SOCIO-CULTURAL LINKS BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND

SOCIETY

Language is both a system of communication between individuals and a social phenomenon. The
study of language and society - sociolinguistics - can be dated to about the middle of the
twentieth century. Today, cultural awareness is becoming more and more important, and people
are starting to realize that cultural differences affect our interactions with people from other
cultures.

Linguistics is primarily concerned with explaining the patterns and structures of human
language. Central to this pursuit is an understanding that human language is a unique
phenomenon and must somehow be coded in the brain. The area of language and society -
sociolinguistics - is intended to show how our use of language is governed by such factors as
class, gender, race, etc. A subsection of this area is anthropological linguistics, which is
concerned with form and use of language in different cultures, and to what extent the
development of language has been influenced by cultural environment. Consequently, it is vital
to develop our cultural awareness and to deepen our knowledge about the different cultures.

The subject «foreign language» introduces not only the culture of the countries of the target
language, but by comparison demonstrates the features of national culture, introduces the
universal values. In other words, it helps students in the context of the «dialogue of cultures».
The term «culture of the target language» refers to the body of knowledge and experience that
allows students to be appropriate members of the intercultural communication. Any foreign
language should be taught as a phenomenon of social and cultural reality. Special attention
should be given to the formation of learners' communication skills, cultural competence and
positive attitude towards another culture. The development of sociocultural competence in
language teaching supposes a communication-oriented approach. Sociocultural competence
anticipates the knowledge of another culture, respect and tolerance towards others. The purpose
of learning a foreign language and culture can be expressed as a preparation to real intercultural
communication.

A number of authors interpret the intercultural communication as an adequate understanding of

communication participants belonging to different countries. Anthropology is a holistic science
which encompasses every aspect of human society and culture at present. It can also trace human
evolution and development stretching back into prehistory. There are two main branches of
anthropology: 1) Cultural or social anthropology which studies living human societies and their
cultural systems; 2) Physical or biological anthropology which is primarily concerned with
human evolution at a much greater time depth.

Typical issues in anthropological linguistics are linguistic relativity, systems of address,

politeness or different modes of communication across cultures. The ethnography of
communication is concerned with cultural differences in acts of communication, in particular
what additional features accompany speech. Countries also differ is the use of the hands when
talking. The body movements used in communication (kinesics) can vary over relatively small
distances. Northern Europeans in general use their hands sparingly when talking; indeed Irish
men very often just keep them in their pockets. In many countries raising the eyebrows with
deliberate eye contact and a slight twist of the head is used when seeking approval or asking a
question.

In certain African cultures it is regarded as impertinent to look someone in the eye who is
perceived as socially superior. The lack of eye contact can be disconcerting for Europeans who
may regard it as a sign of deviousness. The question of touch is another sensitive issue. In most
European cultures, shaking the hand of someone you meet is normal at the beginning of an
encounter. Women may hug each other and men on occasions too, though it is by no means
established behaviour. This does not apply outside Europe to any like the same extent. In east
and south-east Asia one might make a slight bow instead or press one one's hands together under
one's chin and nod as in Thailand. There are strong taboos on touching others in various cultures.
This question is related to gender as well. It is not allowed for strangers to touch a woman they
do not know in Arabic countries so one should not attempt to shake the hand of another man's
wife. Every conversation has a beginning and an end. The right to initiate a conversation may not
apply to everyone, but only to an older person or a social superior. The termination of a
conversation is less strongly codified though this too may be done by the person with relatively
more social status.

Sociolinguistics looks at the role which language plays in society, the identity function it has in
communities and how attitudes frequently determine language use. Vernacular forms of language
are important for the internal cohesion of social networks. Socially driven language change can
be observed by minute investigation of variation. Such change can be triggered by the imitation
of prestige groups and their forms of language.
Social and Cultural Aspects of Language: Its Implication in Language Teaching

Looking across Culture

To get better understanding how cultures can be taught in an English teaching and learning
process, the following is an illustration of two different cultures: Indonesian and English. Let us
examine how similar or unlike they are.  We shall  look at surface features only, what we see in
everyday life. It is  hoped that this demonstrates the differences that exist within the west. (Most
examples are quoted from Francis O”Brian’s paper, 1991: 3-5).

Indonesia

Britain

EATING

 3-4 times a day

3 times a day

No regular

important meal

selamatan;
weddings, etc

Dinner in the

Evening

Unusual to

talk during a meal

Usual to talk,

But no much

GETTING ON BUSES

Push on shove;

No waiting

Very important

to queue-seen

as fair

SOCIAL GATHERING

May begin with

A speech; often a strong

Religious element;

Familiar format

Often inside;

drinking very

important, food less so ; no

Set format

One of the objectives of foreign language teaching is to promote international understanding and
cooperation by enabling students to gain access to the life and thought of a people who speak
another language. This objective becomes the culture of another group.

Hostility can arise because of ignorance. People are likely to be wary of something they do not
know. For most people, the main opportunity to learn something about a foreign culture is when
they learn a foreign language. Therefore, language teaching should incorporate some teaching  of
culture in its contents. Teachers of a foreign language thus have the responsibility to ensure that
their pupils have some awareness of the culture of the target language. In this case, that culture is
an English language one. Here, we shall restrict ourselves to a consideration of British culture.
We shall look at differences between Indonesia and Britain, in an attempt to see where hostility or
mistrust and mutual misunderstanding, can occur.

The following are few examples of how British and Indonesian culture differ which might be
useful be taught to our students.

 
 

-Impolite to use the left

hand to pass things or to eat

Both hands may be used

Impolite to show the soles

of your feet to someone

No stigma attached to

the soles of the feet

Polite to dip your shoulder

if passing someone of higher status

No physical reaction to

people of higher status

a smile is enough

People usually go straight

In to the house / room

Polite to wait for the

Host to say come in

before you enter

-Polite to take off your

shoes when entering a house

Only take off you shoes if

It is your house,

or if invited to do so

When your hear something bad

Embarrassing or distressing,

The usual reaction is laughter (in public)

More usual to look

Shocked, sad, surprised, etc.

A smile is most inappropriate

Polite to stare at some one

Impolite to stare;

may provoke a violent reaction

( what are you looking at?)

Impolite to ask for salt,

etc, when eating at another

person’s  house

No problem

Group Behaviour

 Often families live very

Close to each other

Families more dispersed

and may not see each

other frequently

Rarely alone in the house

Often sleep a lone

Gotong royong

Such systematic collective

Work does not exist

When there’s a funeral, most people take part in a procession

Very  rare ; funerals are usually limited to close friends and family

If someone is ill, or if there is a death, many

people from the office, neighborhood, etc, go and visit, to pay their respects

Visiting is limited to

close friends and family

other people write a

letter of condolence

if they wish

Decent or modest clothing is required on all occasions outside the house

(except, may be, within the kampung)

Clothing very much depends on situation,

the individual and the weather

Noise and communal living

are very important

More importance is attached

to individuals and peace and quiet

Polite for men to touch other men in public

A taboo for men to touch

other men in public

Unusual for men and women to

touch or show affection in public

Men and women of ten hold

Hands and are  demonstrative

(other European countries are even more relaxed about showing affection in public

Touching, however, is not so usual in Britain In one survey, British couples did not  touch each
other at all during an hour’s conversation, compared with 180 times

In Puerto Rico and 110 in Paris

Invitations often come at the last minute

 

Normal to give people information about an event well in advance

Jam karet

Polite to be on time or thereabouts

Acceptable to look at some one’s letter / telegram /Material on their desk / in their home

Not polite to read other people’s correspondence, as it is considered

to be their personal affair

Here we shall  consider the ways in which formal and informal situations are different in the two
cultures

Informal                                  a very clear distinction

Exists between
Formal and

Informal

Formal

Formal situation          : A lecture; visiting the house of a person with a superior status; meeting a
stranger; at the office; in meetings / seminars / conferences; in business letters, etc.

Informal situation       : outside the lecture hall; popping in to see a friend; hanging around the
kapung; shopping at the market; cooking and chatting; talking on the bus, etc.

Informal   the distinction

Between formal and

Informal is not so

Clear

formal

Notes :

-          The situations for formality and informality are much the same in the two countries.

-          But the difference in behavior between informal and formal situations in Britain is not as
great as here in Indonesia.
-          Therefore, Indonesian culture requires quite distinct behavior according to the behavior.

-          In Britain, on the other hand, such distinctions are slipping. By Indonesian standards,
British parties and social interaction. (at the market / in the bus) may seem rather formal,
especially among young people.

-          Conversely, many Indonesian formal situations seem very formal to British person, and
informal situations here can be very informal.

Preconceptions.

Some words used by Indonesians to describe “westerners”

- free                                   - rich                                             -Impolite

- free sex                             - aggressive                                  - negative influence on

Indonesian culture

- Irreligious                         - Immoral                                     - loud

-          crazy!

- Who?                                - retiring                                       -late

- inscrutable                        - friendly                                      - conservative

- shy                                    - slow                                           -hospitable

-crazy                                  - smiling                                       - bureaucratic

This is probably the most obvious area where cultural conflict can occur, and can be the easiest
way to give offence when you speak a foreign language. It could also be the easiest to correct. It is
true that Indonesians and British people talk about different subjects.

Speech positions and posture

Some ways we sit when we speak are different in the two cultures

Indonesia Britain

-          Usual to avoid eye contact especially in an argument or when talking to a superior

Eye contact is usually important

-          In formal situations, sit forward, looking eager and alert.

(from: Halimi, 1988)

Can look more relaxed.

Sit back in the chair, but still concentrate on the speaker.

Beating around the bush”

In general, British culture appreciates directness in speech. In Indonesia, especially in formal
situation, people often wait and talk for  a while on general matters before coming to the point of
the conversation. Answers to questions are often vaguer in Indonesia.

Indonesia

Britain

Mungkin

“No”

Belum

“No”

Er….” (and change the subject when asked a difficult question)

Rather rude to do this.

Bad news / uncomfortable

answers are often prefaced

with “ I am sorry: I am sorry;

I am afraid ( I don`t know)”

“ke sana…….disana
Three streets away ; on the corner

Speech norms

Here we mean expressions which have little cultural equivalent in a foreign language. They are
normal and sound acceptable in the mother tongue, but are strange or offensive in another
language if translated directly. Another way of saying the same thing should be found. Some
examples of Indonesian words / expressions which have no cultural equivalent in Britain.

Indonesia

Direct English

Translation

Effect

Better English

Expression

(kamu tinggal di Tuban?)

-Tentu, di jalan….

(Do you live in Surabaya?)

-Of course. On Jalan……

You are being

Quite rude, Student stupid for not knownig

Yes, I do no, I don`t (etc)

InsyaAllah

God willing

Unusual to say this : Britain is a more secular society

-With any luck

- hopefully

Teman baik

A close friend

Ok if you know him / her really well; not if you met them once for  five minutes!

-someone I meet once

Silahkan

Please

Unusual to use this word to grant permission

-          bon apetic   (formal)

-          say nothing

-          go ahead

Equally, some English words and expressions cannot be directly translated in to Indonesian, sa the
cultural concept does not exist here.

English

Indonesian Translation

“Gatecrash”

“dating tanpa diundang”

“probably”

“mungkin”

“a stitch in time saves nine”

“pencegahan lebih baik dari pada

pengobatan”
“flexibility in time; arriving an hour early or late for an appointment”

“Jam karet”

“joining together to work together with that whole neighborhood an a communal project”

“Gotong royong”

“Rice”

“padi, gabah, beras, nasi, ketan”

Social use of language

Not only do the two societies speak about different things, they also do different things when they
perform certain social  speech acts.

Indonesian

British English

INTERUPTING

-Usually directly but in

On a conversation

“er….excuse me / do you mind

if I interrupt / could you give me a

couple   of minutes?”

APOLOGISING

-          (maaf) “habis”

-          “sudah dijilid semua”

-          I am (terribly / realy)

Sorry, there`s none left.

We should get some in later”

-          “sorry about that. We made a mistake. Hope it`s alright”

-          “sorry, there`s none left; we`re having a problem with our suppliers”

COMPLIMENTING
 

-          Wah! bajumu bagus, ya?

-          “tidak…., sudah lama…”

-          “wow ! That`s a lovely shirt you`re wearing

-          “thank you, I `ve had it for ages, though”

ASKING FOR THINGS

- “mau ambil sepeda”

-          “could i borrow your bike, please?

-          “can I / would it be possible to / might, I/ borrow your bike, please”

THANKING

“terimakasih” not used too much in everyday conversation

-          “thank you” is used 3 / 4 times in a simple exchange

 Suggestion for teaching culture while teaching language

As teachers, we should impress upon the students that there are many ways of looking at things,
and that cultural differences do not necessarily involve moral issues of right and wrong. Learn
something  about western culture yourself, read as much as possible about the country, speak to
natives from there and find out information about it. Try to supplement materials with examples
from Britain, etc. At the lower levels, examples of dialogues and reading passages can be found in
many textbooks published in the West to get authenticity. Let us have a try !