library tions for reproduction
Wikimedia Commons Share Alike 3.0 Unported of Congress online cata- due to inapplicable,
and are licensed for use license or (where noted) log and are assumed to expired, or unrenewed
pursuant to conditions are in the public domain. be in the public domain. copyright. Credits are
The Library of Congress provided as available.
Peter van der Sluijs Source unidentified Source unidentified Source unidentified Jacob Haehnlen / Source unidentified
Philadelphia, 1869
Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris Reinraum (photographer) Swiss Federal Council Mac Repository Source unidentified Source unidentified
Public domain Public domain
Source unidentified Source unidentified Marcin Wichary (photographer) Source unidentified United States Government / Source unidentified
Works Progress Administration
Source unidentified Teddychen81 (photographer) Source unidentified Source unidentified
Source unidentified Stefan Kühn (photographer) Boffy B. (photographer)
Proof 1 2
National Library of Wales Etan J. Tal (photographer) Source unidentified
Public domain

Text SLC Page: 239
240
directory of contributors about the author
Anagrama Lance Hidy Sealstudio Timothy Samara is a New York-

199 / 207 / 215 / 217 / 224 43 203 / 216 / 224 / 226 based graphic designer who splits
anagrama.com hidystudio.com sealsbrand.co
his time between professional
Atipo Foundry Hoefler & Co. Andrew Scheiderich practice and teaching; he is a
171 / 216 / 219 / 229 / 230 135 / 201 / 202 / 216 / 219 / 229 134 / 194 frequent lecturer and contributor
atipo.com typography.com andrew.scheiderich@gmail.com to design publications both in
Barnbrook Rhiann Irvine Ali Sciandra the U.S. and abroad. Samara has
42 / 212 / 213 / 220 / 223 / 226 185 78–79 written eight books on design
barnbrook.net, virusfonts.net rhiannirvine.com alisciandra.com that have been translated into
ten languages and are used by
Donald Brady Juliasys Studio SomeOne
193 202 / 217 201 / 207 / 215 / 221 / 232
students and practitioners around
donaldbrady.com juliasys.com someoneinlondon.com the world. The second edition of
his bestselling first book, Making
Chermayeff & Geismar Jerry Kuyper Storm Type Foundry and Breaking the Grid, was released
& Haviv 164–165 203 / 206 / 227
jerrykuyper.com stormtype.com
in 2017.
204 / 208 / 209 / 212
cghnyc.com
William Longhauser Students of Purchase acknowledgments
Commercial Type 40 College/suny *
199 / 207 / 210 / 231 longhauser.com 126 / 132 / 170 / 171 / 173 / 174 / Assembling material for a book
commercialtype.com 176 / 177 / 193
Moving Brands of this kind depends on the good
c/o tsamara.designer@gmail.com
Jessica DeAngelis 170 / 203 / 209 / 210 will of so many busy people. My
195 movingbrands.com Sudtipos sincere thanks to all of the con-
jessrdeangelis@gmail.com 45 / 216 / 229 tributors who collected examples
Mucca Design sudtipos.com
200 / 204 / 213 / 218 / 227 / of their work for consideration,
Madeline Deneys
167 229 / 230 Swiss Typefaces for their suggestions, and for their
madelinedeneys@gmail.com mucca.com 209 / 211 / 213 / 223 / 231 great encouragement. I would
swisstypefaces.com be remiss if I didn’t acknowledge
Estudio Ponce Contreras Neubau
220 the efforts of the team at Rockport,
205 / 206 / 222 Thirst
manuelponcecontreras.com neubauberlin.com 42 / 201 / 204 / 210 / 224 / 225 whose diligence and patience can
3st.com not be overstated: Thank you,
Faith Papo Letterpress Anne, Cora, John, Judith, Regina,
207 / 209 / 211 / 217 / 224 / 8–9 / 28 Thonik
226 / 227 / 228 / 230-231 papoletterpress.com 208 / 214 / 233
and Renae. And last, but certainly
faith.ca thonik.nl not least, I would like to thank my
Paone Design Assocs. partner Sean, my family, and all
Erika Fulton 168 / 209 / 213 / 220 Typothèque my friends for their support.
167 paonedesign.com 169 / 200 / 205 / 219 / 223 /
erikafultondesign.com 229 / 230
Parallax typotheque.com
Steff Geissbühler 204 / 212 / 224 / 229 / 232
37 parallaxdesign.com.au Un Mundo Feliz
geissbuhler.com 212 / 225
Maximillian Pollio unmundofeliz2.blogspot.com
Kevin Harris 167
178–179 / 184 maxpollio.com Danielle Weinberger
kevinstanleyharris@gmail.com 190
Proof 1 2
*
Matthew Romanski daniellwein@yahoo.com Sincere apologies to students of mine
Abigail Hawkins 133 whose work is unattributed; the ravages
matthewromanski.com of time made identification in my archive
230 Phillip Wong frustratingly difficult. If you recognize
ahawkins320@gmail.com 193 any of the projects included here as your
Timothy Samara phillipmw@gmail.com own, please get in touch so that I may
133 / 140–143 / 165 correct the omission in future reprintings.
timothysamara.com

Text SLC Page: 240

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Letterforms

Letterforms_interiors_001-045_13209.indd 1 23/2/18 3:15 PM Proof 1 2

Design: Timothy Samara

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Type design from

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238 Picture Index

240 Directory of Contributors

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make their own typeface. Despite this laudable demo-

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Letterforms_interiors_001-045_13209.indd 7 23/2/18 3:15 PM Proof 1 2

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Letterforms_interiors_001-045_13209.indd 9 23/2/18 3:15 PM

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The modern alphabet’s standardized shapes

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EMPIRES OF THE WORD

A cylinder seal (left), of produce a relief (right)

Letterforms_interiors_001-045_13209.indd 12 23/2/18 3:15 PM

Letterforms_interiors_001-045_13209.indd 13 23/2/18 3:15 PM

At left is the character individual sounds.

Egyptian writing, seen Along with other signifi-

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The Greeks listed their letters in order of

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As Rome’s empire grew

as well as several charac- expansion of Rome’s

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Stone carving was Roman generals in the

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Political partisanship, and a decadent, self-

and 350 CE, a new religious faith devoted

Above are a number of

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Warfare, strife, and pesti-

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carolingian / 780 ce carolingian / 1150 ce

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This illustrated book

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Above, elements of the

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gutenberg ’ s printed textura / 1455 ce

By arranging the slugs in lines and stabiliz-

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Most of the type-design work that followed

The sample of humanist,

Letterforms_interiors_001-045 c2.indd 24 9/3/18 2:19 PM

humanist cursive / 1500s ce

Throughout the 1500s and into the 1600s,

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This elegantly typeset

The prevailing desire to better understand

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A page spread from

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In 1778, James Watt of Scotland perfected

latin (designer unknown) / 1870 ce

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A signage type form,

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