Documente Academic
Documente Profesional
Documente Cultură
ELEMENTS
© 2014 by Rockport Publishers
ISBN: 978-1-59253-927-7
Digital edition published in 2014
eISBN: 978-1-62788-057-2
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in China
TIMOTHY SAMARA
DESIGN
ELEMENTS
Understanding the
rules and knowing when
to break them
SECOND EDITION
UPDATED + EXPANDED
CONTE
26 86 128
SEEING FORM AND SPACE 28 THE IDENTITY OF COLOR 88 STRUCTURE AND OPTICS 130
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE 58 COLOR SYSTEMS 112 MECHANICS OF TEXT 146
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES 72 EMOTIONS AND MESSAGES 122 TEXTURE AND SPACE 162
CONTRIBUTORS 318
E
ENTS
186 232
THE PUTTING
WORLD OF IT ALL
IMAGE TOGETHER
chapter 04 chapter 05
WHAT IS
GRAPHIC
DESIGN?
06
Book cover with transparent jacket
LABORATÓRIO SECRETO BRAZIL
The designer uses imagery, symbols, type, In contrast to other disciplines in the visual
color, and materials—whether printed arts, graphic design’s purpose is typically
or on-screen—to represent the ideas that defined by a client—it’s a service paid for
must be conveyed; and to organize them by a company or other organization—rath-
into a unified experience that is intended er than generated from within the designer.
to evoke a particular response. Although artistic creation historically had
been commissioned by patrons, it wasn’t
While more or less confined to the creation until the 1830s that the mystique of the
of typefaces and books from the Middle bohemian painter as “expresser of self ”
Ages until the Industrial Revolution of the arose and, consequently, a marked distinc-
late 1700s and early 1800s, design expanded tion between fine and commercial art.
into advertising, periodicals, signage, Designers encouraged this distinction for
posters, and ephemera with the appearance philosophical, as well as strategic, reasons,
of a new, consumer marketplace. The term especially as they began to seek recognition
“graphic design” itself appeared more for design as a profession that could add
recently (attributed to W. A. Dwiggins, an tremendous value to corporate endeavors.
American illustrator and book designer, in
1922, to describe his particular activities). In the fifty-odd years since, the graphic
The formal study of design as an indepen- designer has been touted as everything
dent discipline didn’t come about until the from visual strategist to cultural arbiter—
1920s, and the term entered into wide usage and, since the mid 1970s, as an “author”
only after World War II. as well—shaping not only the corporate
07 design elements
Website for an architecture firm POULIN + MORRIS UNITED STATES
bottom line through clever visual manipu- Further, a designer must be more than
lation of a brand-hungry public, but also casually familiar with psychology and
the larger visual language of the postmod- history, both with respect to cultural
ern environment. All these functions are narratives, symbolism, and ritualized
important to graphic design ... but, lest we experiences, as well as to more commercial,
forget the simplicity of the designer’s true consumer-based impulses and responses
nature, let us return to what a graphic (what is often referred to as marketing).
designer does. A graphic designer assimi- Last, but certainly not least, a designer
lates verbal concepts and gives them form. must have great facility with—and more
often, in-depth, specialized knowledge
This “giving form” is a discipline that inte- of—multiple technologies needed to imple-
grates an enormous amount of knowledge ment the designed solution: printing
and skill with intuition, creatively applied media and techniques, film and video,
in different ways as the designer confronts digital programming, industrial processes,
the variables of each new project. architectural fabrication, and so on.
09 design elements
TWENTY RULES
FOR MAKING
GOOD DESIGN
10
Rules can
be broken—
”
but never When people talk about “good” or “bad”
design, they’re referring to notions of
quality that they’ve picked up from educa-
a revelation occurs that, oddly enough,
will establish yet another rule. This is how
human creativity works. The importance
11 design elements
HAVE A CONCEPT.
03
One of the reasons you like this
poster so much is that it speaks
to our common knowledge
so clearly; it feels almost as
if it hasn’t been designed. A
hot-colored circle floating over
a cool blue horizon and punctu-
ated by a refreshing yellow field
pretty much explains itself.
ADAMSMORIOKA UNITED STATES
BE UNIVERSAL.
13 design elements
04
In this set of exhibition collat-
eral, a specific visual language
of silhouetted images—all
similarly geometric in their
shapes, monochromatically
colored, and transparent—
responds to the type’s sym-
metrical axis with a rhythmic
left-to-right positioning. Stroke
contrast and graphic details
in the serif type unify with
SPEAK WITH ONE the imagery’s ornate internal
details, while contrasting
VISUAL VOICE. with its planar quality.
GOLDEN COSMOS GERMANY
05
Exquisite, decisive control of
the minimal elements, align-
ments, and the spaces around
and between them creates a
dynamic, almost architectural
space that is active and three-
dimensional ... which is all you
really need for a brochure for
a contemporary architecture
firm. LSD SPAIN
06
DON’T FILL IT.
15 design elements
07
Viewers are likely to see this
theater poster’s title treatment
from thirty strides away,
followed by the theater’s name
and, in a sequence of decreasing
contrast, weight, and size, the
rest of the information. These
type treatments, along with the
movement creatd by the title
and the supporting shapes, help
move the viewer’s eyes from
GIVE ’EM THE most important item to least
important. DESIGN RUDI MEYER
ONE-TWO PUNCH. FRANCE
08
BEWARE OF
SYMMETRY.
17 design elements
PICK COLORS ON
10
PURPOSE.
Don’t just grab some colors from out of the disparate items—sometimes called “color
air. Know what the colors will do when you coding”—so choose wisely. Never assume
combine them and, more important, what that a certain color, or a combination of
they might mean to the audience. Color colors, is right for a particular job because
carries an abundance of psychological and of convention, either. Blue for financial
emotional meaning, and this meaning can services, for example, is the standout color
vary tremendously between cultural groups cliché of the past fifty years. Choose the
and even individuals. Color affects visual right colors, not those that are expected.
hierarchy, the legibility of type, and how
people make connections between
12
Soft, rippling transitions
from deep black to luminous
blue provide a sensuous back-
drop for the bright, sparkling
typography in this poster.
By changing the sizes of
type clusters, as well as the
spaces between them, the
designer also is able to intro-
duce transitions in value
that correspond to similar
MASTER THE DARK transitions in the image.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES
AND THE LIGHT. UNITED STATES
19 design elements
13
TYPE IS ONLY TYPE
WHEN IT’S FRIENDLY.
14
USE TWO TYPEFACE
FAMILIES, MAXIMUM.
16
Rather than represent the sub-
ject of this exhibition poster—
photography of birds—by
showing the exhibition’s work
or by depicting the subject liter-
ally, the designer instead chose
a more conceptual approach.
Given that the subject was
explicit in both the exhibition’s
title and subtitle, the designer
was free to develop a visual idea
AVOID REDUNDANT that leapt beyond the expected
and introduced a deeper, more
REDUNDANCIES. conceptual message. The type
forms, cut from paper and
scanned, create not only a pho-
Be conscious of how much information is tographic dimensionality, but
conveyed by a project’s text. When you a visual association with legs,
introduce imagery, you need not show the wings, feathers, tree branches,
and wires—the environment
same information. Instead, consider what
that birds and people share.
the text isn’t telling the viewer and show LESLEY MOORE NETHERLANDS
that (and, conversely, text should tell what
the images don’t show). The image and text,
working in concert, should not only com-
plete each other but contribute to a new,
deeper understanding. In closing the gaps
and making such leaps, the viewer becomes
more intensely engaged.
21 design elements
CREATE IMAGES —
17
DON’T SCAVENGE.
Make what you need, and make it the what already exists, even though it might
best you can—or pay someone to do it for be cheaper or easier. Inventing images from
you and art-direct them. And remember: scratch—in whatever medium—will help
Not every idea benefits from a full-color better differentiate your client’s message
photographic depiction. Very often, a more and connect powerfully with the audience.
original, and meaningful solution is no fur- Plus, you can say, quite proudly, that you
ther away than a couple of dots and lines, did it all yourself.
a simple, funky icon, or (gasp!) an abstract
pattern or a scribble. Your options are limit-
less; consider them all. Try not to rely on
No photography or illustration
available? Can’t draw? No
sweat. A designer with a strong
understanding of how abstract
form communicates—and
what simple means (here,
drawing software and a blur
filter)—can transform uncom-
plicated visual elements into
strikingly original and concep-
tually appropriate images.
CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER
AUSTRIA
LOOK TO HISTORY,
BUT DON’T REPEAT IT.
19
In the covers of these literary
classics—part of a series—
carefully crafted illustrative
icons are arranged in symmetri-
cal, wallpaperlike patterns
and adorned with simple,
small-scale serif type—graphic
gestures that aren’t in vogue
(at the time of this edition).
And yet, this visual language
seems somehow modern while
IGNORE FASHION. being appropriate to the subject
matters and contexts of the
SERIOUSLY. books. By focusing on authentic
messages and delivering them
with sound, well-formed type
People in the present respond to what style and images, the designer
looks cool and “now.” Many designers get ensures an exquisitely timeless
significant attention for trendy work. Forget quality that transcends the
fads of the moment.
that. If you design around meaning, not
CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH
current stylistic conceits, your projects UNITED KINGDOM
will resonate more deeply, not get dated,
and have impact far longer. Nobody looks
at the Pantheon, designed almost 2,000
years ago, and says, “Ewww, that’s like,
so first century.”
23 design elements
BE DECISIVE: DO IT ON
20
PURPOSE, OR NOT AT ALL.
Place visual material with confidence, and really lined up. All the viewer will see is
make clear decisions using your eyes— two items that look like they should have
don’t measure. Make things look the way aligned—but don’t. Decisiveness makes
you intend. Form elements often play tricks for a convincing impression; ambiguity
on the eyes. For instance, a circle and a or insecurity in the composition does the
square of the same mathematical size will opposite. Convincing the audience that
not appear so. Which is bigger? Do they what you’re showing them is true is the
touch or not? Which is darker? If you align most important goal of all.
two items by measuring and they don’t look
like they do, it doesn’t matter that they’re
CATEGORIES OF FORM
COMPOSITIONAL
STRATEGIES
chapter 01
26
There is no longer agreement anywhere about
art itself, and under these circumstances
we must go back to the beginning, to concern
ourselves with dots and lines and circles and
the rest of it.
”
ARMIN HOFFMANN / Graphic designer and former director,
Basel School of Design: 1946–1986
First Things First All graphic design— fully as possible, because every form, no possible is what elevates designing above
all image making, regardless of medium or matter how abstract or seemingly simple, just plopping stuff in front of an audience
intent—centers on manipulating form. carries meaning. Our brains use the forms and letting them pick through it, like hy-
It’s a question of making stuff to look at of things to identify them; the form is a enas mulling over a dismembered carcass.
and organizing it so that it looks good and message. When we see a circle, for ex- The term “beautiful” has a host of mean-
helps people understand not just what ample, our minds try to identify it: Sun? ings, depending on context; here, we’re not
they’re seeing, but what seeing it means for Moon? Earth? Coin? Pearl? No one form talking about beauty to mean “pretty” or
them. “Form” is that stuff: shapes, lines, is any better at communicating than any “serene and delicate” or even “sensuous”
textures, words, and pictures. The form other, but the choice of form is critical if in an academic, Beaux-Arts, home-fur-
that is chosen or made, for whatever it’s to communicate the right message. In nishings-catalog way. Aggressive, ripped,
purpose, should be considered as care- addition, making that form as beautiful as collaged illustrations are beautiful; chunky
woodcut type is beautiful; all sorts of rough latter ideas shortly. Form does what it upon, with form, to become an apparent
images can be called beautiful. Here, the does somewhere, and that somewhere is three-dimensional space. In painting, this
term“beautiful” as a descriptor might be called, simply, “space.” This term, which space is called the picture plane, which
better replaced by the term “resolved,”— describes something three-dimensional, painters have historically imagined as a
meaning that the form’s parts are all related applies to something that is, most often, strange, membrane-like window between
to each other and no part of it seems un- a two-dimensional surface. That surface the physical world and the illusory depth of
considered or alien to any other part— can be a business card, a poster, a Web the painted environment. Coincidentally,
and the term “decisive”—meaning that page, a television screen, the side of a box, this sense of illusory depth behind or below
the form feels confident, credible, and on or a plate-glass window in front of a store. the picture plane applies consistently to
purpose. That’s a lot to consider up front, Regardless of what the surface is, it is a both figurative and abstract imagery.
so more attention will be given to these two-dimensional space that will be acted
29 design elements
SEEING FORM AND SPACE
The Shape of Space Also called the “for- confrontational. The perception of this
mat,” the proportional dimensions of the difference in presence is, intrinsically, a
space where form is going to do its thing is message to be controlled.
something to think about. The size of the
format space, compared to the form within
it, will change the perceived presence of
the form. A smaller form within a larger
spatial format—which will have a relatively
restrained presence—will be perceived
differently from a large form in the same
format— which will be perceived as
31 design elements
SEEING FORM AND SPACE
Positive and Negative Form is considered visual activity, movement, and sense of or negative—is therefore one of the most
a positive element, a solid thing or object. three-dimensionality perceived by the important visual aspects of design because
Space is considered negative—not in a viewer. All these qualities are inherently it affects so many other aspects, from
bad way, but as the absence, or opposite, communicative—resolving the relation- general emotional response to informa-
of form. Space is the “ground” in which ships between figure and ground is the tional hierarchy. The figure/ground
form becomes a “figure.” The relationship first step in creating a simple, overarching relationship must be understandable and
between form and space, or figure and message about the content of the designed present some kind of logic to the viewer;
ground, is complementary and mutually work, before the viewer registers the it must also be composed in such a way
dependent; it’s impossible to alter one and identity of an image or the content of any that the feeling this compositional,
not the other. The confrontation between text that is present. Organizing figure— or visual, logic generates is perceived as
figure and ground defines the kind of the positive—in relation to the ground— appropriate to the message the designer
The black, lightweight Each element in this web page—by virtue of its
letter P in this logo, a positive particular proportion and position—carves the back-
form, encloses a negative space ground into shifting horizontal spaces of varied depth
around a smaller version of and contributes to a rhythmic lateral movement.
itself; but that smaller version YOUJIN CHOI /SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS UNITED STATES
becomes the counterspace of
a white, outlined P. Note the
solid white “stem” in between
the two. APELOIG DESIGN FRANCE
33 design elements
SEEING FORM AND SPACE
interaction—but unusual relationships extremely engaging; the brain gets to play The apparent reversal of foreground and
that appear more active or more complex, a little game, and, as a result, the viewer is background is also a complex visual effect
despite the composition’s apparent sim- enticed to stay within the composition a that might be delivered through very simple
plicity. In some compositions, the figure/ little longer and investigate other aspects figure/ground relationships, by overlapping
ground relationship can become quite to see what other fun he or she can find. two forms of different sizes, for example,
complex, to the extent that each might If you can recall one of artist M.C. Escher’s or allowing a negative element to cross in
appear optically to be the other at the same drawings—in which white birds, flying in front of a positive element unexpectedly.
time. This effect, in which what appears a pattern, reveal black birds made up of the Changes among forms’ relative opacity or
positive one minute appears negative the spaces between them as they get closer to- value (lightness or darkness) may create
next, is called “figure/ground reversal.” gether—you’re looking at a classic example a third space—a “middle ground” as dis-
This rich visual experience is of figure/ground reversal in action. cussed later (see Near and Far, page 66).
35 design elements
SEEING FORM AND SPACE
Clarity and Decisiveness Resolved and are, and what they’re doing with each other can apply to rough, organic, and aggressive
refined compositions create clear, accessi- in and around space—the visual logic— forms, as well as sensuous, elegant, and
ble visual messages. Resolving and refining is clear, and that all the parts seem consid- clean ones. It’s not a term of value so much
a composition means understanding ered relative to each other. “Refined” is a as an indicator of whether the form is as
what kind of message is being carried by quirky term when used to describe form or clear as possible.
a given form, what it does in space, and composition; in this context, it means that
what effect the combination of these the form or composition has been made
aspects has on the viewer. First, some more to be more like itself—more clearly, more
definitions. To say that a composition simply, more indisputably communicating
is “resolved” means that the reasons for one specific kind of quality. Like the term
where everything is, how big the things “beautiful,” the quality of “refinement”
It is what it appears to be: Form the circle and the triangle. So, for to be the same size, the circle and
is optically deceptive and so must all intents and purposes, it is. This the triangle must be adjusted in
be judged according to what it optical illusion is a function of size until they do (bottom). Only
looks like. In this example, the how our brains interpret rounded, when all three shapes appear to
three shapes are first shown angular, and square images rela- be the same size are they really
being mathematically the same tive to each other (see Geometric the same size—as far as the
height (top). You’ll notice that the Form, page 50). If the goal here is viewer is concerned.
square appears larger than both to make all three shapes appear
37 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
Each of These Things Is Unlike the Other which a given form appears—the space or
There are several kinds of basic form, and ground it occupies and its relationship to
each does something different. Rather, adjacent forms—will change its perceived
the eye and the brain perceive each kind meaning, but its intrinsic identity and
of form as doing something different, optical effect always remains an underlying
as having its own kind of identity. The truth. The most basic types of form are the
perception of these differences and how dot, the line, and the plane. Of these, the
they affect the form’s interaction with line and the plane also can be categorized
space and other forms around it, of differ- as geometric or organic; the plane can
ing identities, is what constitutes their be either flat, textured, or appear to have
perceived meaning. The context in three-dimensional volume or mass.
Line contrasts with texture, organic cluster contrasts The dot pattern embodies ideas related to financial
with geometric text, and large elements contrast with investing, given context by the typography: graph-
small in this promotional poster. MUNDA GRAPHICS like organization, growth, merging and separating,
AUSTRALIA networking, and so on. UNA (AMSTERDAM) DESIGNERS
NETHERLANDS
39 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
The Dot The identity of a dot is that of a block of all other forms. As a dot increases shape with a photographic object, such as
point of focused attention; the dot simul- in size to cover a larger area and its outer a silhouetted picture of a clock, will not
taneously contracts inward and radiates contour becomes noticeable, even differen- change its fundamental identity as a dot.
outward. A dot anchors itself in any space tiated, it still remains a dot. Every shape or Recognizing this essential quality of the
into which it is introduced and provides a mass with a recognizable center—a square, dot form, regardless of what other charac-
reference point for the eye relative to other a trapezoid, a triangle, a blob—is a dot, no teristics it takes on incidentally in specific
forms surrounding it, including other dots matter how big it is. True, such a shape’s occurrences, is crucial to understanding its
and its proximity to the edges of a format’s outer contour will interact with the space visual effect in space and its relationship to
space. As seemingly simple a form as it around it more dramatically when it adjacent forms.
might appear, however, a dot is a complex becomes bigger, but the shape is still essen-
object, the fundamental building tially a dot. Even replacing a flat graphic
As dots approach each other, the spatial interval. If the dots of three-dimensional depth as apart, the more pronounced the
tension between them increases. overlap, especially if they are dif- one dot seemingly inhabits a sense of structure, induced by the
If the space between dots is just ferent sizes, the tension created foreground, and the other, a back- invisible path between them.
about zero, its presence assumes by their closeness is somewhat ground position. The closer the
more importance than the dots relieved. However, a new tension dots are to each other, the more
themselves, and even more arises—the dichotomy of flat, powerful the sense of their unique
importance relative to any other graphic form and the appearance identity as objects; the further
41 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
A B
A tremendous number of small The darkness or lightness of these
dots create (A) a regularized pat- dots depends on density—how
tern or (B) a randomized texture. close the dots are to each other.
43 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
The Line A line’s essential character is The line might appear to start somewhere heavier in weight, it gradually becomes
one of connection; it unites areas within and continue indefinitely or it might travel perceived as a plane surface or mass; to
a composition. This connection may be a finite distance. While dots create points maintain the line’s identity, it must be
invisible, defined by the pulling effect on of focus, lines perform other functions; proportionally lengthened.
space between two dots, or it may take on they may separate spaces, join spaces or
visible form as a concrete object, traveling objects, create protective barriers, enclose
back and forth between a starting point or constrain, or intersect. Changing the
and an ending point. Unlike a dot, there- size—the thickness—of a line relative to
fore, the quality of linearity is one of its length has a much greater impact on
movement and direction; a line is inher- its quality as a line than does changing the
ently dynamic, rather than static. size of a dot. As a line becomes thicker or
A thin, single line has no center Breaking the line increases Several thin lines together Separating the lines increases
and no mass, expressing only its surface activity without create a texture, similar to that attention to their individual
direction and an effect on the distracting from its movement created by a dense grouping of identities. It also calls attention
space surrounding it. and direction. similar-sized dots. to the intervals between them
and what, if any, variation there
might be.
A change in weight among a other and advance in space, while a thin line generally will appear Two heavy lines that are very
group of lines, as well as a change those further apart recede. If any to recede against a thicker line, close together create a third—
in the intervals between them, of the lines are rotated to cross the mind is capable of being negative—line between them.
creates the illusion of spatial their counterparts, the perception convinced that the thin line is The optical effect of the negative
depth. Lines that are closer of spatial depth is enhanced— crossing in front of the thick line. white line is that of a positive
together exert tension on each and even more so if their weights element on top of a single black
also are differentiated. Although element, even if the negative line
joins open spaces at either end.
Two lines joining create an angle. movement. An extremely acute Lines that both enter and leave a from continuous to specific; the
The joint between two lines angle might also be perceived as format reinforce the sense of their result is that their tension with
becomes a starting point for two a rapid movement from one direc- movement along the direction in surrounding space or forms is in-
directional movements; multiple tion to another. which they do so. If the beginning creased greatly as the eye is able
joints between lines create a or ending points of the lines are to focus on the point at which
sense of altered direction in one contained within the format, their they start or stop.
directional movement is changed
White (negative) lines crossing Lines together produce rhythm. tempo. The kind of spatial differ- sion, sequence, repetition, or in line weights, the more complex
in front of (and behind) black Equally spaced, a set of lines ence introduced between lines system. Such rhythmic changes the rhythm becomes.
(positive) lines create increasingly produces an even, relatively static affects the perceived rhythm and in interval create directional
complex spatial relationships. tempo; differences in space might create meaning: progres- movement; the more complex the
produce a dynamic, syncopated changes and the more variation
A B
C D
Lines might break or join spaces (A) The line protects the circular
within a format. In breaking or form. (B) The white line joins both
joining these spaces, lines might forms across a barrier. (C) The
perform additional functions line offers contrast to the form,
relative to other forms within the but supports it. (D) The line joins
same format. two spaces.
47 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
Plane and Mass A plane is simply just a big volume of space surrounding it is much subsequently, what meaning that shape
dot whose outer contour—the sense of its larger than the plane object itself. At the might have. The more active the plane’s
shape—becomes an important attribute: point where a plane object enlarges within contour—and more so if the contour
for example, that it may be angular rather a format so that its actual shape begins becomes concave, allowing surrounding
than round. Its dotlike quality becomes to affect the shapes of the negative space negative space to enter into the dimen-
secondary as the plane object becomes around it, the character of its outer con- sional surface defined by the shape—the
larger. This change depends on the size of tour, as well as its surface texture, come more dynamic the shape will appear,
the plane relative to the space in which it into question. All such shapes appear first and the less it will radiate and focus in
exists; in a large poster, even a relatively as flat surfaces; their external contour must the way a dot, with a simple, undifferen-
large plane object—a square or a triangle, be defined by the mind to identify it as tiated contour, does.
for example—will still act as a dot if the being one kind of shape or another and,
A B C D
49 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
Geometric Form As they do with all directions) and, very generally, if it appears Similarly, our expectation of geometry
kinds of form, our brains try to establish angular or hard edged. It is essentially an as unnatural is the result of learning that
meaning by identifying a shape’s outer ancient, ingrained expectation that any- humans create it; hence, geometry must
contour. There are two general categories thing irregular, soft, or textured is akin to not be organic. The weird exception to this
of shape, each with its own formal and things experienced in nature. idea is the circle or dot, which, because of
communicative characteristics that have an its elemental quality, might be recognized
immediate effect on messaging: geometric as either geometric or natural: Earth, Sun,
form and organic form. A shape is consid- Moon, or pearl. Lines, too, might have a
ered geometric in nature if its contour is geometric or organic quality, depending on
regularized (if its external measurements their specific qualities. Geometric forms
are mathematically similar in multiple might be arranged in extremely organic
An arrangement of geometric
forms in geometric, or mathemat-
ical, spatial relationships (top)
is contrasted by the irregular,
organic quality of their arrange-
ment in irregular relationships
(bottom).
51 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
Organic Form Shapes that are irregular, In the context of the whole plant, whose logic—many changing varieties of curve,
complex, and highly differentiated are branches may grow at different rates for example. Nature also appears highly
considered organic—this is what our and at irregular intervals, this intrinsic irregular or unexpected (again, the plant
brains tell us after millennia of seeing geometry is obscured. Conveying an analogy is useful) so irregularity in mea-
organic forms all around us in nature. As organic message, therefore, means rein- surement or interval similarly conveys
noted earlier, geometry exists in nature, forcing these irregular aspects in a form, an organic identity. Nature is unrefined,
but its occurrence happens in such a subtle despite the underlying truth of geometry unstudied, textural, and complicated.
way that it is generally overshadowed by that actually might exist. Nature presents Thus, shapes that exhibit these traits
our perception of overall irregularity. The itself in terms of variation on essential will also carry an organic message.
structure of most branching plants, for structure, so a shape might appear organic
example, is triangular and symmetric. if its outer contour is varied along a simple
The drawings and textures that support the images of A curling, organic wave form
the dresses in this fashion catalog create a sense of the integrates with the curved, yet
handmade, the delicate, and the personal. geometric, letterform in this
SAGMEISTER + WALSH UNITED STATES logo. LSD SPAIN
53 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
Surface Activity The quality of surface repetition. The sizes of the elements creat- parallel, or appearing with varying inter-
activity helps in differentiating forms ing surface activity might change; the vals between, or in random, crisscross-
from each other, just as the identifiable distance between the components might ing directions. “Pattern,” however, has a
contours of form itself does. Again, the dot change; the relative number of components geometric quality—it is a specific kind
is the building block of this formal quality. might change from one part of the surface of texture in which the components are
Groupings of dots, of varying sizes, shapes, to another. Because of this inherent ran- arranged on a recognizable and repeated
and densities, create the perception of sur- domness, texture generally is perceived as structure—for example, a grid of dots.
face activity. There are two basic categories organic or natural. Clusters and overlaps The existence of a planned structure within
of surface activity: texture and pattern. of lines—dots in specific alignments—are patterns means they are understood to
The term “texture” applies to surfaces hav- also textural, but only if they are relatively be something that is not organic: they
ing irregular activity without apparent random, that is, they are not running are something synthetic, mechanical,
Both scale and value (light/ larger scale and strong contrast
dark) contrast affect the pres- between dark and light values
ence, or optical activity of, cause its elements to seem more
patterns and textures, as seen like clusters of forms that
in these two related book cover appear to come to the surface.
designs. On the left, the smaller CORALIE BICKFORD-SMITH
size and lesser contrast within UNITED KINGDOM
the pattern element renders
it a background or field; on
the right, the pattern’s much
55 design elements
CATEGORIES OF FORM
Surface activity can be an exceptionally perceived as cold. Even a subtle, monochro- In the context of printed projects or pack-
useful element in digital, screen-based matic, texture or pattern, used as a back- aging, always consider the selection and
projects, like websites. One complaint ground or within a navigational header, manipulation of paper stock—this, too,
designers sometimes make about screen- can enhance perceived dimensionality and creates surface activity in a layout. A coated
based work is its lack of tactility, compared warm up a site’s feeling. Physical textures paper might be glossy and reflective, or
to that of printed work, like books. That’s or patterns also may be used for conceptual matte and relatively nonreflective. Coated
not to say that a web page should be de- reasons—to suggest a connection with stocks are excellent for reproducing color
signed to look like a book—it’s not a book. real-world experience. and detail because they keep ink up on the
But there is a kind of flatness inherent to surface. The relative slickness of coated
the screen, and the light it gives off tires sheets, however, might come across as cold
the eyes more quickly and is sometimes or impersonal but also as refined, luxuri-
Diecuts of mathematical symbols on this folder cover Embossed type adds a tactile quality to this brochure A pearlescent foil stamp on these invitations
allow the interior colors to show through. cover; colored stickers introduce random variation on refracts light and appears to change color at
C+G PARTNERS UNITED STATES each copy and allude to the subject matter. different viewing angles.
MUTABOR GERMANY FORM UNITED KINGDOM
Bright white flecks within the craft paper stock of A leather-bound box contrasts texture and subdued, Complex diecuts help create a surprising
this pretzel packaging suggests salt crystals. neutral color with smooth, vibrantly-colored ribbons. pop-up image in this book spread.
TRIBORO DESIGN UNITED STATES ROYCROFT DESIGN UNITED STATES VOICE AUSTRALIA
57 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Breaking into It Space—the ground or field Space is defined and given meaning the ered empty or leftover; they are integral to
of a composition—is neutral and inactive instant a form appears within it, no matter achieving flow around the form elements,
until it is broken by form. But how does the how simple. The resulting breach of as well as a sense of order throughout the
designer break the space, and what hap- emptiness creates new space—the areas composition. When the shapes, sizes, pro-
pens as a result? Thoughtfully considering surrounding the form. Each element portions, and directional thrusts of these
these fundamental questions gives the de- brought into the space adds complexity spaces exhibit clear relationships with the
signer a powerful opportunity not only to but also decreases the literal amount of form elements they surround, they become
engage a viewer but also to begin transmit- space—even as it creates new kinds of resolved with the form and with the com-
ting important messages, both literal and space, forcing it into distinct shapes that position as a whole.
conceptual, before the viewer even gets the fit around the forms like the pieces of a
chance to assimilate the content. puzzle. These spaces shouldn’t be consid-
59 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Arranging Form A designer must first Symmetry and Asymmetry The first kind of
consider two distinctly different options overall compositional logic is that of sym-
for distributing material within a format— metry, in which forms respond positionally
symmetry and asymmetry—that will gov- to a central axis of the format (horizontal,
ern more specific kinds of arrangements. vertical, or diagonal). A composition may
Just as the identities of selected forms, be structured very simply around a single
in dialogue, establish a set of visual oppor- axis or, for greater complexity, two or three
tunities and necessities for resolution, axes. The relationship of forms to the
the organization of form adds an intrinsic format’s axis is likewise open to variation;
dimension to a layout’s visual logic. they may be mirrored, reflecting across the
axis (bilateral symmetry), or they may
Content is always different and always changing, and an asymmetrical approach allows
a designer to be flexible, to address the spatial needs of the content, and to create visual
relationships between different items based on their spatial qualities. The horizon line in
the room, the vertical column, the red headline, the text on the page, and the smaller inset
photograph all respond to each other’s sizes, color, and location; the negative spaces around
them all talk to each other. THINK STUDIO UNITED STATES
61 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Structure Arranging forms in space, separates its halves), and those of other axes established by the edges of the format;
whether responding symmetrically to the forms. Most forms express two primary position high or low, left or right; axis
format or asymmetrically, defines a kind of axes: horizontal and vertical. Forms that lengths, and their corresponding relation-
skeleton of visual interconnections that the are composed of several elements present ships to each other, their parallelism or
designer must consider to create a totality a dominant axis as a whole, as well as divergence and, ultimately, the rhythm of
within perceptual space. This totality is secondary axes. At the macro level, even proportional breaks around the format.
structure. A viewer recognizes structure before perception of contours intervenes, Both within forms, as well as between
unconsciously through the way a designer the axes create an underlying framework forms, the contours and axes may be
sets up visual relationships between a form of interconnections across space. These are aligned or grouped in an almost limitless
elements’ contour (the shape of its outer the broad strokes: vertical, horizontal, or number of ways. The most basic composi-
boundary) and axis (an imaginary line that diagonal orientation, relative to the parallel tional structures tend to be diagonal or
Aligning Staggering
Rotational Chaining
63 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Proportional Spatial Relationships sizes—to see at what point the spaces potential for some material to not fit so
Controlling the eye’s movement through between elements and their widths or well—making it appear indecisive or
form elements and their structural heights suddenly correspond or refer to disconnected from the remainder of the
relationships—which can become quite each other. After this discovery, analyzing compositional logic—or, worse, creating
complicated—can be accomplished by the proportions might yield a system of static, rigid intervals between positive
establishing recognizable, repeated inter- repeated intervals that the designer can and negative that are stiff, awkward,
vals to which both positive and negative apply, as needed. Alternatively, the designer confining, or too restful.
elements adhere. A designer might develop might begin with a mathematical, intellec-
these proportions in an intuitive way— tualized approach that forces the material
moving material around within the space into particularly desirable relationships.
of the format or changing their relative The danger in this approach lies in the
The Golden Section First imple- new square and rectangle in the
mented in a design context by same proportions as the originals;
Greek sculptors and architects, and this division may be repeated
the golden section focuses on over and over again in decreasing
the relationship of a square and size. By connecting the corners of
the rectangle that will be defined the squares with circular arcs, the
from it by using a line drawn from spiral that is present in the forma-
the square’s corner to the mid- tion of nautilus shells is magically
point of its bottom edge. Dividing revealed.
this new rectangular area by the
width of its short side creates a
65 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Near and Far In addition to side-by-side, or on top of positive forms, will move them viewer. The designer may increase this
lateral, arrangements at the picture plane, into the foreground. The relative size of sense of depth by changing the forms’
a designer may also arrange form in illusory forms encountered in the perceptual field relative values (their lightness or darkness),
dimensional space—that is, by defining is usually the quickest determination the and by making them transparent. The
elements as existing in the foreground, in brain can make and then interpret; larger seeming nearness or distance of each form
the background, or somewhere in between. objects are interpreted as being closer and will also contribute to the viewer’s sense of
Usually, the field or ground is considered to smaller objects as farther away. Hence, its importance and, therefore, its meaning
be a background and forms automatically the first strategy for introducing depth in relative to other forms presented within
appear in the foreground—but placing an image is to enforce differences in size. the same space.
forms that are reversed (made negative, or Overlapping forms also optically positions
the same value as the field or format space) them nearer or farther away from the
67 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Movement Creating a sense of movement well as the rotation of elements compared example, or from smaller to larger—will
within a composition is considered desir- to others, may induce a feeling of kinetic suggest more complex spatial animation.
able because, like the illusion of spatial movement. Juxtaposing a static form, such
depth, it helps deny the inherent flatness of as a horizontal line, with a more active
the format and so further engages the view- counterpart, such as a diagonal line, invites
er. Given that one’s assumed area of focus comparison and, oddly, the assumption
within a format will initially be its center, that one is standing still while the other is
simply positioning a form elsewhere will moving. Creating sequential alternation or
instigate the perception of motion—that progression in the relative sizes or values of
the form has moved from where it “should” form elements—a series of squares ordered
have been. Overlapping and bleeding, as from light to dark and back again, for
Even shifting a single element Any element that is rotated away Forms that bleed the format, or The sense of a sequence of
off center will cause it to be from orthogonal orientation overlap each other, are usually animation occurs when forms
perceived as having moved. will be perceived as moving, or perceived as moving. change size, proportion, value,
kinetic, especially if it can be and/or orientation, either
compared to any orthogonally alternating between states or
oriented forms. progressing from one state
to another—especially along
a consistent axis.
Rhythm Changing the intervals between sensations of compression, or squeezing, for the majority of an audience’s im-
elements or, more simply, placing some and expansion, or opening, occur among mediate interpretation of a message: the
closer together and others farther apart, the composition’s positive and negative understanding of stability or uncertainty,
also invites comparison and, again, the odd parts. As with structure, the nature of a for instance, or of frenzy or restfulness,
conclusion that the changing spaces mean particular rhythm in a layout contributes precision or disorganization, growth
the forms are moving in relation to each to the totality of its logic, and will evoke or decline.
other. The quality and degree of perceived varying degrees of energy or restfulness.
movement thus created should establish A clear, dramatic rhythm is important not
a recognizable and decisive visual tempo only for visual interest, but also for deliver-
across the format—a perceived rhythm in ing emotional or conceptual messages.
how much, and how often, the optical Compositional rhythm alone may account
69 design elements
PUTTING STUFF INTO SPACE
Activating Space During the process of Focusing the majority of visual activity To activate these spaces means to cause
composing form within a given space, por- into one area of a composition—for ex- them to enter back into their dialogue with
tions of space might become disconnected ample, by clustering—is an excellent way the other spaces in the composition.
from other portions. A section might be of creating emphasis and a contrasting area
separated physically or blocked off by a for rest. But this strategy might also result
larger element that crosses from one edge in spaces that feel empty or isolated from
of the format to the other; or, it might this activity. In all such cases, the space can
be optically separated because of a set of be called “inert” or “inactive.” An inert or
forms aligning in such a way that the eye is inactive space will call attention to itself for
discouraged from traveling past the align- this very reason: It doesn’t communicate
ment and entering into the space beyond. with the other spaces in the composition.
As the lines of type in the foreground shift left and On the text side of this business card, the spaces are all
right, they create movement, but they also create a activated with content. On the image side, the light,
separation of dead horizontal spaces above and below. transparent blue wave shape activates the space above
The irregular contour of the background letterforms, the purple wave; the line of white type activates the
however, breaks past the outer lines of type, activating spaces within the purple wave area.
both the upper and lower spaces. MONIGLE ASSOCIATES UNITED STATES
C. HARVEY GRAPHIC DESIGN UNITED STATES
71 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
Building Strong Compositions The cor- foremost, to attracting—and then hold- composition contributes to persuasion;
nerstone of every effective visual commu- ing—the audience’s attention, which is appreciating its totality effectively removes
nication—after a compelling concept or critical for ensuring the content is explored our wariness of being manipulated; similar
narrative—is a dynamic presentation of the long enough to be understood and inter- to what happens when watching a film,
content, accomplished through decisive nalized. If the viewer loses interest because we suspend our disbelief and the message
control of the relationships among form the visual presentation of the design isn’t becomes incontestable.
elements. The importance of creating a challenging enough, the viewer is unlikely
strong composition can’t be understated. to fully comprehend the message. A lack of
The clarity, confidence, and rich interrela- visual, and thus cognitive, investigation is
tionship of elements that define a composi- also likely to become difficult to recall later
tion as successful contribute, first and on. Second, the strong resolution of a
73 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
Compositional Contrast Creating areas of individual kinds of contrasting relation- of value: how overall light or dark the
of differing presence or quality—what is ships a designer may integrate within a compositional space appears, in different
known as “contrast”—is crucial for the single format space, from that of form areas, as a totality. Enforcing these con-
making of a successful composition. The identity (line versus plane) to organization trasts first, whether to extremes or more
difference between opposing visual states (elements ordered geometrically versus subtly, sets up all the others.
is what imparts vitality (underpinning the those randomly scattered), the contrasts
depth and movement discussed previously) typically used the most, and that offer
and ensures that viewers remain engaged the most immediate impact, are those
as they analyze the varieties of visual op- of scale (large versus small) and spacing
position with which the designer confronts or density (compressed versus open)—
them. While there are perhaps hundreds and their mutual effects on the perception
75 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
In this composition, the edge curved elements; a similar change in identity and apparent spatial
relationships offer one kind of in tension occurs between the line position but complement each
tension within the space, some elements—which are themselves other’s sharp, geometric quali-
more aggressive and others less angular, but in the foreground— ties. This attribute is yet another
so. At the same time, the edge and the angular plane surface— type of tension.
relationships of angular forms which appears as a background
create tension relative to the element. Both angled plane and
open, sweeping forms of the lines contrast with each other
Tension While the term contrast applies to could exhibit a tension in angularity; a format edge at one location but is relatively
relationships between specific elements, composition that contrasts areas of dense, free of the edge in another; the first loca-
it also applies to the presence of different active line rhythms with areas that are tion could exhibit more tension than that
states of contrasting relationships among generally more open and regular might of the second location.
forms and spaces interacting within a be characterized as creating tension in
format together. The confluence of varied rhythm. The term tension can be substitut-
states of contrast is sometimes referred to ed for contrast when describing individual
as “tension.” A composition with strong forms or areas that focus on particular
contrast between round and sharp, angular kinds of contrast—for example, in a situ-
forms in one area, opposed by another area ation in which the corner of an angular
where all the forms are similarly angular, plane comes into close contact with a
77 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
The Flip-Side: Enforcing Unity Whether format. For instance, all of the material or detailed parts, as the micro level. The
complex or simple, the various composi- may be organized in a series of horizontal idea of unity, therefore, may be understood
tional relationships within a work must bands from top to bottom, in which each in two ways: first, in which the macro level
correspond with each other; to achieve this is readily appreciated as deeper or more lends its qualities to, or influences, compo-
condition, a designer must enforce part-to- shallow, denser or more open. This basic sitional relationships downward in greater
whole relationships throughout the work, relationship may then be restated—at a specificity or variation on the micro level;
even among elements and relationships smaller scale, perhaps or in a different pro- or second, as a set of microcompositions
that contrast each other. One can conceive portion—by the form elements and their that influence each other to create the
of the primary part-to-whole relationship behaviors within the main structure. macrocomposition. This idea is similar
as the “big picture” that creates the basic One can refer to the whole as the macro- in concept to that of a fractal.
compositional gesture in relation to the level of composition, and to the secondary,
Although some elements in this web page are images, others, blocks of color,
and yet others, purely typographic, all align vertically in columns that depend
from a horizontal alignment, ending at varied depths. The page detail at bottom
shows how this structure is restated by the shaping of the type, but in horizontal
orientation. STUDIO BLUE UNITED STATES
79 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
Visual Hierarchy All the aspects of compo- qualities to be differentiated from those of must be overcome by the degree of contrast
sitional structure, movement, depth, and the remaining elements as a group. A par- between these items and the one that is
contrast ultimately must create a pattern ticular relationship must be made different emphasized. Given, as previously dis-
that viewers can dissect and follow—a hier- enough from the others—the secondary cussed, that creating contrast in a variety
archy. Upon confronting a composition, a level—so that the viewer is able to focus on of ways is important, the designer must be
viewer must immediately be able to rapidly it. For instance, it could be that the major- extremely judicious with the contrasts he
categorize the material and determine ity of material is relatively small—and the or she applies to whatever is intended not
which element is the most important. The primary focal element is remarkably larger to be seen first. The clearest hierarchies
designer helps the viewer discover this in size, regardless of other formal rela- are those of two levels—one thing is very
element—the primary level, or “top” of the tionships. The contrasts among all of the important, and all else more or less equally
hierarchy—essentially by causing its secondary material, while still dynamic, less important.
3
1
4
6
5
When an element in a visual field Contrast in relative size (large Relationships of proximity can Repetition assigns relative Compositional flow, sometimes
disconnects from the others, versus small) and relative spacing help separate—and so distin- meaning to elements that will be called “eye path,” occurs as a
it becomes a focal point and, (or density and openness) ac- guish—or join, and thereby understood as related no matter viewer compares each hierarchic
therefore, assumes the greatest count for the most effective ways relate, elements. In separating where they occur within the level’s degree of contrast from the
level of importance. Although to establish a clear hierarchy. the main levels of this hierarchy, visual field—even if separated by others and senses the difference
there are other kinds of contrast These two contrasts, as expres- the radical distinction among material that is clearly different. as a decrease in optical resistance
evident in the secondary material, sions of purely positive/negative levels by large spaces allows Hierarchy, in addition to being (another way of thinking about
the extreme degree to which the interaction, affect our sense of for the creation of similar, but strictly about level of importance, contrast, incidentally). The eye
primary element disconnects the format being divided into smaller-scale, hierarchies within is also about relation or estab- will move from area of greatest
diminishes the effect of these darker and lighter areas. This ef- each level. lishing which elements are alike overall contrast to less, following
contrasts. fect is enhanced through the use in meaning (whether they are a predetermined direction that
of actual value change—chang- important or not). the designer can support by po-
ing elements from solid positives sitioning axes to help direct or by
to middle tones of gray. using graphical forms to point.
81 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
The two posters above and the magazine cover at left all present Perceptually flat space, as well as
compositions that are primarily grid based, but order material the presence of pronounced align-
on their grids in very different ways—resulting in very different ments, suggests the mechanical,
interpretations of the content. In the poster at top left, the grid intellectual, artificial, or factual.
units (and the images they contain) are very different in size Deep illusory space and a lack of
and fit together in a kind of puzzle pattern, creating a sense of alignment among elements sug-
connected relationship but emphasizing differences in content gests the organic and experiential.
meanings. In the poster at top right, the ordering is repetitive and HAEHUN HAN / SCHOOL OF
even, creating a more analytical interpretation. In the magazine VISUAL ARTS UNITED STATES [TOP]
cover, the grid is regular, but its components are rotated, suggest- LABORATORIO SECRETO SPAIN
ing overall similarity but suggesting difference or variation [BOTTOM]
BARNBROOK UNITED KINGDOM [TOP LEFT]
L2M3 GERMANY [TOP RIGHT]
STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO SPAIN [BOTTOM LEFT]
83 design elements
COMPOSITIONAL STRATEGIES
The Achievement of Totality The breadth The design of this concert poster
embodies the complexity of
and depth of everything to be considered in form language and composition
developing visual form language, especially that is typical of most design
with composition, can be ovewhelming ... projects. While it includes such
and, admittedly, difficult to grasp piece elements as typography and
pictorial images that haven’t
by piece. Shown here is a dissection of all been addressed yet, readers
the formal and spatial decisions a designer will see how these components
could (and must) make in a single project. similarly relate to the funda-
In summing up the concepts presented mentals of form language and
in this chapter, the poster, opposite, dem- composition that are the focus
of our discussion here.
onstrates the orchestration involved in PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES
creating a cohesive visual experience. UNITED STATES
CHROMATIC
INTERACTION
COLOR SYSTEMS
chapter 02
86
If one says “red” and there are fifty people listening, it
can be expected that there will be fifty reds in their
minds. And ... all these reds will be very different. Colors
present themselves in continuous flux, constantly
related to changing neighbors and changing conditions.
”
JOSEF ALBERS/ Artist, visual theorist, and educator; from
Interaction of Color, Yale University Press
87 design elements
THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
There are few visual stimuli as powerful as What we do with it once we see it is another
color; it is a profoundly useful communi- thing altogether, and controlling it for the
cation tool. But the meaning transmitted sake of communication depends on under-
by color, because it results from reflected standing how its optical qualities behave.
light waves transmitted through an im-
perfect organ—the eyes—to an imperfect
interpreter—the brain—is also profoundly
subjective. The mechanism of color percep-
tion is universal among humans.
Hue A distinction between color Saturation The relative dullness Temperature A color’s perceived Value Whether a color appears
identities as defined by their or brightness of a color warmth or coolness light or dark
wavelengths
88 color fundamentals
These two posters exemplify the different characteris-
tics that define a color’s identity and quality. The red
poster is warm in temperature, darker in value, and
more intense or saturated than the violet poster—
which is cool in temperature and lighter in value.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES UNITED STATES
89 design elements
THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
Hue This term refers to the identity of absolute: we see a color as red or blue, change in frequency in any one of the pri-
a color—red, violet, orange, and so on. for example. But all color perception is mary colors will cause the eye to perceive
This identity is the result of how we per- relative, meaning that a color’s identity is that it has shifted slightly toward one of
ceive light being reflected from objects really knowable only when there’s another the other primary colors.
at particular frequencies. When we see a color adjacent with which it can be com-
green car, what we’re seeing isn’t a car pared. Some hues we are able to perceive
that is actually green; we’re seeing light are absolutes of a sort, what we call the
waves reflected off the car at a very specific primary colors. These colors—red, blue,
frequency while all other frequencies are and yellow—are as different from each
absorbed. Of color’s four intrinsic attri- other in terms of their frequency as can be
butes, the perception of hue is the most perceived by the human eye. Even a slight
PRIMARY
TERTIARY TERTIARY
SE
CO RY
ND DA
AR
Y C ON
TERTIARY SE TERTIARY
90 color fundamentals
When we are presented with a light
frequency between those of two primary
colors, we perceive a hue that evenly mixes
them. These hues are the secondary colors:
between red and yellow is the frequency
perceived as orange; between yellow and
blue, green; and between blue and red,
violet. Further intermixing produces the
tertiary hues: red orange, orange-yellow,
yellow-green, blue-green, blue-violet, and
violet-red.
Hue defines the essential Basic hue identity is relative: Even when altered in value
identity of a color, based on both of the swatches above (top) and saturation (bot-
its wavelength: yellow are red, but once adjacent, tom), a hue still retains its
versus violet, for example. distinctions in temperature essential identity (in this
and value may be made. case, blue).
The primary text in this ad changes in hue but gener- Red-orange and red-violet are loosely analogous, ap-
ally maintains similar value and intensity. Since hue is pearing on either side of red on the color wheel. The red
tied intrinsically to the perception of temperature, that component makes both colors feel a little passionate;
variable also changes. PEOPLE DESIGN UNITED STATES the orange component adds adventure or risk; the violet
component adds mystery and a touch of sensuality.
AMES BROS. UNITED STATES
91 design elements
THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
The same hue seen in its In their purest, or most Changing a hue’s value
pure, or saturated state (top) saturated, states, some hues typically diminishes its
and desaturated or neutral- are yet intrinsically more or saturation.
ized (bottom). less saturated than others.
Yellow is intrinsically more
saturated than other hues.
92 color fundamentals
Bringing together hues that are as different another color, will appear to gain in in-
from each other in frequency as possible, tensity and shift hue toward the opposite
meaning closer to either of the opposing end of the spectrum. Of equal interest is
primaries, will cause the intensity of both the effect of value on saturation. As a pure,
colors to increase dramatically. This effect saturated hue is lightened or darkened, its
is even more pronounced if the amount of apparent saturation will diminish.
the two colors is very different; the color
present in a smaller amount will become
much more intense against a large field
of the second color. Interestingly, a small
amount of a desaturated—even neutral—
color, presented against a large field of
93 design elements
THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
Value A color’s value is its intrinsic dark- technically the absence of any reflected paint swatch for your living room only to
ness or lightness. Yellow is perceived as light). Lightening the value of an intensely find that it’s three or four values too light
being light; violet is perceived as being saturated hue tends to desaturate it. Dark- once you paint an entire wall, you already
dark. Again, it’s all relative. One color ening the value of a moderately to intensely know this to be true. Bringing two hues of
can be considered darker or lighter only saturated hue will initially intensify its the same value together, regardless of their
compared to another. Yellow, even, appears saturation, but if the value is darkened too relative intensities, creates an odd “bleed-
darker than white, which has the lightest much, the hue will become less vibrant. ing” effect that messes with our ability to
possible value of any color. An extremely Placing any color on a darker color will see a sharp, distinct boundary between the
deep blue or violet appears quite luminous make it seem lighter, as will increasing the two. The more different the two hues, or
against a maximal black, which has the amount of a color. If you’ve ever had the the more similar they are in intensity, the
darkest value of any color (black being unfortunate experience of picking out a more pronounced this effect becomes;
94 color fundamentals
at some magical intersection of hue and
saturation, the boundary between two
colors of the same value will be nearly
impossible to see. Designers may exploit
this optical vibration to great effect, but
must be very careful when applying it
to text—most often, it will cause small
text to become completely illegible.
Absolute value identity is Every hue has an inher- Saturation has an effect on
considered in terms of hues’ ently lighter or darker value, the perception of value. Even
similarity to a tone of black, relative to the others in the though both of these colors
which achieves the darkest visible spectrum. The pure are the same value relative
value possible. hue at top is deeper in value to the gray strip, the more
than the one below. saturated one (top) appears
lighter.
95 design elements
THE IDENTITY OF COLOR
Every hue is intrinsically Any hue may be presented Extremely desaturated neu-
warm (such as the orange as cool or warm; the further trals, even those devoid of
at top) or cool (such as the the temperature shift from any chromatic activity, may
violet below), based on its pure form, the more likely be distinguished by tempera-
associations with real- the hue will be perceived as ture. The top, absolute gray
world experience. a different one; this is espe- (a tonality of black) appears
cially true of yellow, which to take on warmth when ad-
shifts rapidly to orange or jacent to a subtly cool gray, a
green, as seen above. desaturated blue.
Warmer colors seem more aggressive and alive, while cooler colors
seem more passive. In the right context, this contrast can convey
a message that negates energy and, therefore, a sense of life. In this
poster, the SOS in yellow-orange seems to call out urgently; the
cooler blue overlapping the yellow-orange type quiets it down.
This simple change alludes to flooding and, possibly, death.
STEREOTYPE DESIGN UNITED STATES
96 color fundamentals
in one direction or another if compared to neutrals, are easily seen once the colors are
any other color. Placing a hot red near an in direct juxtaposition; exercising this kind
even hotter orange will make that red seem of control in temperature offers rich pos-
cool; conversely, placing a slightly cooler sibilities for complexity, as well as subtlety,
magenta next to the same hot red will sim- within a palette while maintaining overall
ply enhance the perception of its intrinsic unity among its components.
temperature. Temperature relationships
need not be especially dramatic to be effec-
tive. Subtle shifts in warmth or coolness
within a group of hues that are primarily
blue, for example, or between a set of
97 design elements
CHROMATIC INTERACTION
Color Relationships Since the fifteenth yellow from red—modified along two axes around the outside of a circular form and
century, artists and scientists have been that describe the color’s darkness or light- decreasing in intensity toward the center.
creating methods for organizing color ness (its value) and its relative brilliance In Itten’s sphere, the decrease in intensity
perception in visual models. A color model (its saturation). Johannes Itten, a Bauhaus toward the center of the solid globe is the
helps a designer see these relationships for master at Weimar, Germany, in the 1920s, result of mixing hues that are situated op-
planning color ideas. Of these, the most posited a color sphere—a three-dimension- posite each other (as they are on Munsell’s
common is the color wheel, developed al model that integrates the value scale of color wheel) and results in a cancelling out
by Albert Munsell, a British painter and Munsell’s color wheel into a globe—in his toward a neutral. These color models were
scientist. Munsell’s color wheel is a circular landmark book The Art of Color, published developed to describe how color works
representation of hue—the differences in in 1961. Both models focus on hue as color’s with refracted light, but, for the most part,
wavelength that distinguish blue from defining aspect, radiating at full intensity graphic designers work with color derived
RED
RED-VIOLET RED-ORANGE
VIOLET ORANGE
BLUE-GREEN YELLOW-GREEN
GREEN
98 color fundamentals
from mixing chemical pigments—paint are much more direct and have a more It should be noted that in order for color to
or inks. The relative color relationships aggressive effect on each other when added affect the perception of space—or, for that
described by these models, however, work together; they will define the secondary matter, for there to be a color relationship
in much the same way with mixed pig- and tertiary colors by virtue of their print- within a composition at all—there must be
ments; the difference is simply how these ing on top of each other. If color is being interaction between at least two hues. A
relationships are achieved in a physical produced by a buildup of primary colors— black-and-white composition that has been
sense. When working with inks (see page as in process, or CMYK, printing—a wider colorized, meaning that instead of tonali-
116), the type of ink being used contributes range of colors is possible. ties of black, all the elements are presented
to the designer’s consideration of color re- in tonalities of blue, for example, is still a
lationships. If the inks being combined are black-and-white composition and is not
solids, the beginning color relationships about color.
An abstracted model for additive, or light- This color study is interesting for its examination of
based, color, forms the symbol for this media relationships between warmer and cooler colors as well
company’s brand signature. as between analogous and complementary colors.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES UNITED STATES DIANA HURD/CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY
UNITED STATES
99 design elements
CHROMATIC INTERACTION
Analogous Colors adjacent Complementary Two colors that Triadic Sometimes referred Extension The relative volume of length and intensity; nearly twice
to each other on the color wheel appear opposite each other on to as split complements, a one color to another, so that each the volume of violet is required to
are said to be analogous. Al- the color wheel are complements color triad involves three colors seems to have the same presence, optically satisfy the presence
though noticeably different from of each other. Their mixture at 120-degree intervals from each is a relationship of extension. The of a given amount of yellow.
one another, the relationship be- results in a neutral tone. With other on the color wheel. One volume of a given color needed
comes more about temperature light, the neutral is a medium color is complementing the two to support another color as equal
difference. Above, for example, gray; with ink, it’s a dull brown. colors equidistant from its true in presence depends on its wave-
a viewer will note a collection of complement.
green hues of varying warmth.
Progressive A sequence of Analogous In a scale from Rhythmic Extension A series The boundary between adjacent
values among colors—in either lightest to darkest, two colors of values, lighter and darker, is colors, as we have seen, becomes
optically even steps or optically are considered to have analogus considered rhythmic if there are difficult to distinguish when they
geometric steps—is considered value if they exhibit the same (or recognizable jumps between are the same value. The effect
progressive if the overall effect very similar) darkness or light- shades, relative to the extension is magnified when the colors
is perceived as one of continual ness, relative to each other—re- or volume of each shade. The are complements, as well as
lightening or darkening within a gardless of saturation or hue. As result is an optical proportioning when two versions of the same
given palette. colors approach each other in of value similar to a spatial pro- hue—one intense, the other
value, the ability to distinguish portion system, but dependent desaturated—are juxtaposed.
their boundary is diminished. on dark-to-light difference.
Analogous Any colors, regardless Diametric Opposition Similar to its complement appears to be Extension Juxtapositions of two Split Opposition The most
of hue, temperature, or value, hue complements, but expressed present because of what is called or more colors of similar intensity, intense version of a given color
that exhibit the same intensity in terms of saturation, this the “after-image” effect—an but in different volumes, create in relation to the nearly desatu-
or brilliance, are said to exhibit relationship concerns the juxta- optical illusion in which the eye effects of simultaneous contrast rated versions of its split comple-
analogous saturation. position of the most intense and is stimulated by the saturated and after-image. Juxtaposing a ments creates a relationship of
almost completely desaturated color so much that it triggers the small volume of a desaturated split opposition. The split rela-
versions of the same hue. The perception of a “phantom” of its color with a large volume of an tionship can also occur between
result of this kind of pairing complement. intensely saturated color creates the desaturated hue and the
is that while the desaturated hue-shifting; the intense volume most intense versions of its
component retains its base hue, acts on the desaturated color to split complements.
skew it toward the intense color’s
complement.
The pink of the letterform, A progression in value and saturation from less intense
whose value is also lighter, to more intense imparts rhythm and movement to the
is less saturated than the red rigidly grid-shaped typography. VOICE AUSTRALIA
droplet, enhancing its vitality
and symbolic quality.
LSD SPAIN
Temperature relationships
tie together each page of
this magazine spread (note
the locations of the warmer
green elements) and separate
elements in the hierarchy.
ADAMSMORIOKA UNITED STATES
Closed Extremely subtle, yet Analogous Any sequence of Progressive An analogous group- Extension Between two colors both relatively close to each other
still perceptible, analogous shifts colors that is adjacent on the ing in which temperature makes sharing intensity and value, in temperature, the one given
in temperature among a set of color wheel so long as they are a markedly stepped transition, differences in volume will have in smaller volume will appear to
colors that, nonetheless, retain similarly warm or cool: red/ color by color, from cooler to the effect of changing the shift temperature away from that
the same hue identity. Value and orange/yellow, for example, or warmer or vice versa. perception of their relative given in greater volume.
saturation changes of the same yellow/yellow-green/green, but temperature. If two colors are
pure hue may accomplish this not orange/yellow/green.
relationship.
An analagous hue change—here, for A relatively subtle temperature difference between two red hues
example, orange and red—is, for all intents of analogous value provides enough visual separation between
and purposes, really a change in tempera- background field, foreground image, and type in this LP sleeve for
ture. The orange is warmer than the red. a local Indie band—whose music draws upon psychedelic and
UMBRELLA DESIGN INDIA 1960s underground music genres. TIMOTHY SAMARA UNITED STATES
Color: Form and Space Colors exhibit a white field, warm colors appear to advance These basic relationships will change,
number of spatial properties: their relative into the foreground, and cool colors ap- however, once the field, or negative space,
temperatures, values, and saturations, in pear to recede; colors of darker value—or also takes on a color. In such a case, the
combination, will cause the forms to which of greater intensity—appear to advance, relative value, temperature, and saturation
they are applied to occupy an apparent while colors of lighter value—and those of of the field will appear to draw those form
foreground, middle-ground, or back- lesser intensity—appear to recede. elements whose values or temperatures are
ground position in illusory space. Of the analogous to it—whether light in value or
primary colors (in their pure states), blue dark, warm or cool, saturated or desaturat-
appears to recede and yellow to advance, ed—closer to a background position; those
but red appears to sit statically at a middle form elements whose values, temperatures,
depth within space. In general, against a or saturations contrast those of the field
E
AN
PL
E
T UR
P IC
Color and Space Re: Visual Hierarchy hierarchic levels. For example, if an element A form in one color, set on a field of another
Applying color to a composition will have at the top of a hierarchy is set in a deep, color, will join closely with it or separate
an immediate effect on hierarchy, the vibrant orange-red, while secondary forms aggressively, depending on their color rela-
relative order of importance of the forms are colored a cool gray, these two levels of tionship. If the colors of foreground and
in space. The intrinsic relationships in a the hierarchy will be separated visually background elements are related, the ele-
black-and-white composition might be to a much greater degree. Although the val- ments will occupy a similar spatial depth. If
exaggerated through the application of ues of the colors are similar, the saturated they are complementary in nature, the two
chromatic color or made purposely orange form will advance in space, and the will occupy very different spatial depths.
ambiguous. Color distinctions can greatly cool gray one will recede. The application
enhance the perception of spatial depth of color to the ground within a composi-
and force greater separation between the tion can further enhance the hierarchy.
Differences in temperature
between the primary hues of
major elements in this ad—the
cool violet and the warm red—
enhance the hierarchy already
established by value.
TIMOTHY SAMARA UNITED STATES
Color Logic: Defining a Palette Just as The first direction a designer may pursue brain is provoked into greater activity as
it’s important for a designer to define a in developing a color palette for a project a result. Analogous colors, by their very
clear, unified form language and composi- is that of optical interaction. Creating a similarity, create more complex, but less
tional idea—and one that includes contrast rich palette depends on combining colors varied, palettes. Using such a basic rela-
among these variables—so too must a that can be clearly distinguished from each tionship as a starting point guarantees a
designer establish an overall logic that gov- other but that also share some unifying viewer’s clear perception of a color idea; the
erns the color within a project. This idea of optical relationships. Because of the strong designer may opt to maintain its simplicity,
color logic is more commonly referred to opposition of complements, palettes based or introduce complexity—adjusting the
as a “palette,” or a specific combination of on this relationship tend to be the most value or intensity differences between the
hues that interact in specific relationships optically dynamic—that is, cells in the eye base colors, or adding colors that support
of value, temperature, and saturation. are stimulated more aggressively, and the and expand their relationship.
The process of defining a palette Seeking a richer experience, the Altering the intensities of one The addition of a neutral version To this already complex mix, the
can begin very simply: choosing designer may shift the tempera- or both introduces yet greater of one of the complements designer lastly adds the analog
colors for their optical relation- ture of one or both complements, richness without sacrificing the expands the palette; a second of one of the base complements,
ship—in this case, a pair of maintaining the essential rela- fundamental logic of the palette. version of the neutral, lighter adjusting its value and intensity
complements—because their tionship but skewing it slightly. in value, introduces greater to correspond more closely to one
interaction is so strong (top). variation. of the neutrals.
Adjusting the relative values of
the complements creates greater
contrast without disturbing
the clarity of the relationship
(bottom).
Basic Optical Choices Establishing rich- too limiting, an effective strategy is to the possibility that the logic will become
ness and flexibility in a palette is always develop a family of a few hues, whose in- diluted or unrecognizable). Varying the ex-
important. Still, the palette must exhibit a teractions are constrained within a limited tension, or the volume of each component
clearly recognizable logic. This very often set of variables—only varying intensity, for in different combinations, can clarify the
depends on limiting the number of hues example, while saturation among the hues system while providing the flexibility to
and their interactions; as with form logic, remains constant—and swap the colors vary color impression on alternating pages
composition, and hierachy, simpler is among the various parts of the project. within a website, to distinguish elements
usually better. Grounding the palette in a Varying only one aspect of the palette cre- in a line of products, or to create a family
fundamental hue relationship—analogous, ates the most clearly recognizable logic or of publications, all unique in tone yet
complementary, or triadic—is a great place system; altering two variables within the clearly interrelated.
to start. If a two- or three-hue palette seems system adds complexity (and, of course,
This page from an identity manual shows how colors from The color contrasts in this advertising photograph are
the supporting color palette can be combined with the limited primarily to two variables—temperature and
primary corporate color in the system, the medium-value value—while overall the hues and relative saturation
blue. The supporting colors are strictly controlled so that of its elements are very similar. NAM JAPAN
the corporate blue is always the deepest and most intense.
STUDIO INTERNATIONAL CROATIA
MULTIPLE-VARIABLE SYSTEMS
A simple proportional system composition remain the same series, the color components
is shown here as the basis for throughout; the criteria for the alternate position among the
different color-coding relation- coding system changes from se- proportional intervals.
ships. The intervals within the ries to series while, within a single
Limited Color Systems Using only three, or memorable, experience. In printed matter, When working with such a limited palette,
even two, colors can be the foundation of a using only two “spot” color inks need not choosing colors with dynamic chromatic
surprisingly rich color language, whether be limited to small-run or low-budget interaction is of greatest concern: Without
used literally by printing in only two ink projects; a palette of even two thoughtfully- as many options, the designer must get
colors or limiting oneself in process-color selected colors may communicate just as as much flexibility as possible from the
(cmyk ) print projects and digital (screen- powerfully and further unify materials. palette’s two or three components. Choos-
or light-based) projects—where all colors, This approach is particularly useful for ing two complements as counterparts, for
theoretically, are available. While a great branding, where the interrelation of inks example, is an intuitive first possibility.
number of projects call for full-color im- can be used to clarify different publications Their complementary nature need not be
agery, limiting the palette always creates a in a literature system while reinforcing the exact; skewing this relationship can create
more recognizable and, therefore, more identity of the brand. equally dynamic combinations. Even an
Analogous Analogous
Same saturation Different saturation
Analogous Analogous
Temperature shift: Temperature shift: By limiting the value, hue, and intensity contrasts among warm-toned
cool warm backgrounds and supporting details, the designer gives emphasis to full-
color images and navigation while retaining a rich, textural experience
in this website. TIMOTHY SAMARA [FOR LEXICON GRAPHICS] UNITED STATES
Limited Palettes in Photographic Images graphic elements, and to bring images into is lucky enough to have a budget that
Photographic images or illustrations with closer visual alignment with brand-related allows for commissioning original photog-
varied tonality are excellent material with color messages. Even when full-color pho- raphy, he or she may art direct the
which to explore ink coloration: An image tography is not only available as an option, photographer’s use of lighting, props,
might be printed in one, two, three, or but desirable, limiting the palette within backgrounds, and isolation of content in
more spot colors, with different portions of the imagery will help it integrate with the the frame to control the image’s palette.
the image’s tonal range acted upon by the palette applied to nonphotographic forms A second option is to manipulate a photo-
inks at different levels. Such options give and typography— such limitation can graph’s native color using software to
the designer an opportunity to customize help focus attention on the most important accomplish the same goal—for example,
images for a client, enrich the dialogue components of the image’s subject or em- saturating the yellow components of
of color among images, type, and other phasize important details. If the designer an important subject in the foreground
Color Stories: Coding with Color Within Or, a designer might use a general palette To be effective, color coding must be easily
a complex visual environment, color for all elements that is based on the color or identifiable and, therefore, relatively simple.
can help distinguish different kinds of thematic content of photographs. Perhaps, Using more colors for coding creates
information, as well as create relation- this palette has a consistent base, like a confusion, as the viewer is forced to try
ships among components or editions of selection of warm neutrals that remains to remember which color relates to which
a publication. A designer might develop, constant, while accent colors change. information. Color coding within a related
for example, a palette for graphic and set of hues—a deep blue, an aqua blue, and
typographic elements that helps readers a green, for example—can help distinguish
distinguish between specific text compo- subcategories of information within an
nents (headlines, subheads, and body) overall grouping but also ensure that the
or between sections of information. viewer is able to perceive the differences
Colors used to code a family of Within a relatively close-in analo- Changing the relative extension
items need to be easily distin- gous coding palette, an accent of a coding palette’s component
guished from each other. Triads, enriches the color language. For hues can add needed complexity
as well as large jumps in value or families of more than three items if the number of items or levels is
saturation within an analogous or levels, consider joining related great. Reverse the proportional
set, achieve this goal. palettes, especially if they will relationship between bases and
help identify subgroupings. accents to double the number of
items that can be coded within
the family while maintaining a
close-in family.
The Psychology of Color With color comes is needed to process them as they enter the Many cultures equate red with feelings
a variety of psychological messages that eye and brain. The accompanying rise in of hunger, anger, or energy because red is
can be used to influence content—both energy level and metabolic rate translates closely associated with meat, blood, and
imagery and the verbal meaning of typog- as arousal. Conversely, the shorter wave- violence. By contrast, vegetarians might
raphy. This emotional component of color lengths of cooler colors—such as blue, associate the color green with hunger. In
is deeply connected to human experience at green, and violet—require far less energy Western cultures, which are predominantly
an instinctual and biological level. Colors to process, resulting in the slowing of our Christian, black is associated with death
of varying wavelengths have different metabolic rate and a soothing, calming ef- and mourning, but Hindus associate the
effects on the autonomic nervous system— fect. The psychological properties of color, color white with death. Christians associate
warmer colors, such as red and yellows, however, also depend highly on a viewer’s white with purity or cleanliness. Because of
have long wavelengths, and so more energy culture and personal experience. the history of Western civilization, violet
This vibrant color is among the The power of blue to calm and Associated with the Sun and The association of brown with Unknowable and extreme, black
most noticeable. Red stimulates create a sense of protection warmth, yellow stimulates a earth and wood creates a sense of is the strongest color in the
the autonomic nervous system or safety results from its short sense of happiness. It appears comfort and safety. The solidity visible spectrum. Its density and
to the highest degree, invoking wavelength; its association with to advance spatially in relation of the color, because of its organic contrast are dominant, but it
the “fight or flight” adrenaline the ocean and sky account for its to other colors and also helps connotation, evokes feelings of seems neither to recede nor to
response, causing us to salivate perception as solid and depend- to enliven surrounding colors. timelessness and lasting value. advance in space. Its indetermi-
with hunger, or causing us to feel able. Statistically, blue is the Yellow encourages clear thinking Brown’s natural qualities are nate quality reminds viewers of
impulsive. Red evokes feelings of best liked of all the colors. and memory retention. A brighter, perceived as rugged, ecological, nothingness, outer space, and, in
passion and arousal. greener yellow can cause anxiety; and hard working; its earthy con- Western culture, death. Its mys-
deeper yellows evoke wealth. nection connotes trustworthiness tery is perceived as formal and
and durability. exclusive, suggesting authority,
superiority, and dignity.
Violet is sometimes perceived With the shortest wavelength, A mixture of red and yellow, The ultimate neutral, gray may be In a subtractive color model,
as compromising—but also green is the most relaxing color of orange engenders feelings similar perceived as noncommittal, but white represents the pres-
as mysterious and elusive. The the spectrum. Its association with to that of its parent colors—vital- can be formal, dignified, and au- ence of all color wavelengths;
value and hue of violet greatly nature and vegetation makes it ity and arousal (red) and warmth thoritative. Lacking the emotion in an additive model, it is the
affect its communication: feel safe. The brighter the green, and friendliness (yellow). Orange that chroma carries, it may seem absence of color. Both of these
deep violets, approaching black, the more youthful and energetic. appears outgoing and adventur- aloof or suggest untouchable models help form the basis for
connote death; pale, cooler vio- Deeper greens suggest reliable ous but may be perceived as wealth. Gray may be associated white’s authoritative, pure, and
lets, such as lavender, are dreamy economic growth. More neutral slightly irresponsible. Deeper with technology, especially when all-encompassing power. As the
and nostalgic; red-hued violets, greens, such as olive, evoke orange induces salivation and a presented as silver. It suggests mixture of all colors of light,
such as fuchsia, are dramatic and earthiness. However, green, in feeling of luxury. Brighter orange precision, control, competence, it connotes spiritual wholeness
energetic; plumlike hues the right context, can connote connotes health, freshness, sophistication, and industry. and power. Around areas of color
are magical. illness or decay. quality, and strength. As orange activity in a composition—espe-
becomes more neutral, its activity cially around black, its ultimate
decreases, but it retains a certain contrast—white appears restful,
sophistication, becoming exotic. stately, and pure.
QUIET
QUIET
QUIET
Color forcefully changes the meaning of the word “quiet;”
feeling of words, sometimes interestingly, the word’s meaning
enhancing their meaning and is intensely appreciated when set
sometimes opposing the meaning in a vibrant color.
or altering it. Subdued colors,
especially those that are cool
or desaturated, enhance the
A greenish-blue haze transforms the upside-down
figure into one that appears to be floating in water.
FROST DESIGN AUSTRALIA
A B C D
This image has been manipulated cyan increased again, yellow de- the perception of the fruit’s
on press by raising and lowering creased, and magenta increased; freshness, a desirable manipula-
the density of the four process (D) yellow increased slightly, tion of feeling and message in
inks to correct and enhance the black increased. The results, this context.
color balance and saturation: subtle enough to be appreciated
(A) original image; (B) cyan de- intellectually when compared
creased and yellow increased; (C) side by side, nontheless improve
Color Experience and Conventions While and subculture. Although differentiation in convention, provide a grounding for
every client and project is different, the through color in a crowded market is para- overall communication, to be combined
color language of many business sectors mount, designers must still respect some or altered appropriately for more specific
often respects convention that is usually conventions when it comes to communi- messages.
tied to a given color’s common psychologi- cating associations such as cleanliness,
cal effects: Many financial institutions, for strength, masculinity or femininity, youth
instance, use blue in their communications or maturity, heritage, comfort, and luxury.
because of its perceived reliability and Earth tones are traditional, black and gray
calming quality. Consumer expectations are chic, blues and grays mean business,
are a driving force behind color decisions and violets and pinks are feminine. Again,
in design related to products or lifestyle these color concepts, although rooted
126
Progressive East Indian Medieval Babies [for adults] Gardening
Romantic Spring 1960s Folk/1970s Earthy Men’s Grooming Consumer Health Care
Friendly Autumn New Age Millenial Men’s Business Apparel Financial Services
Complex moods and emotions Along with emotional ideas, Various periods in Western Particular color palettes are often Very specific color palettes are
are easily captured in palettes palettes may suggest place— history can be quickly identified associated with, and sometimes identified by consumers as
that combine the psychological distilled from various cultures’ art by colors that are related to identified as desirable by, specific related to particular industries,
aspects of individual hues, as well and textiles—as well as the time materials that were prevalent or age groups and subcultures, es- product types, and services.
as manipulations of their relative of day or year. color schemes that were in vogue, pecially those related to fashion
values and intensities. during that era. and gender conventions.
ISSUES RELATED
TO STYLE
MECHANICS OF TEXT
TYPE AS INFORMATION
HOW COLOR
AFFECTS TYPE
chapter 03
128
”
The typographer’s one essential task is to interpret and
communicate the text. Its tone, its tempo, its logical structure,
its physical size, all determine the possibilities of typographic
form. The typographer is to the text as the theatrical director
to the script, or the musician to the score.
L2M3 GERMANY
The Nuts and Bolts The letters of the shape become apparent. Becoming sensi-
Western alphabet are built from a system tive to these optical issues and understand-
of lines with intricate visual relationships ing their effect on spacing, organization,
that are nearly invisible. With letters at a stylistic communication, legibility, and
standard reading size, the eye perceives let- composition is crucial.
ters to be all the same weight, height, and
width. This is the most critical aspect of
type: stylistic uniformity discourages dis-
traction during the reading process. When
the same type is enlarged, minute changes
in character height, stroke width, and
Crossbar Joint
Sidebearing Crotch
Baseline
Body Cap-Height X-Height Terminal Counter Descender
Descent Line
Bowl
Aperture
Vertex Eye
Arm
Joint
Ascender
Bowl
Joint
Ligature
Form and Counterform: The Optics of Looking at letters set together as a word of- of the letters bond to each other visually
Structure The spacing of letters in words, fers a clue as to how they should be spaced where they come together. At the other
sentences, and paragraphs is vital to create in that particular typeface and size. Creat- extreme, letters that are set too loosely be-
a uniform gray value for minimal reader ing a consistent gray value in text depends come singular elements, divorced from the
distraction. Every typeface has a distinct on setting the letters so that there is even line and recognizable as individual forms,
rhythm of strokes and spaces. This rela- alternation of solid and void—within and making the appraisal of words difficult.
tionship between form and counterform between the letters. A series of letters that Evenly set sequences of letters show a con-
defines the optimal spacing of that par- are set too tightly, so that the counterforms sistent, rhythmic alternation of black and
ticular typeface and therefore of the overall within the letters are optically bigger than white—form and counterform repeating at
spacing between words, between lines of those between letters, creates noticeable the same rate from left to right.
type, and among paragraphs. dark spots in the line: the exterior strokes
TYPOGRAPHY
Mathematical spacing The art of designing
A
letters and text
Default spacing
TYPOGRAPHY
Overly tight spacing The art of designing
letters and text
Optical spacing for the Univers tightly, where the strokes are Uppercase letters are more uniform Tightening or loosening the
regular weight is shown, closer together between letters in width and shape than lowercase spacing between these pairs of
compared to mathematically than within them. Compare the letters, as well as optically more letters corrects for the awkward
spaced or overly tight or loose normal spacing of these faces to dense; to enhance their look and counterspaces inherent in their
spacing. The optimally spaced those of the bold condensed style legibility, all-uppercase setting forms. Shifting the lowercase y to
lines (second line) show a of Univers (A), the italic serif (B), must always be spaced a little more the right, under the right crossbar
consistent rhythmic alternation and the high-contrast modern loosely than normal. of the T, for example, allows the
between dark (the strokes) and serif (C); note how the internal spacing between them to become
light (the counterforms), both logic of the stroke-to-counter optically similar to that of subse-
within characters and between relationship in each provides the quent letters.
them. Dark spots are evident in clues to their optimal spacing.
the examples spaced too
LIQUID
example, X and P) if they had been spaced normally.
PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES UNITED STATES
Default spacing
LIQU I D
Corrected spacing
Type Sizes and Spacing The drawing of a on the face. A sans-serif face such as
typeface has an impact on the perception Univers might be perfectly comfortable to
of its size. A sentence set in an oldstyle serif read at a size of 9 points, but an oldstyle
and a similar-weight sans serif at the same such as Garamond Three at that size will
point size will appear to be two different appear tiny and difficult to read. Setting
sizes. The discrepancy results from the the Garamond at 11 or 12 points will make it
sans serif ’s larger x-height: its lowercase more legible as well as make it appear the
letters are larger in relation to the cap same size as the Univers.
height than those of the serif. The differ-
ence in set size and apparent size can vary
as much as two or three points, depending
30
24
18
14
12 Printing exacerbates the issue of ing in the type but not nearly as
space between letters, especially much as will happen on press.
10 at smaller sizes. Ink bleeds when A designer’s prior printing experi-
it hits paper; as a result, the ence will help him or her judge
space between and within letters these spacing issues.
9 is made smaller. Trying to judge
proper spacing on a monitor, with
7 its coarse resolution, is nearly
impossible; a laser printer or an
6 inkjet printer creates some bloat-
The larger type on this brochure spread needs to be set a little tighter than
normal to account for the apparent size of the counters as it increases in point Type changes when
size; the tighter spacing compensates for the spread of ink that will very printed positive or
slightly decrease the thickness of the reversed white strokes. The smaller cap- reversed from color.
tion type, however, has been set more loosely. AND PARTNERS UNITED STATES
Visual Variations The letterforms in all have evolved, become popular, or been that may connote feelings—fast or slow,
typefaces vary from their archetypes in discarded over time; as a result, the formal aggressive or elegant, cheap or reliable.
only six aspects: case, weight, contrast, aspects of particular typefaces often carry Consider that not all viewers will perceive
width, posture, and style. Type designers, associations with specific periods in his- the same associations in a given typeface;
referring to historical models, subtly alter tory, cultural movements, and geographic the designer must carefully evaluate his or
and combine the variables in these six as- location—some typefaces feel “modern” her typeface selection in the context of the
pects to create individual type styles that, or “classical,” while others feel “French” or audience for a particular piece. Addition-
although appearing remarkably different, “English.” More important, the drawing ally, mixing typefaces that are incongruous
all convey the same information about the of a typeface will often exhibit a particular with the subject matter—for example,
letterforms in the alphabet. Different kind of rhythm, or cadence, as well as pro- using an archaic Roman capital in a flyer
approaches to the drawing of typefaces vide a distinct physical presence in a design promoting a concert of Electronica—will
Uppercase Lowercase
The degree of stylization or neutrality in any typeface Case Every letter in the Western
is relative, much like the relativity of color: any alphabet occurs in a large form—
typeface becomes more neutral when something more the capital or uppercase—and a
stylized appears next to it. These two faces share con- small, more casual form—low-
ercase. The uppercase requires
trast in stroke thickness but are completely opposed in added space between letters to
terminal shape, ductus, width, and posture. Both faces permit easier reading. The low-
are generally considered somewhat stylized, but the ercase is more varied and more
script is more stylized than the all-uppercase serif. quickly recognized in text.
CHK DESIGN UNITED KINGDOM
Light Regular Uniform Contrast Condensed Roman Italic 1 Serif and Sans Serif
Weight The overall thickness of Contrast The strokes within Width The proportional width Posture Roman letters are those Style This term is used to de-
the strokes, relative to the height the letters of a typeface may be of the letters in a typeface is whose vertical axis is 90° to scribe (1) the two major classes of
of the uppercase, might change. uniform in weight or may vary based on the width of the upper- the baseline; they stand upright. type—serif (having little feet at
Light, regular, bold, and black significantly; the more they case M. Faces that are narrower Italic letters, developed by the ends of the strokes) and sans
weights—increasing in stroke do so, the more contrast the in proportion are said to be con- humanist scholars during the serif (having no such feet); (2)
thickness—for a single type style face is said to exhibit. Contrast densed, while wider ones are said Renaissance, slant 12° to 15° to the historical period in which the
define a type family. Variation within a stroke—such as flaring to be extended or expanded. the right, mimicking the slant typeface was drawn; and (3) the
in weight helps to add visual from thin to thick—is called of handwriting. relative neutrality or decorative
contrast as well as to distinguish “modulation”; the rate at which quality of a typeface. Typefaces
between informational compo- this occurs is referred to as the that are neutral are closest to the
nents within a hierarchy. typeface’s “ductus.” basic structure, while those with
exaggerated characteristics are
said to be stylized, idiosyncratic,
or decorative.
Style Classifications Classifying type referential and incorporates historical for- several decades. Today, as then, these
helps a designer grasp the subtle differ- mal ideas into modern ones. The typeface classifications often change—but a few
ences among styles, organizing them in a Meta, for example, drawn in 1994 by the basic categories remain constant.
general way and further helping to select German designer Erik Spiekermann, is a
an appropriate typeface for a particular modern sans-serif face sharing character-
project; sometimes, the historical or cul- istics associated with oldstyle serif types:
tural context of a particular style will add contrast in the stroke weights, modulation
relevant communication to a typographic of weight within major strokes, an oblique
design. Classification is by no means easy, axis, and a bowl-formed lowercase g. A
however, especially as our typographic number of systems for classifying type
tradition becomes increasingly self- have been developed during the past
X-Heights
Terminals
Curve axis
Oldstyle Characterized by Transitional These types show Modern Stroke contrast is Sans Serif These typefaces Slab Serif Another outgrowth
organic contrast of weight in an evolution in structure. Stroke extreme—the thin strokes are an outgrowth of “display of display types, slab serif faces
the strokes—from brush or pen contrast is greatly increased and are reduced to hairlines, and types” of the nineteenth century, hybridize the bold presentation
drawing; an angled, or oblique, more rationally applied—its the thick strokes made bolder. designed to be bold and stripped of a sans serif and the horizontal
axis in the curved forms; and rhythm is greatly pronounced. The axis of the curved forms of nonessential details. They are stress of a serif face, character-
a notably small x-height defining The x-height of the lowercase is is completely upright, and the defined by a lack of serifs; the ized by an overall consistency in
the lowercase letters. The termi- larger; the axis is more upright; brackets connecting the serifs to terminals end sharply without stroke weight. The serifs are the
nals are pear-shaped and the and the serifs are sharper and the stems have been removed, adornment. Their stroke weight same weight as the stems, hence,
apertures in the lowercase more defined, their brackets creating a stark and elegant is uniform, and their axis is “slabs;” the body of the slab
letters are small. curving quickly into the stems. juncture. The serifs in a number completely upright. Sans-serif serif is often wider than what
of the lowercase characters have types set tighter in text and are is considered normal.
become completely rounded, legible at small sizes; during the
reflecting the logic of contrast past fifty years, they have become
and circularity. acceptable for extended reading.
Stylistic differences in a selection of typefaces give A combination of Victorian wood types emphasizes the
voice to the varied writing styles of Irish authors in visual contrasts of weight, width, mass, and line.
this festival program. STUDIO AAD IRELAND LOUISE FILI LTD. UNITED STATES
Choosing the Right Face Whatever other individual taste, but, typically, one must tions. These faces eschew idiosyncratic
goals a designer may have when deciding repress stylistic biases in favor of function- details, such as exaggerated serif shapes,
on the typeface(s) to use for text elements, ality. There are a small number of faces, unusual joint formations, and unexpected
his or her first consideration must be its often referred to as “workhorses” for their changes in width—leaning toward the
legibility. Of the 150,000 fonts available, reliably utilitarian, time-tested quality of neutral, archetypal forms. Knowing what
a relative few are considered useful for construction, that designers often choose to look for among these details is impor-
continuous text—500, perhaps. Of those, for the kinds of details that ensure legibil- tant; designers must be intimately familiar
even fewer are considered to be well ity: a large x-height in the lowercase, open with the drawn characteristics of many
constructed and aesthetically pleasing. counters, relatively little stroke contrast, faces to compare their varied effects on
The subjective nature of “pleasing” even optical widths among characters, and legibility, as well as overall feeling.
means there can be some allowance for evenly balanced upper and lower propor-
Bowls, Shoulders, and Axes be very different compared to Apertures and Eyes The entry into Ascenders and Descenders greater density. The height and
The lower part of such large another typeface, even within the the counters of letters such as the The movement and extension depth of these strokes influence
circular forms as O, D, and G (the same class. The axis of the curved lowercase E and A, what is called of these strokes above and how tightly lines of a given type-
bowls), and the upper part of forms changes also, being slanted the “aperture,” may be tight or below the body of the lowercase face must be leaded, as well as on
such curves, as well as the upper in older styles and completely more open. Small, closed-off are important details. Some as- feeling or character.
curves on the uppercase R, or the upright in more modern ones. counters, or “eyes,” appearing in cenders strike the capline, while
lowercase P and F (shoulders)— letters such as the lowercase E others rise above it; descenders,
might be rounder or elliptical or and G, also vary considerably in too, may be deep or shallow
squared off. Comparing these shape and proportion. compared to the body of the
forms within the same face will text. The larger the x-height, the
reveal subtle variations, but these more shallow the ascenders and
curves will share a logic that will descenders tend to be, creating
Magnificent
Dastardly
PULL-QUOTE
Recognizing the differences in the details combining Bodoni—a modern serif of ex- same page. Both are sans serif; their differ-
among a selection of faces from which to treme contrast—with Glypha—a slab serif ent sizes create contrast in their counters
choose is an important step in making of uniform stroke weight but similar width and linearity even as the overall weight of
a choice for a clear combination. Gener- and axis—might be effective. As another the smaller Futura begins to approach the
ally, avoid combing two faces of a similar possibility, similar faces set at dramatically stroke weight of the larger Univers 45.
style unless the difference is pronounced different scales might be unified by the
enough for the average reader to notice. weight of their strokes at these different
Combining Caslon and Baskerville, for ex- sizes. For example, 7-point Futura Heavy
ample—two transitional serifs with similar capitals, which are very dotlike, might
axis, weight, width, and terminal shapes— correspond in overall weight to the strokes
isn’t such a great idea. But of Univers 45 set at 13 points in size on the
Mixing together many typefaces in one logo, headline, All of the typefaces combined in this logo share pro-
or other composition is perfectly fine as long as the nounced contrast in stroke weight, which helps unify
typefaces chosen have a relationship in weight, width, them given their radically different stylistic traits and
texture, or contrast, as is the case in this logotype. proportions. Each element has been scaled, relative to
RAIDY PRINTING GROUP LEBANON
the others, to standardize the weights of the thin and
thick strokes among the varied forms.
C. HARVEY GRAPHIC DESIGN UNITED STATES
The historical quality of typefaces may of contrasting typographic color but also
also play a role in how they are combined. alludes to a historical association: old and
Since the average reader usually associ- new, continuum, evolution, innovation,
ates certain qualities with a given typeface and so on. In this particular case, both
because of its classical or modern drawing Trajan and Futura are based on Roman
qualities, mixing typefaces from related— geometric proportion, despite being sepa-
or dramatically different—periods might rated by 2,000 years of history.
help generate additional messages. A
Roman capital, such as Trajan, in combina-
tion with a geometric sans serif, such
as Futura, not only presents a great deal
A comparison of character count range, it is easy to see that Comfortable interline space, a designer will need to judge
for a selection of typefaces, at a paragraph must widen as or leading, varies according to the leading appropriate to the
varying sizes, is shown set on the the type size increases and several characteristics in typeface appearance of the lowercase,
same paragraph width. As with narrow as it decreases, to style and size; but generally, rather than try to assign a leading
all typographic rules, there is a maintain the optimal number the interline space should seem to a point size by way of a specific
range to what is comfortable for of characters on a line. a point or two larger than the formula.
the average reader. Given a fifty- height of the lowercase running
to eighty-character comfort as text. Because the x-height
varies so much among faces,
Alignment Logic Text type can be set in the same length, aligning on both the left Only two kinds of alignment are considered
several different configurations called and the right sides. Justified text is the permissable for setting estensive volumes
“alignments.” It can be set so that every only setting in which the lines are the same of text—more than thirty to fifty words:
line begins at the same left-hand starting length. In text set to align left, right, or Flush left, ragged right (FLRR) and justified.
point (flush left) or right-hand starting centered, the uneven lengths of the lines The other two kinds of alignment, flush
point (flush right), or with an axis centered create a soft shape on the nonaligned side right, ragged left (FRRL) and centered axis,
on the paragraph width (centered). In this that is called a rag (in the UK and Europe, are considered inappropriate for exten-
case, there are two options: In centered the rag is referred to as the range). The sive texts because their optical qualities
type, the lines are different lengths and alignment of text has an effect on the spac- dramatically impair comfortable reading.
are centered over each other on the width’s ing within it and, therefore, on the search In text set FRRL, the reversal of the aligned
vertical axis; in justified type, the lines are for a desirable text setting. edge to the right of the paragraph—
This justified setting uses wide margins to create focus on the text
block. The internal spacing of the text is relatively consistent.
ADAMSMORIOKA UNITED STATES
Exploring the Ragged Edge The rag of a lines are ending at their natural conclusion. A designer might opt to mitigate a deep
paragraph might be deep or shallow, active If the alternating lines end short and very rag by introducing more interline space.
or subtle, but its uniformity and consis- long, the rag becomes active and calls What is never desirable, however, is a rag
tency from the top of a paragraph down to attention to itself, distracting the reader that begins at the outset of a paragraph
the bottom are what make it desirable. The from following the content of the text. That guided by one kind of logic but transforms
ragged line endings are considered optimal said, a deep rag is acceptable if it remains into another kind of logic as the paragraph
if they create an organic, unforced “ripple” consistent throughout the text. progresses in depth; a rag that shows exces-
down the edge of the paragraph, without sive indenting from the right; or sharp,
pronounced indents or bulges. In an opti- angular inclusions of space created by lines
mally ragged paragraph, the rag becomes that become sequentially shorter. The over-
invisible: The reader is never aware that the all unity of a rag can be easily compro-
Hyphenated word breaks are three paragraphs shown here desired goals. The third shows
a constant source of frustration are set in the same size text, a slightly wider paragraph and a
for a designer. Too many hyphens with subtle differences. The first more even rag; the only hyphen
in a row are considered undesir- paragraph shows uncorrected appears in the second line. One
able, and a slight adjustment hyphenation and rag. The second hyphen every ten lines or so is
in text size or paragraph width shows a more active rag but no optimal. Although the designer has set this book text on a wide
might correct the problem. The hyphens—a toss-up between
paragraph, she has decided to limit the rag activity.
The soft rag keeps the page quiet in general and it
strives not to detract from the indents that define the
beginnings of paragraphs. CHENG DESIGN UNITED STATES
The Intricacies of Justification Setting text appearance of a continuous, uninterrupted of the lines (some appearing open and
justified creates an exceptionally clean, gray value. The first challenge to overcome, light, others appearing compressed and
geometric presentation within a layout. as noted previously, is that of the incon- dark); and excessive hyphenation, even
The problems this alignment structure sistency of spacing that naturally attends more than is typically present in ragged
creates, however, are formidable, both justification: different numbers of words, text. To minimize these problems, the de-
from the standpoint of comfortable read- of different lengths, forced to fit within a signer must first find the optimal number
ing and aesthetics. Well-justified text can fixed width. And there are actually three of characters and words (see page 155) that
be sublimely beautiful in a stark, austere problems this state of affairs creates: the comfortably fit upon the justified width
way; achieving the sublime requires that first is rivers—chains of word spaces that and so mitigate the potential for undesir-
all the internal word- and letterspacing join from line to line—and the others are: able spacing. A slightly wider paragraph
is absolutely consistent, producing the distracting changes in the visual density than that which would be truly optimal
This specimen exhibits all the nor looser and lighter); the Poorly justified text displays continually adjust text size and
hallmarks of exquisitely well- word spaces are normal wildly varied word spaces and paragraph width, move text from
justified text: lines that are (not relatively tight or loose rivers, lines whose density line to line, and selectively tighten
consistently spaced and that compared to the letterspacing alternates between very dark and loosen spacing.
appear the same in overall for this type style); there are and very light, and excessive
density (none tighter and darker, no rivers; and the presence of hyphenation. To correct these
hyphens is minimal. problems, a designer must
The Optimal Paragraph A desirable standpoint and in consideration of its sive studies. By comparing the results of
paragraph setting is one in which a constel- visual attributes—the relative height of the these variations, a designer will be able to
lation of variables achieves a harmonic lowercase letters, the general weight of the determine the most comfortable text set-
balance. Since extended running text is strokes and any contrast within them, the ting for extended reading. At what point is
such an important consideration for a height of the ascenders and descenders— the type size too small—or uncomfortably
publication, finding the optimal paragraph and set a text paragraph at an arbitrary large? Are the lines relatively even in length
is one way to begin developing overall width and arbitrary text size. Judging from or varying a lot? Is excessive hyphenation
typographic structure. A designer might this first attempt, a designer might opt to occurring, meaning that the paragraph
first make some assumptions about the adjust the size of the text, loosen or tighten is too narrow to allow a useful character
text typeface, based on his or her sense of its overall spacing, open and close up the count? Is the leading creating too dense a
its appropriateness from a conceptual leading, and change the width in succes- field of text to feel comfortable?
Three styles of text set on different widths are also set in three different
sizes to achieve as near-to-optimal relationships between type size
and column width as possible—approximately thirty characters per
line for short bursts of reading, fifty to seventy characters for extended
reading. The wide, primary text column is likely too wide to be opti-
mal, but the designer has increased the leading, relative to the point
size, to make it more comfortable. EARSAY UNITED STATES
One-Em Indent Full Leaded Return No Return: Multiple-Line Deep Indent Full Return: Dingbat Divider
Deep Indent Proportional Leaded Return Ascending Cap: Full Return Full Return: Rule Divider
Hanging Indent Lead Line: Style Change Proportional Return: Reversed Lead Line
Don’t cross the channels. When possible, avoid Italic type needs spacing, too. Italic used for Hang your punctuation. Most punctuation
hard returns between paragraphs aligning (or emphasis within text sometimes appears smaller marks—especially quotations—should hang
nearly aligning) between adjacent columns. As and tighter than its roman counterpart. Always outside the aligned text if they occur at the begin-
the horizontal negative channels created by evaluate the italic and adjust its size or spacing to ning of a line. This rule sometimes applies to
the returns approach each other, not only do fit most seamlessly with its surrounding text. bullets as well; a designer might opt to maintain
they become distracting, but they also tend to the alignment of the bulleted text and hang the
redirect the eye across the columns and break bullets in the margin or gutter.
reading sequence.
Mind the gaps. A single word space, never two, Too much is just too much. In justified setting, Push and pull. Colons and semicolons need
follows a period before the initial cap of the adjusting the letterspacing to avoid rivers is additional space preceding them and less space
next sentence. Furthermore, the space before a inevitable, but don’t adjust too much. Like rivers, following them. Exclamation points and question
comma or a quotation mark should be reduced; overly tight—and therefore very dark—lines of marks often benefit from being separated from
these marks “carry” additional space above or text are distracting. their sentences by an extra bit of space. A full
below them. Similarly, the word space following word space is too much, as is half a word space;
a comma, apostrophe, or quotation mark should but +20 tracking, is usually sufficient.
also be slightly reduced.
Look at the figures. Numerals always need Save the orphans. Don’t allow the last line of Uh-oh . . . Small caps! Small caps used for
spacing adjustments, especially in sequences. a paragraph to begin the top of a column. This acronyms, although smaller than uppercase
Lining numerals, which extend from baseline to “orphan” is especially distracting if there is a letters, still need additional space around them
cap height, usually require extra letterspacing, space separating the paragraph that follows and to improve their recognition. The small caps of
even though they’re more varied in form than really irritating if it occurs at the very beginning many fonts are too small and appear lighter in
uppercase letters. Numerals in complex arrange- of the left-hand page. Run the text back so that weight than surrounding text. Adjust their point
ments, such as tables, are generally tabulated— the new page starts a paragraph, or space out the size up by as much as two points to achieve
arranged flush right or around a decimal point in preceding text so that the paragraph continues uniform weight and spacing, but not so much as
vertical arrangements of figures. In such situa- with at least three lines after the page break. to confuse them with the uppercase.
tions, the lining figures are preferred to ensure
vertical alignment for making calculations.
A clue to optimal: the ligatures. Ligatures— Find a formula for supers and subs. The size Hey! Yeah, you! Use the right marks! There is
specially drawn characters that optically correct and spacing of subscript and superscript no quicker giveaway that the designer of a text is
for spacing difficulties in particular combinations characters, which are used to indicate footnotes a total amateur than the use of prime marks (or
of letters— provide a clue to the optimal spacing or in chemical formulas, must be determined “hatch marks” as they’re sometimes called) in
of a given font. Since ligatures are drawn with a in relation to a given font size and the leading place of the punctuation that’s supposed to be
fixed space between the characters (for example, within paragraphs. Typically, the subscript or there. Prime marks are used to indicate foot and
an “fi”), a designer can assume that the font’s superscript character is just shy of the x-height in inch measures. The most egregious error—and,
creator determined this fixed space as optimal for size, although, in an oldstyle face with a small oddly, the most ubiquitous—is the substitution
the ligated pair based on his or her appraisal of x-height, this measure might prove too small. of a prime mark for an apostrophe. Just don’t
what optimal spacing for the entire font should The subscript character should be set shifted do it. Second in line: substituting prime marks
be. If the ligatures within running text appear below the baseline so that it rests on the descent for quotation marks. There are two versions of
more tightly—or more loosely—spaced than the line but does not extend upward to the mean quotation marks: an open quote and a closed
nonfixed characters around them, it means either line; a superscript character should hang from quote. One is used to indicate the beginning of a
the font either needs to be respaced accordingly the capline and rest marginally below the mean quotation (the ones called “66” because of their
or the designer needs to replace the ligature with line. In terms of letterspacing, the subscript or shape), and the other is used to end a quotation
the two independent characters instead. superscript character should be set to follow the (the ones called “99”). Please use accordingly.
same optical rhythm of the surrounding charac-
ters. With an uppercase A, a following superscript
character might benefit from being tucked a little
closer to compensate for the A’s inward diagonal
thrust and, therefore, intrusive counterspace.
En-Dash Separates
ranges of figures or
durations in time
Em-Dash Separates
evolutionary phrases
within text
Know your dashes. There are three horizontal Include with clarity. Text inclusions, such as So it’s not a letter. The appearance of anal-
punctuation lines—the hyphen, the en dash, and drop caps, lead lines, and subheads, should phabetic symbols, such as the @, #, $, and %,
the em dash. Use the correct one for its intended exhibit some clear logic in their appearance. Drop and some linear punctuation marks, such as the
function, and adjust the spaces around them so caps should sit on a baseline three, four, five, or forward slash “/,” are improved by slight spatial
that they flow optically within text. A full word more lines from the top of the column. A lead line adjustments. The @ usually appears too high on
space on either side is too much, although there should be a consistent number of words in the the line; a slight shift below the baseline causes
are times when this might be appropriate. The first line or, alternatively, used to treat complete the character to center optically on the line of
default lengths and baseline orientation of each introductory phrases in a consistent way. A sub- text. The # and % display a diagonal thrust akin
mark might need to be altered to improve their head, when appearing at the top of one column, to italic forms, and decreasing the space preced-
relationship to surrounding text; the hyphen should be consistently aligned with the text in ing them—but increasing the space following
often sits low, and the em dash is sometimes columns preceding or following—optically. them—helps them participate in the overall
too long. rhythm of the letterspaces and word spaces. The
“/” tends to benefit from additional space on
either side, although a full word space is far too
much; +20 to +30 tracking is comfortable.
Type Is Visual, Too Design students and stop being abstract form material simply
novices often make the mistake of ignor- because it says something. Recognizing
ing the abstract visual nature of type and, this truth about type, understanding it and
as a result, use type in a heavy-handed way feeling it intuitively, is challenging. It’s
that doesn’t correspond with image mate- very difficult to divorce one’s appreciation
rial—in effect, separating the two things of its formal aspect from its verbal aspect:
completely. Type is visual; in space, it acts One is constantly struggling to stop read-
the same way that dots, lines, planes, and ing a text to focus on what it looks like. But
fields of texture do in any composition ... that is exactly what a designer must do to
Because it is, in its essence, dots, lines, move beyond the merely mechanical con-
planes, and fields of texture. Type doesn’t cern of creating a functional reading
Typographic Color In addition to how texture. Changing the typographic color A line appears to come forward regardless
type is placed within a format, its rhyth- of typographic components separates of its weight, although a heavier line comes
mic, spatial, and textural qualities are them from the surface and introduces the farther forward than a narrow line. Because
important considerations. The term for illusion of spatial depth and a sense of the continuous value of text has the poten-
these qualities is “typographic color.” changing rhythm. A larger chunk of type, tial to be overwhelming—creating a kind
Typographic color is similar to chromatic for example, appears closer than a smaller of gray wall that can be daunting to look at
color—like red, blue, or orange—but deals one, while a lighter element appears to (never mind dull and lifeless)—and because
only with changes in lightness and dark- recede into the distance. A texture appears each specific thought, or informational
ness or value. Moreover, it is different from to flatten out because perception of its component, within a text will benefit from
the qualities of chromatic color in that it shape and uniform value determine its spa- a visual change, typographic color, compo-
describes changes in rhythm and tial depth more so than its components. sition, and verbal clarity are inseparable.
The text in these examples is In the second version, calling out applied to distinguish linguistic bonus of giving the reader a
powerfully altered by chang- specific parts through changes and conceptual relationships snapshot of the content before
ing the typographic color of its in weight, posture, width, and among different parts of the text; fully engaging the text.
internal parts. In the first version, spacing produces a rhythmic jour- the result is rhythmically dynamic
a strategy of overall size change ney—slowing down, speeding and supports the interrelation-
affects the sense of the text’s up—for the reader. In the third ships of the author’s ideas. This
loudness, creating a crescendo. version, color changes are approach provides the added
Establishing Hierarchy Information is viewer to navigate it. This order, called the Creating informational hierarchy applies
systematic. Most often, it appears as a “informational hierarchy,” is based on the the formal aspects of purely visual hierar-
collection of parts, each having a different level of importance the designer assigns to chy to the parts of language present in the
function: for example, callouts, captions, each part of the text. “Importance” means format or field at hand and results from
and sidebars in magazine articles; or the “the part that should be read first, second, reading the text and asking some simple
primary content, supporting content, third . . .” and so on; it also refers to the questions: What are the distinguishable
and menus on a webpage. These various “distinction of function” among the parts: parts of the information to be designed?
parts often repeat, appear within the same running text (the body of a writing), as Which part (or parts) should be the main
space, and support each other. One of the measured against other elements such as focus of the reader’s attention? How do the
designer’s most important tasks is to give page folios, titles and subheads, captions, parts that are not the main focus relate to
information an order that allows the and similar items. each other? How do these relate to images
On the landing page of this website, large, bold letters text content below a set of thin lines further separates
visually assume a dominant position, but allow much it from the navigation above, which—together with
smaller navigational text to become more relevant. the large graphic initials—have diminsihed in relative
On the subpage, however, the text content is given importance. STUDIO DIEGO FEIJOO SPAIN
hierarchic dominance by assigning it the greatest
width (and, so, increasing its mass). Organizing the
that accompany the text elements in the being presented, so the headers, which
layout? Does the viewer need to see (and describe the meaning of the figures, need
understand) a particular grouping of words to be located easily. Within a publication’s
before they begin to focus on the main pages, where running text may interact
part? The answers to these questions are with captions, callouts, and other details,
often common sense. On a publication’s the running text needs to occupy a consis-
cover, for example, the masthead or title is tent area and be visually noted as different
most important, so it makes sense that it from these other elements. The effect
should be the first type the viewer sees. In of these decisions, as noted previously,
a table of financial information, the viewer becomes simultaneously verbal and visual.
needs to understand the context of figures
All text looks equally important in raw the reader moving is thereby purposely
form. If placed within a format as is, the broken, creating a fixation point that will
words form a uniform field of texture. By be interpreted as deserving attention and,
manipulating the spaces around and be- therefore, more important than the other
tween text, the designer’s first option is to elements. Enhancing such spatial separa-
create levels of importance through spatial tions by changing the typographic color of
distinction. The designer might group the separated elements will further distinguish
majority of elements together, for example, each from the other.
but separate a specific element—maybe a
title—and give it more space. The unifor-
mity that is usually desirable to keep
Distinction and Unity Just as viewers will create a visual disconnect: The danger baseball bat every time the content requires
assume that abstract shapes that share of pushing stylistic differences between differentiation. Minute changes are easily
similar attributes are related to each other informational components is that, as a recognized; the reader need only be shown
(and those that are formally different are totality, the project will appear busy and an appreciable, yet decisive, difference
unrelated), viewers will also make the same lack a fundamental cohesion or “visual among hierarchic components to clue them
assumption with regard to text elements. voice.” This is one reason why designers are in. Limiting the varieties of stylistic dif-
Interrelationship among a hierarchy’s admonished to employ only two or three ference to just what is needed to signal a
visual qualities is important, but so too are type styles in a project and, as often as change in information allows the reader to
clear contrasts important for hierarchic possible, to combine styles that share sub- understand such changes while maintain-
clarity. Too much difference among the stantially similar qualities. The reader need ing visual unity and more clearly creating
hierarchic components, however, will not be hit over the head with an optical interrelationships within the content.
Headline
46 points
Deck or callout
23 points
Running text
11.5 points
Headline
35.25 points
Deck or callout
20 points
Running text
11.5 points
and, how extreme the difference in pres- material at an intimate scale. The jumps scale level, as well as which scales are
ence between top-most and bottom-most in presence between each scale may be closer to each other in relative presence.
levels must be—derives from the nature extreme, supported by the physical size of With regard to the poster, for instance, the
of the project. A poster, for example, is a the poster format: one scale may be very designer may establish that the top- and
format that requires three scales of infor- large and another extremely small. A book intermediate-level scales must be less dif-
mation: It must deliver a substantial or web page, on the other hand, requires ferent as compared to the intimate-level
amount of information from a distance, many more scales, and these scales may be scale. “By how much?” is the next question:
at a quick glance, but it then invites the separated in their presence by only smaller “Proportionally, are they twice as different
viewer to come closer, to glean information degrees. In each case, the designer must (together) in presence as compared to the
at an intermediate level; once there, the determine what kinds of typographic color intimate scale?” Quantifying this differ-
viewer may also be presented with further and stylistic changes apply to each ence may suddenly take on a mathematical
Structure, Detail, and Navigation builds in meaning. Creating a band of columns together, while introducing a
Structure itself—axis relationships created space between one horizontal text align- space to separate this grouping from
by alignments and groupings, along with ment and another will keep the two another, may imply that the two groups
the interplay of masses and voids—helps sequences clearly defined, but the fact of are unrelated, or it may signal a pause for
readers locate, separate, or connect pieces their similar horizontal structure may the reader to assimilate the content of one
of information ... or, more simply, to “navi- indicate that they are interrelated—or grouping before proceeding to the next.
gate” them. Aligning shallow columns perhaps they communicate two sequential Keeping consistent spaces between groups
of text horizontally across a format, for processes for launching a software pro- that are related in meaning, and increasing
example, will indicate that they share some gram. Running text vertically in columns the space between groups that are unre-
verbal relationship and may indicate a enhances the sense of continuity between lated in meaning, is an easy way of helping
temporal sequence—a series of steps that paragraphs. Grouping several vertical readers navigate among more general
In the first version, left, dots perform a variety of functions. Lines, which share an inherent visual quality with typogra- In the third version of the menu, right, planar geometric
The large dot acts as a focal point, bringing its associ- phy, offer an immediate formal relationship in addition to forms relate visually to the geometry of letterforms, but
ated type element to the top of the hierarchy. A system of whatever functions they serve. In the second version of the contrast with the texture and linearity of type. As fields
smaller dots is used to highlight structural alignments and menu, heavy lines separate clusters of information that are or containers for informational elements, they can help
to denote a specific sublevel in the hierarchy. Still other unrelated, while lighter lines help distinguish clusters that reinforce hierarchic distinctions among groupings of
dots activate negative spaces in the format. share a relationship. In addition, the lines also activate content; in this particular case, they also create a visual
space and help add movement to the composition. link between the type and the imagery while honoring the
layout structure.
What Happens Now? Type in Color colors appear to advance. Applying a warm
Chromatic color can greatly enhance the color to a type element that is large and
textural qualities of type—its boldness, important will enhance its contrast against
lightness, openness, density, and appar- other type elements. The relative value of
ent location in three-dimensional space colors is the most critical aspect of color in
(called “typographic color”)—reinforcing regard to how it affects type—especially
these qualities as they already exist in black its legibility—for example, when colored
and white by adding the optical effect of a type sits on a colored background. As their
true color. As we have seen, different hues values approach each other, the contrast
appear at different locations in space; cool between type and background diminishes,
colors appear to recede, while warmer and the type becomes less legible.
THE
PLANE
TS
A palette of analogous hues differentiates major
sections in this website; a kind of animation results
as the site rapidly auto-scrolls between sections when
the user navigates. Each section exploits variations
in the value, saturation, and temperature of its base
hue to unify content in that section, while differentiat-
ing between hierarchic levels. The potential effect
of color contrasts on legibility is readily apparent,
Changes in value and saturation add to the underscoring the need to consider them carefully.
rhythmic typographic color of this page spread. TIMOTHY SAMARA UNITED STATES
LSD SPAIN
Value and temperature differences between text and background create a simple
hierarchy without sacrificing legibility. LOEWY UNITED KINGDOM
orange type will advance in space, and the occupy very different spatial depths. Color can also be used for coding, much as
cool gray type will recede. The application It is important to maintain considerable it may be applied in pictorial or abstract
of color to the ground within a composi- contrast between the type color and forms or textures. Color may link related
tion can further enhance the hierarchy. the background color so that the type informational components within a single
Type of one color, set on a field of another remains not merely visible, but readable. composition, like a poster, or between
color, will join closely with it or separate multipart, serial, or sequential fomats—
aggressively, depending on their color throughout pages in a website; between
relationship. If the colors of type and back- entry signage and directional signs in an
ground are related, the two elements will environmental wayfinding program; across
occupy a similar spatial depth. If they are otherwise color-coded packages within a
complementary in nature, the two will line of packaging, and so on.
In these ads, from a series, the value and intensity of the three
primary hues changes, relative to the background, causing each
to appear in a different spatial position in different instances.
ROBERT MCCONNELL/PARSONS SCHOOL OF DESIGN UNITED STATES
In a poster for an event, for example, all the be color coded typographically; as a visi- of the department’s director, again used
information related to the time and place tor travels through the department area consistently for all directors’ offices, re-
of the event might be assigned a particular itself, the color may then be applied to gardless of department. Such color coding
color, which may relate to the color assigned sign mounts or furnishings, while a dif- is exceptionally useful for labels in charts
to the title of the event. The color relation- ferent set of colors is then assigned to the and graphs, to create links with supporting
ship of the two components creates a typography that delineates administrative text, and for those in complex infographics
meaningful link for the viewer and serves offices, research areas, and functional ser- or diagrams. And last, but not least, it
to clarify the information. In a far more vices such as restrooms. These colors may bears repeating that color can radically
complex example—that of wayfinding, for be consistent in all the departments, in alter the feeling or connotation of text—
instance—the headings of various depart- contrast to each one’s base color. Further, this too, is a kind of coding or hierarchic
ments on entry signage at reception may an accent color may highlight the office relationship that may be defined.
PRESENTATION OPTIONS
chapter 04
186
action that connects humans to each other...as much
reference points for information and knowledge as
visualizations of human creativity.
”
Images are no longer just representations or interpreters
of human actions. They have become central to every
RON BURNETT/ Design educator and author; from How Images Think,
The MIT Press: Cambridge, MA, 1993
187
THE NATURE OF IMAGES
What Images Are Image making is perhaps images that are artificial—either contrived different functions. Images provide a visual
one of the most complex and ecstatically representations or abstract configurations counterpoint to text, helping to engage the
human activities. An image is a powerful of shapes. In the hands of a designer who audience. Images also offer a visceral con-
experience that is far from being inert— knows how to command composition on nection to experiences described by written
a simple depictor of objects or places or a purely visual level, and who can concep- language. They can help clarify very com-
people. It is a symbolic, emotional space tually select and manipulate content, an plex information—especially conceptual,
that replaces physical experience (or the image is by far the most profound commu- abstract, or process-oriented informa-
memory of it) in the viewer’s mind during nication tool available. In graphic design, tion—by displaying it concisely: “at-a-
the time it’s being seen. This is true of im- there are myriad image possibilities— glance.” They can add interpretive overlay
ages that are strictly representative of a real symbols and photomontage, drawing and in juxtaposition with literal text or images.
place, people, or objects, as well as of painting, and even type—that perform It’s foolish to think that simply picking
Poster image SAGMEISTER + WALSH UNITED STATES Book cover THIBAUD TISSOT
GERMANY
PICTORIAL
Pictorial images Empirical pictorial images depict
the characteristics of objects and
Pictorial images of subjects in
which a designer noticeably
qualities that are exaggerated
or imposed will likely integrate
perceptual immediacy and deep
imprinting, making them espe-
show such recog- scenes as they are observed in exaggerates elements, edits out more fluidly on a visual or formal cially useful for logos and critical
space. Their primary purpose is information, or imposes a formal level with other material, such informational messages. In such
nizable subjects description, explanation, or the conceit (while retaining a gener- as typography. A pictorial image images, empirical form and purely
as objects, figures, suggestion that their message is
grounded in real life, concrete and
ally naturalistic quality), inhabit
a subterritory called stylization:
in which the form language is
dramatically simplified—as in a
abstract visual qualities assume
a simultaneous, even equivalent,
and spaces. accessible: The content demands The image exploits the recogniz- graphic translation or icon—is presence, delivering a visceral
a clear, journalistic delivery. ability of the concrete but adds said to be reductive. The even and vital tension between the
Photographic images, one could conceptual or metaphorical more stylized quality of such concrete and the conceptual.
argue, are the most empirical overlay. As a bonus, the stylistic images radically augments both
of all pictorial images. specificity of message and meta-
phorical power; it creates a bold
optical presence that facilitates
The Spectrum of Representation The something. At the macro level, images Both major territories contain subterrito-
presentation of images falls on a spectrum range between these two major territories: ries, and their boundaries are fluid and
defined at one end by the pictorial and at they either depict some subject or content mutable: The aspects of any image are
the other by abstraction—nonpictorial that corresponds to observable experience likely to cross from one territory to another
form. Images that lie closer to the picto- (pictorial); or they are made up of graphic or exhibit characteristics from several,
rial end of the continuum are more literal; forms that don’t appear to have a source depending on the designer’s goal. In the
images that approach abstraction are more in physical reality (nonpictorial); or they right context, a simple yellow circle
interpretive. An image might be mostly may lie somewhere in between. becomes the Sun. A composition of lines
pictorial or abstract (nonpictorial), but it in dynamic rhythms might communicate
always will be a mixture of the two—and it a subtler message about movement or
will always communicate or represent energy, not necessarily referring to some
NONPICTORIAL
Nonpictorial Many nonpictorial images also
inhabit a reductive geography.
Environmental or expansive
fields of marks and shapes, simi-
high-level conceptual messages
are concerned (intangibles such
Typography, being a system of
lines, planes, and pattern that
images consist of These include bold, minimal shape lar to empirical, pictorial images, as music, poetry, and emotions). denies reference to the physical
configurations, for example, or also establish a sense of complex, They are also useful in creating world, is the ultimate reductive
abstract graphic textures and patterns, and articulated space governing metaphorical and visual bridges nonpictorial form—even more
forms—dots, abstract symbols. Symbols are
used to convey extraordinarily
objects or figures. Such images
are often used as an alterna-
between other compositional
elements—for instance, in
so, one could argue, than the
elemental dot, which itself may
lines, planes, and complex ideas and narratives; tive to pictorial depiction where a branding system where a easily be interpreted as a refer-
consider any religious symbol, the relevantly meaningful pattern ence to some natural form (cell,
patterns. recycling symbol, or the biohazard is used to support type and planet, molecule, eye, etc.).
symbol—as a surgically concise, photographic imagery, as well as Further, typographic forms are
immediate form. the system’s various applications symbols of sounds and, therefore,
(ads, website, etc.). verbal or conceptual content,
positioning them in a starkly
abstract visual territory.
literal object or experience. Even a photo- photograph’s composition will enhance its identify those parts and assign meaning
graph that presumably shows something messaging potential. Similarly, suggesting to them and, further, how those parts can
real is an abstraction on some level—it concrete literal experience within an be manipulated to assure a reliable inter-
depicts a state of activity that is no longer abstract composition will help ground the pretation and a compelling experience.
happening and flattens it into a two- message in reality for a viewer, making it
dimensional form. Portions of it might not more accessible without sacrificing the ab-
even be real, but instead, contrivances set straction’s simplicity and visceral evocative
up by the photographer or by the designer power. Creating or selecting appropriate
directing the creation of the photograph. imagery for an intended communicative
Using the intrinsic messaging of abstract purpose necessitates understanding how
form described in chapter 1 to influence a images work: what their parts are, how we
Semiotics: How Images Communicate syntax, or purely formal qualities (what to identify it—which may involve “tem-
The processes of perception and cognition, it looks like) and its semantics (what it plate matching,” against copies (templates)
or what the brain does with visual form means) ... and of their mutual interplay, as stored in memory from past experiences,
to arrive at understanding, are the focus these aspects of a sign may be adjusted or “protoype matching,” an averaging of
of a branch of visual anthropology called independently. Many kinds of syntax may features to arrive at a generalization, rather
“semiology,” developed in the 1800s. Visual point to the same signified, or semantic than a perfect match. These are examples
stimuli, or “signs,” consist of two parts: meaning; and many kinds of meaning may of “top-down” processing, meaning that
the signifier (the visual form itself ), and its be embodied in a single kind of syntax. the viewer has some basis for comparison;
signified (the concept it calls up). In work- In the simplest terms, a viewer first assim- but a viewer may have no such basis, rely-
ing with an image, or sign, a designer must ilates, or perceives, the syntax of a sign ing instead on “bottom-up” processing—
always be conscious of two aspects—its and then compares it to prior knowledge parsing individual features in relation to
Appreciating Form Syntax All forms carry a new context. For example, we know from can be compared. If they exhibit parity (are
meaning, no matter how apparently simple experience that the Sun, Moon, cells, water similar), they must be equivalent in mean-
or elemental they may be. As noted, this is droplets, and other such things are round: ing; if not, they must be different, and the
because the brain relies on the analysis of Therefore, when confronted with a circular quality of this difference will contribute
visual stimuli, relative to prior experience, plane, we identify it correspondingly—a additional meaning. All of this information
to ultimately make decisions based on the circular form means “natural.” Conversely, is acquired just from a form itself, never
result of that comparison. The shape, size, a square means the opposite—artificial, mind what it is appears to be doing.
linearity or mass of a perceived form tells intellectual, architectural—its equivalent
us what it is; and, conversely, knowledge angles and parallel sides occur only in the
of forms that look a certain way cause us to works of humanity. Further, forms become
project that understanding onto a form in significantly more meaningful when they
Complex Abstract Messages The seemingly message, the more common its form While interpretations of abstract imagery
generic and intangible qualities of abstrac- language and its reliability in communi- are often emotional, a quality designers
tion belie its profound capacity to convey cating to a diverse audience. Conversely, may use to subliminally manipulate more
messages on a universal perceptual level the more intangible or culturally specific concrete imagery, abstract form languages
that viewers very rarely are able to acknowl- a communication, the more variable will may be used independently to communi-
edge. Ever more specific interpretations be its form language, and the fewer reliably cate any number of concrete subjects, not
deriving from cultural context, individual similar interpretations. only intangible ones. Through the com-
experience, and emotional life compound bination of form language, structure, and
the common and universal, and every level positive/negative interaction, abstract
of interpretive response mutually colors imagery may capture a feeling or represent
the others. The more primal an intended a physical activity; it may connote a time
Modes of Pictorial Signification A designer associational or branded messages—as modes needed to differentiate specific
might choose to represent an idea pictori- well. The form of an image’s representa- kinds of messages; and the expectations
ally by using photographs, illustrations tion is called its “mode,” and this includes of the viewing audience for certain image
(drawings or paintings), or a hybrid: its fundamental syntax (and its resulting experiences over others, because of their
manipulated photographs or drawn images degree of naturalism), as well as the way demographic makeup or the social and
in combination. Decisions such as these that it points to, or signifies, its intended historical context of the project’s content.
result from evaluating the content and its meaning. A designer must consider a num-
conceptual functions. The images must ber of things in choosing the right image
provide informational clarity, but they mode, or modalities, to use. Among these
must do so in a way that resonates and are the evocative, emotional qualities of the
delivers secondary and tertiary messages— project’s content; the number of different
An icon is a visual sign that shares An indexical sign, or index, is a A symbol is a pictorial or abstract ally or subculturally—will alter
a structural similarity with the visual sign that points to its signi- image whose form is unrelated to its symbolic meaning: consider
object it signifies. Usually, icons fied object indirectly, or “indexes” its signified object or idea; it de- the difference in meaning be-
are devoid of detail and are literal it—for example, a nest indexes rives its power from the arbitrary tween the same symbol element
representations of their signified a bird. agreement of the culture that in these various environments.
object. uses the symbol. The context in
which a symbol appears—cultur-
This poster creates a political statement by verbally The supersign in this book cover pokes fun at the This illustration for a newspaper article about global
qualifying a powerful combination of two icons into tribulations of student life, using type and supporting economics in the digital age forms an icon of a brain
a supersign. LESLEY MOORE NETHERLANDS icons to create a gestalt image. OLIVER MUNDAY GROUP from numbers and symbols. TIMOTHY SAMARA
UNITED STATES UNITED STATES
In semiotic terms, an image may be pre- which could be a photograph, as opposed a “symbol”; it derives its power from the
sented in one of three modes—that of icon, to a drawing—follows this basic precept: arbitrary agreement of the culture who
index, or symbol. The first mode, “icon,” the image looks like what it represents. But uses the symbol. A dove, for example, is
has a variety of meanings that can cause it is also possible to use pictorial images a symbol of peace in Western culture.
some confusion. Technically, an icon is a that are representational but that are not Context may have a dramatic impact on
drawing whose syntax shares a structural pictures of the signified itself. This kind how the audience perceives the symbolic
similarity with the object it signifies. of image is called an “indexical sign” and signified: consider the image of an apple
Usually, icons are literal, graphic represen- refers to its subject indirectly: An image in various contexts. A symbol may be
tations of their signified object, edited to of an egg or nest may “index” a bird. A either pictorial or abstract.
essentials, utterly neutral, identifying. pictorial image whose form is physically
An image of iconic modality, however— unrelated to its signified object or idea is
The Medium Is a Message A line is a and the the semiotic mode (of a pictorial How far from its “natural” reference an
line is a line ... or not. Every mechanical image)—the medium a designer chooses image becomes through the designer’s
method of creating an image has specific with which to create the illustration carries intervention with medium (or stylization,
properties, or makes characteristic marks, meaning. This meaning may be imparted discussed in the next section) is described
that contributes a specific kind of visual through the perceived feel of the medium as how “mediated” it is. The level of an
language to the image. These languages (softness, hardness, fluidity, or stiffness) image’s mediation can be evaluated in a
have a powerful effect on an image’s com- and, sometimes, through its conceptual couple of ways. First, it can be considered
municative value, not just on its visual or allusory aspects (for example, using a in terms of its physical expression and
qualities relative to other elements in a drawing tool native to a certain region or its mode; for example, a realistic drawing
design solution. Above and beyond the historical period for a project related to shows a greater level of mediation than a
overall territory (pictorial or abstract) that region or period). photograph of the same subject; a reduc-
The question of mediation and credibility comes to not alone: its empirical, photographic qualities make
the fore in comparing these two illustrations. Both are it more believable as “real” than the invented space and
fabrications—but which one seems more real? If you painterly texture of the drawn image on the right.
decided that the corncob person does, you’re probably CHRISTOPHER SHORT [LEFT] / CYR STUDIO [RIGHT]
UNITED STATES
Stylization To stylize an image means to recognizable—for example, the fundamen- image live as its own unified idea rather
purposely alter or edit the visual language tal shapes and qualities of a cat (ears, tail, than simply reproducing the likeness of
used to represent its subject—to mediate a common posture, whiskers, paws, and so the object. A stylized image may intend to
it—away from a naturalistic presenta- on)—rather than those that are specific— communicate on an objective, universal,
tion toward one that is, in essence, more particular ear shapes, markings, or short and neutral level by distilling its subject’s
of an abstraction. Stylization emphasizes or long hair. In arranging the elements, features to those that represent its funda-
awareness of the image as a contrivance, the designer invents a particular graphic mental “truth”; at the other extreme,
or an intellectually calculated, sign. In language—an internal logic of positive and the designer’s use of form language and
selecting the details of the idea or subject negative relationships, an emphasis on medium may interfere with this semiotic
to be represented, the designer looks for curved or angular forms, and an integra- purity. In giving the form its own identity,
elements that are the most universally tion of line and mass—that will make the the designer selectively interprets aspects
One of the decisions a designer Works in which the image-making role—acting as a vehicle for view- trees themselves, rather than be importance; as it becomes more
must make is the degree to which process is visible start down the ers to recongize the subject it rep- used as secondary components to stylized, the gesture, the quality
evidence of the means of the road of stylization. This may be resents, and as an independent construct a naturalistic illusion of of the marks, and associations or
image’s creation will be explicit purposely exaggerated, and the experience that adds some other leaves or trees—effectively refer- symbolic messaging that these
or downplayed. A designer may designer may further impose a knowledge about the subject. ring to them in shorthand. impart become more important.
decide in favor of a “clean” contrived form language; both The form language used to stylize The degree of stylization within
presentation: An imposed carry subjective or emotive quali- may directly refer to observed an image alters a viewer’s intel-
imperceptibility of the image’s ties. When form language itself elements in the subject: short, lectual focus. Toward the realistic
creation that suggests “realism” becomes a purposeful component tufted marks, for example, may end of the spectrum, the subject’s
or objectivity. of an image, it takes on a dual texturally represent leaves or literal meaning takes on more
Photography The “pure” photographic messages encountered by the average view- While composition plays an important
image has become the preeminent form of er requires images to compete robustly role in the quality of the photographic
imagery used in visual communciations for attention; the faster a viewer is able to image and its messaging potential, its
in recent years. One reason for this might recognize an image’s subject and under- presence as a mediating phenomenon is
be the speed at which photographs transmit stand its significance, it may be reasoned, much harder to recognize and, therefore,
information—their realism and direct- the more likely they are to invest continued is often overlooked on a conscious level by
ness allow a viewer to enter the image and attention—or, at the very least, retain some the viewer. This suggests another reason
process it very quickly, rather than get information if they decide to move on. for the primacy of photographs as commu-
distracted by abstract pictorial issues such nicators: the fact of the image’s mediation
as texture, medium, and composition. (or manipulation)—through composition,
Access speed in imagery has become im- selective focus, lighting, cropping, and
portant because the flood of visual
Illustration One is not limited, of course, designer’s visualization—through choice tion, as well as redundancy—visually
to photography alone as a means of intro- of medium, composition, and gestural repeating information that a text has
ducing imagery to a project. The choice qualities. The term “illustration” is used already provided. An illustration should
of illustration over photography opens up here in the broadest sense: it technically always add to, or evolve, a viewer’s under-
tremendous possibilities for transmitting refers to drawings or paintings that show, standing of what a text presents verbally;
information. The designer is not only very literally, what a text describes (most the designer must orchestrate a relation-
unencumbered by the limitations of real- commonly, in a literary context, to create a ship between text and illustration so
world objects and environment but also visualization of a setting or action)—but that each contributes information that,
given the potential to introduce conceptual it can can refer to any nonphotographic, together, is more complete and meaningful
overlay, increased selectivity of detail, and designed image that supports text. It’s than what either presents individually.
the personal, interpretive aspect of the advisable to avoid a literal use of illustra-
Drawing and Painting The directness of The majority of illustration is contracted integrated with other elements than would
hand-generated images is universally ap- from specialists, who cultivate a particu- be likely if working through an outside
pealing. Through drawing and painting, lar style to find a niche in the market, but source. Many designers, however, neglect
the designer taps into a viewer’s own sense this doesn’t preclude designers themselves the possibility of drawing and painting
of creativity and connects on an extremely from taking on the role of illustrator. A due, perhaps, to a sense of intimidation—
personal level—there is a genuine, honest, designer wanting to illustrate will be inti- “I can’t even draw a stick figure.” Drawing
and warm quality to an illustration that mate with the subject matter of the project is a skill that, like any other, can be learned.
might be lacking in the slick and seamless and other relevant graphic elements—in- Some people demonstrate a superlative
realism of a photograph. An illustration’s cluding type and finishing techniques. As native talent for it, just as they might for
success lies in the appropriateness of its a result, he or she might be able to build working with typography or taking photo-
style to the subject matter at hand. images that are even more appropriate and graphs; others must work on honing it
209
MEDIA AND METHODS
Graphic Translation One particular kind of mental truth of a subject, without details the cat translation must indicate that cats,
stylized illustration—known as “graphic that are specific to that one particular in general, are soft or furred, that they are
translation”—evolved from the poster instance of it; for example, a translation of slinky and athletic, and so on. A translation
traditions of Switzerland and Germany a cat strives to be about the idea “cat,” but might be simple and stylized, or it might
in the early part of the twentieth century. not about a specific cat; that is, how long be relatively naturalistic, taking on char-
Graphic translation combines some attri- its hair is or the markings of its particular acteristics such as surface detail or effects
butes of both icon and symbol. It depicts breed. Unlike an icon, however, which is of light. Graphic translation differs from
subjects in a literal way, like an icon, but strictly about shape, the textural and volu- conventional illustration in that its visual
also in a self-consciously abstract way that metric qualities of the subject are impor- language, or “form language”— the marks
takes on symbolic qualities. A translation tant considerations in finding an appropri- used to make the drawing—is reduced to
attempts to convey the concrete, funda- ate language with which to translate it: the point that there’s nothing extra, only
Bold, naturalistic—yet
simplified—translations
of tools give an authentic
brand voice to the website
of a longtime, family-owned
construction business.
TIMOTHY SAMARA
UNITED STATES
Collage: Old and New Assembling graphic dimensional printed or found material— the possibility of disparate subjects ap-
elements in a free pictorial composition, labels, fabric, bits of newspaper, flat pieces pearing in one space but also the nature
called “collage,” is a relatively recent devel- of wood, and so on—into paintings, but, of the combined elements—meaning how
opment in illustration. It derives from with the rise of photography as a medium, exactly they were made. Drawn and painted
the evolution of representation in fine art it quickly incorporated photographic components can coexist with cut or torn
from depicting a strictly singular view- images. Collaging photographic images, pieces of textured paper, cropped images,
point through the construction of multiple rather than illustrative images, is usually scraps of fabric, parts of actual objects, and
viewpoints, or cubism, into incorporating called “photomontage” and has been a pop- other drawn, painted, or printed material.
multiple viewpoints of several, possibly ular method of illustration since the 1920s. Given that the pictorial space in a collage
physically unrelated, scenes or references. Collage is a highly intuitive illustrative is abstract because of its fragmented
Collage was initially used to add two- approach that takes into account not only construction, the designer must resolve
The cutout letters of the word “democracy” hint at Enormous digital collages of spliced photographs and rhythmic
the political dialogue inherent in that social system. lines of type wrap the walls of the administrative offices of Madison
The scissors and the work gloves suggest democracy’s Square Garden, an iconic venue in New York City. POULIN + MORRIS
constructive nature. STUDIO INTERNATIONAL CROATIA UNITED STATES
Type as Image When a letter or word takes is immediate, and a viewer’s capacity to A viewer is likely to perceive and easily
on pictorial qualities beyond those that recall images makes such word pictures remember one strong message over five
define their form, they become images highly effective in recalling the verbal con- weaker ones—complexity is desirable,
in their own right and their semantic tent associated with them. As is true with whereas complication is not. Type can be
potential is enormous. Words that are also so many aspects of strong typographic transformed into an image by using
pictures fuse several kinds of understand- design, making type into an image means a variety of approaches. Each provides a
ing together: they are supersigns. As their defining a simple relationship between the different avenue of exploration, and several
meaning is assimilated through each intrinsic form of the letters and some other might be appropriate both to the desired
perceptual filter—visual, emotional, intel- visual idea. It is easy to get lost in the end- communication and to the formal aspects
lectual—they assume the evocative stature less possibilities of type manipulation and of the type itself.
of a symbol. Understanding on each level obscure the visual message or dilute it.
Exhibition poster TIMOTHY SAMARA UNITED STATES Wordmark study YOOJUNG KANG UNITED STATES Title treatment PAONE DESIGN ASSOC. UNITED STATES
Form alteration changes the structural characteristics of Deconstruction changes the visual relationships between Form substitution is a strategy in which a type form is
type elements, manipulating them to communicate non- the parts of text, calling out the relation of its structure to replaced by an icon or symbol whose visual structure
literal ideas. its meaning or spoken rhythm. still reads as that of the type it has replaced.
Pictorialization occurs as the result of typography becom- Pictorial inclusion refers to bringing illustrative elements Ornamentation Typography can be transformed with
ing a representation of a real-world object or taking on the into the type forms so that they interact with its strokes or graphical details, such as borders, dots, lines, dingbats,
qualities of something from actual experience. counterspaces. and other embellishments.
Strategies for Composition Composition power to communicate beyond the literal the decisive layout of graphic elements and
in an illustrated image is of great concern. as well as helps engage the viewer and di- typography in a page environment, so too
In creating a drawn image—especially rect the eye. To simply place the subject in is their refinement within an illustrated
one that is naturalistic—designers some- the central area of the illustration, without image of utmost importance—and such
times forget that they are not bound by the regard to the subject’s outer contour, ten- considerations apply equally to photo-
realities of arrangement imposed by the sion, and contrast of negative space, and graphed images.
scene they are rendering. Using the formal so on, prevents the illustration from being
relationships of figure and ground (see resolved and creates a static presentation.
chapter 1, page 32) on an abstract level— Just as cropping, position, relative sizes of
particularly within a realistic representa- elements, and contrast between linearity,
tion—contributes to the illustration’s mass, angles, and curves are intrinsic to
Positive and negative shapes Contrast between mass Optical weight distribution Value distribution
and line
Perspective and spatial depth Directional movement Color relationships Contrasts in surface activity
Selecting and Manipulating Content a photograph to be taken, many designers their own, and has tremendous implica-
A picture, as the saying goes, is worth a overlook a similar level of calculation that tions for meaning. Given a similar assump-
thousand words. Which words those are, photographs require—themselves fooled tion that viewers will make upon seeing
however, is up to the designer and—in by the idea that the photograph is an image a photographic image—that everything
the context of photographic images, espe- of “reality,” they make the assumption about it is real—every aspect of what it
cially—by the designer and/or a that it will simply capture what is needed shows, and how, must be considered.
photographer. A designer inventing an from whatever happens to exist within the
illustrative image from scratch naturally viewfinder ... and that they need accept it
must select all the components (figures, as is. The choice of the pictorial elements
objects, or otherwise) to be included. contained or not within a photograph,
While this is equally true when conceiving regardless of subject matter, is entirely
A B C
In this study of an image for a at a hotel. In version (B), this con- enhances the sinister mood and the clock, the point of the knife,
mystery novel’s cover, the infor- tent is clarified by the addition of further hints that something is the money, and the hotel key. The
mation conveyed by the image is a hotel key—but altered through wrong: Why is the light on the manipulation of the light, as well
altered—sometimes subtly, and the addition of the knife and floor? In the final version (C), a as selective focus, helps draw
sometimes dramatically—as a money, signifying foul play. The closer viewpoint helps create attention to elements that may
result of changes in content and dramatic change in lighting, from a feeling of paranoia—what’s be relevant to the story.
composition. In the first version even to more extreme, as well as happening beyond the frame is
of the image (A), the content and the unusual direction of the light, unknown—and focuses attention
lighting provide neutral facts: The on specific details: the time on
viewer is in a bathroom, probably
Subject and Context An image’s primary While such images demonstrate the look distraction. More extreme cropping may
subject is important, of course, but equally of the clothes on real people, they position further alter that focus or create mood:
(and sometimes, more critically) impor- the clothes relative to a lifestyle: The scene Cropping a portrait tightly to a subject’s
tant are the elements that surround it, and or set, as well as objects included as props, face may emphasize his or her emotional
with which it interacts. That is, the fact are actually delivering the important infor- life. Finally, it almost goes without saying
of the primary subject is a given, and it’s mation. Similarly, leaving certain facts out that software allows a designer to com-
the story around them that really matters. of a photograph might be just as influential pletely change the context in which a
Clothing catalogs, for example—often use as choosing what to include. Cropping an subject appears, thereby constructing its
setting and props to convey concepts about image, or adjusting the viewpoint, to edit reality—and its narrative—in whatever
lifestyle by showing people wearing the unnecessary information, is important to way will be most relevant or beneficial for
clothes in particular locations or situations. keep viewers focused on a subject without the intended communication.
Subject Alteration Even if a designer’s overlay of multiple images, and hybridiz- fact, not only be overlooked as physically
sensibility—or the tone of a particular ing elements from different photographic impossible, but may sometimes add such a
project—leans toward a photographic sources, present numerous interesting viscerally experiential quality that a viewer
approach, there’s no requirement that the possibilities. Surprisingly, even the most will perceive it as more “real” an experience
photographic material be deployed in surreal combinations of unexpected sub- than if they had been confronted by the
its unadulterated form. Tonal changes ject elements, when made from photo- subject in its natural state—transforming
(discussed in the second chapter, page 86) graphic ingredients, often will be perceived the neutral image of a clock into that of
whether through color enhancement or by viewers as convincing because of their a reverberating alarm by intensifying its
the use of ink separations (duotoning expectation that the medium relies on cap- saturation and overlapping it in repetition,
and tritoning) are, of course, useful turing subjects that actually exist. Radical for example, or selectively blurring a
options. In addition, montage and alteration of a photographic object may, in sharply static image of a car in a way that
Narrative Interplay A single photograph tions between them. Every photograph will assumption the viewer creates. This dis-
delivers a powerful punch of “semantic” influence any others around it, changing tance between what is shown in two images
content—conceptual, verbal, and emo- their individual meanings and contribut- and what the viewer makes happen inter-
tional meaning that likely includes mes- ing to a progression in narrative as a result. nally is a kind of “semantic gap.” Substitut-
sages that are not literally represented in For example, a viewer might see an image ing the hospital image for one that shows a
its subject. Putting photographs together of a biker and a second image of a man in a biker at the finish line of a race changes the
increases their semantic power and creates hospital bed and construct a story about a narrative. The semantic gap is smaller and,
narrative or storytelling; the instant two biking accident. Neither image represents therefore, a more literal progression, but
images can be compared, whether juxta- this idea; the narrative occurs in the view- the gap exists because the viewer still as-
posed or arranged in sequence, a viewer er’s mind. Even concluding that the man in sumes the two bikers are the same person.
will try to establish meaningful connec- the hospital bed is the same biker is an As more images are juxtaposed or added in
Sequencing related images from one spread to the next creates distinct nar-
ratives in each set of two page spreads shown at left. In both sequences, the rep-
In addition to whatever semantic
etition of recognizable, remembered subject components—the cheerleader, the
content an image offers, viewers couch—creates narrative momentum: The viewer recognizes a kind of cause
will project meaning on the image and effect because the same object appears in each step of the narrative. In the
themselves, based on personal, cheerleader sequence, the semantic or narrative gap is relatively small:
as well as cultural, experience. The cheerleader is in flight and then is caught and is assumed safe. The gap
In the current American cultural in the couch sequence is more extreme: We don’t see the couch move from one
context, viewers are likely to proj- location to the next, but it exists in a very different state in the second spread.
ect meaning related to “illegal We assume that it has been moved and now is being put to use.
drug use,” even though the image
LOEWY UNITED KINGDOM
doesn’t offer any explicit reason
for doing so.
Word and Image: Brainwashing the two players. Or, the gap may be enormous, in this case, presents a world of narrative
Narrative Pictures greatly influence each allowing the viewer to construct a narrative possibility. Every image is susceptible to
others’ meaning ... and words, even more that is not readily apparent in the image change when words appear next to it—so
so. As soon as words—concrete, accessible, when it appears by itself. The word “death,” much so that a designer can easily alter the
seductive—appear next to an image, the placed next to an image of a skull, for ex- meaning of the same image over and over
image’s meaning is altered forever. Just as ample, produces a relatively small seman- again by replacing the words that accom-
there is a semantic gap between images tic gap—although not as small a gap as pany it. In a sequential arrangement in
that are juxtaposed, so too is there such a the word “skull” would produce. Consider, which the same image is repeated in sub-
gap between words and pictures. The gap however, the same skull image adjacent to sequent page spreads but is accompanied
might be relatively small, created by the word “love;” the tremendous distance each time by a new word or phrase, new
a direct, literal relationship between the between what is shown and what is told, experience and knowledge about the image
Ever Metaphor? In writing and speech, else entirely, refers to a much broader or more seemingly unrelated images to
a metaphor is an expression—a word or concept, or combines concepts to evoke a suggest another form with its own mean-
phrase—that refers to an intuitively un- third concept that is not explicit in either ing, implying some narrative connection
related idea, creating additional meaning. of the combinants. “Visual metaphors” between ideas—showing a corn cob with
A sensitive young man’s intense romantic are messages of parity; a literal subject is wheels to suggest the idea of plant-based
yearning may be described in terms of a recast as equivalent to another subject. auto fuel. A designer may also consider
delicate, but clinging, vine; the exception- One option is to depict one thing behav- altering one image by having another act
ally productive woman in one’s office may ing, pictorially, like another—presenting upon it—chopping the first image up,
be labeled a “machine.” Images can be used products in an urban cosmetics brochure, mixing it into a texture, pushing it out of
in much the same way: A designer may for instance, configured as a city skyline. the way, making it vibrate, and so on.
present an image that means something Yet another possibility is to combine two
Visual forms or styles associated with tickets as a source. Or, as another example, furniture company with the experimental,
particular events, cultural contexts, or day- a blog devoted to exposing potentially aspirational energy of the early twentieth
to-day experience—what is referred to by sinister or laughably inept political con- century’s avant-garde movements.
the term “vernacular”—may be invoked to duct might be designed to mimic the cover
create a form language that makes this designs of pulp fiction or horror novels,
connection for the viewer. One might, for or comic books. Aesthetic styles from
example, lay out an invitation to a travel- times past present a rich treasure trove of
themed fund-raising event to look like an metaphorical possibilities—evoking the
airline ticket, using the type styles, colors, authoritative pomp of medieval heraldry
and other visual details—even the format for a manufacturer of luxury handbags, for
and production techniques—of such instance, or aligning a contemporary
INTUITIVE
ARRANGEMENT
DESIGN AS A SYSTEM
THE WORKING
PROCESS
chapter 05
232
There is no recipe for a good layout.
What must be maintained is a feeling of
change and contrast.
”
ALEXEY BRODOVITCH / Pioneering graphic designer and art director
Two Things Becoming One In the simplest Sure, type behaves in accordance with the qualities of pictures and graphical shapes.
terms, every design project incorporates same visual rules that apply to images (as The results of poorly integrated type and
just two different parts—type and image— we have seen), but while images exhibit image fall into two categories: The first
and so the most important question to formal qualities in staggering variety, type includes type that has nothing in common
address, therefore, is: “How exactly do I is always type: graphical lines, making with the images around it; the second
put these two different things together?” patterns of other lines. And these lines are includes typography that has been so
Getting type to interact dynamically with all words—they mean something, which aggressively integrated with image that
imagery, in a unified way, poses a serious inevitably creates a strange disconnect for it becomes illegible or unnavigable.
problem for many designers. The challenge designers when trying to analyze its very Overcoming type’s stark, alien difference
stems from the fundamental differences specific visual qualities relative to the from other visual material and, in so doing,
between type and everything else. more intuitively understandable visual avoiding either of the aforementioned
Both the type and the spliced image are composed on a symmetrical axis; the
headline’s staggered overlapping, as well as the informational text’s deep rags,
echo this irregular movement in the image.
JUNE KIM/PARSONS SCHOOL OF DESIGN UNITED STATES
Formal Congruence Similarities between The attribute of shape includes the exterior The attribute of texture focuses on typeface:
type elements and pictorial elements make planar contours of both text and image the apparent surface activity it imparts to
a strong connection between the two. elements (rectilinear, curvilinear, and so a field of text; and the graphical qualities of
When typographic configurations display on), as well as their proportions (tall versus its characters’ details. In the first instance,
similar attributes to an adjacent image, or wide); and on the internal shapes of a text the roughness of a stone wall in an image
expand on those attributes, the type and element’s line breaks or rag. Restating the might correspond to an irregular, weight
the image are said to be formally congru- shape of a building in the contour of a text alternation in a paragraph of serif text; in
ent. Such similarities are to be found block, for instance, or breaking lines of the second instance, it may be that details
in four basic attributes: those of shape, text to mimic the rhythm of inward and in an image of a wrought iron fence are
texture, value, and rhythm. outward shaping of a city skyline are both picked up by ball serifs and swashes in a
examples of shape-based congruence. chosen font.
Shape Congruence
The title, deck, and horizontal set
of columns echo the horizontal
intervals in the image; the thin
vertical line restates the vertical
axis of the figure.
.........................................................
Texture Congruence
Through the choice of typeface,
a serif with pronounced contrast,
the blocks of text exhibit strong
surface activity that relates to the
surface textures in the image. The
loose spacing of the headline in
two weights reflects the pattern
of light and dark linear elements
on the wall behind the figure.
.........................................................
Value Congruence
The type is distributed spatially
from top to bottom such that its
dark form and the light negative
spaces in between groupings
relates to the alternating rhythm
and proportions of light and dark
in the image.
.........................................................
Rhythm Congruence
The strong optical pull of the
image’s central axis is restated
by the thin vertical line but also
through the contrast of the
horizontally proportioned ele-
ments pulling inward and pushing
outward from the center.
Shape Congruence
The curving form of the feather
image is echoed by the optical
curves implied by the type’s
masses and positions.
.........................................................
Texture Congruence
The feather’s wispy, linar fronds
are restated by the delicate, linear
typeface and by the irregular rag
shapes created by the type’s vary-
ing line lengths.
.........................................................
Value Congruence
The bright value of the reversed
type corresponds in its position
to the brighter-value areas within
the image.
.........................................................
Rhythm Congruence
The vertical and lateral push-and-
pull of the feather’s contours and
areas of visual emphasis are re-
stated by similar emphases in the
type, established in the positions
of wider and narrower, larger and
smaller, clusters of text.
Formal Opposition Relating typographic cally divided into horizontal bands by a and opposition among these attributes,
elements to images by contrasting their boundary defined by value, for example, the richer the type-to-image relationships
visual characteristics is also a viable way while the text juxtaposed with it is set become. The caveat is that some congru-
of integrating them. Although seemingly in a vertically-proportioned block. The ence between the elements must also exist
counterintuitive, creating formal opposi- discrepancy between the image’s horizon- so that the opposing characteristics are
tion between the two kinds of material tal logic and the type’s vertical logic calls brought clearly into focus. In the same
actually can help clarify their individual to mind a commonality: both relate to the way that a hierarchy is destroyed if all the
characteristics. In doing so, the funda- attribute of shape. All four of the major elements are completely different, the
mental quality of the attribute being thus attributes that serve as sources for congru- strength of the contrast in opposing forms
contrasted comes to light as a kind of ence may act as sources for opposition. The is weakened if all their characteristics are
“after-image”: An image may be dramati- greater the intermingling of congruence completely different.
Shape Opposition
The main image element is a ver-
tical form of narrow proportion;
the clustered typography creates
a wide horizontal shape of deep
proportion.
.........................................................
Texture Opposition
Most of the surfaces and contours
visible in the image are smooth
and lack texture. The typography,
in contrast, is exceptionally tex-
tural—both in the brushy quality
of its drawing and in the heavily
irregular contours of its external
and internal stroke edges.
.........................................................
Value Opposition
While the image is light in value,
and shows little contrast in tonal
range, the type is generally dark
and exhibits a great degree of
light and dark change within it.
.........................................................
Rhythm Opposition
The mannequin form is static and
visually concise; the type opposes
this quietness with a tremendous
amount of inward and outward
movement among strokes, shift-
ing height positions for internal
In this page spread of a season program for a theater, the type elements, and complex edge
contours—as well as apparent
and the image exhibit clear contrasts in their organization and
shifts in relative foreground/
textural qualities. The presence of each kind of contrast calls background position of elements.
attention to its opposing quality in each component.
VOICE AUSTRALIA
Shape Opposition
The shapes within the image are
very specific—a half-dot and a
radial configuration of tringles—
and their relative scales are very
similar. The type elements are
very different in size and show
a variety of shapes.
.........................................................
Texture Opposition
The type is primarily pattern-like
in the typeface chosen for the title
and in the small-scale informa-
tional text; the image is made up
primarily of flat color fields.
.........................................................
Value Opposition
Dark and light elements—of both
the typography and the image—
alternate with each other in
position, rather than follow each
other around the format.
.........................................................
Rhythm Opposition
The image’s contour exhibits a
radially organized, inward and
outward movement; the type,
on the other hand, is made up of
many small clusters that appear
scattered around the central area
of the format, lurching to the left
and right, up and down.
Spatial Considerations Another aspect of that is appreciable as a compositional form Type adjacent to an image remains a totally
integrating type and image is the consider- even if it bleeds [touches] one or two edges). separate entity. Its relationship to the
ation of relationships between the image’s In whichever of these states an image image depends on its positioning and any
field and the type element relative to that appears, the positional relationship of correspondence between its compositional
of the negative space in a given format. any accompanying type engenders a new elements and those in the image. This will
Images may be presented in three ways: question: Is the type on top of the image, be true whether the image itself is silhou-
silhouetted (retaining their contours or embedded within it, or simply next to it? etted or cropped into a shape and inset.
being “cut out” so they “float” within the The relative visual density, scale, or value
format); “full bleed” (filling the format of the two will cause one or the other to be
from edge to edge in all directions); or inset perceived as occupying either a foreground
(cropped into a shape, such as a rectangle, or background position. Alternatively, the
While the type in this poster takes advantage of large, tonally simple
areas, the designer has left the majority of the interesting spaces
untouched. HELENA WANG/PARSONS: THE NEW SCHOOL FOR DESIGN
UNITED STATES
Type and Full-Bleed Images Type that is bleed image is that of ensuring legibility compositional dynamism. The joy of
placed within the field of an image must through adequate contrast between the working with type in full-bleed scenarios is
respond to the image’s composition as type’s value and that of whatever is behind that the type becomes so dimensional and
though it is one made of independent it. Finding a relatively open, simple area integrated; but this depends on the image
compositional forms. Although the type within the image—one that is overall dark retaining its own spatial characteristics.
has become part of the image, it must still or overall light, and devoid of changes in
engage in specific instances of congruence value or small, complicated detail—will
and opposition with the internal compo- generally allow the type to be set in a value
nents of the image, just as it would in any that is the opposite. One danger here is the
other circumstance. The most challenging potential to fill up the negative spaces in
aspect of composing type within a full- the image that contribute to its own
Integrating Inset Images Inset images inset images focuses primarily on shape or, in the case of nonorthogonal polygons,
correspond most directly to the geometric and proportion, but also implicates align- be anchored under or across from the point
characteristics of type. An image may be ment and interval logic within a format. where two edges meet. It may be equally
inset, or cropped into, any kind of planar Once an inset image enters the field, the clear and dynamic, however, for text ele-
shape: circles and ellipses, organic blobs, presence of the axes created by its edges— ments to not align with the edges or axes
triangles, trapezoids—not only within top, bottom, left, and right in a rectangular of an inset image; just make sure the mis-
rectangular boxes. For that matter, one may form—cannot be ignored; the axes auto- alignment is decisive.
even crop an image into a line, if the line’s matically create a compositional condition
proportions permit enough of it to show. that must be addressed. Type may “hang”
Given this explicit geometric quality, from an edge or “sit” upon it; the aligned
creating congruence between text and edge of a text element may follow an axis
The axes created by the edges These two versions of a book’s table of contents—by
of any angular, geometric form different designers—demonstrates different possibili-
offer possibilities for positioning ties for relating text to inset images: reinterpreting
type elements to establish align- shapes and axes from within the images themselves.
ment relationships. The aligned
JIL GUYON [TOP], DECLAN ZIMMERMAN [BOTTOM]
edge of a text element may
travel along an axis or anchor UNITED STATES
to it orthogonally.
The Grid System All design work involves they can be rigorous and mechanical. amounts of information in substantially
problem solving on both visual and orga- Among other things, a grid is suited to less time because many design consider-
nizational levels. Pictures, fields of text, helping solve communication problems of ations have been addressed in building the
headlines, and tabular data: all these pieces great complexity. The benefits of working grid’s structure. The grid also allows many
must come together to communicate. with a grid are simple: clarity, efficiency, individuals to collaborate on the same
A grid is an organizational framework of economy, and continuity. Before anything project or on a series of related projects
vertical and horizontal axes that may be else, a grid introduces systematic order to a over time, without compromising estab-
used to govern alignment and proportional layout, helps distinguish between various lished visual qualities from one instance to
relationships among such elements—and types of information, and eases a user’s the next.
it is simply one approach to achieving this navigation through them. Using a grid
goal. Grids can be loose and organic or permits a designer to lay out enormous
To some designers, the grid part of an evolution in how mathematical, the notion of this the primary element of all the Stacking horizontal sentences
represents an inherent part of graphic designers think about structural approach grows quite letters in the Western alphabet). below each other creates a new
the craft of designing, the same designing, as well as a response organically from the nature of Sequenced side by side to form vertical line—the column—and
way joinery in furniture making to specific communication and typographic form. At its most fun- words, and then sentences, the columns appearing side by side
is a part of that particular craft. production problems that needed damental level, type is a system verticals form a horizontal line. establish yet another horizontal
The history of the grid has been to be solved. Although grids may of vertical lines (these being structure.
seem overtly intellectual and
Column Grid Information that is discon- This arrangement clearly separates the cap- the type size, leading, and spacing, the
tinuous benefits from being organized tions from the primary material but main- designer will be able to find a comfortable
into an arrangement of vertical columns. tains them in a direct relationship. The column width. Traditionally, the gutter
Because the columns can be dependent on width of the columns depends, as noted, on between columns is given a measure, x, and
each other for running text, independent the size of the running text type. If the col- the margins are usually assigned a width
for small blocks of text, or crossed over to umn is too narrow, excessive hyphenation of twice the gutter measure, or 2x. Margins
make wider columns, the column grid is is likely and a uniform rag will be difficult wider than the column gutters focus the
very flexible. For example, some columns to achieve. At the other extreme, a column eye inward, easing tension between the col-
might be reserved for running text and that is too wide will make it difficult for the umn edge and the edge of the format. This
large images, while captions might be reader to find the beginnings of sequential is simply a guide, however, and designers
placed in an adjacent column. lines. By studying the effects of changing are free to adjust the column-to-margin
Modular Grid Extremely complex projects roles can be assigned. The degree of control the modular grid accords a conceptual
require even more precise control, and, within the grid depends on the size of the aesthetic. Between the 1950s and 1980s,
in this situation, a modular grid might be modules. Smaller modules provide more the modular grid became associated with
the most useful choice. A modular grid is flexibility and greater precision, but too ideal social or political order. These ideals
essentially a column grid with a large num- many subdivisions can become confusing have their roots in the rationalist thinking
ber of horizontal flowlines that subdivide or redundant. A modular grid also lends of both the Bauhaus and Swiss Interna-
the columns into rows, creating a matrix of itself to the design of tabular information. tional Style, which celebrates objectivity,
cells called “modules.” Each module defines The rigorous repetition of the module order, and clarity. Designers who embrace
a small chunk of informational space. helps to standardize tables or forms and these ideals sometimes use modular grids
Grouped together, these modules define integrate them with the text and image to convey this additional meaning.
areas called spatial zones to which specific material. Aside from its practical uses,
Grid Hybrids and Combinations Depend- to a page might be used to order a five- their relationship to each other. In this
ing on the complexity of the publication, column, four-column, two-column, and approach, the alternation of the grids will
a designer might find that multiple grids three-column grid with a larger margin for be pronounced, since their internal pro-
are needed to organize the content, within captions in a specific section. In this kind portions are unrelated; the differences in
sections or even a single page spread. of approach, all the column widths will visual logic between layouts using different
Working with several grids together can share a proportional relationship that will grids can make very clear distinctions
take several directions. First, a grid with also be noticeable in how images relate to between sections or types of content. A
a large number of precise intervals might text set in these various widths. Another third option is to combine grids on a single
be developed as a basis for a variety of option is simply to use two, three, or more page but to separate them into different
grids used for particular information. different grids that share outer margins, areas. For example, primary text or images
For example, a grid with twenty columns allowing them to be relatively arbitrary in might occupy a three-column grid
Grid Development Building an appropri- for the grid spaces is another option. If the
ate grid for a publication involves assess- publication is driven by its image content,
ing the shape and volume of the content, this might be a more appropriate direc-
rather than trying to assign grid spaces ar- tion. The proportions of the images, if
bitrarily. The shape of the content, whether they are known, can be used to determine
text or image, is particularly important— the proportions of columns and modules.
its proportions become the source for The result of both approaches is that the
defining the grid spaces. When considering structure of the page develops naturally
text as the essential building block, the from the needs of the content, presenting
designer must look at variations in the text an overall organic, unified sense of space.
setting. Considering image as a source
Grid by Text Alternatively, the designer depth, but the optimal setting is a good this point, the designer must evaluate the
might approach the grid from the perspec- starting point. Achieving an optimal set- resulting margins—head, sides, and foot—
tive of the text shape and volume. The ting for text at a given size and in a given and determine whether there is enough
sheer amount of text that the publication face will indicate a width for columns, space surrounding the body to keep it away
must accommodate is an important con- and, from there, the designer can explore from the edges of the format. Since optimal
sideration; if each page spread must carry how many columns will fit side by side width can vary a little with the same text
a particular word count to fit a prescribed on a single page. Adjusting the size of the setting, the designer has some leeway in
number of pages, the designer will have text, its internal spacing, and the gutters forcing the columns to be wider or more
some sense of how many lines of type must between columns will allow the designer to narrow, closer or further away from each
appear on each page. This variable might create a preliminary structure that ensures other, until the structure sits comfortably
eventually affect the column width or optimal text setting throughout. From on the page.
The leading of the body text, For example, the body text might measurements is 6 points; a After defining the row depth, and
decks, callouts, and captions be 10 points, set on a leading of certain number of lines of each that of the gutters between them,
might have some proportional 12; captions might be 6 points, set text component will, at some the designer will determine how
relationship based on their sizes. solid on a leading of 6; callouts depth interval, share the same many rows can fit comfortably
might be 15 points, set on a top and lower baseline, and this within the height of the page;
leading of 18. The numeric rela- depth interval might very well the remaining spaces above and
tionship between these leading indicate the depth of a row. below will become the head and
foot margins.
Column Logic and Rhythm on a Grid vertically at top or bottom and rag at the carefully consider the rhythm of that
The way in which columns of text interact other end; and columns that rag top and change. Some regularity or system must
with negative space is an important aspect bottom. Each kind of logic has a dramatic clearly exist in the alternation of column
of how a grid is articulated. The spaces impact on the overall rhythm of the logic to be meaningful; otherwise, the
above and below columns play an active pages within a publication, ranging from audience simply recognizes the change
part in giving the columns a rhythm as austere and geometric to wildly organic but not its significance. When columns
they relate to each other across pages and in feeling—all the while ordered by the begin to separate vertically, shifting up and
spreads. The options available to a designer underlying grid. Changing the column down past one another—or dropping to
are endless but can be described as fitting logic from section to section provides yet different depths while adhering to a single
into three basic categories: columns that another method of differentiating informa- hangline above—consider the relationship
justify top and bottom; columns that align tional areas. The designer, however, must between lines of text across the gutter
In this page spread, regularity is established by repeated A six-column modular grid helps integrate text and
vertical lines, evenly spaced to define the column struc- images of various sizes to provide contrast and varia-
ture. Images and text counter this regularity by forming tion but without sacrificing the harmonic proportional
dynamic clusters that show off the modules. unity of the panels. CLEMENS THÉOBERT SCHEDLER
SPIN UNITED KINGDOM AUSTRIA
Relating Images to a Grid As a compo- images might seem to stifle their visual limit possibilities for images, actually pro-
sitional structure that emphasizes the potential, remember that a grid has a vide enormous flexibility for how images
orthogonal relationship between images kind of built-in, organic flexibility to it. A might interact on a page. Each module can
and text, a grid is exceptionally useful for simple column grid has consistent width contain an image, and groupings of mod-
creating formal congruence between the intervals that pictures can traverse—the ules in any combination may also contain
two kinds of material. No less so for images more columns, the more possible widths images—2 x 3, 1 x 6, 3 x 5, and so on, all the
than for text elements, a grid’s systematic for images—but it also allows a variety of way up to full-bleed images and large divi-
nature rigorously enforces harmonic depths for the images. Images might be al- sions of the overall spread. Furthermore,
proportional relationships while providing lowed to meet a system of flowlines if they images may expand outward from the
the designer incredible flexibility in lay- are established as part of the column grid. structure to bleed across the page gutter or
outs. Even though using a grid to organize Modular grids, which at first appear to any edge of the page. As images increase
Variation and Violation A grid is truly not make dull layouts—designers do. Once one spread to another? Perhaps the sizes of
successful only if the designer rises above a grid is in place, it is a good idea to sort all images, or the ratio of text to image vary
the uniformity implied by its structure and the project’s material spread by spread, from spread to spread. Even simply placing
uses it to create a dynamic visual narrative using a storyboard, to see how much will images toward the top of the pages in one
of parts that will sustain interest page after be appearing in each. Here, the designer spread and then toward the bottom of the
page. The greatest danger in using a grid can test layout variations on the grid and pages in the next achieves a powerful sense
is to succumb to its regularity. Remember see the result in terms of pacing—the of difference while still ensuring overall
that the grid is an invisible guide existing rhythm of the layouts. What visual logic visual unity. Violating the grid is a neces-
on the bottommost level of the layout; the might there be to how elements interact sity of designing, sometimes because
content happens on the surface, either with the grid from page to page? Do picto- circumstance dictates it—content that
constrained or sometimes free. Grids do rial elements alternate in position from must occupy a specific spread won’t quite
Exploring Other Options: Nonstructural content needs to ignore structure alto- digital media has created a certain kind
Design Approaches Grid structure in gether to create specific kinds of emotional of expectation for information to behave
typography and design has become part of reactions in the intended audience; and in particular ways. One has only to look at
the status quo of designing, but, as recent sometimes, a designer simply envisions a television news broadcast-ing or reality-
history has shown, there are numerous more complex intellectual involvement based programming, where several kinds
ways to organize information and images. on the part of the audience as part of their of presentation—oral delivery, video, still
The decision whether to use a grid always experience of the piece. Our ability to images and icons, and moving typogra-
comes down to the nature of the content in apprehend and digest information has be- phy—overlap or succeed each other in
a given project. Sometimes, that content come more sophisticated over time as well; rapid succession to understand that people
has its own internal structure that a grid constant bombardment of information have become accustomed to more complex,
won’t necessarily clarify; sometimes, the from television, film, and interactive designed experiences.
Grid Deconstruction The first option is information in a way that creates a new ver- architectural space by creating different
splitting apart a conventional grid, even a bal connection that didn’t exist before. The axes of alignment. Similarly, overlapping
very simple one. A structure can be altered shifted information might end up behind grids with modules of different propor-
in any number of ways. A designer might or on top of some other information if a tions, or that run at different angles in rela-
“cut apart” major zones and shift them change in size or density accompanies the tion to each other, can introduce a kind
horizontally or vertically. It’s important shift in placement. The optical confusion of order to the spatial and directional am-
to watch what happens when information this causes might be perceived as a surreal biguity that layering creates, especially if
that would normally appear in an expected kind of space where foreground and back- some elements are oriented on both layers
place—marking a structural juncture in ground swap places. A conventional grid simultaneously.
the grid—is moved to another place, per- structure repeated in different orientations
haps aligned with some other kind of could be used to explore a more dynamic
Conceptual or Pictorial Allusion Another it. For example, text and images might sink
interesting way of creating compositions underwater or float around like objects
is to derive a visual idea from the content caught in a flood. Even though no grid is
and impose it on the page format as a kind present, sequential compositions are given
of arbitrary structure. The structure can a kind of unity because of the governing
be an illusory representation of a subject, idea. Margins, intervals between images
like waves or the surface of water, or can and text, and relative depth on the page
be based on a concept, like a childhood might constantly change, but this change
memory, a historical event, or a diagram. has recognizable features that relate to
Whatever the source of the idea, the the overall idea; these might even be called
designer can organize material to refer to allusive structures. In projects of a sequen-
Thinking Systematically The vast majority magazines or newsletters) or sequentially, page spread, half-page vertical or horizon-
of designed works—printed, interactive, meaning that they are either a family of tal, and so on. Even environmental design
and environmental—are systematic in related items produced all together or indi- work is systematic in that it addresses
nature; the existence of a single-format, vidual items produced at different times, the integration of information and visual
one-off design piece is exceedingly rare. A such as a series of brochures. Advertising experience among multiple spaces: for
website, for example, consists of multiple campaigns, too, are systematic: a single example, the exterior and entry lobby of a
pages that interact; consider, too, the pages format might be used serially, placed in building, a set of exhibit spaces, or public
of a book in sequence, all of which must sequential issues of a magazine, or the ads areas such as shopping centers or mass
relate to each other, as well as to the exterior within a campaign might appear simulta- transit stations.
of the book as an object itself. Most publi- neously in multiple publications, but in
cations are produced serially (as with different formats—single page, double-
This project—a series of posters promoting a city’s And, there is a lot of variety: in the sizes of elements,
cultural festival—present few, if any, of the complex axis relationships, color distribution, overall composi-
requirements of the projects on the opposite page. The tion, and mix of typefaces. And yet, there is no question
formats are large, yet the volume of information is that these three posters are part of a family. The system
relatively small. This condition frees the designer to here is organic: The same kinds of hand-drawn, iconic
explore greater variety in position and scale relation- elements appear; the same colors appear; the same
ships as part of the visual language. four typefaces appear; the negative space is almost
consumed by elements moving about and interacting;
and there is generally a similar hierarchic distribution
of headline and support material. Because these general
formal qualities are so powerfully evident, the designer
is able to introduce endless variation without sacrific-
ing unity. NATASHA JIWA/PARSONS SCHOOL OF DESIGN
UNITED STATES
Ordering Content Figuring out what goes all at one time, in one place, or all in the obvious roles, of course. And, again, the
where, in what order, and how it should be same format. A brand identity program, client may impose certain criteria for the
arranged from an informational or experi- for example, is a system whose ordering ordering of others. Breaking content down
ential standpoint is the first task at hand, must be considered not only sequentially, within an individual part or sequence in
and it demands a lot from a designer. but among a multitude of items. It may the system will likely involve dialogue
A client might supply some content in a integrate such components as stationery, between client and designer. On a visual
particular order, but the designer really has website, brochures, ad campaigns, posters, level, how much appears at any given time
to understand the content and, potentially, environmental signage, and vehicle livery and the actual arrangement are decisions a
reorder it when necessary to improve its with each of these necessitating unique designer alone must make.
clarity or enhance its conceptual aspects. requirements for ordering. Some compo-
Further, the content may not be presented nents of this complex system come with
Narratively Content ordered in terms of time sequence, historical context, or as steps in a process or story
LOGO
ABOUT
LOCATION PROMOTIONAL ABOUT
LOCATION
Descriptive text lorem ipsum
dolor sit amet consectitur adips
PROMOTIONAL
IMAGERY
ABOUT
LOCATION
PROMOTIONAL
IMAGERY
Descriptive text lorem ipsum
dolor sit amet consectitur adips
AMENITIES
ROOMS IMAGERY AMENITIES
ROOMS
ing elit duis autem velure sum
nunc et semper, magnificat exe
AMENITIES
ROOMS
ing elit duis autem velure sum
Within a self-contained project, On each page, the volume of to direct the designer’s decisions versus content, to begin with,
such as a book or, here, a material changes, and the as to the sizes and positions of as well as which content is hierar-
website—shown as schematic hierarchic relationship between the elements. The distribution of chically related and which is not.
wireframe diagrams— content is the parts also may change—or content from page to page has
sorted among pages: how much, they may remain the same. The significance for the website’s
and what, on each. content, even yet so raw, begins users: how to identify navigation
On a single page of the site (the thereby affect the emphasis significance. Adjusting the order
home page, in this case) sorting of these specific parts. Conven- to create a narrative flow that en-
the same content in different tion generally dictates that hances focus on specific content
ways might call attention to material that comes first should changes the experience.
specific parts over others and be assumed to have greater
System Function into System Form As the first, what information is expository, or and the composition of text and image
content’s distribution reveals conditions literally needed for understanding elements; form language—shapes, media,
of necessity and possibility, the designer (“These are a set of available health care color, iconography, and typfaces—will
now must begin to identify specific visual services”); and second, what narrative, if address the narrative aspects. From the
attributes and their particular interaction. any, will frame the information (“These expository standpoint, if the designer sees
What kinds of image material are needed to health care services provide peace of that every part of the system involves three
communicate clearly? How are the images mind” or “These health care services build kinds of text, but images appear only
and the text visually and conceptually re- a healthy community”). The base of the occasionally, the designer then knows that
lated? How does the text’s hierarchy affect system’s visual language will address the the typography will be a more pronounced
its size and positioning, as well as its style? content’s exposition—what and how— component of the visual language: that it
These questions have to do with concept— through the choice of image subject matter is likely to need two or three columns, and
Rules and Variables: Enforcing Consistency do the material a disservice, decreasing A designer’s understanding of the internal
and Creating Flexibility The nature of a the clarity of either the concept or informa- logic of the visual language he or she is
system is one of reliability and deviation tional relationships by not allowing these creating is paramount. Form identities,
held in dynamic tension; establishing this to flex as they must. The renowned designer, media, and compositional approaches,
tension is a difficult task. At one extreme, Massimo Vignelli—known chiefly for his derived from the narrative concept and the
lies the risk of disintegrating the visual rigorous use of grid structures—put it this most useful way of distributing the con-
coherence that is needed for a unified and way: “A [structure] is like a cage with a lion tent, as noted, are the primary rules that
memorable experience in an effort to in it, and the designer is the lion-tamer; every part of the system must follow in
continually refresh the viewer. At the other playing with the lion is entertaining . . . but some way. It’s the “in some way” part that
extreme, treating material too consistently the lion-tamer has to know when to get out leads to a set of secondary rules—reinter-
will kill the project’s energy; it might even so he doesn’t get eaten.” pretation of the primary rules themselves,
RIGID ORGANIC
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Composition Asymmetrical
distribution of material across
triangular spatial breaks
RIGID ORGANIC
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RIGID ORGANIC
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RIGID ORGANIC
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It’s worth noting that the more rules, the the example of the dots in a grid, described or desire—consider these as incentive to
greater the number of variables for each, previously on page 279: the simplest rule reinvestigate the entire color system to see
and the more extreme the expression of may instigate a profusion of variations. what changes need to be implemented. The
each variable, the more organic the system Further, the rules and their individual discrepancy may be edited out or, perhaps,
will be—and so greater the potential for variations must be applied consistently it may give rise to a new rule that must be
the system to fall apart. Limit the rules to among the respective parts to which they resolved among existing elements.
two or three, total, as well as the numbers, correspond. If certain colors have been as-
kinds, and degrees of, their variations: the signed to specific levels of the typographic
result will be a more easily controllable, hierarchy, don’t suddenly decide in some
and unified, system. Lest this suggestion of instance to switch it up. Instead, where
restraint seem overly limiting, remember discrepancies arise—either out of need
RIGID ORGANIC
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Composition Symmetrical
RIGID ORGANIC
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Composition Asymmetrical,
grid-based
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Visual Pacing Building off the idea of By varying this rhythm from slow to fast, process accounts for location and actual
variation, the rhythmic pacing of visual or from quiet to dynamic, the designer can sequence of raw content, whereas pacing
presentation from part to part in a system accomplish several goals. One of these is is concerned with the formal variation
within a sequence-based format—a publi- strictly visual: Each turn of a page engages that has been imposed upon it—that is, its
cation, a website, a physical environment, the reader in a new way by varying the varying levels of contrast, as defined by the
or a motion sequence—can be a powerful presentation. Another result might be that form language, in the particular sequence
means of keeping a system lively. Pacing the reader is cued to a significant content in which it has been distributed. Ordering
can be understood as a kind of cadence or change, thereby clarifying informational is about function; pacing is about feeling.
“timing” a viewer will apprehend from function. To some degree, the pacing of Indeed, such organization may be an
one part to another, as well as the degree material relates directly to its ordering, or intrinsic part of the concept that governs
of dynamism or activity they perceive. distribution (see page 274). The ordering the visual presentation of the content.
kind of introductory sequence, followed by automatically create a recognizable rhythm Subsequently, he or she may respond with
sections or chapters that group related or that will likely support the informational additional pacing changes create tension
sequential content. The designer may get hierarchy. However, this intrinsic pacing and enhance the viewer’s experience.
some sense of a project’s potential pacing may seem, at the designer’s discretion, too It could be argued that a project’s pacing
while ordering its content, but it ultimately even, or quietly paced, in the context of his should derive naturally from its content’s
depends on the message he or she is try- or her concept; or, the designer may decide hierarchy, but it is up to the designer to
ing to convey with the system’s rules. that this quietness generally is appropriate, balance this need with that of invigorating
Throughout a sequence of page spreads in but notices that some content elements the viewer. Although pacing is somewhat
a publication, for example, application of could benefit from a pacing change that intuitive, being methodical may initially
the system’s rules for the sizes, weights, employs another of the system’s formal allow the designer to see, in broad strokes,
and styles of various text elements will rules to help emphasize or feature them. how a pacing strategy will unfold over a
ABCD
A
ABACAD
DBCA
BDBAC
D
DDABBC
BCBABCBD
Abstractly representing different As a second step, the designer The labels help the designer Following this study, the designer
states of visual activity in a explores different sequences of identify the nature of the rhythm will compare the visual rhythms
simplified form gives the designer these basic variations: cycling in a method that is common to to the project’s actual distribution
a means of rapidly testing alter- through them in order, reversing musical composers: A B C D , for of content and, in consideration
native approaches to a pacing that order, alternating between example, or A B A C A D. Repeat- of its effect on hierarchy, choose a
strategy. For a hypothetical two or three, repeating some and ing a state (A B B B C D ) slows pacing strategy to pursue, or
sequence of page spreads, a de- not others, and so on. the pacing in some areas, while continue looking for other strate-
signer has first defined a category rapid changes from state to state gies that more closely correspond
of change—that of value, relative speed it up. with the content’s hierarchic
to spatial break—and several requirements, if it appears neces-
possible variations, arranged sary to do so.
from darkest to lightest, overall,
and labeled accordingly.
The spreads in each chapter of this book on abnormal describes various treatment options and successful
psychology progress from arrangements of image case studies. HAE JIN LEE/SCHOOL OF VISUAL ARTS
and type that communicate the quality of a given UNITED STATES
disorder to a state of grid-based resolution that
Concept Development Every designer or a kind of storytelling. And some design- objects by association; and simply sketch-
works differently, and every project is ers weigh these philosophies and choose ing intuitively. Many designers follow a
unique. Regardless, the process of design- one or the other approach as appropriate staged process learned from early formal
ing ultimately starts with ideation, or at a given time. The process of ideation training, even if they are very experienced:
developing concepts. Designers approach involves research. To craft a visual form researching, and then brainstorming as
concept development from myriad direc- for an idea that supports all its richness, a many different ideas as possible; compar-
tions. The very notion of what a concept designer must first fully understand that ing these to find aspects that are poten-
is differs among designers: some see the idea. There are many means of researching tially useful, or which, if any, may be
content itself as the concept, while others material: Comparing existing projects of a combined to mutually enhance each other;
see it as a raw thing, to benefit from similar nature; making brainstorming lists focusing on the result of this comparison
embellishment, visual metaphor, allusion, and mind-maps; collecting images or to construct the necessary parts of the
Comparative Research the expectations of the project’s List-Base Brainstorming Making Mood Boards Visual Exploration
One important method of intended audience but also of and Mind-Mapping Another method of research is to The designer examines a range
research is collecting samples of what conceptual directions to Most people are familiar with collect visual material that seems of different approaches to under-
design work that is related to the beware in favor of those that brainstorming in the form of a somehow relevant—either liter- stand their respective potentials
project one is conceptualizing— will help differentiate the work written list. A mind-map is ally or metaphorically, by way of in the given context: visual brain-
potentially for inspiration but, being undertaken for the project a form of diagrammatic brain- association. Such material might storming to discover possibilities.
more importantly, to establish at hand. storming that allows a designer include images of people, found The goal of this phase is not
a sense of the context in which to track the paths from associa- objects, fabric swatches, chips of to arrive at any conclusions—
one’s project will ultimately find tion to association and—even paint, and even text like poems and never to preconceive the
itself. Seeing how other design- better—to see when particular or excerpts from literature. The outcome—but, rather, to roughly
ers have communicated a given associations appear along differ- materials are then assembled and rapidly generate as many
idea helps understand not only ent paths, suggesting rich nar- onto boards to create a kind ideas as can be.
rative interconnections between of library of feelings and ideas
seemingly unrelated ideas. (hence, “mood boards”).
The general rule of this investiga- The visual development stages Focus and Testing Refinement
tive process is “The more, and shown here as a typical example Comparing the results of the ex- As the project takes shape, the
the more different, the better.” of the design process are from ploration, the designer evaluates designer experiments with varia-
There’s no point in getting the author’s own work in creating which possibility—or combina- tions—in scale, rhythm, position,
caught up in refining any single a visual identity for Streamline tions thereof—may yield the and so on—to determine how
idea until a multitude exist from Healthcare Services, a medical most interesting and clearest these options confuse, clarify,
which to make comparisons and, billing consultancy. direction for the visualization of or augment the communication
eventually, a selection of one or the subject. on both conceptual and formal
several that seem most viable. levels. Not to be confused with
“clean-up” or mere simplifica-
tion, this stage concerns editing
the form to clarify relation-
ships—to bring them to a state
in which they appear purposeful
and somehow complete.
Design Process and Workflow In a practical will alter this process as unique contingen- Research and Strategy
or business context the approach to work- cies arise, but the work process outlined The designer or studio engages in an audit of competitors’
flow usually follows a process similar to here is representative of the majority of materials to determine how best to position the project’s
that of concept development: research and situations. A designer or studio usually communication, relative to the client’s stated goals. The
audit considers existing visual languages, as well as the
strategic planning; creating visual form; will show a prospective client a portfolio audience’s cultural expectations, to form a framework for
refining the design through a process of of completed projects to demonstrate their determining what approaches may be useful to consider.
Based on their findings and, in conjunction with more
revisions; and, finally, implementing the expertise; the client will describe the goals conventional library and online research, mind-mapping,
project by the appropriate means—print- to be achieved, including time frame; and collection of marketing data, testing with focus groups,
ing, coding, fabricating, and so on. Every client and designer will agree on a contract buidling mood boards, and so on—the designer or studio
will formulate a written strategy, or creative brief, that
project, being different, oftentimes for services and appropriate fees. outlines their intended creative process for the client.
Competitive Audit
Conceptual Research
Data Collection
Audience/Cultural Analysis
Focus Testing
Marketing Research
Brainstorming and Mind-Mapping
Mood Boards
Formulation of Strategy
Creative Brief
For a certified macrobiotic chef ’s new The project encompassed naming the com-
Good Natured business venture that included a mix of
services—nutrition coaching and menu
pany, strategic planning and, ultimately,
the creation of an identifier, or logo, and
A REAL-WORLD
CASE STUDY
T I M O T H Y S A M A R A U N I T E D S TAT E S
Primary Typography
While still refining the logo, appealing, seemed off-message The logo itself gave rise to a
the designer explored several and so was replaced by images grid structure to organize mate-
possibiltiies for evolving a brand of fruits and vegetables. Color rial. The width of the symbol
language for applications, but studies and comparisons of the is multiplied by three to form
was drawn to two in particular: symbol and images with various supercolumns that may be
one focused on engravings typefaces led to a palette of a rich subdivided or grouped for larger
that evoked seasonality and violet and green, supported by text applications.
natural, Old-World cooking secondary colors for particular
ideas; and one focused on clean, applications.
silhouetted photography with
a family of graphical patterns The designer formatted a single,
that carried a more profes- large-scale composition of
sionally culinary quality. The engraved images in a dense pat-
client immediately chose the tern to be used throughout print
engraving direction. The subject and online applications; it may be
of a farm in that study, initially cropped in a variety of ways.
The selected brand language that focused tion were divided into a column grid based At the time of this writing, the stationery
on nineteenth-century engravings of vege- on the width of the logo icon, and the busi- was complete, the first ads published,
tables as a backdrop underwent a series ness stationery and web architecture were and the website was nearing its projected
of revisions for composition. Initially, designed around this structure. Rule lines launch date.
individual images were to be loosely com- were introduced as part of the language to
posed, but the complexity and detail of the separate text hierarchies and bring greater
images, when used as separate elements, detail to the materials. The form language
competed with simpler planar areas where was extended to a modular system of adver-
product information would go. Instead, a tising formats designed to incorporate var-
dense pattern of the images was developed, ied image styles for different messaging.
to be cropped as needed; fields for informa-
296
Don’t expect
theory to
determine Rules in graphic design exist as guidelines
Sometimes, the content needs to speak and material to craft a refined artifact—
with as little interference as possible. This is a concept unto itself. This approach can
is true in the case of pure information result in a quickly accessible, informative,
design—in forms, for example, where the and functionally user-centric experience,
content’s only requirement is to be under- which is not without its appeal.
stood very easily—but might also be true
for other project types, as well. Being
neutral and having no concept—presenting
content very directly and efficiently, refining
legibility and hierarchy, and using color
COMMUNICATE—
DON’T DECORATE.
BREAKING IT:
When the message warrants it, use form
willy-nilly, without regard for its meaning.
This, in itself, might be interpreted as a
message and—on rare occasions—that
message is appropriate as part of a design
solution. A project concerning Baroque or
Victorian aesthetics, for example, might
very well benefit from extremely decorative
treatments that would otherwise constitute
a crime against nature.
Proceed with caution. The primary danger Optically flat arrangements can provide
here is causing viewers to disengage, visual punctuation to aggressive presenta-
because it is the illusion of depth and tion, and contrasting moments of focus and
movement that creates wonderment and introspection. A pronounced lack of spatial
makes them forget that they’re looking at experience creates an altogether differ-
a designed communication. Static arrange- ent feeling in a project and, when it makes
ments of material, however, can be very sense for the message, is quite appropriate.
focused and restful, an alternative to dra-
matic movement and deep spatial illusion,
and in that sense can be useful at times.
An extremely low-contrast
range of dark-value tones
creates a smoky, dreamlike noc-
turnal experience that reflects a
theme of the fashion event that
this poster promotes: “noir,” or
blackness. Although the poster’s
typography is reversed out to
white, it is of such small scale
that it nearly is absorbed into
the surrounding fields of gray,
darker gray, and black texture.
Adding a taste of luxury—as
well as exacerbating the low-
MASTER THE DARK contrast near invisibility of the
imagery—the poster is printed
AND THE LIGHT. on a highly reflective metallic
BREAKING IT: paper stock. TSTO FINLAND
AVOID REDUNDANT
REDUNDANCIES.
BREAKING IT:
The breaking of this rule is more of a practi-
cal issue, driven by the content of a given
project: If you’re designing a magazine
about travel, clearly the images will show
what the text describes. Still, repetition of
text content by image and, vice-versa, can
be useful for making a point crystal clear.
Subtle differences in the same subject or Food packaging is one of those what’s inside the box. This
idea, presented verbally and visually, will types of project that almost packaging system explodes the
add depth and richness. requires visual/verbal redun- images of the contents around
dancy: Consumers want to the edges of the format in
see the food and understand almost surreal supersaturation
its freshness or tastiness, even of color. KREZIMIR MILOLOSA
though the label tells them CROATIA
IGNORE FASHION.
SERIOUSLY.
BREAKING IT:
Riding the current stylistic trend has occa-
sional benefits. In choosing to do so, a
designer may opt to speak directly to an
audience whose subcultural zeitgeist makes
them likely to bypass visual material that
doesn’t appear to speak to them. This is
especially true when communicating to
adolescents, who identify with very specific Because the fashion industry, in trendy, retro 1980s style Swiss contrasts between type,
visual styles at any given moment and will particular, is characterized by Punk aesthetic is quite appro- flat geometry, and spray-
ignore anything else. the shifting of trends, the fact priate. And, it’s visually engag- painted stipple gradations.
that this runway show invita- ing, showing a dynamic use of STUDIO NEWWORK
tion is up to the minute in its space and beautiful textural UNITED STATES
And Partners, 135, 195 Beetroot Design Group, Cheng Design, 74, 151 saturation, 92–93 D
Apeloig Design, 33, 55, 96 CHK Design, 72, 136, saturation relation- Das Buro Brand Identity,
123, 198, 200 Bellack, Maris, 86, 230 148–149 ships, 104–105 27
Ariane Spanier Design, Ben, Billy, 27 Choi, Yong, 249 selection rule, 18, 304 dashes, 161
102 Bickford-Smith, Coralie, Choi, Youjin, 33, 249 single-variable systems, decisiveness, rule for, 24,
Art Institute, The, 89, 268 23, 54, 193, 282 Chuo, Christine, 166 115 310
Art: Tecaji, 198 Big Active, 187, 217 Cobra, 9, 31, 107, 163, 172, temperature, 96–97 Denmark
A-Side Studio, 300 Billie Jean, 209 226, 264 temperature relation- e-Types, 46, 131, 251, 267
asymmetry, 60–61 Birmingham, Sarah, 211 coding palettes, 120–121 ships, 106–107 Designers United, 36
A10 Design, 18, 120, 197 Brazil collages, 212–213 typographic color, Design, Form, and Chaos
Atipus, 56 A10 Design, 18, 120, 197 color 164–165, 175–177, (Paul Rand), 9
audience Diego Morales, 72 chromatic interaction, 182–185 Design Ranch, 280
rule for, 13 Laboratório Secreto, 98–111 usage rule, 19, 305 Design Rudi Meyer, 16,
universal interpretation, 7, 216 coding palettes, 120–121 value, 94–95, 102–103 74, 185
13 Media Invia, 72 color systems, 112–121 visual hierarchy, 110–111 Detail Design Studio, 100,
visual hierarchies and, 16 Bringhurst, Robert, 129 consumer expectations, column grid, 248–249 126
Australia Brodovitch, Alexey, 233 126–127 COMA, 229, 253, 287, 308 Disturbance, 12
Frost Design, 34, 124, Bruketa+Zinic, 39, 126, conventions, 126–127 communication, rule for, Doch Design, 188
169, 242, 261 215, 223 emotions and 13, 299 dots, 40–43
Munda Graphics, 39, 188 bullets, 159 messages, 122–127 compositional contrast, Drobac, Jelena, 104, 107,
Parallax Design, 6, 28, Bureau Mirko Borsche, 79 form and space, 108–109 74–75 142, 215
215, 282, 303 Burnett, Ron, 187 hue, 90–91 concept drop caps, 161
There, 56 ........................................................ hue relationships, development, 288–289 Drotz Design, 105, 206
Voice, 30, 40, 57, 65, C 100–101 rule for, 12, 298 Dwiggins, W. A., 7
105, 139, 156, 162, 174, Calles, Carolyn, 88–89 introduction, 88 conceptual allusion, dynamic space, 59
221, 238 Canada limited color systems, 270–271 ........................................................
Austria Marek Okon, 23, 166 116–117 Conor & David, 20, 69, E
Andreas Ortag, 37, 94, SubCommunication, 101 99, 298 EarSay, 154, 167
150, 212, 234 Thomas Csano, 12, 31, Elements of Typographic
51, 60, 109, 125, 199, Style, The (Robert Bring-
229, 240 hurst), 129
312
Erne, Trish, 251 proportional spatial Doch Design, 188 defining by type, I
Estrada, Manuel, 20, 22, relationships, 64–65 Finest Magma, 38, 158, 256–257 Igawa Designs, 142
35, 142, 189, 192, 204, rhythm, 69 215, 227, 241, 307 development, 254 illustrations, 206–207
215, 271 shape of space, 30–31 Glashaus Design, 209 hybrids, 252–253 images
e-Types, 46, 131, 251, 267 static space, 59 Golden Cosmos, 14 image relation to, abstract messages,
........................................................ strong composition Gunter Rambow, 101, 123 260–261 196–197
F creation, 72–73 L2M3, 68, 83, 129, 284 introduction, 246–247 collages, 212–213
Falconi, Greg, 211 structure, 62–63 Megi Zumstein, 301 modular grid, 250–251 composition strategies,
Finest Magma, 38, 158, surface activity, 54–57 Mutabor Design, 22, variation and, 262–263 216–217
215, 227, 241, 307 symmetry, 60–61, 77 57, 70 Gruber, Deborah, 215 content and concept,
Finland tension, 76 Naroska Design, 6, 45, Guyon, Jil, 244 220–231
TSTO, 305 unity enforcement, 67, 251 ........................................................ content manipulation,
Folch Studio, 245 78–79 Onlab, 8, 245, 304 H 220
Form, 48, 57 visual hierarchy, 80–81 Surface, 32 Haas, Anna, 27 content selection, 220
form and space format, 30–31 Thibaud Tissot, 188, 304 Hajnrich, Maciej, 206 context, 221
activating, 70–71 Foster, Kim, 177 2X Goldstein, 133, 310 Han, Haehun, 83 creating vs. scaveng-
arranging, 60 France Glashaus Design, 209 Helmo, 219, 283 ing, 22
asymmetry, 60–61 Apeloig Design, 33, 55, “giving form,” 8 Helmut Schmid Design, drawing, 208–209
breaking, 58 123, 198, 200 Golden Cosmos, 14 142, 171 formal congruence,
categories of, 38 Design Rudi Meyer, 16, Heo, Sooim, 215 236–237
clarity and decisiveness, 74, 185 Good Natured Cooking, Heyes, Felix, 205 formal opposition,
36–37 Florence Tétier, 187 Inc., 292–295 hierarchy 238–239
color, 108–109 Helmo, 219, 283 Gorbunova, Vera, 143 color and, 110–111, form syntax, 194
compositional contrast, Studio Lesbeauxjours, Gorkovenko, Andrew, 188, 183–185 full-bleed, 243
74–75 239 202 type and, 170–173 graphic translation,
compositional strate- Superscript, 299 Grandgenett, Ben, 308 Hisiger, Gerilyn, 92 210–211
gies, 72–85 Frost Design, 34, 124, 169, Grapefruit, 142 history grid definition and, 255
composition and 242, 261 graphic translation, inspiration from, 23 illustrations, 206–207
meaning, 82–83 full-bleed images, 243 210–211 rule for, 23 inset images, 244–245
dot, 40–43 ........................................................ Greece Hoffmann, Armin, 27 introduction, 188–189
dynamic space, 59 G Beetroot Design Group, Hoover, Kate, 241 media and methods,
format, 30–31 Gang, Jessie, 82 96 How Images Think 204–215
geometric form, 50–51 geometric form, 50–51 Designers United, 36 (Ron Burnett), 187 message and, 200–201
introduction, 28–29 Germany grids. See also organiza- hue, 90–91, 100–101 metaphor and, 228–231
lines, 44–47 Anna Meyer, 79 tion. Hungary narrative interplay,
movement, 68 Ariane Spanier Design, column grid, 248–249 Aron Jancso, 24 224–225
near and far, 66–67 102 column logic and Hurd, Diana, 99 nonpictorial, 191
organic form, 52–53 Bureau Mirko Borsche, rhythm, 258–259 Hyatt Associates, 233 painting, 208–209
plane and mass, 48–49 79 combinations, 252–253 photography, 204–205
positive and negative, Claudio Barandun, 301 deconstruction, 266–267 pictorial, 190
32–35 defining by image, 255 pictorial allusion,
270–271
presentation options, Ishan Khosla Design, 189 L metaphor, 228–231 Martin Oostra, 147
216–219 Italy L2M3, 68, 83, 129, 284 Metropolitan Group, 210 Ohyescoolgreat, 269, 271
presentation spectrum, Leonardo Sonnoli, 43, La Boca, 202, 305 Mexico Raf Vancampenhoudt,
190–191 58, 121, 128, 183, 214, Laboratório Secreto, 7, Anagrama, 276 306
relation to grid, 260–261 267, 271 83, 216 Zoveck Estudio, 192 Staynice, 17, 90
rule for, 308 Viktor Matic, 269, 299 Laguna College of Art and Meyer, Anna, 79 Studio Jona, 222
semiotics, 192–193 ........................................................ Design, 53, 235 Miloliza, Kresimir, 307 UNA [Amsterdam]
signification modes, J leading, 147 Mixer, 215, 219, 308 Designers, 39, 117, 161
198–199 Jancso, Aron, 24 lead lines, 161 modular grid, 250–251 Vruchtvlees, 77, 306
silhouettes, 242 Japan Lebanon Monigle Associates, 71 New Zealand
spatial considerations, Helmut Schmid Design, Raidy Printing Group, 88, Moore, Lesley, 35, 82, Jonty Valentine, 300
240–241 142, 171 95, 145, 199, 214 199, 231 Luke Wood, 300
spatial relationships, 195 Kenichi Tenaka, 70 Lee, Euikyung, 215 Morales, Diego, 72 Max Lozach, 300
style mixing, 218–219 NAM, 114 Lee, Hae Jin, 270, 287 movement, 68 National Grid, The, 300
stylization, 202–203 Shinnoske, Inc., 97 Lee, Heeseung, 43 Munda Graphics, 39, 188 Niklaus Troxler Design,
subject, 221 Ten-Do-Ten, 189 Lee, Seoungjun, 166 Munsell, Albert, 98 39, 265
subject alteration, Jensen, John, 34 Lesley Moore, 21 Mutabor Design, 22, 57, 70 Nine Design, 121
222–223 Jiwa, Natasha, 273 Lexicon Graphics, 116 MV Design, 215 Norway
type and, 226–227, 231, JRoss Design, 28, 45, 109, Liao, Tien-Min, 19, 201, 214 ........................................................ Cobra, 9, 31, 107, 163, 172,
234–235 114, 178 ligatures, 160 N 226, 264
type as, 21, 214–215 Jury, David, 11 lines, 44–47 NAM, 114 Not From Here, Inc., 97
indentation, 158 ........................................................ Lisanto, Marcia, 235 Naroska Design, 6, 45, numerals, 160
India K Li, Vicki, 33 67, 251 ........................................................
Ishan Khosla Design, Kang, Hyosook, 267 Liv, Michelle, 59, 119, 230 National Grid, The, 300 O
189 Kang, Yoojung, 100, 113, Loewy, 15, 55, 59, 183, 225, near and far, 66–67 Ohayon, Debra, 214, 281
Umbrella Design, 35, 214 235, 257 negative space, rule for, Ohyescoolgreat, 269, 271
107, 112 Keo, Cally, 268 Louise Fili Ltd., 111, 139, 15, 301 Okon, Marek, 23, 166
inset images, 244–245 Kim, Jeongwoo, 123 215 Nelson, Paul, 205 Oliver Munday Group,
Interaction of Color Kim, June, 73, 234 Lozach, Max, 300 Netherlands 193, 199
(Josef Albers), 87 Kim, Lloyd, 211 LSD, 6, 14, 32, 53, 55, 93, Adriaan Mellegers, 171, Onlab, 8, 245, 304
Iowa State University, Kim, Minah, 126 105, 164, 182, 194, 199, 257, 263 Oostra, Martin, 147
33, 34, 123 Kim, Sohyun, 123 227, 234, 246, 270 COMA, 229, 253, 287, organic form, 52–53
Ireland King, Josh, 205 ........................................................ 308 organization. See also
AAD, 139 Ko, Daeun, 268 M Das Buro Brand grids.
Conor & David, 20, 69, Koot, Dennis, 302 Made In Space, Inc., 49, Identity, 27 conceptual allusion,
99, 298 Kropp and Associates, 103 56, 88, 142 Dennis Koot, 302 270–271
Detail Design Studio, Kunz, Willi, 9 mass, 48–49 Joris Van Aken, 306 consistency enforce-
100, 126 Matic, Viktor, 269, 299 Lesley Moore, 21, 35, 82, ment, 278–281
McConnell, Robert, 81, 184 199, 231 content order, 274–275
Media Invia, 72 Marielle Van Genderen, flexibility creation,
Mellegers, Adriaan, 171, 171, 257, 263 278–281
257, 263
314 index
intuitive arrangement, Poland historical inspiration, School of Visual Arts, 33, spontaneous optical
264–271 Maciej Hajnrich, 206 23, 309 43, 82, 83, 100, 113, 123, composition, 268–269
nonstructural approach- Poulin+Morris, 8, 176, 213 image creation, 22, 308 126, 143, 166, 177, 185, 193, static space, 59
es, 264–265 prime marks, 160 introduction, 11, 297 215, 249, 267, 268, 270, Staynice, 17, 90
pictorial allusion, proportional spatial “less is more,” 14, 300 287, 308 Stereotype Design, 61, 96,
270–271 relationships, 64–65 negative space, 15, 301 SEA Design, 108, 279 230, 309
spontaneous optical punctuation, 159 redundancies, 21, 307 semiology, 8, 192–193 StressDesign, 52
composition, 268–269 P&W Design Consultants, symmetry, 16, 302 Serbia structure, 62–63
systematic thinking, 272 trends, 23, 309 Jelena Drobac, 104, 107, Struktur Design, 179
272–273 ........................................................ two-dimensional 215 Studio Astrid Stavro, 82,
system design, 272–287 Q layouts, 17, 303 Shinnoske, Inc., 97 137, 144, 168, 253
system form into system Qatar type family blending, Shiromasa, Kiyoko, 278 Studio Blue, 16, 78, 87, 111,
function, 276–277 VCU Qatar, 29, 184, 209, 20, 306 Short, Christopher, 201 126, 253
visual pacing, 284–287 235 type friendliness, 20, silhouettes, 242 Studio Diego Feijoo, 83,
Ortag, Andreas, 37, 94, ........................................................ 306 Slovenia 170, 272
150, 212, 234 R type usage, 21, 307 Art: Tecaji, 198 Studio International, 47,
........................................................ Raidy Printing Group, 88, universal interpretation, Sonnoli, Leonardo, 43, 58, 50, 74, 114, 213, 231
P 95, 145, 199, 214 13, 299 121, 183, 214, 267, 271 Studio Jona, 222
Paone Design Associates, Rambow, Gunter, 101, 123 visual hierarchies, 16, South Africa Studio Lesbeauxjours, 239
19, 34, 78, 85, 89, 99, 133, Rand, Paul, 9 302 Disturbance, 12 Studio Newwork, 7, 36,
183, 189, 214, 237 Red Canoe, 51, 105, 126, voice, 14, 300 South Korea 309
paragraphs 242 Russia Sulki+Min, 228 Studio Vie, 236
optimization, 154–155 redundancies, rule for, Andrew Gorkovenko, space. See form and space. Studio Vruchtvlees, 77,
separation, 156–157 21, 307 188, 202 Spain 306
width, 147 Research Studios, 33, 94, Ryan, Sean, 189 Atipus, 56 Studio Works, 29, 54,
Parallax Design, 6, 28, 215, 103, 164, 169, 180, 197, ........................................................ Folch Studio, 245 206, 261
282, 303 210, 221, 264 S Laboratorio Secreto, 83 SubCommunication, 101
Park, Sunyoung, 34 rhythm, 69 Sabotage PKG, 270 LSD, 6, 14, 32, 53, 55, 93, subheads, 161
Parsons School of Design, Rock, Michael, 297 Sagmeister+Walsh, 53, 105, 164, 182, 194, 199, subscript characters, 160
10, 59, 73, 81, 82, 92, 107, Romania 120, 188 227, 234, 246, 270 Sui, Michael, 166
119, 230, 234, 243, 273, Grapefruit, 142 Samara, Timothy, 13, 62, Manuel Estrada, 20, Sulki+Min, 228
278, 281, 285 Rouzer, Pamela, 53 66, 107, 111, 116, 119, 175, 22, 35, 189, 192, 204, Sumioshi, Kiyotaka, 285
People Design, 65, 73, 91, Roycroft Design, 57 182, 184, 199, 210, 214, 215, 271 Superbüro, 207
93, 228, 263 rules 218, 245, 267, 288–289, Studio Astrid Stavro, Superscript, 299
photography, 118–119, color selection, 18, 304 292–295 82, 137, 144, 168, 253 superscript characters,
204–205 color usage, 19, 305 saturation, 92–93, Studio Diego Feijoo, 83, 160
pictorial allusion, 270–271 communication, 13, 299 104–105 170, 272 Surany, Eva, 203
Piscatello Design Centre, concept, 12, 298 Sawdust, 297, 303 Spin, 258 Surface, 32
179 dark and light, 19, 305 Schedler, Clemens surface activity, 54–57
plane, 48–49 decisiveness, 24, 310 Théobert, 22, 33, 156, SVA. See School of Visual
172, 258, 277 Arts.
315
INDEX CONTINUED
Sweden type lead lines, 161 typographic color, Sabotage PKG, 270
Bachgarde Design, 170, alignment, 148–149, ligatures, 160 164–165, 175–177, Sawdust, 297, 303
249 168–169 mass, 168–169 182–185 SEA Design, 108, 279
Nine Design, 121 blending rule, 306 mechanics, 146–161 unity, 174 Spin, 258
Swim Design, 103 brackets, 158, 159 navigation, 178–181 usage rule, 21, 307 Struktur Design, 179
Switzerland breaks, 159 numerals, 160 visual nature, 162–163 United States
Anna Haas, 27 bullets, 159 orphans, 160 visual variations, AdamsMorioka, 13, 59,
Billy Benn, 27 channels, 159 paragraph optimization, 136–137 65, 106, 145, 149, 229
Ludovic Balland, 265 character count, 146 154–155 voids, 168–169 Ames Bros., 91, 207, 208
Mixer, 215, 219, 308 color and, 164–165, paragraph separation, widows, 158 And Partners, 135, 195
Niklaus Troxler Design, 175–177, 182–185 156–157 x-height, 134, 135, 138, Art Institute, The, 89,
39, 265 dashes, 161 paragraph width, 147 140, 146, 155, 160 268
Superbüro, 207 detail, 178–181 parentheses, 158, 159 ........................................................ Ben Grandgenett, 308
symmetry distinction, 174 prime marks, 160 U Brett Yasko, 31, 117,
contrast, 77 drop caps, 161 punctuation, 159, 160, Umbrella Design, 35, 107, 153, 227
introduction, 60–61 family blending, 20 161 112 Cally Keo, 268
rule for, 16, 302 formal congruence, rag depth, 150–151 UNA [Amsterdam] Cardon Webb, 82, 189
........................................................ 236–237 rules, 20 Designers, 39, 117, 161 Carnegie Mellon
T formal opposition, scales of contrast, United Kingdom University, 99, 166
Templin Brink Design, 101, 238–239 175–177 A-Side Studio, 300 Carolyn Calles, 88–89
203, 280 form and counterform, silhouettes, 242 Barnbrook, 83, 163 Catherine Casalino, 82,
Tenaka, Kenichi, 70 132–133 sizes, 134–135 Ben West, 205 193, 215
Ten-Do-Ten, 189 friendliness of, 20, 306 small caps, 160 Big Active, 187, 217 C+G Partners, 21, 42, 57,
tension, 76 full-bleed images and, spacing, 134–135, Billie Jean, 209 149, 156, 215
Tétier, Florence, 187 243 240–241 CHK Design, 72, 136, C. Harvey Graphic
There, 56 gaps, 159 structure, 132–133, 148–149 Design, 47, 71, 145
Think Studio, 61, 113 grid definition and, 178–181 Coralie Bickford-Smith, Cheng Design, 74, 151
344 Design, 51 256–257 style classifications, 23, 54, 193, 282 Christine Chuo, 166
Tissot, Thibaud, 188, 304 hierarchy, 170–173 138–139 Felix Heyes, 205 Christopher Short, 201
Tosetti, Régis, 221, 302 hierarchy and color, style combinations, Form, 48, 57 Cyr Studio, 201, 208
trends, rule for, 23, 309 183–185 143–145 Hyatt Associates, 233 Daeun Ko, 268
Triboro Design, 57, 82, 165, as image, 21, 214–215 style issues, 138–145 Josh King, 205 Deborah Gruber, 215
172, 180 images and, 231, subheads, 161 La Boca, 202, 305 Debra Ohayon, 214, 281
Troxler, Niklaus, 39, 265 226–227, 234–245 subscript, 160 Loewy, 15, 55, 59, 183, Declan Zimmerman,
TSTO, 305 indentation, 158 superscript, 160 225, 235, 257 243, 244
Turkey as information, 170–181 texture and space, Paul Nelson, 205 Design Ranch, 280
2Fresh, 216, 228 inset image integration, 162–169 P&W Design Consul- Diana Hurd, 99
two-dimensional layouts, 244–245 texture of, 166–167 tants, 272 Drotz Design, 105, 206
rule for, 17, 303 introduction, 130 typeface selection, Régis Tosetti, 221, 302 EarSay, 154, 167
2Fresh, 216, 228 italic type, 158, 159 140–142 Research Studios, 33, Euikyung Lee, 215
2X Goldstein, 133, 310 justification, 152–153, 159 94, 103, 164, 169, 180,
leading, 147 197, 210, 221, 264
316 index
Eva Surany, 203 Not From Here, Inc., 97 Studio Works, 29, 54, Van Genderen, Marielle, subscript characters
Gerilyn Hisiger, 92 Oliver Munday Group, 206, 261 171, 257, 263 and, 160
Greg Falconi, 211 193, 199 Sunyoung Park, 34 VCU Qatar, 29, 184, 209, superscript characters
Haehun Han, 83 Pamela Rouzer, 53 Swim Design, 103 235 and, 160
Hae Jin Lee, 270, 287 Paone Design Tammy Chang, 166 visual hierarchies Transitional classifica-
Heeseung Lee, 43 Associates, 19, 34, 78, Templin Brink Design, introduction, 80–81 tion and, 138
Helena Wang, 107, 243 85, 89, 99, 133, 183, 189, 101, 203, 280 rule for, 302 ........................................................
Hyosook Kang, 267 214, 237 ThinkStudio, 61, 113 voice, rule for, 14, 300 Y
Iowa State University, Parsons School of 344 Design, 51 Voice, 30, 40, 57, 65, 105, Yasko, Brett, 31, 117, 153,
33, 34, 123 Design, 10, 59, 73, Tien-Min Liao, 19, 201, 139, 156, 162, 174, 221, 238 227
Jeongwoo Kim, 123 81, 82, 92, 107, 119, 230, 214 Vruchtvlees, 77, 306 ........................................................
Jessie Gang, 82 234, 243, 273, 278, Timothy Samara, 13, 62, ........................................................ Z
Jil Guyon, 244 281, 285 66, 107, 111, 116, 119, 175, W Zhang, Sang, 10, 82, 92
John Jensen, 34 People Design, 65, 73, 182, 184, 199, 210, 214, Wallace Church & Co., Zimmerman, Declan,
JRoss Design, 28, 45, 91, 93, 228, 263 218, 245, 267, 288–289, 204, 207 243, 244
109, 114, 178 Piscatello Design 292–295 Wang, Helena, 107, 243 Zipeng, Zhu, 193
June Kim, 73, 234 Centre, 179 Triboro Design, 57, 82, Webb, Cardon, 82, 189 Zoveck Estudio, 192
Kate Hoover, 241 Poulin+Morris, 8, 176, 165, 172, 180 West, Ben, 205 Zumstein, Megi, 301
Kim Foster, 177 213 Trish Erne, 251 widows, 158
Kiyoko Shiromasa, 278 Red Canoe, 51, 105, 126, University of the Arts, Wood, Luke, 300
Kiyotaka Sumioshi, 285 242 203, 211 working process
Kropp Associates, 103 Robert McConnell, 81 Vera Gorbunova, 143 concept development,
Laguna College of Art Roycroft Design, 57 Vicki Li, 33 288–289
and Design, 53, 235 Sagmeister+Walsh, 53, Wallace Church & Co., design process, 290
Lexicon Graphics, 116 120, 188 204, 207 implementation, 291
Lloyd Kim, 211 Sang Zhang, 82, 92 Yong Choi, 249 research, 290
Louise Fili Ltd., 111, 139, Sarah Birmingham, 211 Yoojung Kang, 100, 113, revisions and refine-
215 School of Visual Arts, 33, 214 ment, 291
Made In Space, Inc., 49, 43, 82, 83, 100, 113, 123, Youjin Choi, 33, 249 strategy, 290
56, 88 126, 143, 166, 177, 185, Zhu Zipeng, 193 visual design develop-
Marcia Lisanto, 235 193, 215, 249, 267, 268, unity enforcement, 78–79 ment, 291
Maris Bellack, 86, 230 270, 287, 308 universal interpretation, workflow, 290
Metropolitan Group, 210 Sean Ryan, 189 rule for, 299 ........................................................
318
........................................................ ........................................................ ........................................................ ........................................................ ........................................................
DIANA HURD KING 20G [JOSH KING] MARCIA LISANTO MUTABOR DESIGN GMBH SUNYOUNG PARK
dianaceleste14@gmail.com joshkings@live.com c/o Laguna College of www.mutabor.com sunyoung@iastate.edu
99 205 Art +Design 22, 57, 70 34
........................................................ ........................................................ www.lagunacollege.edu ........................................................ ........................................................
HYATT ASSOCIATES DAEUN KO 235 MV DESIGN PEOPLE DESIGN
www.hyattassociates.co.uk c/o School of Visual Arts ........................................................ atiragram3@hotmail.com www.peopledesign.com
233 www.sva.edu MICHELLE LIV 215 65, 73, 91, 93, 228, 263
........................................................ 268 www.michelleliv.com ........................................................ ........................................................
IGAWA DESIGN ........................................................ 59, 119, 230 NAM PISCATELLO DESIGN CENTRE
www.igawadesign.com DENNIS KOOT ........................................................ www.n-a-m.org www.piscatello.com
142 www.koot.nu LOEWY 114 179
........................................................ 302 www.loewygroup.com ........................................................ ........................................................
ISHAN KHOSLA DESIGN ........................................................ 15, 55, 59, 183, 225, 235, 257 NAROSKA DESIGN POULIN+MORRIS
www.ishankhosladesign.com KROPP AND ASSOCIATES ........................................................ www.naroska.de www.poulinmorris.com
189 www.kroppassociates.com LOUISE FILI LTD. 06, 45, 67, 251 08, 176, 213
........................................................ 103 www.louisefili.com ........................................................ ........................................................
ÁRON JANCSÓ ........................................................ 111, 139, 215 NIKLAUS TROXLER DESIGN RAIDY PRINTING GROUP S.A.L.
www.aronjancso.com L2M3 ........................................................ www.troxlerart.ch www.mariejoeraidy.com
24 KOMMUNIKATIONSDESIGN LSD 39, 265 88, 95, 145, 199, 214
........................................................ GMBH www.lsdspace.com ........................................................ ........................................................
JOHN JENSEN www.l2m3.com 06, 14, 32, 53, 55, 93, 105, 164, NINE GUNTER RAMBOW
john@onpurpos.com 68, 83, 129, 284 182, 194, 199, 227, 234, 246, 270 www.nine.se gunterrambow@web.de
34 ........................................................ ........................................................ 121 101, 123
........................................................ LA BOCA MADE IN SPACE, INC. ........................................................ ........................................................
NATASHA JIWA www.laboca.co.uk www.madeinspace.ca NOT FROM HERE INC. RED CANOE
natashajiwa@gmail.com 202, 305 49, 56, 88, 142 www.norfromhere.com www.redcanoe.com
273 ........................................................ ........................................................ 97 51, 105, 126, 242
........................................................ LABORATORIO SECRETO ROBERT MCCONNELL ........................................................ ........................................................
JROSS DESIGN DESIGN STUDIO www.rmcconell.com DEBRA OHAYON RESEARCH STUDIOS
www.jrossdesign.com [MARCELO MARTINEZ] 81, 184 c/o Parsons School of Design www.researchstudios.com
28, 45, 109, 114, 178 www.laboratoriosecreto.com ........................................................ 214, 281 33, 94, 103, 164, 169, 180, 197,
........................................................ 07, 83, 216 MEDIA INVIA/DIEGO MORALES ........................................................ 210, 221, 264
HYOSOOK KANG ........................................................ www.mediainvia.com OHYESCOOLGREAT ........................................................
yellowapple79@hotmail.com EUIKYOUNG LEE 72 www.ohyescoolgreat.com PAMELA ROUZER
267 c/o School of Visual Arts ........................................................ 269, 271 pamelarouzer@
........................................................ www.sva.edu METROPOLITAN GROUP ........................................................ lagunacollege.edu
YOOJUNG KANG 215 www.metgroup.com MAREK OKON 53
c/o School of Visual Arts ........................................................ 210 www.marekokon.com ........................................................
miakangmia@gmail.com HAE JIN LEE ........................................................ 23, 166 ROYCROFT DESIGN
100, 113, 214 chocoicecream@hotmail.com KRESIMIR MILOLOZA ........................................................ www.roycroftdesign.com
........................................................ 270, 287 www.behance.net/ ONLAB 57
CALLY KEO ........................................................ kresimirmiloloza VISUAL COMMUNICATION ........................................................
c/o The Art Institute, HEESUNG LEE 307 GMBH SEAN RYAN
Orange County c/o School of Visual Arts ........................................................ www.onlab.ch www.artsryan.com
268 www.sva.edu MIXER 08, 245, 304 189
........................................................ 43 www.mixer.ch ........................................................ ........................................................
JEONGWOO KIM ........................................................ 215, 219, 308 MARTIN OOSTRA SABOTAGE PKG
c/o School of Visual Arts SEOUNGJUN LEE ........................................................ studio@oostra.org www.sabotagepkg.com
www.sva.edu c/o School of Visual Arts MONIGLE ASSOCIATES 147 270
123 www.sva.edu www.monigle.com ........................................................ ........................................................
........................................................ 166 71 ANDREAS ORTAG SAGMEISTER+WALSH
JUNE KIM ........................................................ ........................................................ www.ortag.at www.sagmeisterwalsh.com
junia119@gmail.com LESLEY MOORE MUNDA GRAPHICS 37, 94, 150, 212, 234 53, 120, 188
73, 234 www.lesley-moore.nl www.geocities.com/ ........................................................ ........................................................
21, 35, 82, 199, 231 munda_gallery P+W DESIGN CONSULTANTS TIMOTHY SAMARA
........................................................ ........................................................ 39, 188 www.p-and-w.com www.timothysamara.com
LLOYD KIM VICKI LI ........................................................ 272 13, 62, 66, 107, 111, 116, 119, 175,
www.lloydkimdesign.com c/o Lisa Fontaine THE NATIONAL GRID ........................................................ 182, 184, 199, 210, 214, 218,
211 Iowa State University [JONTY VALENTINE] PAONE DESIGN ASSOCIATES 245, 267, 288–289, 292–295
........................................................ fontaine@iastate.edu www.thenationalgrid.co.nz www.paonedesign.com ........................................................
MINAH KIM 33 300 19, 34, 78, 85, 89, 99, 133, 183, SAWDUST
c/o School of Visual Arts ........................................................ ........................................................ 189, 214, 237 www.sawdust.co.uk
www.sva.edu TIEN-MIN LIAO OLIVER MUNDAY [GROUP] OMG ........................................................ 297, 303
126 www.tienminliao.com www.olivermunday.com PARALLAX DESIGN ........................................................
........................................................ 19, 201, 214 193, 199 www.parallaxdesign.com.au SEA DESIGN
SOHYUN KIM 06, 28, 215, 282, 303 www.seadesign.co.uk
lovemoi@iastate.edu 108, 279
123