11-2.

AN OVERVIEW OF THE FILTRATION PROCESS

A number of classification systems are used to describe granular filters including media type, filtration rate, washing
technique, and filtration rate control. This discussion is limited to slow sand, rapid sand, and high-rate filters with either
multimedia or deep monomedium the focus is on rapid sand and high-rate filters. Pressure filters (also called precoat filters)
and automatic backwash filters are not discussed. Discussion of these types of filters may be found in Cleasby and Logsdon,
1999; Kawamura, 2000; MWH, 2005; Reynolds and Richards, 1996.

Granular filters are called depth filters because the particulate matter in the water penetrates into the filter as well as being
caught on the surface. Figure 11-1 shows a cutaway drawing of a conventional depth filter. The bottom of the filter consists of
a support media and water collection system. The support media is designed to keep the filtration media (sand, coal, etc.) in
the filter and prevent it from leaving with the filtered water. Layers of graded gravel (large on bottom, small on top)
traditionally have been used for the support. The underdrain blocks collect the filtered water. In newer designs, integrated
media support (IMS®) that combines a synthetic layer with a synthetic underdrain block is being used.

Figure 11-1 Typical gravity filter box. (Source: F. B. Leopold Co.)

In a conventional filter, water containing the suspended matter is applied to the top of the filter. The suspended matter is
filtered from the water. As material accumulates in the interstices of the granular medium, the headloss through the filter
increases. When either the headloss or the effluent turbidity reaches a predetermined limit, filtration is terminated and the
filter is cleaned. Under ideal conditions, the time required for headloss to reach the preselected value (called the terminal
headloss) corresponds to the time when the turbidity in the effluent reaches its preselected value. In actual practice, one or the
other will govern the cleaning cycle. The filter is cleaned by backwashing; that is, clean water is pumped backwards through
the filter.

As illustrated in Figure 11-2, the efficiency of particle removal varies during the filtration cycle (called a filter run). The ripening
or maturation stage occurs initially as the filter is put back into service after cleaning. The peak occurs because of residual
backwash water being flushed from the media, and from particles in the influent water that are too small to be captured. As
the clean media captures particles, it becomes more efficient because the particles that are captured become part of the
collector surface in the filter. Amirtharajah (1988) suggests that up to 90 percent of the particles that pass through a well-
operating filter do so during the ripening stage.

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 Figure 11-2 Idealized turbidity and headloss during a filter run. Note changes in time scale.

After ripening, the effluent turbidity is essentially constant and, under steady-state conditions, can be maintained below 0.1
NTU. On the other hand, headloss continues to rise as particles collect in the filter. At some point the number of particles that
can be effectively captured begins to decline and breakthrough occurs.

11-2-1. Nomenclature
There are several methods of classifying filters. One way is to classify them according to the type of medium used, such as
sand, coal (called anthracite), dual media (coal plus sand), or mixed media (coal, sand, and garnet). Another common way to
classify the filters is by nominal filtration rate or hydraulic loading rate (m3 of water applied/d ⋅ m2 of surface area, or m/d). A
third alternative is to classify the filters by the pretreatment level.

Based on the hydraulic rate, the filters are described as being slow sand filters, rapid sand filters, or high-rate filters.

Slow sand filters were first introduced in the 1800s. The water is applied to the sand at a loading rate of 3 to 8 m3/d ⋅ m2. As
the suspended or colloidal material is applied to the sand, the particles begin to collect in the top 75 mm and to clog the pore
spaces. As the pores become clogged, water will no longer pass through the sand. At this point the top layer of sand is
scraped off, cleaned, and replaced. Although slow sand filters require large areas of land and are labor intensive, the
structures are inexpensive in comparison to the other types, and they have a long history of success.

In the late 1800s, health authorities began to understand that clean water was a major factor in preventing disease. The
limitations of slow sand filters in meeting the need for filtration systems to serve large populations became readily apparent.
Rapid sand filters were developed to meet this need. These filters have graded (layered) sand in a bed. The sand grain size
distribution is selected to optimize the passage of water while minimizing the passage of particulate matter.

Rapid sand filters are cleaned in place by backwashing. The wash water flow rate is such that the sand bed is expanded and
the filtered particles are removed from the bed. After backwashing, the sand settles back into place. The largest particles
settle first, resulting in a fine sand layer on top and a coarse sand layer on the bottom. Rapid sand filters are the most
common type of filter in service in water treatment plants today.

3 2

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Traditionally, rapid sand filters have been designed to operate at a loading rate of 120 m3/d ⋅ m2 (5 m/h). Filters now operate
successfully at even higher loading rates through the use of proper media selection and improved pretreatment.

In the wartime era of the early 1940s, dual media filters were developed. They are designed to utilize more of the filter depth
for particle removal. In a rapid sand filter, the finest sand is on the top; hence, the smallest pore spaces are also on the top.
Therefore, most of the particles will clog in the top layer of the filter. In order to use more of the filter depth for particle
removal, it is necessary to have the large particles on top of the small particles. This is accomplished by placing a layer of
coarse coal on top of a layer of fine sand to form a dual-media filter. Coal has a lower specific gravity than sand, so, after
backwash, it settles more slowly than the sand and ends up on top. Some dual-media filters are operated up to loading rates
of 480 m3/d ⋅ m2 (20 m/h).

In the mid-1980s, deep-bed, monomedia filters came into use. The filters are designed to achieve higher loading rates while at
the same time producing lower turbidity in the finished water. They operate at loading rates up to 600 m 3/d ⋅ m2 (25 m/h).

When pretreatment of the water is by coagulant addition, flocculation, and clarification, the filter is classified as conventional
filtration. If pretreatment consists of coagulation and flocculation but not clarification, the filtration process is called direct
filtration. The process is called in-line or contact filtration when coagulant addition but only incidental flocculation is used. In
some processes, coagulation is followed by two filtration steps: a roughing filter followed by another filter.

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