20 MARKETING INTELLIGENCE & PLANNING 5,3
M
arketers should not place too great a
burden on the advertising element of
the marketing mix. Advertising has a
role in creating awareness and comprehension,
but other aspects of the promotional mix serve
the function of gaining attention and
stimulating action.
Communication
and the
Nature of
Consumer
Decision
Processes
by Keith Fletcher
Introduction
An understanding of how consumers buy and choose
between alternative products is an essential basis for
creating a marketing mix which efficiently and effectively
matches a product offering and a buyer's needs. The
analysis of consumers' buying behaviour allows the
marketer to know not only the relevant product attributes
and benefits to promote, but also the most effective
communication channels to use during the promotion
process.
Individual research findings on aspects of consumer
behaviour must, however, be placed within a conceptual
framework if worthwhile generalisations are to be drawn,
and the response of consumers to marketing stimuli
predicted.
Decision Making and Communication Strategy
Marketing and promotional campaigns are based on
assumptions about the nature of the persuasion process,
such as the objectives that must be achieved if consumers
are to move from a state of unawareness about a product,
to acquiring positive beliefs and feelings about the product
which will prompt action. However, there is increasing
debate amongst consumer behaviourists as to whether
the common assumptions which guide the setting of
campaign objectives, or the measurement of campaign
success, can be justified. Not only is the generally
accepted process of decision making being attacked, but
research is casting increasing doubt about the nature of
consumer information collection and usage, and the role
of marketer controlled information sources. The
implications of this for management are likely to be of
major importance, necessitating a fundamental re-
evaluation of our accepted generalisations.
While some of the rules which make up our framework,
or understanding, may be accurate representations of
reality, others require further consideration. For example,
based on previous buying experience, a customer may
believe that a relationship exists between the price charged
for a good and the quality of that product. While this
relationship may exist for some buying situations (such
as where pricing is on a cost-plus basis), it can also mislead
consumers into making inferior choices if applied to all
purchases.
It is therefore worthwhile to pause occasionally to consider
whether the assumptions, or models, we hold about how
consumers choose are accurate conceptualisations of
reality and whether they apply in our own product market.
Consumer Behaviour Explanations of Choice
The present dominant conceptualisation explaining
consumer behaviour is one founded in cognitive psychology
which perceives individuals as rational information seekers
and users who actively and purposefully purchase products
as ways of solving consumption problems (Howard, 1977).
While this perspective has been criticised (e.g. Foxall,
1983; Nord and Peters, 1980), it is generally accepted by
both academics and practitioners as offering the greatest
degree of insight and explanation of buying behaviour, and
thus the rules and generalisations which flow from it can
be used to guide marketing strategy. This is particularly
the case in the area of promotion where marketers need
guidance on the choice of media, the design of copy
platforms and messages, creation of images, positioning
of brands and many other related issues.
Unfortunately, even within this prevailing paradigm, there
is conflict regarding the applicability of the problem-solving
and information-seeking conception of consumers (Ray,
1973; Robertson, 1976). The debate centres on the amount
 COMMUNICATION AND THE NATURE OF CONSUMER DECISION PROCESSES 21
of cognitive activity (thinking) that takes place before
purchase, and, thus, the nature of the advertising
campaigns needed to influence and promote purchase.
Two distinct views have emerged which can be classified
into the high-involvement vs. the low-involvement model.
(Involvement is defined as ego involvement, the arousal
of the individual's commitment or stands.) Each of these
models draws different conclusions about the type of
advertising claims that are likely to be most effective, the
channels of influence that should be used, and the research
methods relevant to test campaign effectiveness.
High Involvement
The high-involvement model takes a problem-solving
approach: that individuals strive to attain goals and
solutions to problems, gather information on and evaluate
various alternative solutions to achieve a satisfactory
solution. The assumptions of strict rationality in problem
solving, that people strive to maximise utility and have
perfect knowledge in the search for the optimum solution,
have long been rejected (Simon, 1956). Instead, it is
recognised that we "satisfice" in our decision making,
within certain constraints or "limits of rationality". As
Simon states:
It is impossible for the behavior of a single isolated individual
to reach any high degree of rationality. The number of
alternatives he must explore is so great, the information he
would need to evaluate them is so vast that even an
approximation to objective rationality is hard to conceive.
Individual choices take place in an environment of "givens"
— premises that are accepted by the subject as the basis
for his choice, and behavior is adaptive only within the limits
set by these "givens" (p. 79).
The act of making a decision requires that a goal be
identified, that information is acquired about several
alternative ways of achieving the goal, and that a choice
is made between these alternatives, all conducted within
the constraints of "bounded rationality". This decision-
process approach is the basis for most of the general
models of buyer behaviour (Howard and Sheth, 1969;
Nicosia, 1966, etc) and is explicitly stated in the majority
of "hierarchy of effects" models which attempt to relate
specifically to advertising (Lavidge and Steiner, 1961).
It is, however, not new. John Dewey, in 1910, was one of
the first people to consider the stages of decision making
and described them as:
(1) a difficulty is felt;
(2) a difficulty is located and defined;
(3) possible solutions are suggested;
(4) consequences are considered, and
(5) a solution is accepted.
By 1972, Hansen was able to provide a summary of 28
basic models of the decision process in the field of
marketing. The most widely known of these is probably
that of Strong (1925) who suggested the stages of Attention
- Interest - Desire - Action (AIDA), while Rogers (1962)
suggested a diffusion model with the steps Awareness -
Interest - Evaluation - Trial - Adoption. It is perhaps the
models of Lavidge and Steiner (1961) and Colley (1961)
which had the greatest impact on our thinking about the
nature of the advertising process.
Lavidge and Steiner, in a brief article, pointed out that
consumers "normally do not switch from disinterested
individuals to convinced purchasers in one step. Rather
they approach the ultimate purchase through a process
or series of steps in which the actual purchase is but the
final threshold". They suggested that advertising can be
thought of as a force, which must move people up these
steps. They describe the sequence as follows:
(1) Near the bottom of the steps stand potential
purchasers who are completely unaware of the
existence of the product or service in question.
(2) Closer to purchasing, but still a long way from the
cash register, are those who are merely aware of
its existence.
(3) Up a step are prospects who know what the
product has to offer.
(4) Still closer to purchasing are those who have
favourable attitudes towards the product — those
who like the product.
(5) Those whose favourable attitudes have developed
to the point of preference over all the possibilities
are up still another step.
(6) Even closer to purchasing are consumers who
couple preference with a desire to buy and the
conviction that the purchase would be wise.
(7) Finally is the step which translates this attitude
into actual purchase.
They point out that the steps are not necessarily
equidistant, that a potential purchaser may move up several
steps simultaneously, and suggest the hypotheses that the
greater the psychological or economic involvement, the
longer it will take to bring consumers up these steps, and
contrariwise, the less serious the commitment, the more
likely the consumer will go almost "immediately" to the
top of the steps.
This idea was taken even further by Colley (1962) whose
sequence Unawareness - Awareness - Comprehension -
Conviction - Action is usually referred to as Dagmar after
the initials of his monograph publicising the model,
"Defining Advertising Goals for Measured Advertising
Results". He makes the point that advertising goals are
virtually always communications goals, and thus sales in
themselves were not a good measure of success. Thus,
22 MARKETING INTELLIGENCE & PLANNING 5,3
although the end goal is behavioural, the best way of
setting operational objectives is in terms of intervening
variables. He went on to argue that objectives should be
clearly stated and should be aimed at the communication
effects that were wanted, based on his hierarchy of
communication effects as given above.
These "hierarchy of effects" models seem to operate
when the product is central to the value system, when
it can be clearly differentiated from other products, and
when commitment to the purchase exists. In these cases,
the communication aim is to move people up the hierarchy,
and certain strategies can be recommended. Awareness
and knowledge can be enhanced through high information
content message. As consumers are actively seeking
information, messages can be longer and will need less
repetition. (Awareness rises rapidly in high involvement
situations (Ray, 1973).) This would suggest an emphasis
on print media. Attitude development is most easily
affected by a high credibility information source (Hovland,
1956), such as friends, or by trial experience with the
product. Intention to purchase can be manipulated by
adjusting the perception of product attributes and their
salience at time of purchase (Fishbein and Azjen, 1975)
(i.e. value can be changed by special offers, etc). Long-
term behaviour gains reinforcement from product use, and
advertising may be used by the consumer to support
existing beliefs and decisions, i.e. reduce dissonance
(Festinger, 1957).
Low Involvement
The above models are based on the belief that a particular
cognitive structure must be created (i.e. a set of ideas
and knowledge) that will lead to a particular attitudinal set
which, in turn, creates a particular behavioural intent.
In other words, behaviour (and decision processes) is
determined by the beliefs, opinions and "facts" a person
processes, by the needs, goals and values he has, and by
the momentary control he has over his behaviour by given
features of his cognitive and motivational structure (Marken,
1974, p. 506).
This model has been criticised on the grounds that the
stages need not be uni-directional, linear or sequential.
The particular weakness was the claim that attitudes lead
to behaviour, which research has been unable to validate.
The low-involvement model has been suggested to explain
purchases where attitude change does not seem to
precede purchase and the cognitive structure stays at a
simplistic level.
The low involvement hierarchy suggests the buyer may not
be particularly committed to his/her brand selection for many
products. When this is the case, the consumer's selective
processes are relatively inoperative and advertising is
passively accepted without undue resistance and without
thorough message evaluation (Robertson, 1976).
In this case, information seeking is often based on trial
of the product and later evaluation, leading to a sequence
of Cognition → Behaviour → Attitude, or, as
Ehrenberg (1974) conceptualised, Attention, Trial,
Reinforcement. The sequence of the two hierarchies is
shown below:
High-involvement Hierarchy Low-involvement Hierarchy
Creation and comprehension Creation of minimal brand
of brand beliefs beliefs
Evaluation of beliefs and Purchase decision/trial
attitude formation
Purchase decision Brand evaluation/
reinforcement
Initially, the low-involvement hierarchy was seen as
applying only to limited product classes, but it is possible
that high-involvement purchasing may be the exception
rather than the rule.
In a low-involvement purchase, consumers are much more
likely to make a satisficing decision as more products are
seen as similar. They are likely to absorb a few key points
rather than a broad-based information campaign. Because
of a relative lack of active information seeking about
brands, selective processes are relatively inoperative, as
beliefs are not strongly held, wider claims will be accepted
without evaluation, and visual aspects are likely to be
important. This would suggest a communication strategy
based around broadcast media, incorporating image as the
copy platform rather than verbal product benefit claims.
A problem arises, however, in deciding which product
purchases are likely to be high involvement, and which
low involvement. A study (Fletcher and Hastings, 1983)
into the purchase of life assurance suggested that while
this decision was a matter of interest and involvement to
individuals during the actual decision process, individuals
had extremely low involvement, both before consideration
of the equipment and after the commitment had been
made. Respondents often forgot the name of the life
assurance company that held their policy, the nature of
the policy and many other details.
A recent research study (Fletcher, 1986) investigated the
first-time acquisition of a video recorder, which at the time
was in the early stages of its life cycle, expensive and
technically complex. It was hypothesised that this would
be a high-involvement purchase leading to the full learning
hierarchy of Problem Recognition, Search and Evaluation.
Instead, consumers had little involvement with the
purchase and followed a sequence closer to the low-
involvement than high-involvement sequence, and showed
distinctive use of advertising and information sources,
which differed from the use predicted by the high-
involvement model.
The problems this creates for researchers and marketers
has lead to the development of measures of consumer
 COMMUNICATION AND THE NATURE OF CONSUMER DECISION PROCESSES 23
involvement (Zaichkowsky, 1985), a consideration of its
relationship to perceived risk and importance of purchase
(Bloch and Richins, 1983), which is an area worthy of
further investigation.
Search during the Decision Process
From the marketer's point of view, what is important is
not simply understanding the nature of the decision
process, but how this influences the individual's responses
to advertising communications.
Information-processing theorists have focused mainly on
the internal mechanisms by which information is attended
to, interpreted and incorporated into existing knowledge.
While such a micro focus is helpful for a theoretical
understanding, it has limited direct relevance to the media
decisions that have to be made regarding the selection
of suitable channels, or the timing of suitable messages
for maximum effect. To help in this area, the focus should
move from the internal processes which lead to message
acceptance to the external behaviour which has lead to
these messages coming to the individual's attention, and
the function that this information serves.
Aguila (1967) suggests that information acquisition can be
of two major types — purposeful search and undirected
viewing. These, he suggests, are two ends of a continuum
which can be arbitrarily classified into four "scanning
activities", i.e. undirected viewing, conditioned viewing,
informal search and formal search. A choice is made as
to which scanning mode is used on a number of criteria.
Formal search is the most effective method of gaining
information, but also requires the greatest degree of effort
and attention. Formal scanning could not, therefore, be
carried out for all informational requirements as it would
be too costly and time consuming.
Formal search is likely to take place when knowledge is
extremely limited, the problem is unstructured and
possibly ill defined, and information is needed to help
clarify the problem, identify alternatives and help in the
selection of the "best choice". In this situation, it is likely
that a reasonably complete decision process will be
undertaken, with, therefore, a matching formalised search
process using a number of marketer-controlled information
sources.
Informal search is carried out when a problem is
recognised, but possible solutions are known and the type
of information requirements are readily available. Less
information is required and less effort will be spent in
acquiring it. The manufacturer must therefore simplify
his/her message and make them widely available.
It can be hypothesised that undirected viewing and
conditioned viewing are employed when there is no
immediate need for information and the decision maker
is merely avoiding a "barren environment"; a need or
problem is not yet sufficiently motivating. In this situation,
the consumer may not be aware of the learning process,
and the influence of the marketer is much more subtle.
The consumer's unwillingness to expend any cognitive
or behavioural effort on the message means it must be
appealing, simple and attention getting.
This passive information usage was considered by Keil
(1978) when he noted the importance of introspection,
where a consumer uses the experience he has previously
accumulated about product and market from past search
and incidental learning. The continual interaction with the
market-place, whether purchase takes place or not, is thus
a gradual learning process. Consumers accumulate
knowledge about markets, such as what type of stores
sell what type of products, what media or organisation
supply what kind of information, and what are the generally
accepted norms concerning the various types of exchange
that occur in the market. This form of learning has obvious
similarities to Aguila's undirected and conditioned viewing
and stresses the importance of the information
environment.
Alderson and Sessions (1962) also comment on this
learning of market structures over time when explaining
the so-called irrationality of many shoppers who seemingly
undertake little (external) search:
. . . in such purchases the housewife may be a more efficient
shopper if she spreads her information gathering over time.
By buying for a while in a few different stores, she may soon
learn their characteristics. As a result, she will be able to
purchase in the first store she enters confident that this is
the retailer who is very likely to meet her needs best (p. 141).
Thus, incidental learning is a means of obtaining
information about a product class and the brands that make
up the product class, and, as such, will later influence
possibly more structured patterns.
As mentioned earlier, a common assumption is that the
more formalised search procedures will operate for
expensive durable goods, and that passive incidental
learning will be reserved for low-price, frequently replaced
goods, but this assumption is an over-simplification of
reality.
In the video study mentioned earlier, two main search
patterns could be identified, which were classified into pre-
market and market search. Initially, respondents
conducted informal search of an undirected or conditional
viewing nature, with little effort. During this pre-market
stage, general knowledge and impressions were being
gained, often convincing the respondent that little formal
search was required, or would be justified. In this stage,
no intention to purchase existed and information gathering
was extremely casual.
24 MARKETING INTELLIGENCE & PLANNING 5,3

The "market search" stage followed once a deliberate

decision had been made to gather information, and during
this stage, a reduced set of alternatives was being
considered as to suitability. This stage, however, was often
extremely short and seldom followed a formalised
procedure, remaining casual and limited, with incidental
learning being at a premium. The majority of information
acquisition took place at the passive end of Aguila's
continuum which has obvious implications for a video
marketers' media and copy strategy.

Other studies of external search support this finding of

limited search for durable goods (Brandt, 1978; Newan
and Staelin, 1973), especially when search is measured
by the number of shops visited (Le Grand and Udell, 1964;
Dommermuth and Cundiff, 1967).

Information Sources
The accepted wisdom regarding the use of information
sources during the decision process is that the mass media
are most used by individuals during the initial stages of
the decision process (Mason, 1964; Beal and Rogers,
1957), while personal sources are most used in the later
evaluation stages (Engel, Blackwell and Kegerries, 1969;
Kohn-Berning and Jacoby, 1974).

A conclusion from this is that the mass media should be

used mainly to create awareness and comprehension, and
that it has little ability to persuade or influence attitudes.
This has lead to the development of the concept of
"agenda setting", that the role of mass media is to focus
consumers' attention on the values, products, brands or
attributes to think about, rather than try to persuade
consumers what to think (Sutherland and Galloway, 1981).
A later study (Ghorpade, 1986) tested this agenda-setting
function and concluded that advertising can focus attention
on which attributes of a product to think about (i.e. salience
in the audience's mind), and that this transfer of salience
can lead to intended behavioural outcomes, such as buying.

Other authors have suggested that the mass media may

not even have this limited role. Lazer and Bell (1966)
reported that awareness of innovation came from more
personal communications, and if more information is then
required, the mass media tend to be consulted. O'Brien
(1971) comments that "it is particularly interesting that
commercial information (advertising) has no direct
influence on ultimate purchase . . . such influence begins
solely with personal sources" (p. 40).

The video study similarly found an extremely limited use

of the mass media. The most dominant influence
throughout the decision process was personal influence.
Friends and relatives were used most frequently, and
seemed to have by far the most influence. In the pre-
market stage, friends helped supply knowledge about the
general market, and generally stimulated interest. They,
 COMMUNICATION AND THE NATURE OF CONSUMER DECISION PROCESSES
thus, performed the "agenda-setting" functions, but they
also gave information of a more specific nature which would
help in the market-search stage by clarifying potential
criteria and alternatives.
The limited amount of visits to shops or stores which is
usually noted in studies of search behaviour (Udell, 1966;
Alderson and Sessions, 1962; Newton and Gilmore, 1969;
Bucklin, 1966; William and Dardis, 1972) may lead to the
conclusion that they are not useful sources of information.
However, in the video study, shopping, specifically window
shopping, was the second major information source after
friends and relatives (Fletcher, 1987). Respondents had
a poor opinion of sales assistants' knowledge or veracity
and were generally not consulted until thefinalstages of
the decision process, and even then had little influence.
However, window shopping, or walking round a large
multiple or department store without talking to assistants,
was used to gather information about the range of
alternatives and the main product features, and seemed
to have a major influence on later choice. This form of
information gathering was often conducted walking past
shop windows. In low-involvement situations, passive
search is an ideal way of gaining awareness about products
and brands, as it involves the least effort, suggesting
window and point-of-sale displays can play an important
role. It is possible that this had led to previous researchers
underestimating the importance of this form of search.
Conclusion
Marketers should not place too great a burden on the
advertising element of the marketing mix. In both high
and low-involvement situations, the objectives it can
achieve are limited to creating awareness and
comprehension. In the high-involvement situation, this may
lead to the increased salience of brands, or attributes of
those brands, which may influence attitude formation and
later purchase. In the low-involvement situation, continual
repetition of an advertisement may cause changes in our
perceptions of a brand or product, but in ways that fall
short of persuasion or attitude change (Krugman, 1965).
Persuasion or attitude change will take place in this
situation either through actual trial of the product or from
some other easily obtained/trusted source, such as friends
and neighbours, or personal inspection.
Emphasis should be placed on other aspects of the
promotional mix, such as sales promotion and point-of-
sale material, which should serve the function of gaining
attention and possibly stimulating action, both in low and
high-involvement situations. Personal influence channels
and word of mouth (WOM) are also important channels
of information and influence, both in low and high-
involvement situations, although for different reasons.
However, as Klapper (1960) has pointed out:
25
Personal influence may be more effective than persuasive
mass communications, but at present mass communication
seems the most effective way of stimulating personal
influence.
Manufacturers have to follow the basic tenets of marketing,
that consumers must be analysed to find out why they
buy your product, and how they buy it. With this
knowledge, communication campaigns can be devised
which are complementary to the rest of the marketing
mix, and which will be most efficient in gaining achievable
objectives. Without this knowledge, manufacturers will
remain in the position of knowing that half their advertising
is wasted, but not knowing which half.
Finally, eight basic dos and do nots can be listed which
follow from what has been said:
(1) Do not assume involvement. Contrary to your
beliefs, consumers are generally not interested
in your product and could well live without it.
(2) Do not assume your product is strongly
differentiated from competing products in the mind
of the consumer. You may consider your product
stands alone; the consumer may have a
completely different set of values which makes
competing products interchangeable.
(3) Do not assume consumers will be interested
enough to read your communications, even if they
are placed in front of them. Consumers tend to
collect information in the easiest and most
enjoyable way. This normally means friends and
window shopping.
(4) Do not assume consumers are irrational and fickle
because they make decisions in their own
idiosyncratic way. Within their own constraints and
values, they are being completely rational.
(5) Do try and build up an information environment
favourable to your company.
(6) Do make your product, and information about your
product, widely and easily available.
(7) Do ensure distribution is extensive and displays
prominent.
(8) Do be aware of the importance of communicating
a general image of reliability, dependability and
trustworthiness. This helps consumers believe
the manufacturer's claims they attend to.
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