Pollution:- An undesirable change in the physical chemical or biological characteristics of air,

water, soil or food.

Pollutant :- A substance or effect is normally considered to be a pollutant if it adversely alters the

environment by changing the growth rate of a species, interferes with the food chain, is toxic, or
interferes with health, comfort, amenities, or property values of people. Generally, a pollutant is a
substance or effect introduced into the environment in significant amounts as sewage, waste,
accidental discharge or as a byproduct of manufacturing process or other human activity. A polluting
substance can be a solid, semi-solid, liquid, gas or sub-molecular particle. A polluting effect is
normally some kind of waste energy such as heat, noise or vibration

Classifications:- Pollutants

Pollutions :-

Medium based approach:-

Types of pollutions:-

1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution
3. Soil pollution
4. Noise pollution
5. Solid waste pollution
6. Thermal pollution
7. Radioactive pollution

1.AIR POLLUTION:-
Air pollution is defined as the presence of impurities in excessive quantity and duration to cause
adverse effects on plants, animals and human beings and materials.

Causes:-

1. The burning of fossil fuels

Sulfur dioxide emitted from the combustion of fossil fuels like coal, petroleum and other factory
combustibles are one the major cause of air pollution. Pollution emitting from vehicles including
trucks, jeeps, cars, trains, airplanes cause an immense amount of pollution. We rely on them to fulfill
our daily basic needs of transportation. But, their overuse is killing our environment as dangerous
gases are polluting the environment. Carbon Monoxide caused by improper or incomplete
combustion and generally emitted from vehicles is another major pollutant along with Nitrogen
Oxides, that is produced from both natural and man-made processes.

2. Agricultural activities

Ammonia is a very common byproduct from agriculture-related activities and is one of the most
hazardous gases in the atmosphere. Use of insecticides, pesticides, and fertilizers in agricultural
activities has grown quite a lot. They emit harmful chemicals into the air and can also cause water
pollution.

3. Exhaust from factories and industries

Manufacturing industries release a large amount of carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, organic

compounds, and chemicals into the air thereby depleting the quality of air. Manufacturing industries
can be found at every corner of the earth and there is no area that has not been affected by it.
Petroleum refineries also release hydrocarbons and various other chemicals that pollute the air and
also cause land pollution.

4. Mining operations

Mining is a process wherein minerals below the earth are extracted using large equipment. During
the process dust and chemicals are released in the air causing massive air pollution. This is one of
the reasons which is responsible for the deteriorating health conditions of workers and nearby
residents.
5. Indoor air pollution

Household cleaning products, painting supplies emit toxic chemicals in the air and cause air
pollution. Have you ever noticed that once you paint the walls of your house, it creates some sort of
smell which makes it literally impossible for you to breathe.

Air Pollutants:-

Classification:-

The variety of matter emitted into the atmosphere by natural and anthropogenic sources is so
diverse that it is difficult to classify air pollutants neatly. However, usually they are divided into two
categories of primary pollutants and secondary pollutants.

The primary pollutants:- Pollutants emitted directly from the sources. Typical pollutants included
under this category are particulate matter such as ash, smoke, dust, fumes, mist and spray; inorganic
gases such as sulphur dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, nitric oxide, ammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon
dioxide, and hydrogen fluoride; olefinic and aromatic hydrocarbons; and radioactive compounds.
The large numbers of primary pollutants emitted into the atmosphere, only a few are present in
sufficient concentrations to be of immediate concern. These are the five major types—particulate
matter, sulphur oxides, oxides of nitrogen, carbon monoxide, and hydrocarbons.

The secondary pollutants:- pollutants are formed in the atmosphere by chemical interactions among
primary pollutants and normal atmospheric constituents. Pollutants such as sulphur trioxide,
nitrogen dioxide, PAN rperoxyacetyl nitrate), ozone, aldehydes, ketones and various sulphate and
nitrate salts are included in this category.

Sources:-

Source type refers to natural and anthropogenic sources, as well as to additional sub
classifications within each group.

Natural sources include wind-blown dust, pollen, sea salt nuclei, volcanic ash and gases, smoke and
trace gases from forest fires, and terpenes from forests.

Anthropogenic sources cover a wide spectrum of types. Table below includes a list of major
anthropogenic air pollution sources, and their characteristic emissions.
Properties of Air pollutants:-

1. Particulate Matter:- In general the term "particulate" refers to all atmospheric substances that
are not gases. They can be suspended droplets or solid particles or mixtures of the two. Particulates
can be composed of inert or extremely reactive materials ranging in size from 100 pm down to 0.1
urn and less. The inert materials do not react readily with the environment nor do they exhibit any
morphological changes as a result of combustion or any other process, whereas the reactive
materials could be further oxidised or may react chemically with the environment. The classification
of various particulates may be made as follows:

Dust: It contains particles of the size ranging from 1 to 200 um. These are formed by natural
disintegration of rock and soil or by the mechanical processes of grinding and spraying. They have
large settling velocities and are removed from the air by gravity and other inertial processes. Fine
dust particles act as centres of catalysis for many of the chemical reactions taking place in the
atmosphere.

Smoke: It contains fine particles of the size ranging from 0.01 to 1µm which can be liquid or solid,
and are formed by combustion or other chemical processes. Smoke may have different colours
depending on the nature of material burnt.

Fumes: There are solid particles of the size ranging from 0.1 to 1 gm and are normally released from
chemical or metallurgical processes.

Mist: It is made up of liquid droplets generally smaller than 10 pm, which are formed by
condensation in the atmosphere or are released from industrial operations.

Fog: It is the mist in which the liquid is water and is sufficiently dense to obscure vision. Aerosol:
Under this category are included all air-borne suspensions either solid or liquid; these are generally
smaller than 1 pm.

2. Oxides of Sulphur :- The most important oxide emitted by pollution sources is sulphur dioxide
(SO2). SO2 is a colorless colourless gas with a characteristic, sharp, pungent odour. It is moderately
soluble in water (11.3 g/100 ml) forming weakly acidic sulphurous acid (H2S03). It is oxidised slowly in
clean air to sulphur trioxide. In a polluted atmosphere, SO2 reacts photochemically or catalytically
with other pollutants or normal atmospheric constituents to form sulphur trioxide, sulphuric acid
and salts of sulphuric acid.

Sulphur trioxide (S03) is generally emitted along with SO2, at about 1-5 percent of the SO3,
concentration. SO3, rapidly combines with moisture in the atmosphere to form sulphuric acid which
has a low dew point. Both SO2 and SO3, are relatively quickly washed out of the atmosphere by rain
or settle out as aerosols.

3.Nitrogen Oxides :- Of the six or seven oxides of nitrogen, only three—nitrous oxide (N20), nitric
oxide (NO), and nitrogen dioxide (NO2)—are formed in any appreciable quantities in the
atmosphere. Often NO and NO2, are analysed together in air and are referred to as NOx.

Nitrous oxide is a colourless, odourless nontoxic gas present in the natural atmosphere in relatively
large concentrations (0.25 ppm). The major source of N20 in the atmosphere is the biological activity
of the soil and there are no significant anthropogenic sources. It has a low reactivity in the lower
atmosphere and is generally not considered an air pollutant. Nitric oxide is a colourless, odourless
gas produced largely by fuel combustion. It is oxidised to NO2 in a polluted atmosphere through
photochemical secondary reactions. Nitrogen dioxide is a brown pungent gas with an irritating odour
which can be detected at concentrations of about 0.12 ppm. It absorbs sunlight and initiates a series
of photochemical reactions. Small concentrations of NO2 have been detected in the lower
stratosphere; NO2 is probably produced by the oxidation of NO by ozone. Nitrogen dioxide is of
major concern as a pollutant; it is emitted by fuel combustion and nitric acid plants.

4.Carbon monoxide :- It constitutes the single largest pollutant in the urban atmosphere. CO is
colourless, odourless, and tasteless, and has a boiling point of -192 °C. It has a strong affinity
towards the hemoglobin of the bloodstream and is a dangerous asphyxiant. The rate of oxidation of
carbon monoxide to carbon dioxide in the atmosphere seems to be very slow; mixtures of CO and 02
exposed to sunlight for several years have been found to remain almost unchanged. Carbon
monoxide is present in small concentrations (0.1 ppm) in the natural atmosphere and has a
residence time of about six months. The main sources of CO in the urban air are smoke and exhaust
fumes of many devices burning coal, gas or oil.

5.Hydrocarbons :- The gaseous and volatile liquid hydrocarbons are of particular interest as air
pollutants. Hydrocarbons can be saturated or unsaturated, branched or straight-chain, or can have a
ring structure as in the case of aromatics and other cyclic compounds. In the saturated class,
methane is by far the most abundant hydrocarbon constituting about 40 to 80 per cent of the total
hydrocarbons present in an urban atmosphere. The unsaturated class includes alkenes (olefins) and
acetylenes. Among the alkenes the prominent pollutants are ethylene and propene. The first
member of the aromatic class is benzene, but some of its substituted derivatives such as toluene and
m-xylene are usually present in larger concentrations in the urban atmosphere.

The hydrocarbons in air by themselves alone cause no harmful effects. They are of concern because
the hydrocarbons undergo chemical reactions in the presence of sunlight and nitrogen oxides
forming photochemical oxidants of which the predominant one is ozone. Methane has very low
photochemical activity as compared to that of other hydro-carbons. For this reason, it is the non-
methane hydrocarbon concentration that is of interest while considering air pollution.

Effects of Air pollutants:-

Acid Rains:-
Greenhouse Effect (GLOBAL WARMING):-

Ozone Holes:-
Remedies:-

Air pollution can be minimized by following methods:-

1. Setting of industries after proper environmental impact assessment studies.
2. Minimize transportation and energy production
3. Modification of process and equipments
4. Use of appropriate material
5. Using low sulphur coal in industries
6. Using mass transport system, bycycles etc.
7. Shifting to less polluting fuels.
8. Using non-conventional sources of energy.
9. Using bio-logical filters and bio-scrubbers
10. Planting more trees
11. Reduction of pollution at source
12. Removing NOx during the combustion process and controlling the flow of air and fuel in
industrial boilers.

2.WATER POLLUTION:
Definition:- Water pollution is any chemical, biological or physical change in water quality that has
harmful effect on living organism or makes water unsuitable for desired uses.

Causes:-

1. Disease causing agents –bacteria, viruses, protozoa and parasitic worms enter water from
domestic sewage and untreated human and animal wastes.

2. Oxygen depleting wastes-large populations of bacteria use up the oxygen present in water
to degrade wastes. The amount of oxygen required to break down a certain amount of
organic matter is called Biological Oxygen Demand(BOD).
3. If too much organic waste is added, all the available oxygen is used up and causes organisms
like fish to die.

4. Anaerobic bacteria begin to break down the wastes producing chemicals that have a foul
and unpleasant odour.
5. Inorganic plant nutrients-water soluble nitrates and phosphates that cause excessive growth
of algae and other aquatic plants-called eutrophication.

6. Biomagnification-pesticides-reach water-phytoplanktons-herbivorous fish-carnivorous fish-

water birds-animals-human beings.

7. At each stage the chemicals are concentrated resulting biomagnifiction. Eg.DDT

Pollutants:-

Sources:-
Water pollutants are categorized as point source pollution and non-point source pollution.
1. Point source pollution
Point source pollution is defined as any single identifiable source of pollution from which pollutants
are discharged.
Example: Industrial discharge, factory smoke stack, municipal sewage etc. Point source pollution
sources are discrete and identifiable and hence easy to monitor and
regulate.
2. Non Point source of pollution
When a source of pollution cannot be readily identified i.e, sources are scattered or diffuse they are
called Non Point source of pollution.
Example: run off from farm lands, construction sites, parking lots, agriculture logging, animal waste.

The various types of water pollutants can be classified in to following major categories: (1)
Organic pollutants, (2) Pathogens, (3) Nutrients and agriculture runoff, (4) Suspended solids and
sediments (organic and inorganic), (5) Inorganic pollutants (salts and metals), (6) Thermal Pollution,
and (7) Radioactive pollutants.

1. ORGANIC POLLUTANTS

Organic pollutants can be further divided into following categories:

a) Oxygen Demanding wastes: The wastewaters such as, domestic and municipal sewage,
wastewater from food processing industries, canning industries, slaughter houses, paper and pulp
mills, tanneries, breweries, distilleries, etc. have considerable concentration of biodegradable
organic compounds either in suspended, colloidal or dissolved form. These wastes undergo
degradation and decomposition by bacterial activity. The dissolved oxygen available in the water
body will be consumed for aerobic oxidation of organic matter present in the wastewater. Hence,
depletion of the DO will be a serious problem adversely affecting aquatic life, if the DO falls below
4.0 mg/L. This decrease of DO is an index of pollution.

b) Synthetic Organic Compounds :Synthetic organic compounds are also likely to enter the
ecosystem through various manmade activities such as production of these compounds, spillage
during transportation, and their uses in different applications. These include synthetic pesticides,
synthetic detergents, food additives, pharmaceuticals, insecticides, paints, synthetic fibers, plastics,
solvents and volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Most of these compounds are toxic and
biorefractory organics i.e., they are resistant to microbial degradation.

c) Oil: Oil is a natural product which results from the plant remains fossilized over millions of years,
under marine conditions. It is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons and degradable under bacterial
action, the biodegradation rate is different for different oils, tars being one of the slowest. Oil enters
in to water through oil spills, leak from oil pipes, and wastewater from production and refineries.
Being lighter than water it spreads over the surface of water, separating the contact of water with
air, hence resulting in reduction of DO. This pollutant is also responsible for endangering water birds
and coastal plants due to coating of oils and adversely affecting the normal activities. It also results
in reduction of light transmission through surface waters, thereby reducing the photosynthetic
activity of the aquatic plants. Oil includes polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which are
known to be carcinogenic.

2.PATHOGENS:

The pathogenic microorganisms enter in to water body through sewage discharge as a major
source or through the wastewater from industries like slaughterhouses. Viruses and bacteria can
cause water borne diseases, such as cholera, typhoid, dysentery, polio and infectious hepatitis in
human.

3.NUTRIENTS:
The agriculture run-off, wastewater from fertilizer industry and sewage contains substantial
concentration of nutrients like nitrogen and phosphorous. These waters supply nutrients to the
plants and may stimulate the growth of algae and other aquatic weeds in receiving waters. Thus, the
value of the water body is degraded. In long run, water body reduces DO, leads to eutrophication
and ends up as a dead pool of water. People swimming in eutrophic waters containing blue-green
algae can have skin and eye irritation, gastroenteritis and vomiting. High nitrogen levels in the water
supply, causes a potential risk, especially to infants under six months. This is when the
methemoglobin results in a decrease in the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood (blue baby
disease) as nitrate ions in the blood readily oxidize ferrous ions in the hemoglobin.

In freshwater systems, eutrophication is a process whereby water bodies receive excess

inorganic nutrients, especially N and P, which stimulate excessive growth of plants and algae.
Eutrophication can happen naturally in the normal succession of some freshwater ecosystems.
However, when the nutrient enrichment is due to the activities of humans, sometimes referred to as
“cultural eutrophication”, the rate of this natural process is greatly intensified. Two major nutrients,
nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P), occur in streams in various forms as ions or dissolved in solution.
Aquatic plants convert dissolved inorganic forms of nitrogen (nitrate, nitrite, and ammonium) and
phosphorus (orthophosphate) into organic or particulate forms for use in higher trophic production.
The main effects caused by eutrophication can be summarized as follows:

1. Species diversity decreases and the dominant biota changes

2. Plant and animal biomass increase

3. Turbidity increases

4. Rate of sedimentation increases, shortening the lifespan of the lake, and

5. Anoxic conditions may develop.

4. SUSPENDED SOLIDS AND SEDIMENTS

These comprise of silt, sand and minerals eroded from land. These appear in the water
through the surface runoff during rainy season and through municipal sewers. This can lead to the
siltation, reduces storage capacities of reservoirs. Presence of suspended solids can block the
sunlight penetration in the water, which is required for the photosynthesis by bottom vegetation.
Deposition of the solids in the quiescent stretches of the stream or ocean bottom can impair the
normal aquatic life and affect the diversity of the aquatic ecosystem. If the deposited solids are
organic in nature, they will undergo decomposition leading to development of anaerobic conditions.
Finer suspended solids such as silt and coal dust may injure the gills of fishes and cause asphyxiation.

5.INORGANIC POLLUTANTS:

Apart from the organic matter discharged in the water body through sewage and industrial
wastes, high concentration of heavy metals and other inorganic pollutants contaminate the water.
These compounds are non-biodegradable and persist in the environment. These pollutants include
mineral acids, inorganic salts, trace elements, metals, metals compounds, complexes of metals with
organic compounds, cyanides, sulphates, etc.

 The accumulation of heavy metals may have adverse effect on aquatic flora and fauna and
may constitute a public health problem where contaminated organisms are used for food.
 Algal growth due to nitrogen and phosphorous compounds can be observed.
 Metals in high concentration can be toxic to biota e.g. Hg, Cu, Cd, Pb, As, and Se. Copper
greater than 0.1 mg/L is toxic to microbes.

6.THERMAL POLLUTION:

Considerable thermal pollution results due to discharge of hot water from thermal power
plants, nuclear power plants, and industries where water is used as coolant. As a result of hot water
discharge, the temperature of water body increases. Rise in temperature reduces the DO content of
the water, affecting adversely the aquatic life. This alters the spectrum of organisms, which can
adopt to live at that temperature and DO level. When organic matter is also present, the bacterial
action increases due to rise in temperature; hence, resulting in rapid decrease of DO. The discharge
of hot water leads to the thermal stratification in the water body, where hot water will remain on
the top.
7.RADIOACTIVE POLLUTANTS:

Radioactive materials originate from the following:

 Mining and processing of ores,

 Use in research, agriculture, medical and industrial activities, such as I131, P32, Co60, Ca45,
S35, C14, etc.
 Radioactive discharge from nuclear power plants and nuclear reactors, e.g., Sr90, Cesium-
Cs137, Plutonium Pu248, Uranium-238, Uranium-235,
 Uses and testing of nuclear weapons.

These isotopes are toxic to the life forms; they accumulate in the bones, teeth and can cause serious
disorders.

Effects:
Remedies:-

1. Setting up effluent treatment plans to treat waste.

2. Recycling of water must be encouraged.
3. Industrial wastes must be treated before discharge.
4. Educate Public for preventing water pollution and the consequences of water pollution
5. Strict enforcement of water pollution control act.
6. Continuous monitoring of water pollution at different places.
7. Developing economical method of water treatment
8. River, streams, lakes and other water reservoirs must be well protected from being
polluted.

3.SOIL POLLUTION:
Def:- Soil pollution is defined as the contamination of soil causing adverse effects on living organisms
in it.
Causes:-
1. Soil Erosion:
Soil erosion can be defined as the movement of topsoil from one place to another. Soile
rosion is a natural process due to wind, flood and due to human activities like-
construction,over grazing, farming and deforestation.
2. Industrial wastes :
Various pollutants exists in environment from industrial wastes. Discharge from Chemical
industries, Fertilizer Company, pharmaceutical companies are highly polluting.
3. Urban wastes :
Because of modem life style and eating habits the urban wastes are becoming very
dangerous to the human beings. Urban wastes include both which is a non-degradable
material and harmful to the society in long run.
4. Agricultural practice :
Use of strong fertilizer, pesticides and inorganic chemicals for increasing productivity.

5. Biological agents :
Human and animal excreta wastes enter the soil pores and decompose pathogenic bacterial
present in those wastes spread infection.

Pollutants:
The term contaminant is often used synonymously with pollutant, although difference in the
definitions would indicate that these terms are not interchangeable. Contaminant implies
concentration of a substance is higher than would naturally occur but does not necessarily mean
that the substance is causing any harm. However, pollution refers to a situation in which the
concentration of a substance is higher than would naturally occur but also indicate that the
substance is causing harm of some type. Therefore, a soil could be contaminated but not polluted.

Classification:-

Pollution is often broadly categorized according to its source:

Point-source pollution: As the name implies, is pollution with a clearly identifiable point of
discharge. E.g. waste water treatment plant etc

Nonpoint-source pollution: Is pollution without an obvious single point of discharge. E.g. Surface
runoff of a commonly used lawn herbicide.

Classification of pollutants:-

Major pollutants properties and sources:-

1.Heavy Metals or Trace Metals:-
The term ‘heavy metal’ is imprecise but is widely used although others such as ‘toxic metals’,
‘potentially toxic elements’ and ’trace metals’ are possible alternatives. Heavy metals belong to the
group of elements described geochemically as ‘trace elements’ because they collectively comprise
< 1% of the rocks in the earth’s crust. All trace elements are toxic to living organisms at excessive
concentrations, but some are essential for the normal healthy growth and reproduction by either
plants or animals at low but critical concentrations. These elements are referred to as ‘essential
trace elements’ or ‘micronutrients’ and deficiencies can lead to disease and even death of the plant
or animal. The essential trace elements include: Co (for bacteria and animals), Cr (animals), Cu
(plants and animals), Mn (plants and animals), Mo (plants), Ni (plants), Se (animals) and Zn (plants
and animals). In addition, B (plants), CI (plants), Fe (plants and animals), I (animals) and Si (plants and
animals - probably) are also essential trace elements but are not dense enough to be classed as
heavy metals.
Other elements, including: Ag, As, Ba, Cd, Hg, TI, Pb, Sb, have no known essential function and, like
the essential trace elements, cause toxicity above a certain tolerance level. The most important
heavy metals with regard to potential hazards and occurrence in contaminated soils are: As, Cd, Cu,
Cr, Hg, Pb and Zn.
Properties:- Heavy metals have a density of greater than 6 g cm-3 (but some authors use a value of >
5 g cm-3) and an atomic number greater than 20, and occur naturally in rocks and soils but
concentrations are frequently elevated as a result of pollution.

Sources:-
1. Mining – As, Cd,Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn
2. Metal Smelting – Fine particles, Aerosols
3. Metallurgical Industries – Solid waste, Acids
4. Waste Disposal – Municipal solid waste
5. Corrosion of Metals
6. Agricultures – Fertilizers (As, Cu, Mn, Ni)

2.Hydro Carbon Pollutants:-

Hydro carbon pollutants from petroleum mainly contains :
 Saturated alkanes , Methane, Ethane, Propane, organic compounds contain S and N.
Solvents used in industries:
 Benzene, Touene, Ganochlorine, PVP, chloroform, carbon tetrachloride.
Poperties:-
 Toxicity hazardous associated with ingestion or inhalation of hydrocarbons.
 High risk of fire and explosions.
Sources:-
1. Fuel storage and distribution – leakage
2. Disposal of used lubricants oil
3. Leakage of solvents in industries
4. Coal stores – risk of fires

3.Toxic Organic Micropollutants(TOMPs) or Persistent organic pollutants (POPs):-

These consists of:
PAH – Ploy cyclic hydrocarbons
PHH – Poly hetero cyclic hydrocarbons
PCB – Poly chlorinated biphenyls
PCDD – Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins
Poperties:-
1. Toxic in nature
2. Volatile compounds
3. Branched sections
4. Acidic and basic nature
Sources:-
1. Pesticides
2. Lubricants
3. Organic Solvents in industries.

4.Nutrient – rich wastes:-

1. Sewage Sludge’s :
These are residue from treatment of waste water. These are major source of N, P.
These components are major responsible for plant growth. But sewage sludge also contains
heavy metals like Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb, Zn and organic pollutants and POP’s . These will increase the
toxicity of sewage sludges.

2. Livestock Manures :-
 These contain large amounts of N, P and K and are valuable sources of these nutrients for
crops but they can also contain residues of food additives which can include As, Cu and Zn,
veterinary medicines fed topigs and poultry and some pathogens.

5.Radiouclides :- Nuclear accidents like those at Windscale (UK) in 1957 and Chernobyl (Ukraine) in
1986 resulted in many different radioactive substances being dispersed into the environment. The
greatest long-term pollution problem is considered to be caused by I37Cs which has a half-life of 30
years and behaves in a manner similar to K in soils and ecosystems. Atmospheric testing of nuclear
weapons dispersed large amounts of 90Sr which has a half-life of 29 years and behaves similarly to Ca
in biological systems and poses a hazard to humans because it is stored in the skeleton.

6.Pathogenic Organisms:- Soils can be contaminated with pathogenic organisms (bacteria,

viruses, parasitic worm eggs) from various sources, including the burial of the dead bodies of animals
and humans, manures and sewage sludges. The soil can act as a reservoir of these pathogens which
can reach groundwater, can infect livestock and humans through soil particles consumed directly by
children or on unwashed hands or attached to herbage and vegetables. The latter is the main reason
for the introduction of the sterilization of sewage sludges which are applied to agricultural land.

Hazards Effects of pollutants:-

Remedies:-
 1. Soil erosion must be prevented or controlled by proper tree plantation.
2. All the wastes from industry, domestic, must be dumped with proper treatment.
3. Use of sunthetic fertilizers must be avoided instead natural fertilizers must be preferred.
4. Educate people regarding consequences of soil pollution and to prevent soil pollution.
5. Strict enforcement of environment protection law.
6. Toxic and non-degradable materials must be totally banned.
7. Recycling and reuse of industrial and domestic wastes can minimize soil pollution
considerably.

4.MARINE POLLUTION:-

Definition: Marine pollution is defined as discharge of substances to the marine environment

resulting in adverse effects such as hazards of human health, obstruction in marine activities, marine
water and coastal land zones.

The World Ocean acts as a giant ‘chemical system’ operating within the global
biogeochemical cycles that control both the movement and fate of material on the planet. Within
these cycles, the importance of the World Ocean is heightened because it acts as a large-scale
‘dumping ground’ for material which originates in other geospheres.
Material reaches the oceans following a series of source t) sink pathways which, according to
Chester,’ may be considered to consist of a number of individual, but inter-related, stages. These
are: Stage 1 (source), the initial release of material into the environment; (ii) Stage 2 (transport), the
introduction of material to the ocean reservoir; (iii) Stage 3 (internal reactivity), the biogeochemical
processes which operate within the ocean reservoir; and Stage 4 (sink), the removal of material from
the ocean reservoir. Much of the material involved in this overall source to sink pathway has a
natural origin, but in addition material generated in association with man’s activities (anthropogenic
origin) can have an important effect on oceanic cycles. However. it is necessary to distinguish
between two different types of anthropogenic material.

Type I - naturally occurring materials, for which the ‘anthropogenic effect’ arises only when man’s
activities result in its excessive release into the environment ( mining, smelting. waste incineration,
sewage disposal
etc. ) .
Type II - non-naturally occurring material which has been created in the laboratory or industrial
plant, and which is subsequently released into the environment.

Causes:-
(i) River run-off delivers both particulate and dissolved material to the surface ocean at the land/sea
margins with discharge usually being via estuaries; i.e. regions where fresh and saline waters mix.
Estuaries are regions of intense physical, chemical and biological activity and the river flux undergoes
considerable modification as it passes through them.

(ii) Atmospheric deposition delivers both particulate material (‘dry’ deposition) and a combination
of dissolved and particulate material (‘wet’deposition, or precipitation scavenging) to the whole
ocean surface; i.e. atmospheric inputs are not confined to the land/sea margins, and so need not
pass through the estuarine environment. However, the strength of the atmospheric signal is
strongest in coastal regions closest to the continental material sources.

(iii) Anthropogenic pathways by which pollutants are delivered to the oceans include: (1) dumping
(e.g. for the disposal of sewage sludge, radioactive waste, dredge spoil, military hardware, off-shore
structures), (2) deliberate coastal discharges (e.g. coastal pipeline discharges from power stations,
industrial plants, oil refineries, radioactive reprocessing plants, and (3) off-shore operational
discharges from tankers or other ships.

Pollutants (sources and effects):-

1. Oil:- Crude oil is a very complex mixture of many different chemicals. Consequently the effects of
an oil spill on the marine environment depend on the exact nature and quantity of the oil spilled, as
well as such other factors as the prevailing weather conditions and the ecological characteristics of
the affected region.
Sources:-
1. Transportation
Tanker operation
Tanker accidents
Dry docking
2. Fixed installation
Coastal refineries
Offshore production
3. Other sources
Municipal waste
Industrial waste
River run-off
Ocean dumping

Effects:-

2.Sewage:-

Domestic sewage, with or without the presence of industrial wastes(Sources), probably

represents the commonest and most widespread contaminant of inshore and near shore waters.
Sewage poses aesthetic and health risks to human populations and also acts as a vector whereby a
considerable variety of other contaminants reach the marine environment. Sewage may reach the
seas in a number of different forms; ranging from untreated raw sewage discharges, through various
degrees of treated discharge, to the dumping of associated sewage sludge at marine sites. The
potential problems associated with sewage discharge are significant.
Effects:
1.Problems associated with BOD:-
Whether a high BOD (biochemical oxygen demand) waste discharge to a natural water
causes a serious environmental problem depends almost entirely on the characteristics of the
receiving system. In essence, if the input of BOD is greater than the ability of the receiving water to
supply new oxygen then there will be major problems of oxygen depletion and, in extreme cases,
total anoxia. If the BOD input and the new oxygen supply are similar in magnitude then some oxygen
depletion may be seen, and only if the renewal of oxygen is much greater than the supply of BOD
will the discharge be innocuous (at least in this respect). Overall, therefore, the major problems arise
from the discharge of untreated sewage to rivers, estuaries or enclosed coastal waters. This effect is
mostly seen in tidal regions as shown in figure below:

Sewage and Nutrients:

Sewage effluents contain large quantities of micronutrient elements such as nitrogen and
phosphorus. The greater the degree of treatment, the greater the mineralization of the nutrients so
that, for example, a treated waste will contain primarily nitrate and an untreated one ammonia and
organic nitrogen species. Nutrient inputs to marine systems have been a matter for considerable
concern because of the potential eutrophication effects that they may cause. A simple view of
eutrophication is that additional nutrients lead to the formation of excess biomass which, in turn,
leads to an increase in BOD with subsequent oxygen depletion effects as the biomass decays.

It is not only an increase in nutrient concentrations that can cause deleterious effects.
Anthropogenically induced alterations in nutrient ratios can also cause changes in prevailing
phytoplankton species because of their differing physiological properties and requirements for
nutrients. As a general rule marine phytoplankton assimilate nitrogen and phosphorus in a ratio of
about 16:1 and under normal conditions in marine systems nitrogen is the growth limiting element.

Marine Disposal of Sewage Sludge :

Sewage sludge dumping takes place at designated sites, which are defined areas rather than
a single point. The sludge particles gradually settle through the water column, where they may act as
a food source to mid-water feeding fish species, finally settling on the sediment surface. The
problems arising from this practice are essentially two-fold. First, the sewage acts as a vector for the
transfer of contaminants to the biota (notably trace metals and persistent organic chemicals).
Second, the high organic inputs to the sediments cause changes in both species diversity (decreases)
and biomass (increases) in the benthic community.
3.Persistant Organic Compounds :-

The European Commission listing of potential environmental pollutants is dominated by

organic chemicals The criteria for inclusion of a chemical in that, and other priority pollutant lists, are
that they have relatively high environmental toxicity (to humans and other organisms), they are
persistent and liable to undergo significant biomagnification and they are produced in sufficient
quantities to represent a potential threat. Most of these are halogenated species.

Halogenated Compounds and Chlorinated Pesticides:

Dominant amongst the older formulations were the organochlorine pesticides such as DDT,
dieldrin, aldrin and endrin (the ‘drins’), lindane (hexachlorocyclohexane), hexachlorobenzene (HCB)
and toxaphene.
Other persistent organic chemicals which have proved to be of some concern in marine
systems include polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins (PCDD) and polychlorinated dibenzofurans (PCDF
products of PCB combustion;)

Effects:
1. At the planktonic level primary production rates are reduced at DDT or PCB concentrations
above 1 mg l-1 ’ . This is a low concentration but still very much higher than those likely to be
found in sea water.
2. Amongst marine invertebrates and fish 96 h LC50 values generally fall within the range 1-100
mgl-1 ’ . However, bivalve molluscs are very resistant with 96 h LC50 values > 10 000 mg l- 1 .
3. Amongst the top predators the main deleterious effects have been eggshell thinning in birds
(DDE) and interference with the reproductive and immune system in mammals (PCBs).

4.Trace Metals:-

A large number of trace metals are transported to the oceans from natural sources.
However, these natural sources are supplemented by releases from anthropogenic processes which,
for some metals, can exceed natural inputs. Trace metals are found in the water, biota and sediment
compartments of the marine system, but potentially the most hazardous environmental effects to
human health arise when they enter the food chain.

Mercury:-
Mercury is serious example of human poisoning we must turn, to Japan. In this case, it was
in the coastal town of Minimata, which is just south of Nagasaki, that large numbers of people died
or were permanently crippled, mentally and physically.
This later became known as the "Minimata Disease", caused by mercury which had
accumulated in the bodies of fish which constituted an important part of the human diet in that
area. Mercury differs from cadmium in one important respect, i.e., it can he converted by micro-
organisms into alkyl compounds. Such a compound, methyl mercury, is actually more toxic than
mercury itself. This conversion can take place in the sediment of river beds where the mercury
compounds can enter the food chain. The worms which live in this mud are the main diet of many
fish which are used for human consumption. An analysis of thirty species of fish from the Bombay
and Tana areas showed that many species, in particular Tilapin, Lates, Walago, Mugil and Bops
carried mercury burdens which approached or slightly exceeded the permissible level of 500 kg/I.
Once again we see here an example of toxic metal pollution originating from a highly populated and
developed area.

Lead:-
 The global cycle of lead has been strongly perturbed by anthropogenic effects, and the metal
is an example of the input of a contaminant to the natural environment mainly through release into
the atmosphere. Lead is used in a number of industrial applications, but the main anthropogenic
input to the environment is via the combustion of fossil fuels, especially from the use of lead alkyls
(tetraethyl and tetramethyl lead) as an anti-knock additive in combustion engine fuel. Lead is mostly
found in coastal region as a sediments.
Aluminium, which has a mainly natural origin, was used as a normalizing element and Pb:A1
ratios were used to establish the background lead levels in the sediments. The data showed that in
the sediments of some basins which received anthropogenic inputs there was an increase in both
the concentrations of lead and the Pb: A1 ratios in sediments deposited after 1940. In addition, lead
isotopic ratios indicated that the source of the ‘excess’ lead had been influenced by gasoline
emissions. The study provides an example of how natural lead cycles in the marine environment can
be perturbed by anthropogenic inputs. However, according to Bernhard43 the marine environment
represents only a negligible source of lead to humans. Nonetheless, situations can arise where the
sudden release of lead into the marine environment is potentially harmful.

The effects of direct poisoning are well-known, such as, occur when children chew lead toys
or paints, resulting in abdominal pain and vomiting, drowsiness perhaps leading to coma, paralysis
or convulsions and possible brain damage. In adults suffering from severe poisoning, lead has usually
been absorbed at work, and at first causes only colic, constipation and malaise, but continued
exposure can lead to cramps, paralysis of some muscles and various neurological effects including
loss of concentration, poor memory, increased excitability, insomnia, and impotence. Since the most
drastic and obvious effects are on children, great stress has been laid on control of products likely to
contain large doses of lead, but much less is known about the results of chronic low exposure on
either children or adults. The earliest symptoms are rather vague and so it has been suggested that
those at risk should be regularly monitored, since there is a fairly straightforward test—a blood
enzyme is very sensitive to lead poisoning and shows changed activity before there are any obvious
clinical signs.

Tin:-
Tin is now recognized as being potentially a very serious marine pollutant and is an example
of a substance introduced into the marine environment for a specific purpose, rather than one which
enters the system either as a by-product of anthropogenic activity, or as a result of accidental
release.
Tin has a number of industrial uses, but it is the organotin compounds (notably tributyl tin
oxide - TBTO) which have given rise to the greatest concern. The principal uses of organotin
compounds are as stabilizers for PVC and as biocides, especially anti-fouling paints used on ships
hulls. Organotin compounds in the marine environment derive from two main sources: (i) via the
bacterial methylation of inorganic tin, and (ii) by the sea water leaching of alkyl and aryl tin from
some types of anti-fouling paints which may affect non-target species, especially in areas such as
harbours, boat yards and marinas where there are high concentrations of ships.

Effects:
1. TBTO can produce major harmful responses in a number of marine organisms, such as
commercial Pacific oysters and dogwhelks.
2. In the latter, TBTO can cause ‘imposex’ - a phenomenon in which females develop male
sexual characteristics leading to sterility and population collapse. Concern has also been
expressed over TBTO in farmed salmon, where it has been used on breeding cages.
3. Other marine organisms affected by TBTO include phytoplankton and zooplankton.

5.Radioactivity:
Ocean is a naturally source for radiation, which are K-40, U, Th, and these reactions with cosmic ray
products.

Sources:

1. Radiation release from weapons testings.

2. Routine release from nuclear plants.
Tritium, S-35, Zn-65 , Co-60
3. Release from nuclear fuel reprocessing plants to marine environment
C-14, Sr-90, Co-60, Ru-106, Cs-134
4. Reactor accident in land
5. Dumping low level waste

Effects:-

1. Lowest dose rates of radiation causes humans to disturbances in metabolism.

2. Highest dose rates of radiation causes observable effects at the populated level.

Remedies:-

1. Introduction of sewage treatment plants to reduce BOD of final product before discharging
into sea.

2. Cleaning oil from surface waters and contaminated beaches can be accelerated through the
use of chemical dispersants which can be sprayed on the oil.

3. Load on top system reduce oil pollution cleaned with high pressures jets of water.

4. Crude oil washing: The clingage is removed by jets of crude oil while the cargo is being
unloaded.

5. Skimming off the oil surface with a section device.

6. Spreading a high density powder over the oil spill, so that oil can I be sunk to the bottom.

7. For formers, need to switch the chemical fertilizers and pesticides to organic farming
methods.

5.NOISE POLLUTION:-
Noise is not consider as a serious problem like water, air, Soil but it will effect the humans. Noise
pollution is defined as: unwanted, unpleasant sound that causes discomfort of human beings. Noise
pollution condition is varied to person to person.

Major differences exist between noise and other forms of pollution. Theses difference as follows
1. Noise is everywhere; it is not as easy to control as the sources of water and air pollution.
 2. Although certain effects of noise, like those of many other pollutions, accumulate in the
organism, if noise pollution were to cease there would be no noise residual in the
environment, as there would be in the case of water and air or water pollutants.
3. Unlike air and water pollution, the effects of noise are felt only close to the source.

Sound waves cause eardrums to vibrate, activating middle and inner organs and sending
bioelectrical signals to the brain. The human ear can detect sounds in the frequency range of about
20 to 20,000 Hz.
Sources of noise:
Based on the type of noise include
a) Industrial Noise
b) Transport Noise
C) Neighbourhood Noise
Industrial Noise:
It is caused by machines used for the technological advancement. There exist a long list of sources of
noise pollution including different machines of numerous factories, industries and mills.

Transport Noise:

Main source is transport. In addition to adversely impacting urban air quality, heavy automobile
traffic creates seemingly unbearable noise pollution. Ever since industrial revolution doubling of
noise for every 10 years

Pointed nose that angles downward during takeoff, the Anglo-French Concorde flies at more than
twice the speed of sound. Supersonic plane is very noisy, and some believe its sonic booms harm
the environment.

Animals such as whales use water to communicate with one another over great distances. Human-
generated noises in the ocean, such as engine noises by boats, may interfere with animal
communication.

Measurement of Noise:

The noise is usually measured either by i) Sound Pressure or ii) Sound Intensity. The Sound intensity is measured in
Decibel (dB), which is tenth part of the longest unit “Bel” named after Alexander Graham Bell. Intensity is a amount of
energy received per second form the source of sound.Humans receive vast range of intensities from around 1x10 -12
Wm-2 to 100 Wm-2

Decibel (dB) is a ratio expressed as the logarithmic scale relative to a reference sound pressure level. The db is thus
expressed as

If intensity is doubled there is a increase in 3dB in the intensity level.

Unfortunately, there are practical difficulties in accurately measuring the intensity. However, it is
relatively easy to measure the consequence of the energy passage, the pressure variation. Since the
intensity is directly proportional to the square of the pressure the Sound Pressure Level(SPL)in dB is
defined by

An increase of 20 dB sound pressure level corresponds to the sound pressure level increasing by a
factor 10.

Effects:-

1.Physical Health:-

Acute Effects:- Acute Effects These effects depend upon pressure and frequency. At very high levels,
e.g., 150 dB, immediate permanent hearing damage can be caused. At lower levels 100 dB, loss of
physical control and physio-logical changes caused by stress are noticed. These effects cease with
the noise, although, in some cases, after a time delay.

Chronic Effects:-

The principal chronic effect is that of noise induced hear-ing loss. For this there is one rule: 'a
person exposed to high noise levels goes deaf more quickly than he would otherwise have done'.
This effect depends upon the pressure, frequency and time of exposure becoming more rapid as the
pressure rises, and generally more damaging with high frequencies. The loss starts in the frequency
range around 4000 Hz irrespective of the frequency of the source causing the damage, and is more
marked with impulsive noises. 'There are two components to the hearing loss: the temporary and
permanent threshold shifts. Acceptable outdoor noise level in residential areas are:

Mental Health:- There is very little specific evidence of the onset of mental or nervous illness caused
by noise. There are some temporary effects such as lack of concentration and, at high levels, mental
disorientation. There is also a real risk of the aggravation of an existing condition.

Communications:- Noise interferes with communications based upon sound when the frequency of
the interfering noise coincides, approximately, with that of the desired sound.

Working Efficiency:- Loud continuous noise interferes with working efficiency and causes the
incidents of errors to rise.

Industrial Accidents:- In so far as noise interferes with sound communication it may mask warn-ing
signals, and thereby increasing, at the same time, the incidence of errors which may make accidents
more likely.

Personal Comfort:- The effect depends upon the pressure and frequency and on the time of
exposure. At levels well below those which cause rapid hearing damage, noise becomes intrusive,
interferes with speech communication and with the peaceful enjoyment of leisure. The last three
effects are essentially a nuisance. It is difficult to assess, varies very much from individual to
individual and becomes tolerable with continuous exposure. Tonal and impulsive characteristics and
intermittency modify individual reactions.
Remedies:-

Noise definitely affects the quality of life. It is therefore important to ensure the mitigation or
control of noise pollution. Noise pollution can be controlled
• At source level – Can be done by i) Designing and fabricating silencing devices in air craft
engines, automobiles industrial machines and home appliances, ii) By segregating the noisy
machines

• During Transmission – can be achieved by adding insulation and sound-proofing to doors,

walls, and ceilings; covering the room walls with sound absorbers as acoustic tiles and construction
of enclosures around industrial machinery. Zoning urban areas to maintain a separation between
residential areas and zones of excessive noise. Sound absorbents can be used for the reduction of
noise.
a) Acoustillite : made up of Compressed wood pulp, wood fibers and is available in the form of
tiles
b) Acoustical blanket : Prepared from mineral wool or glass fibres
c) Hair Felt: Consists of wool fibres, Coarse Cotton Fibres.
d) Fibre Glass
e) Cork Carpet: Prepared out of pieces of corks treated with linseed oil and is used for covering
floors.
f) Acoustic Plaster: Mainly consists of gypsum in the form of plaster.
• Protecting the exposed person
• By creating vegetation cover – Plants absorb and dissipate sound energy and thus act as
Buffer Zone. Trees should be planted along highways, schools and other places.

Planting vegetation to absorb and screen out noise pollution – Trees can act as a noise barrier
6.THERMAL POLLUTION:-

The term thermal pollution has traditionally been used more often to refer to the heating of lakes,
river, streams, and other water bodies usually by electric power generating plants or by factories

1. The combustion of fossil fuels always produces heat, sometimes as a primary desired
product, and sometimes as a secondary, less desired by-product i.e. noise
2. Heat is also produced when fossil fuels are burned to generate electricity. In this case, heat
is a by-product, not the main reason that fuels are burned.
3. Electricity is also generated in nuclear power plants, when no combustion occurs.
4. The decay of organic matter in landfills also releases heat to the atmosphere.

It is clear, therefore, that a vast array of human activities result in the release of heat to the
environment. As those activities increase in number and extent, so does the amount of heat
released. In many cases, heat added to the environment begins to cause problems for plants,
humans, or other animals. This effect is then known as thermal pollution.
Sources of Thermal pollution:-

1. Coal fired power plant effluents

2. Domestic sewage
3. Hydroelectric power effluent
4. Industrial effluents
5. Nuclear power plants

Effects :-

A one megawatt nuclear power plant may require 1.3 billion gallons (five million m3) of
cooling water each day. The water used in such a plant has its temperature increased by about 63oF
(17oC) during the cooling process. For this reason, such plants are usually built very close to an
abundant water supply such as a lake, a large river, or the ocean.

When thermal pollution drives water temperatures up, most aquatic and marine wildlife
cannot survive. Immobile organisms, such as plants and shellfish, simply die. One inevitable result of
thermal pollution is a reduction in the amount dissolved oxygen in water. The amount of any gas
that can be dissolved in water varies inversely with the temperature. As water is warmed, therefore,
it is capable of dissolving less and less oxygen. Organisms that need oxygen to survive will, in such
cases, cant be able to survive.

When heated water is released from a plant or factory, it does not readily mix with the
cooler water around it. Instead, it forms a stream-like mass known as a thermal plume that spreads
out from the outflow pipes. It is in this thermal plume that the most severe effects of thermal
pollution are likely to occur. Only over an extended period of time does the plume gradually mix
with surrounding water, producing a mass of homogenous temperature.

Invasion of Destructive Organism:Water temperatures can have other, less expected effects also. As
an example, trout can swim less rapidly in water above 66oF (19oC) making them less efficient
predators. Organisms may become more subject to disease in warmer water too. The
bacterium Chondrococcus columnaris is harmless to fish at temperatures of less than 50oF (10oC).
Between temperatures of 50o - 70oF (10o - 21oC), however, it is able to invade through wounds in a
fish's body and at temperatures above 70oF (21oC) it can even attack healthy tissue.

Urban heat dome: Another example of thermal pollution is the development of urban heat islands.
An urban heat island consists of a dome of warm air over an urban area caused by the release of
heat in the region. Since more human activity occurs in an urban area than in the surrounding rural
areas, the atmosphere over the urban area becomes warmer than it is over the rural areas.
It is not uncommon for urban heat islands to produce measurable climate changes. For
example, the levels of pollutants trapped in an urban heat island can reach 5 to 25 percent greater
than the levels over rural areas. Fog and clouds may reach twice the level of comparable rural areas,
wind speeds may be produced by up to 30 per cent, and temperatures may be 32.9o - 35.6oF (0.5o -
2oC) higher than in surrounding rural areas. Such differences may cause both personal discomfort
and, in some cases, actual health problems for those living within an urban heat island.

Undesirable changes in Algal population: Excess Nutrients from the washout water from farm lands
combined with thermal pollution cause an excessive algal growth with consequent changes. High
Temperature promotes blue green algal blooms which disrupts the aquatic food chain.

Remedies:-

The water heated by thermal pollution also has a number of potential useful applications.
For example, it may be possible to establish aquatic farms where commercially desirable fish and
shellfish can be raised. The Japanese have been especially successful in pursuing this option. Some
experts have also suggested using this water to heat buildings, to remove snow, to fill swimming
pools, to use for irrigation, to de-ice canals, and to operate industrial processes that have modest
heat requirements. Hot water is pumped into one end of the pond and cooler water is removed
from the other end. The heat gets dissipated from the pond into the atmosphere. The main
disadvantage is large amounts of water are lost due to evaporation.

7.RADIOACTIVE POLLUTION:-
Pollution of the natural environment by radioactive substances is of concern because of the
considerable potential that ionising radiation has for damaging biological material and because of
the very long half-lives of some radionuclides.

Types of Radiation:-
Radiation arises from a spontaneous rearrangement of the nucleus of an atom. Whilst some
nuclei are stable many are not and these can undergo a change, losing mass or energy in the form of
radiation. Some unstable nuclei are naturally occurring while others are produced synthetically. The
most common forms of these radiations are
1. Alpha radiation
2. Beta radiation
3. Gamma radiation
4. X-rays
5. Neutrons
1.Alpha radiation:- Alpha particles consist of two protons and two neutrons bound together and so
are identical to helium nuclei. They have a mass number of 4 and a charge of + 2. Because they are
so large and heavy, alpha particles travel slowly compared with other types of radiation. Their ability
to penetrate into living tissue is therefore limited and damage occurs to animals only when alpha-
emitting isotopes are ingested or inhaled.

2.Beta radiation:- Beta particles are simply electrons emitted by the nucleus during the change of a
neutron into a proton. They have minimal mass but high velocity (typically 40%, the speed of light)
and a charge of -1. They may penetrate through skin or surface cells into tissue and may then pass
close to the orbital electrons of tissue atoms where the repulsion of the two negative particles may
force the orbital electron out of the atom, ionizing the tissue, and forming radicals. Because beta
decay involves the change of a neutron into a proton the atomic number of the nuclide increases by
one, but the mass number does not change. Beta decay is a common mode of radioactive
disintegration and is observed for both natural and synthetic nuclides.

3.Gamma radiation:- radiation is very short wavelength electromagnetic radiation. I t travels at the
speed of light, is uncharged, but is highly energetic and so has considerable penetration power. As it
passes through biological tissue the electric field surrounding a gamma ray may eject orbital
electrons from atoms and so can cause ionization of the tissue and formation of radicals along its
path. The emission of gamma radiation does not lead to changes in mass or atomic numbers, and
may occur either on its own from an electronically excited nucleus or may accompany other types of
radioactive decay.

Causes:

 Nuclear explosions and detonations of nuclear weapons – probably the highest amounts of
human-induced radiation pollution have been generated in the mid-twentieth century
through various experimental or combat nuclear detonations. Released products in nuclear
explosions which are 85Kr, 89Sr, 106Ru, 137Cs, 140Ba,144Ce
 Defensive weapon production - may also release radioactivity from the radioactive
materials handled (usually with elevated health risks). However, unless an accident occurs,
the current standards will not allow the release of any significant amount of radiation.
 Nuclear waste handling and disposal - may generate low to medium radiation over a long
period of time. The radioactivity may contaminate and propagate through air, water, and
soil as well. Thus, their effects may not be easily distinguishable and are hard to predict.
Additionally, some nuclear waste locations may not be identified. The main issue with the
radiation waste is the fact that it cannot be degraded or treated chemically or biologically.
Thus, the only options are to contain the waste by storing it in tightly closed containers
shielded with radiation-protective materials (such as Pb) or, if containing is not possible, to
dilute it. The waste may also be contained by storage in remote areas with little or no life
(such as remote caves or abandoned salt mines). However, in time, the shields (natural or
artificial) may be damaged. Additionally, the past waste disposal practices may not have
used appropriate measures to isolate the radiation. Therefore, such areas need to be
carefully identified and access restrictions promptly imposed.
 Mining of radioactive ores (such as uranium ores) involves the crushing and processing of
radioactive ores and generates radioactive by-products. Mining of other ores may also
generate radioactive waste (such as mining of phosphate ores).
  Nuclear accidents – an already classic example of such accident is the nuclear explosion at a
former Soviet nuclear power plant in Chernobyl, that occurred in 1986. Its effects are still
seen today. Another example is the 1979 explosion at the Three Mile Island nuclear-power
generating plant near Harrisburg, PA, and the Fukushima Daiichi nuclear disaster of 2011.
The general problems at nuclear weapons reactors are other examples of this type of
sources of radiation pollution. Even accidents from handling medical nuclear
materials/waste could have notable health effects on workers.
 Cosmic Rays

Units of Radiation Dose:

Becquerel (Bq): Measures radiodecay of raido active material

Gray (Gy) : Measures the physical absorption of radiation(1J energy) by 1kg of matter.
Sievert (Sv) : Evaluates biological effects of radiation.

Natural Sources:
1.Cosmic Rays:
The earth's atmosphere is continuously bombarded by highly energetic protons and alpha
particles emitted by the sun and of galactic origin. Their energies range from about 1 MeV to about
104 MeV. These primary particles have two effects. They cause some radiation exposure directly to
man, the magnitude of which varies with altitude and latitude, and they interact with stable
components of the atmosphere causing the formation of radionuclides. Of these, 1H and especially
14
C are important to the biosphere.

2.Terrestrial Gamma Radiation:

The earth's crust contains three elements with radioactive isotopes which contribute
significantly to man's exposure to radiation. These are 40K, with an average concentration in the
upper crust of 3 ppm, 232Th which is present in granitic rocks at 10-15 ppm, and the three isotopes
of uranium which total an average 3-4 ppm in granite.
The gamma rays emitted by these radionuclides and their daughters in soil, sediments, and
rocks and in building materials give an average annual effective dose equivalent in the UK of about
400 µSv y-1,

Anthropogenic Sources:
1.Nuclear Fusion:-
Many heavy nuclei with mass numbers greater than 230 are susceptible to spontaneous fission, or
splitting into lighter fragments, as a result of the forces of repulsion between their large number of
protons. Fission can also be induced by bombarding heavy nuclei with projectiles such as neutrons,
alpha particles, or protons. When the fission of a particular nuclide takes place the nuclei may split in
a variety of ways, producing a number of products. For example, some of the possible fission
reactions of 235U are:
In each of these reactions neutrons are formed as primary products and these neutrons can, in turn,
cause the fission of other 235U nuclei, so causing a chain reaction of the fissile uranium.

Beta Decay of fission products:

The primary daughter products of nuclear fission are almost always β-radioactive and often these
also quickly produce β -radioactive products. Only after several such decays are products with long
half-lives formed. For example. The fission of 335U produces 90Br:

Then further decays to

and has a half-life of 28 y, which is sufficiently long for it to be widely circulated through the
environment, in contrast to its short-lived precursors. After one more beta decay a stable product,
90
Zr, is formed. It is therefore radioactive strontium rather than its precursors that is the important
environmental pollutant in this series.

Effects:

1.Genetic Mutations:Radiation has adverse effects when it comes to genetics. It leads to damage of
DNA strands leading to genetic break up in the course of time. The degree of genetic mutation
leading to changes in DNA composition vary due to the level of radiation one has been exposed to
and the kind of exposure. In the event that a human or an animal is exposed to too much radiation
from the atmosphere, food consumed and even water used then chances are that their bodies have
already absorbed the radiation. Once in the body, it remains active because energy cannot be
destroyed. The resulting mutation makes one highly susceptible to cancer. For pregnant women,
kids born have adverse defects caused by genetic mutations like low weight during birth. Effects
such as disfigured births and impairment like blindness in children have also been reported.
Infertility has also been mentioned as an effect of radiation.

2. Diseases: Cancer is the most dominant radiation related disease. It has developed over the years
and poses great risk in global health. Others include leukemia, anemia, hemorrhage, a reduction in
the life span leading to premature aging and premature deaths as well as others such as
cardiovascular complications. Leukemia, for instance, is caused by radiation in the bone marrow.
3. Soil infertility: Exposure of radiation to the atmosphere means it is present even in soils.
Radioactive substances in the soil react together with the various nutrients leading to destruction of
those nutrients, thus rendering the soil infertile and highly toxic. Such soil leads to the harvest of
crops that are riddled with radiation and thus, unfit for consumption by both humans and animals.

Plants that grow from such soil are also genetically modified. Since these are at the base of the food
chain, the herbivores consume them and retain the radiation levels. The carnivores such as lions,
vultures end up consuming them and increasing their levels of radiation – explained through the
concept of Biomagnifications.

4. Cell destruction: Radioactive pollution has diverse effects such as the alteration of cells. The
bodies of living organisms are unique in that there are millions of cells in one single body, where
each has its purpose to fulfill. Radiation distorts the cells present leading to permanent damage of
the various organs and organ systems. In the face of too much radiation, permanent illnesses and
death are inevitable.

5. Burns: Radiation is not easy to feel but it is easy to realize that you have been affected by it. The
immediate presence of burns, red lesions and sores is evidence. To make it worse, this can lead to
skin cancer.

Remedies:-

1. The captured sediments are chemically reprocessed to make the recovered radioactive ores
ready for reuse in nuclear power production.

2. Using wet gas scrubbing to remove soluble fission products like the harmful Cesium 137
radioactive waste particles.

3. Using adsorption technologies to eradicate the unstable chemically reactive gases like
iodine.

4. Modern gaseous abatement techniques are being applied, which involves filtrating the
release by way of dry, high-efficiency particulate aerosols to eliminate actinide aerosols.

Also Refer these books :-

1. Environmental Engineering by PANDEY
2. Pollution causes, effects and control by R.M.Harrison
3. Environmental pollution control engineering by C.S.Rao
4. Environmental pollution and control by J.JEFFREY PEIRCE
5. Environmental Engineering by Anil Kumar De