Module 3:

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

3.1 Cell
 The cell is the fundamental organizational unit of all living systems, including microorganisms.
 It provides the essential basis for organization, growth, metabolism, reproduction and heredity,
which are the critical functions that comprise the essential characteristics of fife.
 There are two different types of cells of living organisms:
i. Prokaryotic cells (cells lacking a nucleus bacteria.
ii. Eukaryotic cells (cells with a nucleus) protozoa, algae and fungi
iii. All cells have some common properties regardless of whether their organizational structure is
prokaryotic or eukaryotic. Cell of all organisms:
iv. i. are highly organized ii. are capable of growth and reproduction ili.. Contain the same heredity
molecule – DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)

V.3-2 Prokaryotic Cell

 The prokaryotic cell is more primitive and simple than eukaryotic cell.
 It does not have membrane bound compartments, called organelles, that serve specialized
functions, ass occurs in eukaryotic cells.
 A prokaryotic cell does not have a nucleus and the heredity information (DNA) of a prokaryotic
cell is not separated from the other constituents within the specialized organelle from the rest
of the contents is of prime importance in distinguishing prokaryotic from eukaryotic cells

32-Prokaryofic Cell

3.2.2 Flagella

 The primary function of flagella is to confer motility or self-propulsion that is, the capacity of a
cell to swim freely through an aqueous habitat. As the flagellum rotates, it causes the cell body
to spin in the opposite direction and gives the cell a forward motion.

3.2.3 The Cell Envelope

 The cell envelope is the complex of layers external to the cell protoplasm. The layers of the
envelope are stacked one upon another and are often tightly bonded together. The three basic
layers that can be identified are:

Function of cell Membrane

 To regulate transport- that is the passage of nutrients into cell and the discharge of wastes.
 Enzyme secretion- the enzymes of respiration are located at the membrane. Macromolecules
(carbohydrate, protein and fat) cannot permeate through the cell membrane. The enzyme is
needed to brake the macromolecules
 Cell membrane provides a site for the functions such as energy reactions, nutrient processing
and synthesis.
3.2.4 Protoplasm

 Protoplasm is a prominent site for many of the cell's biochemical and synthetic activities. ts
major component is water (70-80%), which serves as a solvent for the cell pool a complex
mixture of nutrients, including sugars, amino acids and salts.
 The components of this pool serve as building blocks for cell synthesis or as sources of energy.
Also contains larger, discrete cells masses such as the chromatin body, ribosomes, mesosomes
and granules.
 Chromatin bodies - the heredity material of bacteria exists in the form of a single Circular strand
of DNA designated as the chromatin body or bacterial chromosome. By the definition, bacteria
do not have a nucleus that is their DNA is not enclosed by a nuclear membrane, but instead is
aggregated in a dense area of the cell called the nucleoid.
 Ribosomes- a bacterial cell contains thousands of tiny, discrete units called ribosomes.
Ribosomes is where the protein synthesis is performed.
 Cytoplasmic inclusion/ granules inclusion bodies/ granules contain condensed, energy- rich
organic substance including glycogen, fat and phosphate.

3.2.5 Bacterial Endospore

 Only certain bacteria have endospore. This type of bacteria is called an endospore because it is
produced inside a cell. Endospore is formed when the environment is not suitable for the
bacteria to be reproductive.

3.3 Eukaryotic Cell

 All eukaryotic microbial cells have a cytoplasmic membrane, nucleus, mitochondria,

endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, vacuoles and cytoskeleton.
 A cell wall, locomotors appendages, chloroplasts and glycocalyx are found only in eukaryotes

Flagella

 The eukaryotic flagellum is thicker, structurally more complex and covered by an extension of
the cell membrane.
 Surface Structures

There are 3 basic layers:

1. Glycocalyx - An outermost boundary that comes in direct contact with the environment. This
structure is usually composed of polysaccharides. The glycocalyx contributes to protection,
adherence of cells to surfaces and reception of signals from other cells and from the
environment.
2. Cell wall - Cell walls of algal and fungal cells are rigid and provide structural support and shape.
Fungal cell walls have a thick, inner layer of polysaccharide fibers composed of chitin or
cellulose and a thin outer layer of mixed glycan’s.
3. Cytoplasmic membrane - The cytoplasmic membrane of eukaryotic cells is a typical bilayer of
lipids in which protein molecules are embedded. Also contain sterols.

3.3.3 The Nucleus:

  The Cell Control Center
 The nucleus is a compact sphere that is the most prominent organelle of eukaryotic cells. It is
separated from the cell cytoplasm by an external boundary called a nuclear envelope.
 Nucleus contains chromosomes that bring the genetic information (DNA). In the nucleus,
nucleolus produce components that are used to build protein.

33.4 Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

 There are two kinds of ER:

o rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER)
o Smooth endoplasmic reticulum ( SER)
 The RER originates from the nucleus membrane and extends in a continuous network through
the cytoplasm even to the cell membrane. This is to permits the RER to transport materials from
the nucleus to cytoplasm.
 The RER appears rough because of large numbers of ribosome partly attached to its membrane.
Protein are synthesized on the ribosome.
 The SER is a closed tubular network within ribosome that functions in nutrient processing and
synthesis and storage of non-protein macromolecules such as lipids, sterols and glycogen.

3.3.5 Ribosome: Protein Synthesis

 Ribosome are numerous, tiny particles and distributed in two ways:

 Some are scattered freely in cytoplasm
 Others associated with the RER as previously described

3.3.6 Mitochondria

 The function of mitochondria is to supply energy.

 Respiration process in the cristae (inner membrane), extract energy from the nutrient molecules
and stores it in the form of high-energy molecules or ATP adenosine triphosphate critae).

3.3.7 Chloroplast

Chloroplasts are only found in algae and plant cells that are capable of converting into of energy through
energy of photosynthesis sunlight into chemical

3.3.8 Golgi Complex

 This Organelle is always closely associated with the endoplasmic reticulum, both in its location
and function.

 History of Microbiology
 Microbiology is the study of microorganism microbes which is visible only with a microscope.
The diverse group of organisms includes algae, archae, bacteria, cyanobacteria, fungi, protozoa,
viruses. Most of the microorganisms are harmless. 99% are good. E.g.: Cyanobacteria (blue
green algae) 1% are bad. E.g.: Pathogens
MICROBIOLOGY Discovery Era Transition Era Golden Era Modern Era

 DISCOVERY ERA: "Spontaneous generation

o Aristotle (384-322) and others believed that living organisms could develop from non-living
materials. In 13th century,
o Rogen Bacon described that the disease caused by a minute "seed or "germ".
o Antony Van Leeuwenhoek (1632 1723)
Descriptions of Protozoa, basic types of bacteria, yeasts and algae.
Father of Bacteriology and protozoology.
In 1676, he observed and described microorganisms such as bacteria and
protozoa as "Animalcules".
The term microbe is used by Sedillot in 1878.
TRANSITION ERA:
o Francesco Redi (1626 1697) He showed that maggots would not arise from decaying meat,
when it is covered.
o John Needham (1713- 1781)
Supporter of the spontaneous generation theory.
He proposed that tiny organism (animalcules) arose spontaneously on the mutton gravy.
He covered the flasks with cork as done by Redi, Still the microbes appeared on mutton
broth. Lazzaro spallanzai (1729-1799)
He demonstrated that air carried germs to the culture medium. He showed that boiled
broth would not give rise to microscopic forms of life.

 GOLDEN ERA:

o Louis Pasteur
He is the father of Medical Microbiology.
He pointed that no growth took place in swan neck shaped tubes because dust and
gems had been trapped on the walls of the curved necks but if the necks were broken
off so that dust fell directly down into the flask, microbial growth commenced
immediately.
Pasteur in 1897 suggested that mild heating at 62.8°C (145° F) for 30 minutes rather
than boiling was enough to destroy the undesirable organisms without ruining the taste
of the product, the process was called Pasteurization.
He invented the processes of pasteurization, fermentation and the development of
effective vaccines (rabies and anthrax). Pasteur demonstrated diseases of silkworm was
due to a protozoan parasite.

Contributions of Louis Pasteur:

He coined the term "microbiology", aerobic, anaerobic. D He disproved the theory of

spontaneous germination.
He demonstrated that anthrax was caused by bacteria and also produced the vaccine for
the disease. He developed live attenuated vaccine for the disease
.

o John Tyndall (1820 1893)

 He discovered highly resistant bacterial structure, later known as endospore. Prolonged
boiling or intermittent heating was necessary to kill these spores, to make the infusion
completely sterilized, a process known as Tyndallisation. Lord Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
He is the father of antiseptic surgery.
Lister concluded that wound infections too were due to microorganisms.
He also devised a method to destroy microorganisms in the operation theatre by
spraying a fine mist of carbolic acid into the air.

o Robert Koch (1893-1910)

He demonstrated the role of bacteria in causing disease.
He perfected the technique of isolating bacteria in pure culture.
Robert Koch used gelatin to prepare solid media but it was not an ideal because
 Since gelatin is a protein, it is digested by many bacteria capable of producing a
proteolytic exoenzyme gelatinase that hydrolyses the protein to amino acids.
 It melts when the temperature rises above 25°C.

o Fanne Eilshemius Hesse (1850 1934)
One of Koch's assistant first proposed the use of agar in culture media. it was not
attacked by most bacteria. Agar is better than gelatin because of its higher melting
pointing (96°c) and solidifying (40-45֯c) points.

o Richard Petri (1887)

He developed the Petri dish (plate), a container used for solid culture media.

o Edward Jenner (1749-1823)

First to prevent small pox.
He discovered the technique of vaccination. Alexander Flemming
He discovered the penicillin from penicillium notatum that destroy several pathogenic
bacteria. Paul Erlich (1920)
He discovered the treatment of syphilis by using arsenic.
He Studied toxins and antitoxins in quantitative terms & laid foundation of biological
standardization.

 IMPORTANT DISCOVERIES:
 Bacteria: Hansen (1874) - Leprosy bacillus
 Neisser (1879) – Gonococcus
 Ogston (1881)- Staphylococcus
 Loeffler (1884)- Diphtheria bacillus
 Roux and Yersin -Diphtheria toxin Viruses:
 Beijerinck (1898) - Coined the term Virus for filterable infectious agents.
 Pasteur developed Rabies vaccine.
 GoodPasteur - Cultivation of viruses on chick embryos.
 Charles Chamberland, one of Pasteur's associates constructed a porcelain bacterial filter.
 Twort and d'Herelle - Bacteriophages.
 Edward Jenner - Vaccination for Smallpox.

 MODERN ERA:
 Nobel Laureates Years Nobel laureates Contribution 1901
o Von behring Dipth antitox 1902
o Ronald Ross Malaia 1905
o Robert koch Tb 1908 Metchnikoff Phagocytosis 19455
o Flemming Penicillin 1962
o Watson, Crick Structur DNA 1968
o Holley,Khorana Genetic code 1997
o Pruisner Prions 2002
o Brenner, Hervitz Genetic regulation of organ development &cell death

 NATURAL HISTORY OF DISEASE

 CONCEPT OF DISEASE
o Webster-" Disease is a condition in which body health is impaired, a departure from a
state of health, an alteration of the human body interrupting the performance of vital
functions."
o Oxford English dictionary-"Disease is a condition of the body or some part of organ of
the body in which its functions are disrupted or deranged."
o Ecological-"a maladjustment of human organism to the environment.
Disease-(without ease) It is a physiological psychological dysfunction.
Illness- it is subjective state of the person who feels aware of not being well
Sickness- It is a state of social dysfunction.

 SPECTRUM OF DISEASE
 Subclinical cases
Severe illness Acute e.g. food poisoning
Chronic-e.g. meumatoid arthritis
Carrier Typhoid fever. More than one clinical manifestation- e.g. streptococcus Caused
by more than one organisms e.g. diarrhea. Borderline between normal & abnormal- e.g.
diabetes, hypertension, mental illness.

 CONCEPT OF CAUSATION
Germ theory of disease- disease agent- man- disease
Limitations-
Epidemiological triad- Agent, Host, Environment
Multi factorial causation "Pettenkofer” of Munich Modem diseases of civilization like lung
cancer, CHD, chronic bronchitis, mental illness etc.
Etiological factors- social, economic, cultural, genetic, psychological etc. CHD- smoking, excess
of fat intake, obesity, lack of physical exercise, sedentary life style, human behavior etc.

 WEB OF CAUSATION - MACMAHON & PUGH (for disease)

Phenotype Workplace
Social organization Unknown factors
Behavior Genes
Environment Microbes
 WEB OF CAUSATION-CHD

Stress Medication Smoking

 Physical activity

Inflammation Lipids
Blood pressure Genetic susceptibility
Unknown factors
Gender

 WEB OF CAUSATION FOR MYOCARDIAL INFRACTION

Changes in life style Emotional disturbances

Lack of physical activity Ageing & Other factors
Abundance of food Coronary occlusion
Smoking Myocardial ischemia
Stress Myocardial infarction
Obesity Changes in walls of arteries
Hyper lipidemia Increased catacholamines thrombotic
Coronary atherosclerosis tendency
Hypertension

 NATURAL HISTORY OF DISEASE

o PREVENTION OF NCDS (NON-COMMUNICABLE DISEASE)
 Levels of prevention-
Primordial prevention - for healthy people
Primary prevention for healthy people
Secondary prevention - for unhealthy people
Tertiary prevention for unhealthy people

 MODES OF INTERVENTION
 Intervention is defined as any attempt to interrupt the usual sequence in the
development of disease in man, by provision of treatment, education, help or
social support.'
 Five modes of intervention-

Health promotion Disability limitation

Specific protection Rehabilitation
Early diagnosis & treatment

 PRIMORDIAL PREVENTION
Prevention of the emergence or development of risk factors in countries or
population groups in which they have not yet appeared. Efforts are directed
towards discouraging children from adopting harmful life styles
 Primary prevention Action taken prior to the onset of disease which removes
the possibility that disease will ever occur.
 Can be divided into population (mass) strategy high risk strategy
 PRIMARY PREVENTION- INTERVENTIONS
Health promotion e.g.-proper tooth brushing/Smoking cessation
reduction of sweet consumption
Specific protection e.g. Regular dental checkup/plaque removal
Adequate nutrition e.g healthy diet / nutrition
Safe water and sanitation -fluoride water and oral hygiene

 HEALTH PROMOTION
Health education e.g. personal hygiene, sex education, life style etc.
Environmental modification e.g. provision of safe water, control of insects& rodents, sanitary
latrines
Nutritional interventions-food fortification, nutrition education, infant feeding program etc.
Life style & behavioral changes- physical exercise, prevention of smoking, alcoholism, fatty diet.
Family planning & spacing of births
Yoga exercises, meditation etc.

 SPECIFIC PROTECTION
o Immunization
Use of specific nutrients e.g. vit. A, IFA tab, iodized salt
Helmet against head injury
Protection against occupational hazards - use of ear plugs, lead apron, masks
Avoidance of allergens
Protection from carcinogens D
Pasteurization of milk
Traffic signals against road accidents

 SECONDARY PREVENTION
Early Diagnosis & treatment Action which halts the progress of disease at its incipient stage &
prevents complications.
Mostly curative.

 EARLY DIAGNOSIS &TREATMENT C

Helps in recovery from the disease (restoration)
Reduces the duration of illness in the individual
Reduces high morbidity & prevention of mortality
Prevents development of complications
Prevents spread of disease in the community e.g. T.B., leprosy, S.T.D.,
Ca cervix, Ca breast, Hypertension etc.

 Screening procedures
Diseases diagnosed early Contact tracing
 STDs Cluster testing STDs
Blood & urine exam. Diabetes mellitus
Screening of blood donors HIV/I AIDS, Hepatitis B, Syphilis, Malaria
Recording of blood pressure Hypertension
Pap smear of cervix Cancer cervix

 TERTIARY PREVENTION

Disability limitation & Rehabilitation Defined as all measures available to reduce impairments &
disabilities, minimize suffering due to departure from good health & promote patients' adjustment to
irremediable conditions e.g Stroke

 DISABILTY LIMITATION-- Disease- Impairment-- Disability- Handicap

Impairment -defect in the structures& function of an organ or a part of the body

Disability- inability to carry out routine, expected activities, considered normal for that age, sex due to
impairment.

Handicap-disadvantage in the life & not able to play the role, expected out of her/ him, resulting from
the impairment or disability

REHABILITATION It is defined as "combined & coordinated use of physical vocational &

psychological measures for training & retraining the individual to the highest possible level of functional
ability”

Physical rehabilitation- restoration of function

Vocational rehabilitation - restoration of earning capacity
Social rehabilitation-restoration of relationship in the society
Psychological rehabilitation -personal dignity & confidence

 REHABILITATION
o Examples of rehabilitation-
Establishing the schools for the blind
Providing aids for crippled, such as artificial limb, crutches, wheel chair, hearing aid etc.
Reconstructive surgery in leprosy
Graded exercises in paralysis D
Intraocular implantation of lens among cataract patients.