Chapter 16

Power System Fault Analysis

16.1 BASIC SYSTEM RELATIONSHIPS
S 5 total power 5 O3 VL IL
P 5 real power 5 O3 VL IL cos (Φ)
Q 5 reactive power 5 O3 VL IL sin (Φ)
VL 5 line voltage, VL 5 O3 VPH, VPH 5 phase voltage, cos (Φ) 5 power
factor as shown in Fig. 16.1 which describes the relation between the
power system quantities in vector diagram representaion.
Operator a:
a 5 1+120
; a2 5 1+240
; 1 1 a 1 a2 5 0
Operator J:
j 5 1+90
; j2 5 2 1
MVAbase 5 O3 kVbase 3 Ibase. The common usage is 100 MVA as base
MVA
MVAb
Z% 5 ZðΩÞ 3
ðKvÞ2
Z% 5 MVAb
MVAf 3 100, where MVAF 5 fault MVA

16.2 SYMMETRICAL AND UNSYMMETRICAL COMPONENTS

Any unsymmetrical phasors can be analyzed as three symmetrical compo-
nents, as shown in Fig. 16.2.

16.2.1 Positive Sequence

The three phasors are equal in magnitude. They are displaced from each
other by 120 degrees in phase, and have the same phase sequence as the
original phasors.

Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-816858-5.00016-2 163
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164 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

FIGURE 16.1 Voltage and current phasor diagram.

FIGURE 16.2 Unsymmetrical component converted to a three symmetrical components.

16.2.2 Negative Sequence

The three phasors are equal in magnitude. They are displaced from each
other by 120 degrees in phase, and have a phase sequence opposite to that of
the original phasors.
 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 165

FIGURE 16.3 Positive-, negative-, and zero sequence representation of three-phase vectors.

16.2.3 Zero Sequence

The three phasors are equal in magnitude and with zero phase displacement
from each other as shown in Fig. 16.2.
Based on this analysis any faulted network can be represented by three
phase networks:
1. Positive-phase sequence network;
2. Negative-phase sequence network;
3. Zero-phase sequence network.
The advantage of this representation is that the three-phase network can
be represented in a single-phase network and analyzed simply for faults, as
shown in Fig. 16.3.

16.2.4 The Symmetrical Components of Unsymmetrical Phasors

A set of three unbalanced phasors (Va, Vb, and Vc) can be represented as
three sets of phasors: a positive-sequence set, a negative-sequence set, and a
zero-sequence set, where:
1
Va1 5 ðVa 1 aVb 1 a2 Vc Þ
3
1
Va2 5 ðVa 1 a2 Vb 1 aVc Þ
3
1
Va0 5 ðVa 1 Vb 1 Vc Þ
3

16.3 SEQUENCE IMPEDANCE NETWORKS

Refer to Fig. 16.4 for a sequence network representation.
166 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

FIGURE 16.4 Sequence network representation.

16.3.1 Power Transformer, Generator, Cables, Transmission

Lines Sequence Networks
A power transformer can be represented as Z% between a high- and low-
voltage terminal regardless of voltage level, as shown in Fig. 16.5.
Refer also to Figs. 16.6 and 16.7, respectively, for two-winding and
three-winding transformer sequence network representations.
Refer to Fig. 16.8 for an autotransformer with tertiary winding sequence
networks.
Refer to Fig. 16.9 for earthing transformer sequence networks:

16.3.1.1 Conclusion
Transformer sequence impedances are described here.
Positive-sequence impedance:
Z1 5 Z% (transformer percentage impedance)
Negative-sequence impedance:
Z2 5 Z% (transformer percentage impedance)
Zero-sequence impedance:
Refer to Fig. 16.10.
Cable sequence impedances are described here.
Positive-sequence impedance:
Z1 can be calculated or determined by testing.
 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 167

FIGURE 16.5 Transformer percentage impedance.

FIGURE 16.6 Two-winding transformer sequence impedances.

FIGURE 16.7 Three-winding transformer sequence impedances.

168 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

FIGURE 16.8 Autotransformer with tertiary winding sequence networks.

FIGURE 16.9 Earthing transformer sequence networks.

Negative-sequence impedance:
Z2 5 Z1
Zero-sequence impedance:
Z0 . Z1
Motor sequence impedances are described here.
 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 169

FIGURE 16.10 Zero-sequence impedance networks of two-winding transformers.

Positive-sequence impedance:
X1 5 subtransient reactance
Negative-sequence impedance:
X2 5 X1
Zero-sequence impedance:
Z0 5 0
Transmission line sequence impedances are described here.
Positive-sequence impedance:
Z1 can be calculated
170 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

Negative-sequence impedance:
Z2 5 Z1
Zero-sequence impedance:
Z0 can be calculated or determined by testing.
Synchronous generator sequence impedances are now described.
The positive-sequence impedance of a generator is approximately equal
to: Xs (steady state reactance).
The negative-sequence impedance of a generator is approximately equal
to: Xsv (sub transient reactance).
The zero-sequence impedance of a generator is approximately equal to:
XL (leakage reactance).

16.4 SYMMETRICAL THREE-PHASE FAULT ANALYSES

This type of fault is a symmetrical fault as it is on the three phases at the
same time as shown below (Fig. 16.11):
V R 5 V Y 5 V B; IR 1 IY 1 IB 5 0
E
I1 5
Zs 1 Z1

16.4.1 Unsymmetrical Single-Phase Fault Analyses

This fault is unsymmetrical as it is on one phase and earth, and can be ana-
lyzed as follows (Fig. 16.12):
V R 5 0; I Y 1 I B 5 0; I1 5 I2 5 I0; I R 5 3I 1
E
I1 5
3Zs 1 2Z1 1 Z0
IF 5 3 I0

FIGURE 16.11 Three-phase fault.

 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 171

FIGURE 16.12 Single phase to earth fault.

FIGURE 16.13 Phase-to-phase fault.

16.4.2 Unsymmetrical Phase-to-Phase Fault Analyses

This fault is unsymmetrical as it is from one phase to another phase and it
can be analyzed as follows (Fig. 16.13):
VR 5 VY ; IR 5 2 IY ; I1 5 2 I2; IB 5 0
E
I1 5
2Zs 1 2Z1

16.4.3 Unsymmetrical Phase-to-Phase Faults to Earth Analyses

This fault is unsymmetrical as it is on one phase to another phase to ground
and can be analyzed as follows (Fig. 16.14):
I2 1 I0 5 2 I1
E
I1 5

ðZ s 1 Z 2 ÞðZ s 1 Z 0 Þ
Z1 1 Zs 1 2Zs 1 Z2 1 Z0
172 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

FIGURE 16.14 Phase to phase to earth fault.

FIGURE 16.15 Single-phase open-circuit fault.

16.4.4 Unsymmetrical Single-Phase Open-Circuit Fault

Analyses
This fault is unsymmetrical as it is on one phase only and can be analyzed as
follows (Fig. 16.15):
I2 1 I0 5 2 I1

16.4.5 Three-Phase Equivalent Fault Level and Fault Current

To make the calculation simple, a single-phase fault can be represented
approximately as three-phase faults, for example:
h i
b 3 100
MVA 3Φ equivalent to 1Φ fault 5 3 MVA 2Z1 1 Z0
MVA3Φequivalent
IF 5 pffiffiffi
3VL
Sequence voltages for different fault types.
 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 173

FIGURE 16.16 The different sequence voltage phasors for different fault types.

Refer to Fig. 16.16 for the different sequence voltage phasors for differ-
ent fault types.

16.5 WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Impedance.
Impedance on 100 MVA base 5 (impedance on rating) 3 (100/rated
MVA)
174 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

For example, a 240 MVA SGT has a name plate rating of 20%;
20 3 100
Rating on 100 MVA 5
240
5 8:33%
2. MVA
Fault rating and fault in-feed are expressed in MVA. This is related to
percent impedance by the following:
Percent impedance 5 10; 000=MVA if the base is 100 MVA
For example, if the fault infeed at a particular substation is 35,000
MVA, then the source impedance, expressed as a percentage on 100
MVA base, will be 0.286.
Similarly, if it is calculated that the impedance to a particular fault is
2% (on 100 MVA), then the fault infeed will be 5000 MVA.
To derive the fault current (If), either:
a. Use If 5 fault infeed (MVA)/(kV 3 1.732) kA
b. Or If 5 10,000/(kV 3 1.732 3 Z%) kA
3. Ohmic impedance
To convert percent impedance to primary ohmic impedance:
Taking Z% 5 percent impedance on 100 MVA
104
Z% 5
MVA
V2
MVA 5
Z
104 3 Z
Z% 5
V2

Then, primary impedance (Ω) 5 Z% 3 (kV2 /10,000)

For example: if Z% 5 2, and kV 5 400, then Zprim 5 32 Ω.
Conversely, Z% 5 Zprim (10,000/kV2 ).
To convert primary ohmic impedance to secondary ohmic impedance,
this can be done by using the following impedance conversion factor
This depends upon the VT and CT ratios, as follows:
Zsec 5 Zprim 3 ðCT ratio=VT ratioÞ
For example, for 400 kV, with 2000/1 CTs:
Zsec 5 Zprim 3 ð2000 3 110=396; 000Þ
General notes for calculating the impedance to fault and fault current
are described here. To calculate the fault current, it is first necessary to
draw out the network involved. From this the impedance network is
 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 175

constructed, starting from an infinite source and leading to the fault posi-
tion. All values of impedance used to construct the network must refer to
the same MVA base. For consistency, always use the percent impedance to
a base of 100 MVA.
If the fault being considered is a three-phase fault, then there will only be
positive-sequence quantities present, therefore only positive-sequence impe-
dances need to be considered.
The impedance to the fault can now be calculated, and from this the fault
current can then be calculated (IF). The fault current in other parts of the net-
work can be derived using network analysis techniques, with the fault current
at the relay point.
If the protection relay is an impedance measuring type (i.e., distance pro-
tection) then it may only be necessary to calculate the impedance to the
fault.
Example 1:
Three-phase balanced fault (Fig. 16.17)
Calculations:
Total impedance 5 Z 5 0.4 1 1.5 1 8.3 5 10.2
MVAF 5 10,000/Z% 5 10,000/10.2 5 980 MVA
IF 5 MVAF/(kV 3 1.732) 5 980/(132 3 1.732) 5 4.286 kA
Example 2:
Single phase-to-earth fault (Fig. 16.18)

FIGURE 16.17 Three-phase balanced fault.

176 Practical Power System and Protective Relays Commissioning

FIGURE 16.18 Single phase to earth fault.

FIGURE 16.19 Phase-to-phase fault.

Calculations:
Ztotal 5 10.2 1 (10.2 1 ((0.4 1 4 1 8.2) 3 12.8)/(0.4 1 4 1 8.2 1 12.8))
5 26.25%
I1 5 I2 5 I0 5 10,000/(Z%) 5 10,000/26.25 5 381 MVA
IF 5 I1 1 I2 1 I0 5 3 3 381 5 1143 MVA
IF 5 MVAF/kV 3 1.732 5 1143/(132 3 1.732) 5 4.999 kA
 Power System Fault Analysis Chapter | 16 177

Example 3:
Phase-to-phase fault (Fig. 16.19)
Calculations:
Ztotal 5 10.2 1 10.2 5 20.4%
MVAF 5 10,000/20.4 5 490 MVA
IF 5 I1 5 I2 5 490 MVA
IY 5 IB 5 1.732 3 490 5 849 MVA