Welcome to Chemistry

Chemistry is the Science Full of Fun and Excitements

Lecture Notes - General Chemistry 1

ntroduction

These “Brief Notes” of General Chemistry I are taken from the textbook “Chemistry” by Raymond Chang
1998.

t is therefore very important –when studying these notes- to review the selected sections of each chapte
extbook first.

hope that these “Brief Notes” will serve their purpose in promoting better understanding for chemistry in
mproving the outcome of the overall grades of the undergraduate students.

Dr. Maher Atteya

_______________________________________________
Chapter 1: Chemistry: The study of Change

Chemistry is the center of basic sciences because it is needed in almost every area of science such as b
biochemistry, medicine geology, ecology etc..

mportant areas of chemistry in the present and future:

1. Health/medicine:
- disease prevention and control
-new drug production etc..
2. Energy and environment:
- emission control
- energy efficient technologies such as solar energies
3. Material and technology
- new chemical products/ new and advanced chemical industries
4. Food/ agriculture:
- new biotechnologies to produce more food
- efficient fertilizers
----------------------------

The Scientific method:

- The scientific method is a systematic approach to research. The scientific method follows the following
1. Defining the problem
2. Performing actual experiment: collecting data. These data can be:
a. qualitative: based on general observations
b. quantitative: based on experimental results
3. Hypothesis:
- interpretation of the obtained data
- tentative explanation for a set of observations
- hypothesis also can be considered as educated guess.
4. Theory:
- a theory is a hypothesis tested intensively under different conditions and adopted as theory
5. Scientific law:
The theory is further tested under different locations/conditions by different researchers and proven to b
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - --
Classifications of matter:

Matter: anything that occupies space and has mass

Matter can be divided into mixtures and pure substances. The mixtures can be separated into own comp
substances) by physical methods.
Mixtures are divided into two types: homogeneous and heterogeneous.
n the homogeneous mixtures, the composition is the same and uniform throughout (example: NaCl + H
n the heterogeneous mixtures, the composition is NOT uniform throughout (example: sand + H2O).
The pure substances are a form of matter that has constant composition and distinct properties (exampl
pure substances are divided into classes: compounds and elements.
Compounds are substances that formed from combination of two or more elements. The atoms are chem
ixed properties. (example: Na atom and Cl atom can combine to form a compound called NaCl).
Elements are substances that can NOT be separated into simples substances by chemical means.(exam
and element Cl can not be broken into their sub particles with chemical means. One needs to use physic
break the atoms of these elements into their sub particles.

Note:
1. a molecule is a substance that formed from combination of two or more of the same element (exampl
Cl2, Br2, N2 are molecules).
2. Nobel gases such He, Ar, Xe, Ne etc are considered molecules with one atom ONLY!

----------------------------

The three states of matter:

The matter can be found in three states:
1. Solid:
- Distance between the molecules is the least.
- Highly organized molecules
2. Liquid:
- Distance between molecules is smaller but not rigid as in a solid.
- Less organized.
3. Gas:
- Distance between the molecule is the largest.
- Random motion.
- Least organized.

Change in states:
Melting: from solid state to liquid state
Freezing: from liquid state to solid state
Melting point (temperature) = Freezing point
Boiling: from liquid state to gas (vapor) state
Condensation: from gas (vapor) to liquid
Boiling point = Condensation point
Sublimation: from solids to gas without undergoing liquid state.
Deposition: from gas to solid without undergoing liquid state.
Sublimation point = Deposition point.
----------------------------
The interconversion is carried out without change in composition. Therefore, it is a physical change.

A physical change/physical property:

A physical property:
A property of substance (compound) which can be measured without a change in the composition or ide
substance (i.e. boiling point, melting point, density, etc...)
A physical change:
A change in a matter without changing its composition. The process is reversible.

A chemical property:
A property of substance which is observed under changing composition.
n order to observe a chemical property, one should carry out a chemical reaction.
A chemical change:
A change in matter that leads to a change in composition and the process is irreversible.
Example: 4 Fe + 3 O2 ------> 2 Fe2O3

Physical properties are:

1. Extensive properties:
- Properties that depend on how much matter is being considered (example: mass, volume, etc..)
- Extensive properties are additive (example: sum of all masses = mass(1) + mass(2) + mass(3) + mass
2. Intensive properties:
- Properties that do not depend on how much matter is being considered (example: density, temperature
- Values of intensive properties are not additive.
--------------------------
Measurements in chemistry are used to determine macroscopic properties of the substances which can
directly (such as measuring mass, volume) and microscopic properties are determined indirectly on atom
scale.

Chemistry uses a combination of two measuring systems:

1. SI System: Syteme Internationale (International system). This system uses base units such as:

Base of quantity Base unit symbol

_______________ ________ ______

a. mass Kilogram Kg
b. length Meter m
c. pressure Pascal Pa
d. temperature Kelvin K
e. Heat Joules J
. volume Liter L

Note that "Liter" is not an SI base unit. However, it is adopted by the SI measuring system.

2. Metric system: This system uses the power of ten:

G = giga = 10 ^9 centi = 10 ^-2
M = mega = 10 ^6 deci = 10 ^-1
K = kilo = 10 ^3 milli = 10 ^-3

----------------------------
Mass /weight:

Weight is not equal mass. Weight is a force.

Weight = mass X acceleration (earth gravity).
Therefore, weight is changing from place to place according to earth gravity but mass remains constant

----------------------------
Volume: is equal to mass divided by density:
Volume = [(mass) / (density)] or in symbols:
V = [(m) / (d)]
Volume is measured in Liter in SI system.
1 Liter (L) =1000 mL
1 L = 1000 cm^3

Unit conversion:
1 cm^3 = (1X 10^-2 m)^3 = 1 X 10^-6 m^3
(because 1 cm = 10^-2)

----------------------------

Density: [(mass) / (volume)]

d = [(m) / (V)]
The unit of density is a follows:
or solids the unit is given in g/cm^3[density is high]
or liquids the unit is given in g/mL [density is medium to low]
or gases the unit is given in g/L [density is low]

Example:

The density of sulfuric acid in a certain car battery is 1.41 g/mL. Calculate the mass of 242 mL of the liqu
Solution:
mass = volume X density =242 mL X 1.41 g/mL = 341.22 g

----------------------------
Temperature:
A property that describes the change in heat.
3 Scales: a. English system: uses Fahrenheit (oF)
b. Celsius system: celsius degree (oC)
c. SI system: Kelvin (K)

H2O is used as a standard: Boiling and freezing points of water are used to inter- relate the three system

Boiling point 373.15 K 100 oC 212 oF

Freezing point 273.15 K 0 oC 32 oF

(SI-system) (Centigrade) (Fahrenheit)

Conversion of the temperature scales:

? oC = [oF - 32 oF] X (100 oC)/(180 oF)

(asked) (given)

? oF = [(oC) X (180 oF)/(100 oC)] + 32 oF

Note that the celsius scale is 100 units (100 - 0) and Fahrenheit scale is 180 units (212 - 32)

Kelvin = ?K = [(oC + 273.150)(1K/1 oC)]

(asked) (given)

Example:

Convert 323.15 oC to oF

? oF = (323.15 oC)X (180 oF / 100 oC) + 32 oF

= 613.67 oF

----------------------------
How to handle numbers?

Scientific Notations:
- are used when working with very large or very small numbers
- scientific notations are expressed in the following term: N X 10^n
where N = number between 1 and 10
n = exponent (can be positive or negative integer)

Rules of scientific notations:

_____________________________
1. If the decimal point has to be moved to the left, then n is positive integer.
2. If the decimal point has to be moved to the right, then n is negative value .

Example of 2-digit left movement:

341.2 = 3.412 X 10^2 (with n = 2)

Example of 1-digit right movement:

341.2 = 3412 X 10^-1 (with n = -1)
Note: The value of n equals the number of places(digits) that the decimal point has moved.

Exception for the rules:

1. n = 0
When n = 0, there will be no scientific notations, because when n = 0, then the power 10^0 = 1.
Example: 341.2 X 10^0 = 341.2 X 1 = 341.2

2. n = 1
When n = 1, the power is usually not written.
Example: 341.2 X 10^1 = 341.2 X 10

Scientific notations rules: (Addition/Subtraction)

__________________________________________________

1. First adjust the values of the exponents n1, n2, n3....etc, so that the value of all exponent is the same
2. Add/subtract the values of N1, N2, N3 .....etc

Example: 58.12 X 10^3 + 34.1 X 10^2

1. n - adjustment: (moving to the right)
(581.2 X 10^2)+ (34.1 X 10^2)=
2. Adding N - values:
(581.2 + 34.1) X 10^2 = 615.3 X 10^2
Another solution: (moving to the left)
(58.12 X 10^3 + 3.41 X 10^3)
(58.12 + 3.41) X 10^3 = 61.53 X 10^3
Note that both solution methods will give the same answer (i.e. 615.3 X 10^2 = 61.53 X 10^3)
Multiplication/division:
_______________________

a. Multiplication:
- add exponents n1, n2, n3 .......etc
- multiply N1, N2, N3 .........etc
Example: (3.1 X 10^3) X (5.1 X 10^2) =
(3.1 X 5.1) X (10^3 X 10^2) = 15.81 X 10^5

b. Division:
- subtract exponents n1, n2, n3 .......etc
- divide N1, N2, N3 .........etc
Example: (3.1 X 10^3) / (5.1 X 10^2) =
(3.1 / 5.1) X (10^3 / 10^2) = 0.608 X 10^1
= 6.08
_______________________________________________________

Significant Figures:
----------
- They give the margin of error by indicating the meaningful digits in the measured/calculated quantity.
- When significant figure are used, the last digit is uncertain.
- Considering significant figures, reflects the precision of the measurements.

Rules of significant figures:

1. Consider the following number:
00.00034300869000
One can distinguish FOUR types of zeros:
a. zeros left to the decimal are called decorating zeros. They are not significant.
b. zeros right to the decimal are called locating zeros. They are not significant.
c. zeros in between whole (integer) numbers are significant.
d. zeros after whole (integer) numbers are significant.
2. Whole (integer) numbers are always significant.
3. Whole number without decimal may or may not be significant. Example of this is 300. This number ha
number of significant figures, because it can have any possible significant figure numbers:
300 = 3 X 10^3 (undetermined)
= 3.0 X 10^3 ( 2 sig. fig.)
= 3.00 X 10^3 ( 3 sig. fig.)
= etc.....

Example:
Determine the number of significant figures (sig. fig.) of the following measurements:
a. 24 mL (undetermined)
b. 3.001 g ( 4 sig. fig.)
c. 0.032 m (2 sig. fig.)
d. 800 mL (undetermined)

Significant figures rules:

---------------
a. Multiplication/division:

- the calculations will be carried out by a calculator

- determining the correct sig. fig. will depend on the number that has the "LEAST SIG. FIG.".

Example:
61.34 X 13.121 = 804.8421 (calculator result)
4 sig. fig. is the determining number (least sig. fig.). Therefore, the answer will have 4 sig. fig.
Final result is 804.8

Note that when rounding a number that equal to 5 or higher, add one to the number to rounded of.
Example:
347.59 is rounded to 4 sig. fig. as 347.6

b. Addition/subtraction:

- the calculation will be carried out by calculator

- determining the correct sig. fig. will depend on the number that "LEAST DIGITS" after the decimal.

Example:
Add the following: 31.31 (2 digits after decimal)
2.1 (1 digit after decimal)
3.467 (3 digits after decimal)
__________________________
36.877 (calculator result)

2.1 has only one digit after the decimal. Therefore, it will control the outcome of the result.
Answer is 36.9 (with one digit after the decimal).
Note that 7 is greater than 5, so one is added to the number 8.

c. Whole number without decimal in multiplication:

n multiplication/division, whole number (without decimal will have no effect on the outcome of the result
Example:
13 X 3.21 X 3.674 = 153.31602 (calculator result)
The number 13 is undetermined and hence has no effect.
3.21 has the least sig. fig. and hence it will control the outcome of the result.
The final answer will have 3 sig. fig.: 1.53 X 10^2

n addition/subtraction, whole number is very important because it determines the outcome of the result.

Example:
Add 13 (undetermined)
3.21 (2 digits after the decimal)
3.674 (3 digits after the decimal )
_________________________________
19.9884 (calculator result)
Answer is 20 (because the undetermined sig. fig 13 controls the outcome of the result which has to be u
without any digits)

d. Mixed rules: (addition +subtraction + multiplication + division)

Two ways:

1. Do all calculations with calculator, then round off to the least sig. fig. (ignor the digit rule of addition/su

Example:
Calculate the following. Rounding the answer to the right sig. fig.

(3.65 X 43.2) - 100 = 57.68

------------------------- --------- (without rounding)
(4.112 X 2.1) + 2.03 10.6652

= 5.40824 (no rounding)

= 5.4 (rounded to 2 sig. fig., because the least sig. fig. among all the numbers given is 2.1 and hence the
have two sig. fig.

Comment:
This way of rounding off approach in not really accurate.

2. Rounding intermediate results:

- First calculate the process in brackets (multiplication):
157.68 - 100
---------------
8.6352 + 2.03

- Second round off the result to the correct sig. fig.

1.58 X 10^2 - 100 58
--------------------- = ------ = 5.4716
8.6 + 2.03 10.6

10.6 has 3 sig. fig. will control the outcome of the result because 58 is whole number (no effect in divisio
Answer is -------------> 5.47

Comment:
This approach is more accurate because it considers all rules and it gives results with more sig. fig (com
5.4 of the first approach).
_______________________________________________

Factor - label method of solving problems:

(or Canceling units method)

Example:
A roll of aluminum has a mass of 1.07 Kg. What is its mass in pounds. [ 1 lb = 453.6 g]

Answer: Kg ---> g ---> lb

? lb = (1.07 Kg) X (1000 g) X (1 lb)
-------------------------------------- = 2.3589 lb
( 1 Kg) X (453.6 g)
= 2.36 lb

Note that all units have to be canceled except the one in question.

Example:
The density of the lightest metal lithium (Li) is 5.34 X 10^2 kg/m^3. Convert its density to g/ cm^3.

? g/cm^3 = [5.34X10^2 Kg][1000 g][ 1 m^3 ]

--------------------------------------------
m^3 ][ 1 Kg ][(100 cm)^3]

= 5.34 X 20^ -1 g/cm^3

Example:
Convert 3.52 ft^3 into m^3:

Conversion ft-->inch-->cm-->m

? m^3 = 3.52 [ft X 12 inch X 2.54 cm X 1 m ]^3

--------------------------------------
1 X 1 ft X 1 inch X100 cm]

3.52 X [0.3048]^3= 0.0996 m^3 = 0.100 m^3 (3sig.fig)

Example:
Convert 8.5 tons to mg:

Conversion: ton ---> lb ---> g ---> mg

? mg = 8.5 [ ton X 2000 lb X 453.6 g X 1000 mg]

-------------------------------------------
1 ton X 1 lb X 1 g ]

= 7.7112 X 10^9 = 7.7 X 10^9

______________________________________________

Selected Problems from Textbook - Chapter 1:

------------------------------

Please work on these problems. If you have any question, contact your instructor!

1.11;1.13;1.15;1.17;1.18;1.22;1.25;1.29;1.30;1.31;1.32;1.33;1.36;1.39;1.40;1.42;1.47;1.48;1.50;1.54;1.5
-------------------------------------

Recommended Problems/Answers:

1. Explain the difference between the following:

Hypothesis, theory, scientific law;
Answer:
Consult note + textbook for the definitions of these expressions. These expressions might appearin the
choices!
------------------------------------------------------------------2. Give an example for the following:
a. Compound:
Answer: H2O (a compound is a combination of two or more different elements)
b. Element:
Answer: Na (a form of matter that can not be separated or destroyed by chemical means)
c. Heterogeneous mixture:
Answer: composition is not uniform throughout (sand/water)
d. Homogeneous mixture:
Answer: composition is uniform through out (sugar/water)
e. Molecule:
Answer: a combination of two or more of the same element (O2)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - -
3. Explain if the following statements represent a physical or a chemical change:
a. water boils at 95 C at high altitude: physical
b. wax burns when it is ignited: chemical
c. magnesium forms a white powder when heated in air: chemical
d. potassium dichromate has a bright orange color: physical
e. density of aluminum is less than brass: physical
-------------------------------------
4. The density of a solid is 3.914 g/mL and its mass is 2.0 g. Find its volume.
Answer:
Volume = [(mass/density)] = [(2.0 g)/(3.914 g/mL)]
= 0.5109 mL = 0.51 mL (2 sig. fig.)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -5. Convert the following to the appropriate unit:
a. 25.35 g to Oz:
? Oz = [25.35 g][(1 lb/453.6 g)][(16 Oz/1 lb)] = 0.8942
------------------------------------------------------------------
b. 78.2 mile/hr to m/s:
? m/s = [(78.2 mile/hr)][1.609 Km/1 mile)][1000 m/1 Km)] [(1 hr/ 60 min)][(1 min/ 60 s)] = 34.9 m/s
------------------------------------------------------------------
c. 9.99 ft^3 to m^3:
? m^3 = 9.99 [(ft) (12 inch/1 ft)(2.54 cm/1 inch)(1m/100 cm)]^3 = 9.99 [0.3048]^3 = 0.2828 m^3 = 0.283
------------------------------------------------------------------
d. 5.3678 gal to mL:
? mL = [(5.3678 gal)(3.785 L/1 gal)(1000 mL/1 L)] = 20317.123 mL = 203.2 X 10^2 mL
------------------------------------------------------------------
e. 34.45 F to C:
? C = [(34.45 F - 32 F) (100 C/180 F)] = 1.36 = 1 (rounded to 1 because of whole number without decim
------------------------------------------------------------------
. 456 F to K (K = Kelvin):
? K = [(456 F - 32 F)(100 C/180 F)] + [273.25K] = 508.71 K
------------------------------------------------------------------
6. Write in a scientific notation:
a. 0.000987 to 2 sig. fig. = 9.9 X 10^ -4
b.43.2456 to 4 sig. fig. = 43.25
c. 34566,13455,6754 to 10 sig. fig. = 345661345.6 10 ^5
------------------------------------------------------------------
7. Calculate the following (rounding the answer to right sig. fig.):
a. [(234.24 X 983.261 X 140)] / [(840.32 X 100)]
= 383.7189 = 383.72 (5 sig. fig.)

b. [(321.098 -231.862 + 980)] = 1069.236 = 1069 ( no digits and no decimal because the answer is cont
value 980)

c. [(76.342 X 11.976) - (321)] / [(329.06 X 10^ -3) + (150)]

= [(914.27) - (321)] / [(150.329)]
= [(593.27) / (150.329)]
=[(593) / (150)] =3.9533= 4

d. [(976.231 + 987.23) X (234.9)] / [(1609 X 32.89) - (467 X 10^ -2)]

= [(1963.46 X 234.9)] / [(52920.01 -467 X 10 ^ -2)]
= [(461216.75)] / [(529.2 X 10 ^2) - (467 X 10 ^ -2)]
= [(461.2 X 10^3)] / [(5.29 X 10^4)]
= [(461.2 X 10^3] / [(5 X 10^4)]
= 9.224
------------------------------------------------------------------
8. Write down the number of sig. fig. for the following numbers:
a. 1.00987: 6 sig. fig.
b. 000.000843: 3 sig. fig.
c. 76.00028000: 10 sig. fig.
d. 291: undetermined (whole number without decimal)
e. 5000: undetermined
. 3425.980 X 10^ -10: 7 sig. fig.
g. 7,634,243,980,2: undetermined (whole number, no decimal)
h. 0.01: 1 sig. fig.
. 08.080: 4 sig. fig.
. 892.002000000000: 15 sig. fig. (there is a decimal)
_______________________________________________

Chapter 2: Atoms, molecules and ions

The atomic history:

- In the 5th B.C., Greek philosopher Democritus believed that:
a. all matter consists of very small in cuttable (indivisible) particles called atoms
b. the property of the matter is uniform throughout so that a large or small amount of matter has the sam
- Dalton in 1808 had postulated the basic of modern chemistry:
a. Elements are made of small particles called atoms. All atoms of the same element are identical in size
chemical properties
b. Compounds are made of atoms of two or more elements in simple integer ratio.
c. A chemical reaction does not result in destruction or creation of atoms

Atomic laws:

1. Law of definite proportions (by Praust, French chemist)

"Different samples of the same compound always contain constant ratio (same proportion) by mass."
Example:
Coal + O2 -------> CO2
Charcoal + O2 --------> CO2
Diamond + O2 --------> CO2
Graphite + O2 --------> CO2
n each case the ratio between C and O is 1 to 2. This is a constant ratio regardless of the source it cam

2.Law of multiple proportions: (by Dalton, English teacher)

"If two elements can combine to form more than one compound, the masses of one element that combin
mass are in ratios of small whole numbers"
Example:
Fe + O --------> FeO ratio Fe:O = 1:1
Fe + O --------> Fe2O3 ratio Fe:O = 2:3
Fe + O --------> Fe3O4 ratio Fe:O = 3:4
Note that all ratios are simple (no large numbers) whole (no fraction) ratios

3. Law of conservation of mass: Law of constant mass: (by Dalton, English teacher)
"Matter can not be destroyed or created.

Example:
2 Mg + O2 ---------> 2 MgO
4g3g7g

f the mass of the product is less than 7 g then some grams of the matter had converted into light (UV ra
2 Mg + O2 ----------> 2 MgO + UV
-------------------------------------
The structure of atoms:
An atom is made of electrons, protons and neutrons.

1. The electrons:
The evidence of the presence electrons was provided by High Vacuum Discharge Tube experiment. In t
cathode rays were observed by introducing a fluorescent screen of zinc sulfide. Green rays were obtaine
deflected by the presence of magnetic and electric field. From this experiment one concluded that:
Electrons are particles (have mass) and are negative charged (attracted to the North pole of the magnet
attracted to the positive electrical plate).

According to Thompson / Millikan:

mass of an electron = [(charge) / (charge/mass)]
= [(- 1.60 X 10 ^ -19 C) / (1.76 X 10 ^ -28 C/g)]
= 9.09 X 10 ^ -28 g (very small number, there is neglected).

Radioactivity:

X - Rays:
Some radiation coming out the cathode rays could penetrate materials without being deflected by magn
ields. These are not particles. Because their source was unknown, therefore it was called X - rays.

Radioactivity:
Spontaneous emission of particles and/ or radiation.

Radioactive element:
An element that spontaneous emits radiation.

There are three types of rays are produced by the decay or breakdown of a radioactive element:
a. alpha rays (radiation):
are positive charged particles [He+]. Their origin is the decay of protons in nucleus]. They are deflected
electrical field.
b. beta rays (radiation):
are negative charged particles. Electrons produced by neutrons' decay in the nucleus. They are deflecte
electrical field.
c. gamma rays (radiation):
ike X - rays, gamma rays do not have charge and are not deflected by a magnet or electrical field.

2. Protons:

Evidence of their presence was provided by the high vacuum discharge tube. In this experiment a perfor
(anode with holes in it) was used.
Positive rays were observed.

From the two previous experiments, one can conclude that:

An atom is made of electrons and protons and because an atom is neutral in normal cases, then the num
s equal the number of the protons.

Rutherford's model of an atom:

Rutherford's used an alpha particle source to bombard a foil of gold. The radiation coming out the gold f
by detecting screen. From this experiment, Rutherfords and coworkers concluded that:

a. alpha radiation mostly going through:

most of the atom is an empty space

b. alpha radiation bouncing back:

he center of the atom called the nucleus has to have the positive charge which is repelling alpha radiati
a positive charge)

c. large deflection of alpha radiation:

alpha radiation are passing very close to the nucleus

d. small deflection of alpha radiation:

alpha radiation are attracted by the negative charge of the electrons.

Mass of the protons is 1.67252 X 10^ - 24 g [about 2000 (1840 exact) times larger than the mass of elec
Mass of electrons is 9.09 X 10^ -28 g

3. Neutrons:

- The atomic mass of an element when based only on protons is less that the actual mass determined b
(electrons masses are neglected because they are very small).
- With help of radioactivity experiment by Chadwick, by which a beryllium foil was bombarded by alpha r
observed that some type of radiation remained undeflected by magnetic or electrical field. These radiatio
charged (neutral) and hence called neutrons.
The neutrons have masses slightly greater than protons.
- the total atomic mass is obtained when adding the mass of the protons and the mass of the neutrons. T
what obtained by experiments.

The atomic model:

1. Atom is made of the nucleus, which represents the center of the atom. The nucleus contributes mainl
of the atom which is the sum of the masses of protons and neutrons. Protons and neutrons are packed i
2. Electrons are moving around the nucleus as clouds.
3. Protons are positively charged, electrons are negatively charged and neutrons have no charge (neutr
4. Most of the atom is an empty space.

Atomic number Z = number of protons (p)

Atomic mass A = mass number A = number of protons (p)+ number of neutrons (n)

Note that in a neutral atom, number of electrons (e) equals number of protons.

A = Z + n (where n = number of neutrons)

n=A-Z

n periodic table the following expression is given (relating the element to its A and Z values):

Z -----------------> atomic number

E -----------------> element symbol
A -----------------> mass number

n the textbook, the follwing expression is given:

A -----------------> atomic mass
E -----------------> element symbol
Z -----------------> atomic number

Example: If the following expression is given, calculate the number of electrons, protons and neutrons.
12.01
C
6
Z=6=#p=#e
# n = A - Z = 12 - 6 = 6
Note that the atomic mass is always rounded off to obtain exact number of neutrons. There is no fraction
neutrons.

sotopes:
atoms that have the same atomic number (same number of protons) but different mass number (differen
neutrons).
Example:
12 13 14
CCC
666

Carbon said to have 3 isotopes:

Carbon - 12: has 6 p, 6 e and 6 n (12-6=6)
Carbon - 13: has 6 p, 6 e and 7 n (13-6=7)
Carbon - 14: has 6 p, 6 e and 8 n (14-6=8)

With the hydrogen as exception in naming the isotopes, all isotopes are named accoring to thier mass n
1
H is called hydrogen (p =1, e = 1 , n = 0)
1

2
H is called deutrium (p =1, e = 1 , n = 1)
1

3
H is called tritium (p =1, e = 1 , n = 2)
1

Chemical reactions versus nuclear reactions:

Chemical reactions: are chemical changes due to exchange of electrons (neutrons and protons are not t
chemical reaction)

Nuclear reactions: are nucleus based. Protons and neutrons are taking part in the reaction in the nuclue
electrons.

Note that isotopes of the same element exhibit the same chemical properties and behave very similar to
chemical reaction.

Periodic table:

A chart in which elements are organized according to their chemical and physical properties.
Elements are organized horizontally in rows called periods and vertically in columns called groups.

There are 7 periods and 8 main groups designated by 1A,2A, 3A..........8A and 8 non main groups or tra
groups designated by1B,2B,3B.......8B.

All transition metals and group 1A,2A,3A(except boron B) are metals group 4A, 5A,6A,7A,8A are non m

Metals: are good conductor of electricity and heat.

Non metals: are bad conductors of electricity and heat.
Metalloid: Elements that have intermediate properties between metals and nonmetals.

group 1A: alkali metals

group 2A: alkaline earth metal (oxide builder)
group 7A: halogens
group 8A: noble gases (rare gases are always existing
n single atoms such as He,Ne,Ar)

Polyatomic(3 or more atoms) vs diatomic (2 atoms):

H2O polyatomic molecule (3 atoms)
O2 (diatomic)
H2 (diatomic)
N2 (diatomic)
2 (diatomic)
Group 6A and 7A are diatomic

Molecular models:
Are used to visualize the structures and bonds among atoms of the molecule.

Two Models.
1. Space - filling model: H2O (does not show all bonds
and angles)
2. Ball and Stick model: 3 dimensions (shows bonds and angles between atoms).

ons: Are atoms lost electrons (cations = positively charged) or gained electrons during a chemical react
negatively charged).

39
K -------------> K+ + 1e-
19 cation
p=19 p=19
e=19 e=18

19
F + 1e- --------> F-
9
p=9 p=9
e=9 e=10

K+ + F- -------> K F

2H+ + O2- ------> H2O

onic compound: combination of metal with non metal.

Covalent Compound: combination of two or more non metals through a covalent bond.

Monatomic ions = K+, Cl-, etc. (one atoms)

Polyatomic ions = CO3^2-, PO4^3-, OH- (2 or more)

Chemical Formulas:
Are formulas used to express the composition of the molecules and ionic compounds.
3 Types:

1. Molecular formula:
Expresses the exact number of atoms of each element.
Example: H2, H2O,CO2.

2. Empirical formula:
Expresses the simplest whole ratio of the atoms of each element. (but not the actual ratio)
Example:
C6H6-Molecular formula ----->Empirical formula C1H1
H2O2-Molecular formula ---->Empirical formula H1O1
Molecular formulas: are true chemical formulas.
Empirical formulas: are not true chemical formula but it reduces the ratio of the atoms of the elements to
(smallest) whole ratio (no fraction).
Sometimes the molecular form is equal to the empirical formula.
Example: CH3OH-molecular formula -----> CH3OH empirical formula

3. structural formula:
Expressing the bonds and angles among the atoms of the molecule.

Example: H2---C===C---H2

Writing ionic compounds:

When ionic compounds are neutral, then the negative charges of the anions equal the positive charges
Example: Na+ + Cl- -----> NaCl

Naming the compounds (Nomenclature)

1. Organic compounds: compounds that contain carbon atom combined with other non metal atoms

2. Inorganic compounds: combination of metal with non metal atoms (ionic compounds) or non metal wi
(covalent compounds).

onic compounds: (cation + anion) Combination.

onic compounds can be binary (2 elements combination) or ternary (3 elements combination).
mportant notes:
Hg+ = mercurous, Hg++ = mercuric.
Fe++ = ferrous, Fe+++ = ferric.
Mn+++ = manganese III, Mn^7+ = manganese VII

Please MOMERIZE tables: 2.2, 2.3, 2.4

Rule for ionic compounds naming:

1. Start name the metal (cation, positive charge).

2. Locate the position of the metal so that you know its position in periodic table. Metals of the main grou
A3 will carry the same charge as their group number.
3. Memorize tables 2.2, 2.3 and 2.4 and use the the appropriate negative charge for the anion.
4. In case of writing the chemical formula of the ionic compound; swap the charges of the metal cation a
metal (or non metals).

Example:
Potassium chloride: [potassium in the first group K+1, Cl in 7th group, therefore it will have 7 - 8 charge
-1].Hence potassium chloride has the chemical formula KCl

Note that the number of charges of the elements in main groups will be as follows:
group 1A : +1
group 2A : +2
group 3A : +3
group 4A : -4
group 5A : -3
group 6A : -2
group 7A : -1
group 8A : 0
The transitional elements (group 1B through group 8B)will not follow the above scheme, instead the cha
as in the following example:
Examples:
Write down the chemical formula of Ferric oxide:
Ferric = Fe+++ (3 positive charges), Oxide = O-- (2 negative charges).
Ferric oxide = Fe2O3

Manganese-III-oxide: Mn2O3
Potassium permanganate: K+, MnO4^- = KMnO4
Calcium nitrate: Ca2+, NO3^-1 = Ca(NO3)2
Calcium carbide: Ca2+, C^4- = Ca4C2 = Ca2C
sodium nitride: Na+1, N^3- = Na3N
ammonium dihydrogen phosphate = (NH4)^+, PO4^3- =
(NH4)3PO4
----------------------------
n case of non metal combines itself with non metal, then the prefixes mono, di, tri ...etc are used. Exam
NO = Nitrogen mono oxide--> omit the o --> Nitrogen monoxide
NO2 = Nitrogen dioxide
N2O3 = Dinitrogen trioxide
N2O5 = Dintrogen penta oxide --> omit a --> Dintrogen pentoxide.
N2O4 = Dintrogen tetra oxide --> omit a --> Dinitrogen tetroxide
Note this is not allowed in an ionic compound nomenclature: Example: Al2O3 is aluminum oxide and NO
ri oxide.

More Examples:
NF3 = Nitrogen triflouride
Cl2O7 = Dichloro hepta oxide --> Dichloro heptoxide
SiCl4 = Silican tetra chloride --> Silicon tetrchloride.
P4O10 = Tetra phosphorous deca oxide --> Tetra phosphorous decoxide.
----------------------------
Some exceptions to the rule of naming are the trivial names (found mostly in commercial and domestic u
H2O = water and NOT Dihydrogen monoxide
NH3 = ammonia and NOT Nitrogen trihydride
B2H6 = Diborane and NOT Diboran hexa hydride
CH4 = methane and NOT Carbon tetra hydride
SiH4 = Silane and Silicon tetra hydride
PH3 = Phosphine and NOT Phosphorous tri hydride
H2S = Hydeogen sulfide and Not Dihydrogen sulfide
----------------------------
Nomenclature of Acids and Bases:

1. An acid is a compound that gives H+ when dissolved in water: HCl(g) + H2O -----> H+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
1. Naming Acids that start with hydrogen.
Note that all inorganic acids start always with hydrogen at the beginning of their structure. To name such
hydro + anion name + ic:

Anion acid Name

----- ---- ----
F- HF Hydro fluoric acid
Cl- HCl Hydro chloric acid
Br- HBr Hydro bromic acid
- HI Hydro iodic acid
CN- HCN Hydro cyanic acid
S^2- H2S Hydro sulfuric acid
2.Oxoacids:
Oxoacids are acid that contain hydrogen, oxygen and another element (the central atom).
Example:
H2CO3: Carbonic acid (Carbon is the central atom and hence the name of the acid is named after it)
HNO3 = Nitric acid (Nitrogen is the central atom).
H2SO4 = Sulfuric acid (Sulfur is the central atom)
HClO3 = Chloric acid (Chlorine atom is the central atom)
H3PO4 = Phosphric acid (Phospjorous is the central atom)
----------------------------
HClO4 = perchloric acid (per = high amount of oxygen)
HClO3 = chloric acid
HClO2 = chlrous acid
HClO = hypo chloric acid
The anions of the these acids are obtained by removing the hydrogen out these acids:
ClO4^-1 = perchlorate
ClO3^-1 = chlorate
ClO2^-1 = chlorite
ClO^ -1 = hypochlorite
Similar naming for HIO4, HBrO4, HIO3, HBrO3 etc..
----------------------------
2. A Base is a compound that gives OH- (hydroxide ion) when dissolved in water.
Naming of the bases will be started by the name of the metal and ended with the word hydroxide:
Example:
NaOH = Sodium hydroxide
Ba(OH)2 = Barium hydroxide
NH4OH = Ammonium hydroxide
----------------------------
Hydrates:
Compounds that have specific number of water molecules attached to them. When the hydrate loses wa
called anhydrous salts. The process of losing this hydrate water can be physical (reversible removal of w
chemical (irreversible removal of water).
Examples:
CuSO4.5H2O <- - - -> CuSO4 + 5H2O (physical)
(blue crystal) (white crystals)
FeSO4.2H2O - - - -> Fe2O3 + SO2 + H2O (chemical)
(green) (brown)
Naming the hydrates:
BaCl2.2H2O = Barium chloride dihydrate
LiCl.H2O = Lithium mono hydrate
MgSo4.7H2O = Magnesium sulfate hepta hydrate
Sr(NO3)2.4H2O = Strontium nitrate tetra hydrate.
----------------------------

Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 2:

2.12;2.15;2.18;2.21;2.23;2.33;2.38;2.41;2.45;2.53;2.55;2.64;2.69
- - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 2:

1. State whether the following statements represent "law of definite proportions" or "law of multiple propo
constant mass"
a. 20 grams of magnesium react with 30 grams of oxygen to give 50 grams of magnesium oxide.
Answer: Law of constant mass

b. Copper forms two oxide CuO (Cu:O = 1:1) and Cu2O (Cu:O = 2:1)
Answer. Law of multiple proportion.

c. Iron oxide produced in lab has the formula of Fe2O3. Iron oxide also found in nature (as in mineral roc
ormula of Fe2O3.
Answer: Law of definite proportion.

2. Fill the blanks:

Atom is made of _PROTONS_ (positive charge), and ELECTRONS_ (negative charge) and _Neutrons_

3. Define the following:

a. Isotope
b. Radioactive element
c. Radioactivity
d. X - rays
Answer: Look in the textbook + notes.

4. Circle the correct answer:

Gamma radiation is:
a. particle
b. wave
c. behaving both as wave and particle
d. all of the above
e. none of the above
Answer: Gamma radiation is wave (b)

5.State the most important conclusion of Rutherford's experiment regarding the atomic model:
Answer: Atom is mostly empty space, with the mass being concentrated in the nucleus (center of the ato
density at distance from nucleus. Nucleus is made of protons and neutrons.

6. Determine number of electrons, protons and neutrons in the following elements:

253
Fm e- = 100
100 p+ = 100
n = 253 - 100 = 153
131
Xe e- = 54
54 p+ = 54
n = 131 - 54 = 77

184
W e- = 74
74 p+ = 74
n = 184 - 74 = 110

7. Determine the number of electrons, protons and neutrons of the following ions: [Hint: use periodic tab
Ca^2+ = Ca has Z = 20, A = 40
Ca^2+ --> e- = 20 -2 =18
p+ = 20
n = 40 - 20 = 20

H^-1 = H has Z = 1 and A = 1

H^-1 --> e- = 1 + 1 = 2
p+ = 1
n = 1-1 = 0

N^3- = N has Z = 7, A = 14
N^3- --> e- = 7 + 3 = 10
p+ = 7
n = 14 - 7 = 7

8. Determine the empirical formula of the following compounds and determine if both molecular and emp
are represented:
a. C2H2:
molecular formula: C2H2
empirical formula: C1H1
b. KMnO4:
molecular formula: KMnO4
empirical formula: KMnO4
c. P4O10
molecular formula: P4O10
empirical formula: P2O5
d. C6H12O6
molecular formula: C6H12O6
empirical formula: C1H2O1
e. N2O4
molecular formula:N2O4
empirical formula: N1O2

9. Name the following compounds:

a. CuO = copper oxide
b. KMnO4 = potassium permanganate
c. NaH2PO4 = sodium dihydrogen phosphate
d. KClO = potassium hypochlorite
e. Fe(SCN)2 = Iron-II-thiocyanate
. SiH4 = silicon hydride
g. Ca(IO4)2 = calcium periodate
h. CaC2 = calcium carbide

10. Write the formula of the following compounds:

a. potassium sulfide = K2S
b. magnesium hydrogen carbonate = Mg(HCO3)2
c. aluminum hydroxide = Al(OH)3
d. hydroiodic acid = HI
e. lithium cyanide = LiCN
. ammonia = NH3
g. barium chloride decahydrate = BaCl2.10H2O
h. hydrogen peroxide = H2O2
. calcium dichromate = CaCr2O7
. magnesium sulfite = MgSO3
_______________________________________________________

Chapter 3: Mass relations in chemical reactions

Atomic mass:
s the mass of the atom in atomic units (amu). One amu is defined as a mass exactly equal to one - twel
one carbon -12 atom.
12
C ---> 6 p+ and 6 n (is the standard atom)
6

n the periodic table

atomic mass = actual mass of the element X 12.00 amu
amu = atomic mass unit.

1 amu = (1/12) mass of C - 12

1 amu = (1 g/6.022 X 10^23 atom) = 1.66 X 10 ^-24 g/atom
1 amu = [( 1 g/6.022 X 10^23 atom)]X [(6.022 X 10^23 atom / mol)] = 1 g / mol

1 mol = 6.022 X 10^23 atom

1 atom = 1.66 X 10^ -24 g

----------------------------
Average weighed atomic mass:

= (sum of all natural abundance of each isotope of the element) X (atomic mass)
Example:
Determine the average weighed atomic mass of boron if the following information is given:
- boron atomic mass 10.0129 amu,its natural abundance 19.78%
- boron atomic mass 11.0093 amu,its natural abundance 18.22%

Solution:
Average weighed mass = (0.1978 X 10.0129)+ (0.8022 X 11.0093)= (1.9806) + (8.83166) = 10.8123 am

----------------------------
Question: Why do most masses of the elements (with some exceptions) have fraction (not whole numbe
Answer: Because each element has several isotopes and the average weighed atomic mass is calculate
which includes all isotopes found in nature (natural in abundance).
----------------------------
Molar mass of an element and Avogadro number:

Mol (SI unit): The amount of a substance that contains as many elementary entities (atoms, molecules o
as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of the carbon - 12 isotope.
The actual number of atoms is determined by experiment.
1 mol = 6.022 X 10 ^23 particles
= 6.022 X 10 ^23 atoms
= 6.022 X 10 ^23 molecules
= 6.022 X 10 ^23 formula units
Avogadro number = 6.022 X 10 ^23

Molar mass = mass of the particles / mol

Examples:
Calculate the number of grams of lead (Pb) in 12.4 moles of Pb.

? g Lead = (12.4 mol Pb) X (207.2 g Pb/mol Pb)= 2569.28 g = 2.57 X 10^3 g
----------------------------
Calculate the number of atoms in 0.551 g of potassium K.
? atoms K = (0.551 g K)X (1 mol K/39.10 g K) X (6.022 X 10^23 atom K/mol K) = 8.486 X 10^23
----------------------------
Calculate the molar mass of methanol (CH3OH).
molar mass = sum of all atomic masses of the elements
= 1C + 4H + 1O = (1X12) + (4X1) + (1X16)= 32 gram/mol

Note that molar mass and molecular mass mean the same thing. the unit of molar mass (or molecular w
---------------------------
Example:
Calculate the number of moles of chloroform (CHCl3)in 198 g of chloroform.
molar mass = 1C + 1H + 3Cl= (1X12) + (1X1) + (3X35.5)
= 119.5 g/mol
? mol CHCl3 = (198 g CHCl3)X(1 mol/119.5 g CHCl3)= 1.66 g.
----------------------------
Example:
How many H atoms are in 72.5 g of isopropanol (rubbing alcohol = C3H8O)?
molar mass = (3X12) + (8X1) = (1X16)= 60 g/mol
? atoms H = (72.5 g alcohol)X(1 mol alcohol/60 g alcohol)X(6.022X10^23 alcohol molecule/ mol alcohol
alcohol molecule)= 4.22 X 10^26 H atoms
----------------------------
Percent Composition of compounds: The % mass of each element in a compound.
% composition = (mols of element/1mol of compound)X(atomic mass of the element/ molar mass of the
molecule)

Example:
Calculate the % composition by mass of each element in sulfuric acid (H2SO4).
molar mass H2SO4 = 2H + 1S + 4O = (2X1)+ (1X32)+ (4X16) = 98 g/mol
% H = (2 mol H/ 1 mol molecule)X [(1 H g/molH)/ (98 g/mol molecule)] X 100 = 2.04 %
% S = (1 mol S/ 1 mol molecule) X [( 32 S g/molS) / (98 g/mol molecule)] X 100 =32.65 %
% O = (4 mol O/ 1 mol molecule)X [(16 O g/molO)/ (98 g/mol molecule)] X 100 = 65.31 %
Note:
% O (the last % mass) can be determined by another method, which gives the same answer:
% O = 100 - 2.04 - 32.65 = 65.31 %
----------------------------

Determination of the empirical formula from the mass percent (%) composition of the elements:

Example: Determine the empirical formula of a compound having the following % mass composition:
K = 24.75 %
Mn = 34.77 %
O = 40.51 %
Solution:
1. Assume that the sample is 100 g, then:
K = 24.75 g
Mn = 34.77 g
O = 40.51 g
2. Transfer # grams into # mols:
# mols K = (24.75 gK) X (1 mol K/39 gK) = 0.6329
# mols Mn = (34.77 gMn)X(1 mol Mn/55 gMn) = 0.6322
# mols O = (40.51 gO) X (1 mol O/16 gO) = 2.5319
3. Dividing by the smallest # mols:
K = (0.6329 / 0.6322) = 1.0011 ~ 1.0
Mn = (0.6322 / 0.6322) = 1.0
O = (2.5319 / 0.6322) = 4.0049 ~ 4.0
4. The ratio among the elements is K:Mn:O = 1:1:4, and hence the empirical formula is KMnO4.
----------------------------
Calculations of # grams of an element that found in the molecule or a compound:

Example:
Calculate the number of grams of Aluminum in 371 g of Al2O3.
Solution:
Molar mass Al2O3 = (2X27) + (3X16) = 102 g/mol
Atomic mass of Al = 27 g/mol
% Al = [(2 mol Al/ 1 mol Al2O3)]X[(27 g/mol Al)/(102 g/mol Al2O3)] X 100% = 52.94 %
Therefore, the mass of aluminum in aluminum oxide is 52.94 grams.
----------------------------
How to write chemical equations:

A chemical equation is describing a chemical reaction.

The chemical equation is expressed as follows:

Left hand side Right hand side

C + O2 -------------------> CO2
Reactants:
C = carbon Products:
O = oxygen CO2 = carbon dioxide
he chemical equation is read as follows:
1 mol of carbon reacts with 1 mol O2 to give 1 mol of CO2.
----------------------------
Balancing Chemical equation:

Rule:
1. Identify the reactants and products.
2. # of atoms in the reactant side (left) = # atoms in the product side (right)
3. Trial/error: Changing stoichiometric coefficient to equalize both sides.
4. Check # charges in both sides (left and right). If they are not equal. Try to equalize them.

Example:
HNO3 + Cu ----------> Cu^2+ H2O + NO2 + NO3^-
1. Trial / error:
multiply both sides of the chemical equation with 2 and compare the number of the atoms:
2 HNO3 + 2 Cu ---------> 2Cu^2+ + 2H2O + 2NO + 2NO3^-
2. Check # atoms:
reactants: products:
H=2H=4
N=2N=4
O = 6 O = 12
Cu = 2 Cu = 2
3. Charges:
Left = 0 Right = +4 -2 = +2
Charges at left are not equal charges at right.
Trial/error:
Multiply HNO3 by X4
Multiply Cu by X1
Multiply NO2 by X2
Multiply NO3^-1 by X2
Multiply H2O by X2
4 HNO3 + Cu ---------> Cu^2+ + 2H2O + 2NO + 2NO3^-
4. Check # of atoms in both sides:

reactants: products:
H=4H=4
N=4N=4
O = 12 O = 12
Cu = 1 Cu = 1
Atoms are balanced
3. Charges:
Left = 0 Right = +2 -2 = 0
Charges are balanced.

Therefore, the balanced equation is:

4 HNO3 + Cu ---------> Cu^2+ + 2H2O + 2NO + 2NO3^-
----------------------------
Limiting reactant:
- the reactant which is consumed completely (% percent) during the chemical reaction.
- the yield (amount) of the product is always based on this limiting reactant.

How to calculate limiting reactant?

- Calculate # moles of the product based on each reactant by itself.
- Compare # moles of the product obtained from each reactant.
- The least # moles of the reactant will represent the limiting reactant.
Note: Always considers the stoichiometric factors.

Example:
2 Al + Fe2O3 ----> Al2O3 + 2Fe
124 g 601 g
1. Calculate the mass of Al2O3 in grams.
2. How much of the excess reactant had left at end of the reaction.
3. Calculate the % yield if the actual yield is 150 g Al2O3.

Solution:
1. Determine the limiting reactant:
a.# mols Al2O3 based on Al=
(124 gAl)X(1 mol Al/ 27 g Al)X(1 mol Al2O3/1 molAl)=2.296 mol Al2O3

b.# mols Al2O3 based on Fe2O3=

(601gFe2O3)X(1 molFe2O3/ 160gFe2O3)X(1 mol Al2O3/1 molFe2O3)=3.756 mol Al2O3
2. By comparing # mols of Al2O3 obtained in two cases, one obtains the limiting reactant:
Hence, the limiting reactant is Al (Aluminum).
----------------
2. Mass of Al2O3 (based on Al as limiting reactant)=
(2.296 mol Al2O3) X(102 g Al2O3/mol Al2O3) = 234.19 g Al2O3
---------------
3. # g of Fe2O3 = (2.296 mol Al2O3)X(1 molFe2O3/ 1 molAl2O3)X(160 gFe2O3/ 1 mol Fe2O3) = 367.3
Left over of Fe2O3 (the excess) = 601 - 367.36 = 233.64 g Fe2O3.
---------------
4. % yield = [(actual yield)/(theoretical yield)] X 100
actual yield = 150 g Al2O3
heoretical yield (always based on the limiting reactant calculations) = 234. 19 g Al2O3

% yield = [( 150 g / 234.19 g)] X 100 = 64.05%

-------------------------------------
Selected Problems from Textbook - Chapter 3:
------------------------------
3.10;3.14;3.16;3.18;3.24;3.24;3.42;3.48;3.50;3.60;3.68;3.69;3.73;3.80;3.84;3.98.
-------------------------------------
Recommended Problems/Answers:

1. Define the following:

a. atomic mass
b. molar mass
c. Avogadro number
d. amu
e. molecular mass
. limiting reactant
g. % yield

Answer: Look for these definitions in textbook and in the notes.

2. Calculate the number of grams of W (tungsten) in 5.68 moles of tungsten.

Answer:
? g W = (5.58 g W)X(183.9 g W/ mol W) = 1044.55 g W

3. Calculate the number of atoms in 8.96 g Cs.

Answer:
? atoms Cs = (8.96 g Cs) X(1 mol Cs/ 132.9 g Cs)X(6.022X10^23 atoms Cs/1 mol Cs) = 4.059 X 10^22

4. Calculate number of moles of 50.98 g of ethanol.

Answer:
Ethanol = C2H5OH, molar mass 2C+5H+1O+1H=2(12)+5(1)+1(16)+1(1) = 46 g/mol
? mol ethanol=(50.98 g ethanol)X(1 mol ethanol/48 g ethanol) = 1.108 mol ethanol.

5. How many oxygen atoms are in 351.5 g of P4O10?

Answer:
Molar mass P4O10 = 4P + 10O = 4(31) + 10(160) = 284 g/mol
? Oxygen atoms = (351.g g P4O10)X(1 mol P4O10/284 g P4O10)X(6.022X10^23 P4O10 molecule)X(10
1 P4O10 molecule) = 7.45 X10^24

6. How many magnesium (Mg^2+ ions) are in 685.12 g of MgSO4.7H2O?

Answer:
Molar mass MgSO4.7H2O = 1Mg + 1S +11O + 7H = 1(24) + 1(32) + 11(16) + 7(1) = 246 g/mol
? Mg^2+ ions = (685.12 g MgSO4.7H2O)X(1 mol MgSO4.7H2O / 246 g MgSO4.7H2O)X(6.022X10^23 m
MgSO4.7H2O / mol MgSO4.7H2O)X(1 Mg^2+ ion / 1 molecule MgSO4.7H2O) = 1.677 X 10^24 Mg^2+

7. Calculate the % composition by mass of each element in K2Cr2O7>

Answer:
Molar mass K2Cr2O7 = 2K + 2Cr + 7O = 2(39) + 2(52) + 7(16) = 294 g/mol
% K = (2/1)X(39 / 294)X 100% = 26.5 %
% Cr = (2/1)X(52 / 294) X 100% = 35.37 %
% O = (7/1)X(16 / 294) X 100% = 38.09 %

8. Determine the empirical formula of the compound having the following composition:
C=25.5%, H=45.64%, O=28.86%
Answer:
Assume the compound is worth 100 g.
C=25.5 g, H=45.64 g, O=28.86 g
moles C = (25.5 gC)X(1 mol/12 gC) = 2.125 moles C
moles H = (45.64 gH)X(1 mol/1 gH) = 45.64 moles H
moles O = (28.86 gO)X(1mol/16 gO) = 1.803 moles O
Dividing by the smallest moles number (1.803 moles)
C(2.125) H(46.64) O(1.803) ----> C(1.178) H(25.861) O(1) ---> C(1) H(26) O(1)

9. Balance the following chemical equations:

a. 2 Ch3COOH + Na2CO3 ------> 2 NaCH3COO + CO2 + H2O
b. 2 Mg + O2 ----> 2 MgO
c. Zn + 2 HCl -------> ZnCl2 + H2
d. 3 Cu^2+ + 2 Al + NO^3- ---> 3 Cu + 2 Al^3+ + NO^3-
e. P4 + 5 O2 -----> 2 P2O5

10. 125 g of AgNO3 react with 205 g of iron (Fe) according to the balanced chemical equation:
3 AgNO3 + Fe ----> Fe(NO3)3 + 3 Ag
Calculate the following:
a. The mass of the product Fe(NO3)3 in grams
b. How much of the excess reactant had left at the end of the reaction.
c. The % yield if the actual yield of Fe(NO3)3 (obtained from the experiment) is 50.5 grams.
Answer:
a. First the limiting reactant has to calculated:
# moles Fe(NO3)3 based on AgNO3:
(125 g AgNO3)(1 mol AgNO3 /170 g AgNO3)(1 mol Fe(NO3)3 / 3 mol AgNO3) = 0.245 moles Fe(NO3)3
Note the molar mass of AgNO3 is 170 g/mol
# moles of Fe(NO3)3 based on Fe:
(205 g Fe)(1 mol Fe /56 g Fe)(1 mol Fe(NO3)3 / 1 mol Fe) = 3.66 mol Fe(NO3)3.
Comparing the two results AgNO3 is the limiting reactant.
Therefore, # g of Fe(NO3)3 based on the limiting reactant:
AgNO3 = (0.245 mol Fe(NO3)3) (242 g Fe(NO3)3 / 1 mol Fe(NO3)3) = 59.29 g Fe(NO3)3
Note that the molar mass of Fe(NO3)3 is 242 g/mol

b.# moles of excess reactant At the end of reaction:

=3.66 moles - o.245 moles = 3.415 moles Fe left over
# of grams Fe left over= (3.415 moles Fe)(56 g Fe / mol Fe) = 191.24 grams are left over (in excess)

c. The % yield = [(actual yield) / (theoretical yield based on limiting reactant calculations)] X 100%
= [(50.5 g / 59.29)] X 100% = 85.17 %

_______________________________________________

Chapter 4: Reactions in aqueous solutions:

Aqueous solution:
A solution that is homogeneous mixture made of two or more substances:
1. The solute: is the substance that has the ability to be dissolved and is found in smaller amount.
2. The solvent: is the substance that is dissolving and is found in larger amount.

A solution might be gaseous, solid, liquid:

Example:
gaseous solution: air --> N2: 75 % (air), O2: 25 %
solid solution (alloys): alloy, brass + Copper
iquid solution: NaCl + H2O

Aqueous solution is the solution by which the solute is a solid or a liquid or a gas and the solvent is H2O
aqueous solutions in the lab made of dissolving a solid (as solute) in a liquid (as a solvent).

Electrolyte:
A substance that when dissolved in H2O results in a solution that can conduct electricity (producing ions
Example: NaCl(s) + H2O(l) ---> Na+(aq) + Cl^-(aq)

Non electrolyte:
A substance that does not conduct electricity when dissolved in water such as:
sugar + H2O ---> non electrolyte
methanol + H2O ---> non electrolyte

Strong electrolyte: an electrolyte that dissociates 100 % (completely) when dissolved in water such as:
NaCl(solid) + H2O ---> Na^+1(aq) + Cl^-1(aq) [100% dissociation]

Weak electrolyte:: an electrolyte that dissociates partially (not completely) when dissolved in H2O such a
CH3COOH <---> H^+1(aq) + CH3COO^-1(aq)
Study Table 4.1 pages 111 (memorize it!!!)

Note: The difference between complete and partial dissociation can be easily recognized by inspecting t
chemical equations:
Double arrows: <---> = process is reversible and there is partial dissociation.
Single arrow: ---> process is irreversible and there is complete dissociation.

Hydration:
The process in which an ion is surrounded by a number of water molecules. Actually water molecules w
cage around the dissolved ion.
NaCl(s) ---> Na^+1(aq) + Cl^-1(aq)
Na^+1(aq)= means that Na^+1 ions are surrounded (caged) with water molecules. Oxygen is the partial
water molecules, will be attracted to the positive charge of Na^+1 ions.
Cl^-1(aq)= means that Cl^1- ions are surrounded (caged) with water molecules. Hydrogen is the partial
water molecules, will be attracted to the negative charge of Cl^1- ions.

Types of reactions:

1. Precipitation reactions:
Results in a insoluble product called a precipitate.
How do we know that we a precipitate?
To answer this question, check the solubility rules:

Solubility rules:
A. The soluble precipitates:
1. All nitrates (NO3^1-)of all cations are soluble.
2. All halides (7th group 7A elements) of all cations are soluble [except: Ag^1+, Hg2^2+ (mercury 1 or m
Pb^2+].
3. All sulfates (SO4^2-) of all cations are soluble [except: Ba^2+, Ca^2+, Sr^2+, Ag^1+, Pb^2+].
4. All compounds contain alkali metal ions such as Li^1+, Na^1+, K^^1+, Rb^1+, Cs^1+ and NH4^1+ are

B. The insoluble precipitates:

1. All carbonates (CO3^2-) are insoluble.[except of alkali metal ions such as Li^1+, Na^1+, K^1+, Rb^1+
NH4^1+].
2. All phosphates (PO4^3-) are insoluble.[except of alkali metal ions such as Li^1+, Na^1+, K^1+, Rb^1+
NH4^1+].
3. All hydroxides (OH^1-) are insoluble.[except of alkali metal ions such as Li^1+, Na^1+, K^1+, Rb^1+,
and Ba^2+].
4. All sulfides (S^2-) are insoluble.[except of alkali metal ions such as Li^1+, Na^1+, K^1+, Rb^1+, Cs^1

Example:

NaCl(ag) + AgNO3(aq) ---> NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)

Note that AgCl forms insoluble solid (s) or precipitate (ppt).

n case there is no precipitates, then there will be NO reaction.

Example:
2 NaCl(aq) + Ca(NO3)2(aq) ---> 2 NaNO3(aq) + CaCl2(aq) ---> NO REACTION
There is no precipitate formed, then there is no reaction!

Types of Chemical Equations:

1. Complete Chemical Equation (Molecular Equation):

NaCl(aq) + AgNO3(aq) ---> NaNO3(aq) + AgCl(s)
(Writing all reactants/products in their molecular formula)

2. Complete Ionic Chemical Equation:

Na^1+(aq) + Cl^1-(aq) + Ag^1+(aq) + NO3^1-(aq) ---> AgCl(s) + Na^1+(aq) + NO3^1-(aq)
(Taking molecular formulas apart as ions. Including all ions involved and present in the solution)

3. Net Ionic Chemical Equation:

Ag^1+(aq) + Cl^1-(aq) ---> AgCl(s)
Note that Na^1+(aq) and NO3^1-(aq) are present in both sides of the chemical equations (as reactants a
and therefore called Spectator ions. They will be canceled from both sides of the chemical equation.
Note that in case of ionic chemical equation and net ionic equation the aqueous ions or molecule will be
Solid, liquid and gas molecules will remain in tact and will never be taken apart.
Bronsted Acid - Base reactions:
Bronsted Acid: a compound that donates H^+ when dissolved in water.
Bronsted Base: a compound that accepts H^+ when react with Bronsted acid. A Bronsted base is OH^-
dissolved in water.
Example: HCl(gas)+ H2O ---> H^+(aq) + Cl^-(aq)
Note that H^+ (called proton) does not exist alone by itself, instead is hydrate with one water molecule to
known as hydronium ion.
H^+(aq) + H2O(l) ---> H3O^+ (hydronium ion)

Acid Types:
1. Monoprotic: (producing one H^+ in aqueous solution):
Examples: HCl, HNO3, HClO4
2. Diprotic: (producing two 2H^+ in aqueous solution):
Examples: H2SO4, H2S
3. Triprotic (producing three 3H^+ in aqueous solution):
Examples: H3PO4
The dissociation of these acids is as follows:
HCl(aq) ---> H^+(aq) + Cl^-(aq)
H2SO4(aq) ---> 2H^+(aq) + SO4^2-(aq)
H3PO4(aq) ---> 3H^+(aq) + PO4^3-(aq)

Bronsted Bases: a proton acceptor.

Example: KOH(aq) + HCl(aq) ---> KCl(aq) + H2O(l)
The net ionic chemical equation:
OH^-(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> H2O(aq)

2. Neutralization Reactions:
Acid + base ---> salt + H2O (in aqueous solution)
Example:
CO3^2-(aq) + 2 H^2+(aq) ---> H2CO3(aq)
OH^-(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> H2O(aq)
NO2^-(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> HNO2(aq)
HCO3^-(aq) + H^2+(aq) ---> H2CO3(aq)
NH3(aq) + H^+(aq) ---> NH4^+
The driving force of an acid - base neutralization reaction is the reaction of H^+ (of the acid) with OH^- (
produce H2O.

3. Oxidation /Reduction Reactions:(Redox reactions)

Oxidation: the process by which an element loses electrons and hence the oxidation number of this elem
Reduction: the process by which an element gains electrons and hence the oxidation number of this ele
The oxidation number is the charge appears on the element. Actually the oxidation number (O.N.) (also
state O.S.) equals the number of the group.
The oxidation number of the elements in main groups will be as follows:
group 1A : +1
group 2A : +2
group 3A : +3
group 4A : -4
group 5A : -3
group 6A : -2
group 7A : -1
group 8A : 0
The oxidation number of transition metals and lanthanide and actinides depends on the context of the co

Oxidizing agent:
A compound that does the actual oxidation process and itself will be reduced in the process.

Reducing agent:
A compound that does the actual reduction process and itself will be oxidized in the process.

Example:
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ---> ZnSO4(aq) + Cu
Oxidation: Zinc gives 2 electrons
Zn(0) ----> Zn^2+ (in ZnSO4)
Zn goes from oxidation number 0 to 2
Reduction: Copper accepts these 2 electrons
Cu(2+) (in CuSO4) ---> Cu(0)

Because oxidation and reduction are connected processes, they are coupled together in the expression
Red stands for reduction and ox stands for oxidation.

Rules of Oxidation Numbers:

1. Free elements and diatomic molecules, neutral molecules/compounds:

Oxidation number O.N. = 0 (zero)
Example:
Elements: Ca, Fe, Na,
Diatomic molecules: N2, Cl2, O2

2. Monatomic ions: O.S. are equal the charge on these ions.

Example:
Al^3+ : O.N. = + 3
N^3-: O.N. = - 3
Ca^2+: O.N. = +2

3. Fluorine has always O.N. = -1: (F^_)

4. Hydrogen has always O.N. = + 1: (H^+)
5. Oxygen has always O.N. = -2: (O^2-)

Note that O.N. is very rare cases can have a fraction number.
Example:
O2^ - ----> N.O. = - 1/2

Example:
Determine O.N. of Cr in Cr2O7^2-
Outside charge = the sum of all O.N. of all elements involved.
-2 = 2 (Cr) + 7 (O)
-2 = 2 (Cr) + 7 (-2)
-2 = 2 (Cr) - 14
+ 12 = 2 (Cr)
(Cr) = (+ 12 / 2) = + 6

Example:
Determine the O.N. of Mn in MnO4^-
-1 = 4(O) + 1 (Mn)
-1 = 4(-2) + 1(Mn)
-1 = -8 + Mn
-1 +8 = Mn
Mn = + 7

4 Types of Redox reactions:

1. Combination reactions:
2 Mg + O2 ----> 2 MgO
Mg: (N.O.= 0)
O2: (N.O. = 0)
MgO: Mg has N.O. of +2 and O has N.O of -2.

2. Decomposition reaction:
2 HgO ---> 2 Hg + O2

3. Displacement reactions:
a. metal displacement rxn:
Cu^2+ + Zn ---> Zn^2+ + Cu
Metal displacement depends on the activity series of metals (electrochemical series).
Li
K
Ba

H
Cu
Hg

Au
The displacement hydrogen from acid increases from Au to Li.
The displacement of hydrogen from water increases from Au to Li.
Elements above Hydrogen are good reducing agents (being itself easily oxidized).
Elements below Hydrogen are good oxidizing agents (being itself easily reduced).
b. Hydrogen displacement:
rom acid: Ca + 2 HCl ---> CaCl2 + H2
rom water: K + H2O ---> KOH + 1/2 H2
c. Halogen displacement:
Halogen activity series:
F2 > Cl2 > Br2 > I2
-----------------------> decrease in oxidizing agent characteristics.
F2 is very reactive (less stable)
2 is least reactive (the most stable)
Example:
F2 + 2 NaCl ---> very reactive
Cl2 + 2 NaBr -----> Br2 + 2 NaCl
Br2 + 2 KI ---> I2 + 2 KBr
Halogens are very reactive (strong oxidizing agents).

4. Disproportion reactions:
Hg^+ ----> Hg^2+ + Hg
(O.N. =+1) (O.N.=+2) (O.N.=0)
(medium) (highest) (lowest)

Example:
H2O2 ---> O2 + H2O
(O.N. of Oxygen= -1) (O.N.=0) (O.N.= -1)
(medium) (highest) (lowest)

Concentration of solutions:
Amount of solute present in a given amount of solvent or solution is expressed as molarity.
The molarity is defined as follows:
Molarity = [(# moles of the solute) / (Liters of solution)]
The unit of molarity (as concentration of solute in a solvent) is given as:
mol/L or M or molar.
Example:
How many grams does one need of NaOH to prepare 0.1 M of NaOH in 500 mL solution (solvent is wate
Answer:
Molar mass of NaOH = 23 + 16 + 1 = 40 g/mol
? #g NaOH = [(0.1 mol NaOH / L solution) (40 g NaOH / mol NaOH) (0.5 L solution) = 2 g NaOH
Note that unit cancellation is the key for correct answer.

Dilution of Solution:

Dilution law:
# mols of the stock solution = # mols of first diluted solution = # mols of second diluted solution = .........
C1 X V1 = C2 X V2 = C3 X V3 = ..........
Where:
C1 = molarity of the stock solution
V1 = volume taken from the stock solution
C2 = molarity of the diluted solution (first solution diluted from stock)
V2 = volume of the first diluted solution
C3 = molarity of the second diluted solution
V3 = volume of the second diluted solution

Example:
How would you prepare 200 mL of 0.866 M NaOH solution starting with a 5.07 M stock solution?
Answer:
C1 X V1 = C2 X V2
5.07 M X V1 = 0.866 M X 200 mL
V1 = (0.866 M X 200 mL) / (5.07 M) = 34.16 mL
To prepare 200 mL of 0.8666 NaOH out 5.07 M stock, one needs to transfer 34.16 mL of the 5.07 M sto
he sample up to 200 mL (i.e. add 165.84 mL deionized water).

Acid - Base Titration Calculations:

Example:
How many grams of KHP are needed to neutralize 18.64 mL of 0.1004 M NaOH solution?
KHP + NaOH ---> KNaP + H2O
Answer:
KHP molar mass is 204.2 g/mol
mol ratio KHP:NaOH = 1:1 (from the chemical equation)
? g KHP = (0.1004 mol NaOH/ L NaOH) X(0.01864 L NaOH)X(1 mol KHP / 1 mol NaOH)X(204.2 g K

HP/ mol KHP) = 0.382 g KHP.

------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 4:

4.7;4.8;4.10;4.15;4.16;4.18;4.23;4.25;4.26;4.39,4.43;4.44;4.56;4.58;4.60;4.66;4.69;4.74;4.84
------------------------------------------------------------------

Selected problems:

1. Define the following with some examples:

a. solution
b. solute
c. solvent
d. strong, moderate, weak electrolytes
e. aqueous solution
. none aqueous solution
g. hydration
Answer: Check notes and textbook for these definition.

2. Predict the type of the following reactions: [{Hint: types of reactions are precipitation, neutralization, re
(combination), redox (decomposition) etc.]
a. 3NaOH + H3PO4 ----> Na3PO4 + 3H2O [neutralization]
b. HgO --------------> Hg + O2 [decomposition]
c. MgSO4.7H2O -------> MgSO4 + 7H2O [decomposition, dehydration]
d. Hg2Cl2 + NH4OH ---> Hg + HgNH2Cl [redox reaction]
e. 2Al + 3CuCl2 -----> 2AlCl3 + 3Cu [redox reaction]

3. Predict the products in the following reactions. If there is no ppt or no change, write NO Reaction!
Hint: Balance the equations]
a. Mg + 2 HCl -----> MgCl2 + H2
b. 2 CuO --------> 2 Cu + O2
c. 2 NaCl + Ca(NO3)2 ----> 2 NaNO3 + CaCl2 (both are soluble and therefore there is NO reaction)
d. Bacl2 + Li2SO4 ------> BaSO4 + 2 LiCl
e. Pb(NO3)2 + Na2S -----> 2 NaNO3 + PbS
. (NH4)2CrO4 + 2 AgNO3 -----> 2 NH4NO3 + Ag2CrO4

4. Write the net ionic equations of the above question (question # 3)

a. Mg + 2H^+ + 2Cl^- ----> Mg + H2 + 2Cl^-
Mg + 2H^+ -------> Mg + H2
d. Ba^2+ + 2Cl^- + 2Li^+ + SO4^2- ---> BaSO4 + 2Cl^- + 2Li^+
Ba^2+ + SO4^2- -----> BaSO4
e. Pb^2+ + 2NO3^- + 2Na^+ + S^2- ---> PbS + 2NO3^- + 2Na^+
Pb^2+ + S^2- ----> PbS
. 2NH4^+ + CrO4^2- + 2Ag^+ + 2NO3^- ---> Ag2CrO4 +2NH4^+ + 2NO3^-
2Ag^+ + CrO4^2- ---> Ag2CrO4

5. Determine whether the following acids and bases are strong or weak.
1. HCO3^- + H2O <------> H2CO3 + OH^- [weak base]
Double arrow <----> = weak
one arrow -----> = strong
2. HClO4 -----> H^+ + ClO4^- [strong acid]
3. CH3COOH <-------> H^+ + CH3COO- [weak acid]
4. H3PO4 <--------> 3H^+ + PO4^3- [weak acid]
5. LiOH ---------> Li^+ + OH^- [strong base]

6. Determine the strength of the electrolytes:

Electrolyte Strong weak none electrolyte
a. HNO2 X
b. C6H12O6 X
c. ZnCl2 X
d. HF X
e. CH3OH X
. HNO3 X

7. Determine the Oxidation number N.O. (or oxidation state O.S.) of the element in question:
a. C2H5OH [element: C]
0 = 2C + 6H + 1O
0 = 2C + 6(1) + 1(-2) = 2C + 6 - 2
-4 = 2C and hence C = -4/2 = -2
b. P4O10 [element: P]
0 = 4P + 10(O)
0 = 4P + 10(-2) = 4P -20
20 = 4P and hence P = 20/4 = 5
c. HCO3^- [element: C]
-1 = 1(H) + 1C + 3(O)
-1 = 1(1) + 1C + 3(-2)
-1 -1 +6 = 1C and hence C = +4
d. ClO4^- [element: Cl]
-1 = Cl + 4(O)
-1 = Cl + 4(-2)
-1 +8 = Cl and hence Cl = +7
e. S4O6^2- [element: S]
-2 = 4S + 6(O)
-2 = 4S + 6(-2)
-2 + 12 = 4S and hence S = 10/4 = 5/2
. AlH3 [element: Al]
0 = Al + 3(H)
0 = Al + 3(-1) Al - 3
0 + 3 = Al and hence Al = 3
Note that H has always +1 Oxidation number N.O. in a covalent bond. However H always will have alwa
ound in IONIC compounds.

8. Consider the following activity series:

Li>K>Ba>Ca>Na>Mg>Zn>..........>H>Cu>Hg>Ag>Pt>Au
Predict if the following reactions are possible or not:
a. Au + Li^+ -----> Li^+ + Au^3+ [not possible]
b. Hg^2+ + Mg ----> Mg^2+ + Hg [possible]
c. Zn + Ba^2+ ---> Zn^2+ + Ba [not possible]
d. 2H + Pt ------> H2 + Pt^2+ [not possible]
e. Ca + Na ------> Ca^2+ + Na^+ [not possible]

9. How many milliliter (mL) are needed of the stock solution that is 2.5 M to prepare 550 mL of 0.250 M?

C1 X V1 = C2 X V2
2.5 M X V1 = 0.250 M X 550 mL
V1 = [(0.250 M X 50 mL) / (2.5 M)] = 55 mL

10. A student has weighed 3.6431 g of Ca(OH)2 solid. The student then dissolved this amount of mass
250 mL. Calculate the molarity of this solution.
Molar mass of Ca(OH)2 = 40 + 32 + 2 = 74 g/mol
# moles of Ca(OH)2 = (3.6431 g/74.9 g/mol) = 0.04923 moles
molarity = [(# moles of Ca(OH)2) / ( Volume of the solution)]
molarity = [(0.04923 moles / 0.250 L)]= 0.1969 M

11. How many grams of KOH are needed to neutralize 15.56 mL of 0.1081 M H2SO4?
The chemical equation is as follows:
2KOH + H2SO4 ------> K2SO4 + 2H2O
Molar mass of KOH = 39 + 16 + 1 = 56 g/mol
? # g KOH = (15.56 mL H2SO4 /1000 mL H2SO4)X(1 Liter H2SO4)X(0.1081 mol H2SO4 /L H2SO4)X(2
H2SO4)X(56 g KOH /mol KOH)
Unit cancellation:
? # g KOH = (15.56/1000)(0.1081)(2/1)(56 g) = 0.1884 g
_______________________________________________________

Chapter 5: Gases

Characteristics of gases:
- gases assume the volume and the shape of their container
- gases are compressible
- gases are mixed completely and evenly when confined to the same container
- gases have much lower density than liquids and solids

Elements that form gases at room temperature (25 C)and 1 atm are: H, He, N, O, F, Ne, Cl, Ar, Kr, Xe, R
Diatomic gases: H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2
Monatomic gases: He, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn

- Atoms are held by intermolecular forces (attractive forces, week bond) in the gases (covalent compoun
-------------------------------------------------------

onic compounds do not exist as gases at 25 C and 1 atm, because the cations and the anions in an ion
ogether by strong electrostatic forces. [(need large amount of energy to break the bond)
-------------------------------------------------------

Atmospheric pressure: the pressure exerted by earth's atmosphere.

1. atmospheric pressure = weight of the column of air above it
2. atmospheric pressure depends on location, temperature weather conditions

Barometer:
A Barometer is a device used to measure the atmospheric pressure only

Manometer:
A Manometer is a device used to measure the pressure of gases other than the atmospheric pressure

Standard atmospheric pressure = 1 atm is equal to the pressure that support a column of mercury which
mm Hg (or 76 cm)at 0 C at sea level.

1 torr = 1 mm Hg
1 atm = 760 mmHg = 760 torr
1 atm = 101,325 Pa = 1.10325 X 10^5 Pa
Note that 1 cm = 10 mm]
-------------------------------------------------------
The pressure - volume relationship:

1. Boyle's Law: (temperature constant)

The volume of a fixed amount og gas maintained at constant temperature is inversely proportional to the
V indirect proportional to p (at constant T)
V = K X (1/P)
where K is a constant
Therefore the following relationship is true:
P1V1 = P2V2 = P3V3 = ................ = constant (K)

Example:
A sample of chlorine gas occupies a volume of 946 mL at a pressure of 726 mm Hg. Calculate the press
(in mm Hg) if the volume is reduced at constant temperature to 154 mL.
Answer:
P1V1 (initial condition) = P2V2 (final condition)
(726 mm Hg)(946 mL) = P2 (154 mL)
P2 = (726 Hg X 946 mL) / (154 mL) = 4459.7 mm Hg

2. Charles' and Gay Lusac's Law: (pressure constant)

The volume of a fixed amount of gas maintained at constant pressure is directly proportional to the abso
of the gas.
V is direct proportional to T (at constant P)
V=KT
where K is constant
V1/T1 = V2/T2 = V3/T3 = ........... = constant (K)

Example:
A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 3.20 L at 125 C. Calculate the temperature at which temper
gas occupy 1.54 L if the pressure remains constant?
Answer:
V1/T1 (initial condition) = V2/T2 (final condition)

3.20 L / (125 + 273.15) = 1.54 L / T2

0.00804 = 1.54 /T2
T2 = 1.54 / 0.00804 = 191.6 K
Note that the temperature has to be converted to Kelvin.

3. Avogadro's Law:
Volume - amount relationship
V is direct proportional to # moles (at constant temperature and pressure)
V=Kn
where K = constant
n = # moles of the gas

The combination of all three laws leads to the following relationship called the Ideal Gas Equation:

PV = n RT
where R = gas constant = 0.082 atm.L/mol.K
R has another unit = 8.314 Joules/mol.K

An ideal gas:
The molecules of an ideal gas do not attract or repel one another, and their volume is negligible compar
volume of the container.

Standard Temperature and Pressure (STP):

Standard temperature is 0 C and standard pressure is 1 atm.
The volume of any gas at standard temperature and pressure is 22.4 Liters.

Example:
What is the volume (in Liters) occupied by 49.8 of HCL at STP?
PV = nRT
V = (nRT) / (P)
n = # moles HCl = 49.8 g HCL / 36.5 (g/mol) = 1.36438 moles
R = 0.082 atm.L/mol.K
T = 0 C = 273.15 K (K=Kelvin)
P = 1 atm
V = (1.36438 X 0.082 X 273.15) / (1 atm)= 30.56 Liters
Another solution:
1 mol HCl (at STP) --------> 22.4 Liters
1.36438 mol HCl -----------> X Liters
X = (1.36438 X 22.4) = 30.56 Liters.
------------------------------------------------------------------
mportant relationships:
(P1XV1) / T1 = (P1XV1) / T2

at constant temperature: (P1XV1) = (P2XV2)

at constant pressure: (V1/T1) = (V2/T2)
at constant volume: (P1/T1) = (P2/T2)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Density and molar mass calculations:
PV = nRT
n = (# moles of the gas = (mass m of the gas in g) / molar mass MM (or molecular weight MW)

PV = (mRT) / (MM)
Dividing both sides by the volume V

P = (mRT) / (V)(MM)
But m/v = d = density
Hence P = (d RT) / (MM)
d = (PXMM) / (RT)
One can also determine the molar mass (MM) of a gas if its density is given as follows:
MM = (d RT) / (P)

Examples:
What is the density in g/L of Uranium hexaflouride (UF6) at 779 mm Hg and 62 C?
Answer:
Molar mass of UF6 = 238 + 6(19) = 352 g/mol
d = (PXMM) / (RT)
d = [(779 mm Hg) / (760 mmHg/1 atm)][352 g/mol] / [(0.082 atm.L/mol.K)X(62+273.15 K)] = 13.13 g/L
------------------------------------------------------------------
Dalton's Law of partial pressure:
The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of all pressure that each gas would exert if it were pr
pressure is called the partial pressure of this gas.
P(total) = The sum of all of partial gases

P(total) = P(A) + P(B) [at constant volume and temperature]

P(total) = [n(A) RT / V] + = [n(B) RT / V]
P(total) = (RT/V)[n(A) + n(B)]
where:
n(A) = # moles of gas A
n(B) = # moles of gas B

From the above relationships, one can prove that:

P(A) / P(total)] / [(n(A) / {n(A) + n(B)}]
But [(n(A) / {n(A) + n(B)}] is called mol fraction X of the gas A.
X(A) = [(n(A) / {n(A) + n(B)}]
Hence: P(A) / P(total) = X(A)
or:
P(A) = [X(A) ] [P(total)]
The same thing can be proven for the gas B in the mixture of A and B;
P(B) = [X(B) ] [P(total)]
Note that the mol fraction is dimensionless quantity that expresses the ratio of number of moles of one c
number of moles of all component present in mixture.
Note that the sum of all mol fractions is equal to 1 (unity)
X(A) + X(B) + X(C) + X(D) + .................. = 1

Example:

A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles methane CH4, 0.421 moles ethaneC2H6 and 0.116 moles
f the total pressure of the gases is 1.37 atm, what are the partial pressures of the gases?
Answer: Given are the followings:
P(total) = 1.37 atm
n(CH4) = # moles of methane = 8.24 moles
n(C2H6) = # moles of ethane = 0.421 moles
n(C3H8) = # moles of propane = 0.116 moles
X(CH4) = mole fraction of methane = [(8.24 mol)] / [(8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116)mol] = (8.24 / 8.777) = 0.9388

X(C2H6) = mole fraction of ethane = [(0.421 mol)] / [(8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116)mol] = (0.421 / 8.777) = 0.048

X(C3H8) = mole fraction of propane = [(0.116 mol)] / [(8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116)mol] = (0.116 / 8.777) = 0.01
Therefore,
P(CH4) = partial pressure of methane = (0.9388)P(total) = (0.9388)(1.37 atm) = 1.286 atm

P(C2H4) = partial pressure of ethane = (0.048)P(total) = (0.048)(1.37 atm) = 0.066 atm

P(C3H8) = partial pressure of propane = (0.0132)P(total) = (0.0132)(1.37 atm) = 0.018 atm

Note: To check if the answer is correct or not, one should add up all partial pressures calculated. The su
pressures should equal the total pressure.
The sum of all partial pressures = 1.286 atm + 0.066 atm + 0.018 atm = 1.37 atm = P(total)
-------------------------------------------------------
Collection of gas over H2O vapor:

Hydrogen gas generated when calcium metal reacts with water. Hydrogen then is collected over water.
gas collected at 30 C and at 988 mm Hg is 641 mL. What is the mass (in grams) of the hydrogengas ob
pressure of water vapor at 30 C is is 31.82 mm Hg.

Answer:
Ca + 2 H2O ---------> Ca(OH)2 + H2(gas)
P(H2)V(H2) = n(H2)RT
P(total) = P(H2) + P(H2O)
P(H2) = 988 mm Hg - 31.82 mm Hg = 956.18 mm Hg
P(H2) = (956.18 mm Hg)X(1 atm / 760 mm Hg) = 1.258 atm
(1.258 atm)(0.641 l) = n(H2)(0.082 l.atm/K.mol)(30+273.15K)
n(H2) = 0.0324 mol
n(H2) = (0.0324 mol)X(2 g / mol)= 0.0648 g
-------------------------------------------------------

Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 5:

5.17;5.20;5.22;5.30;5.34;5.38;5.52;5.52;5.54;5.60

-------------------------------------------------------

Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 5:

1. What are the most important of the gases?

Answer: Look in textbook + notes

2. Name the elements that found as mono atomic gases and name the elements that found as diatomic
Answer:
Monatomic elements: He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Rn.
Diatomic gases: H2, O2, N2, Cl2, F2, I2, Br2,

3. Why do ionic compounds not exist as gases at room temperature?

Answer:
Cations and anions in an ionic solid are held together by very strong electrostatic forces. Therefore, larg
energy is needed to break the bond.

4. Define:
a. pressure
b. atmospheric pressure
Answer:
Look in textbook + notes

5. What is the major difference between the barometer and manometer instruments?
Answer:
Barometer: an instrument used to measure the air atmospheric
Manometer: an instrument used to measure mainly the pressure of any gases. It also can be used to me
pressure of the air pressure (although this is not common).

6. A sample of carbon monoxide gas occupies 5.34 L at 120 C. Calculate the temperature at which the g
2.50 L if the pressure remains constant.
Answer:
nitial condition:
V1 = 5.34 L
T1 = (120 + 273.15) = 393.15 K
Final condition:
V1 = 2.50 L
T2 = ?
V1 /T1] = [V2/T2]
5.34 L / 393.15 K] = [2.50 L/T2]
T2 = (393.15 X 2.50) / 5.34 = 35.96 L

7. What is the volume (in Liters) occupied by 58.6 g HCl at STP?

at STP condition:
T = 0 C = 273.15
P = 1 atm
n = 58.6 g HCl X (mol HCl / 36.5 g HCl) =1.6027 moles HCl
PV = n R T
(1 atm X V) = [1.6027 mol X 0.082( L.atm/mol.K) X 273.15 K] = 35.897 L
Another solution:
At STP condition, 1 mol HCl occupies a volume of exactly 22.4 L.
V(HCl) = (58.6 g HCl) X (1 mol HCl/ 36.5 g HCl) X (22.4 L HCl/ 1 mol HCl) = 35.96 L

8. A sample of oxygen gas initially at 0.98 atm is cooled from 22 C to - 70 C at constant volume. What is
pressure in atm?
Answer:
nitial conditions:
T1 = 22 + 273.15 = 295.15 K
P1 = 0.98 atm
Final conditions:
T2 = -70 + 273.15 = 203.15 K
P2 = ?
P1 / P2 = T1 / T2
(0.98 atm / P2) = (295.15K / 203.15 K)
P2 = (0.98 X 203.15) / (295.15)
P2 = 0.675 atm
9. What is the density in g/L of BaCl2 (barium chloride) at 770 mm Hg and 65 C?
Answer:
d = m/ V = P (MW) / R T
R = 0.082 L.atm/mol.K
P = (770 mm Hg) X (1 atm / 760 mm Hg) = 1.013 atm
T = 65 + 273.15 = 338.15 K
MW = molecular weight of BaCl2 = 137 + 2(35.5) = 208 g/mol
d = [1.013 atm X 208] / [0.082 X 338.15] = 7.599 g/L

10. The density of gaseous compound is 4.38 g/L at 1.86 atm and 50 C. What is molar mass?
Answer:
d = m/ V = P (MW) / R T
(MW) = d R T / P
(MW) = [(4.38)(0.082)(50+273.15)] / [(1.86)] = 62.4 g/mol

11. A 2.14 L sample of hydrogen chloride gas at 2.61 atm and 28 C is completely dissolved in 668 mL o
hydrochloric acid solution. Calculate the molarity of acid solution.
Answer:
molarity = mol / L , PV = n R T, n to be calculated first:
n = PV /RT
n = [(2.61 atm)(2.14 L)] / [(0.082 atm.L/mol.K)(28 +273.15 K)] = 0.2262 mol
Molarity = 0.2262 mol / 0.668 L = 0.338 M

12. A sample of natural gas contains 8.24 moles of methane (CH4), 0.421 mol of ethane (C2H6), and 0.
propane (C3H8). If the total pressure of the gases is 1.37 atm, what are the partial pressures of gases?
Answer:
P(CH4) = X(CH4) P(total)
P(C2H6) = X(C2H6) P(total)
P(C3H8) = X(C3H8)P(total)
X(CH4) = n(CH4) / (n(CH4) + n(C2H6) + n(C3H8)
X(C2H6) = n(C2H6) / (n(CH4) + n(C2H6) + n(C3H8)
X(C3H8) = n(C3H8) / (n(CH4) + n(C2H6) + n(C3H8)
X(CH4) = (8.24 mol) / (8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116) mol = 0.9388
X(C2H6)= (0.421 mole) / (8.24 + 0.421 + 0.116) mol = 0.0479
X(C3H8) = 1 - 0.9388 - 0.0479 = 0.0133
P(CH4) = (0.9388)(1.37) = 1.286 atm
P(C2H6) = (0.0479)(1.37) = 0.0656 atm
P(C3H8) (0.0133)(1.37) = 0.0182 atm
_______________________________________________
Chapter 6: Thermochemistry

Energy: The ability to do work.

Types of energies:
a. solar energy (radiant energy):
energy comes from the sun
b. thermal energy:
energy associated with random motion of atoms and molecules
c. chemical energy:
energy stored within the structural units of chemical substances. In the chemical reaction, chemical ener
stored or converted to other forms of energy.
d. potential energy:
energy available by virtue of an objects, position.

Law of conservation of energy = the total quantity of energy in the universe is assumed constant.

Energy changes in chemical reactions:

Chemical reaction may absorb or release energy in form of heat.
Heat is the transfer of thermal energy between two bodies that are different temperatures.

Thermochemistry:
The study of heat change in chemical reactions.
To study the energy change associated with chemical reactions we have define.

1. system: specific part of universe that of our interest.

2. The rest of the universe outside the system.

3 types of systems:
a. open system: a system that allows a change of mass and heat
b. close system: a system that allows a change in heat only but not in mass
c. isolated system: a system that DOES NOT allows a change in heat or in mass
Exothermic reactions:
n a chemical reaction, energy (heat) can be given off, the reaction is called exothermic reaction.
Example:
2 H2 + O2 ------> 2 H2O + Heat (exothermic)
Endothermic reactions:
n a chemical reaction, energy (heat) can be taken in, the reaction is called endothermic reaction.
Example:
Heat + 2 CuO ------> 2 Cu + O2 (endothermic)
------------------------------------------------------------------
Enthalpy H:
The amount of heat flow into or out of a system in a constant pressure proces of 1 atm.
H = E + PV
where:
H = enthalpy
E = internal energy
PV = work (a multiplication of pressure and volume)

Change in Enthalpy = H (products) - H(reactants)

Exothermic: 2H2(g) + O2(g) ------> 2H2O(l) + Heat (H = +)

Endothermic: 2HgO(s) -----> 2 Hg(s) + O2(g)

Thermochemical equations:
The heat (enthalpy) information will be added to the chemical equation.
Example:
1CH4(g) + 2O2(g) -------> CO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + H = -890 KJ
This chemical reaction is exothermic reaction. 890 Kilojoules (KJ) will be given off.
1 cal = 4.18 Joules

Example:
Calculate the heat evolved when 266 g of white phosphorous (P4) burn in air according to the equation:
P4(s) + SO2(g) ------> P4O10(s) H = -3013 KJ/mol
Answer:
(266 g P4)]X[(1 mol P4 / (4 X 31 g P4)][(- 3013 KJ / 1 mol P4)]
-------------------------------------------------------
Standard enthalpy of formation and reaction:

The sea level reference point for all enthalpy expressions is called the standard enthalpy of formation. H
defined as the heat change that result when one mole of a compound is formed from its element at a pre
Elements are said to be in standard states.

H(formation) = standard enthalpy of formation is measured at 25 C is tabulated at appendix 3, page A -

H(f) of any element in its most stable form = 0 (zero)

Example:
H(f) of O2 is zero
H(f) of O3 is not zero
H(f) of Ag is zero
H(f) of Ag^+ = is not zero
H(f) is used to determine the standard enthalpy of reaction, H(reaction) or H(rxn)
H(rxn) is the enthalpy of reaction carried out 1 atm.
C(s) + O2(g) ----> CO2(g) H(rxn) =?
H(rxn) = The sum of [stoichiometric factors X H(f)] of the products - The sum of [stoichiometric factors X
reactants

H(rxn) = 1 X H(f)CO2 - 1 X H(f)C - 1 X H(f)O2

H(rxn) = 1 X (393.5 KJ) - 0 - 0 -393.5 KJ = -393.5 KJ
-------------------------------------------------------

Hess's law:
When reactants are converted to products, the change in enthalpy is the same wether the reaction takes
step or in a series of steps.

Example:

Calculate the standard enthalpy of formation of acetylene (C2H2) from its elements:
2 C(graphite) + H2(g) ------> C2H2(g)
The equations for each step and corresponding enthalpy changes are:
a. C(graphite + O2(g)----> CO2(g) H(rxn) = -393 KJ
b. H2(g) + 1/2 O2(g)----> H2O(l) H(rxn) -285 Kj
c. 2 C2H2 + 5 O2(g) -----> 4 CO2(g) + 2 H2O H(rxn)= -2598 KJ

Answer:
1. Reverse equation C to obtain C2H2(g) in the product side.
4 CO2(g) + 2 H2O ----> 2 C2H2(g) + 5 O2 H(rxn)= + 2598 KJ
2. Multiply equation a by 4:
3. Multiply equation b by 2 and add up the three equations:
4C(graphite) + 4O2(g) ---> 4 CO2(g) H(rxn) = -4X393= -1572 KJ
2H2(g) + O2(g) ---> 2H2O(l) H(rxn) = -2X285.8 = - 571 KJ
4CO2(g) + 2H2O ---> 2C2H2(g) + 5O2(g) = +2598 KJ
------------------------------------------------------
4C(s) + 2H2(g) ---> 2C2H2(g)

Total H(rxn) = - 1572 - 571 + 2598 = + 455 KJ

Divide by 2 to obtain the equation:
2C(s) + H2(g) ---> C2H2(g)
and hence the total H(reaction) is + 455 KJ / 2 = 227.5 KJ
-------------------------------------------------------
ntroduction to the thermodynamics:

Science of the interconversion of heat and other kinds of energy.

State of a system: defined by the values of composition, energy, temperature, pressure and volume ....e
State functions: properties that are determined by the state of the system (final and initial states) but do
he rout or path of the reaction.
State functions are:
enthalpy, volume, pressure, energy, potential energy
Non state function are:
work, heat.

The first law of thermodynamics:

Energy can not be created or destroyed but it can be converted from one form to another form.

E(internal energy) = E(final) - E(initial)

------------------------------------------------------------------

Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 6:

6.18;6.22;6.35;6.45;6.46;6.47;6.66;6.68;6.99
------------------------------------------------------------------

Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 6:

Define the following:

a. thermal energy
b. chemical energy
c. potential energy
d. heat
e. thermochemistry
. open system
g. closed system
h. isolated system

Answer:
Look for the definitions in the textbook and notes.

2. State the law of conservation of energy. If energy is not destroyed, where does it go?
Answer:
Energy is not created or destroyed. It can transfer from one form to another types of energy, (i.e. mecha
electrical or chemical energy to electrical energy).

3. Determine whether the following chemical reactions are exothermic or endothermic reactions:
a. Heat + NH4NO3(solid) + H2O(liquid) ----> NH4^+ + NO3^ - + H2O(liquid)
Answer:
Since the heat at the reactants' side, reaction is endothermic
b. 2 ZnO(solid) + Heat ------> 2 Zn(solid) + O2(gas)
Answer:
Reaction is endothermic (heat is at the reactants' side)
c. HClO4(aq) + LiOH(aq) ------> LiClO4(aq) + H2O(liquid) + Heat
Answer:
Heat is at the products' side. Hence the reaction is exothermic
d. CH4(g) + 2 O2(g) ---> CO2(g) + 2 H2O(liquid) H = -890 KJ
Answer:
H is negative value. The reaction is exothermic
e. 4 CO2(gas) + 2 H2O(liquid) ----> 2 C2H2(gas) + 5 O2(g) H = + 2598.8 KJ
H is positive value. The reaction is endothermic.

4. What does the following equation tell us?

Change in H = Change E + PX(Change in volume)
H = E + PV
Answer:
This is the first law of thermodynamics:
Enthalpy(H) = internal energy(E) + work(PV)

5. Calculate the heat evolved when 305.5 g of carbon (graphite) burn in air according to the following eq
C(graphite) + O2(gas) ----> CO2(gas) H = -393.5 KJ/mol
Answer:
? Heat =(305.5 g C)( 1 mol/12 g C)(-393.5 KJ/mol C) = 10017.85 KJ = 1.002 X 10^4 KJ

6. What is the relationship between H(f) and H(rxn)?

Answer:
H(f) = enthalpy of formation
H(rxn) = enthalpy of reaction
H(rxn) = the sum of [(coefficient factor of reactants X H(f) of reactants] - the sum of [(coefficient factor of
of reactants] - the sum of [(coefficient factor of reactants X H(f) of reactants] - the sum of [(coefficient fac
X H(f) of products]

7. Calculate H(rxn) for the following reactions: [Hint: Use the table in appendix 3, page A-8]
a. 4B(s) + 3O2(g) ----> 2B2O3(s)
Answer:
H(rxn) = [2(-1263.6 KJ/mol)] - [0 - 0] = -2527.2 KJ/mol

b. Ba^2+(aq) + 2Cl^-(aq) ---> BaCl2(s)

Answer:
H(rxn) = [-860.1 KJ/mol] - [-538.4 KJ/mol + 2(-167.2 KJ
mol)] = + 12.7 KJ/mol

c. 2Na^+(aq) + CO3^2-(aq) ---> Na2CO3(s)

H(rxn) = [-11309 KJ/mol] - [-676.3 KJ`/mol - 479.32 KJ/mol] = + 24.72 KJ/mol

8. What does "state function" mean?

State function is a property that its final value does not depend on the rout (or the path) that this property
his final value.

9. Determine whether the following quantity is state or non state function:

a. kinetic energy -----> state function
b. work -------> non state function
c. enthalpy ----> state function
d. potential energy ----> state function
e. internal energy ----> state function
. enthalpy of formation ---> state function
g. enthalpy of reaction ------> state function
h. heat -----> none state function
. volume ------> state function
. pressure -----> state function

_______________________________________________

Chapter 7: Quantum Theory and the electronic structure : Dual nature of the electron.

Electron can behave as wave and as a particle depending on the experiment conditions.
Example: Light behaves as wave (propagating through medium) or as particle (photoelectric effect).

Quantum mechanics:
A topic deals with finding (probability of finding) electrons in an atom.
t is impossible to define exact location of a wave (electron) because it extends through the space.

Heisenberg Uncertainty principle:

t is impossible to know simultaneously both the momentum P (defined as mass X Velocity) and the pos
with certainty.

Schroedinger Equations:
Complex mathematical equations incorporating both particle behavior (in terms of mass m) and wave be
of wave function (psi)), which depend on the location in space of the system (such as an electron in an a

(Psi)^2 = psi square = the probability of finding electron density in a certain region in space.

(Psi)^2 = psi square = gives the distribution of electron density

Atomic orbital:
can be thought as the wave function of an electron in an atom.

Electron in a certain orbital:

he distribution of the density or the probability of locating the electron density in space is described by t
wave function associated with that orbital.

Quantum numbers:
4 (four) quantum numbers are required to describe the distribution of electrons in hydrogen and other at
quantum numbers are derived from the mathematical solution of the Schroedinger equation for the hydr

The four quantum numbers are:

1. The principal quantum number (n):
The principal quantum number (n) determines the energy of an orbital and relates to the average distanc
rom nucleus in a particular orbital.

2. The angular momentum quantum number (l):

The angular momentum quantum number (l) tell us the "shape" of the orbitals.
values depend on n values. The range of l is from 0 ---> infinity
n=1, l=0 -------> s - orbital (s = spherical)
n=2, l=1 -------> p - orbital (p = principal)
n=3, l=2 -------> d - orbital (d = diffuse)
n=4, l=3 -------> f - orbital ( f - fundamental)
(s,p,d,f are coming from line spectra)
-------------------------------------------------------
A shell:
a collection of orbitals with the same value of n
Example:
2s 2p ----> shell because n = 2 in both 2s and 2p
3s 3p 3d ----> shell because n = 3 in 3s, 3p and 3d.
4s 4p 4d 4f -----> shell because n = 4 in 4s, 4p,4d and 4f.

Subshell:
A combination of n and l
Example:
2s is subshell made of n = 2 and l = 0 (s orbital --> l = 0)
3s 3p 3d is a shell (the same value of n of 3) made of three subshells: 3s , 3p and 3d.
Note that 1s is subshell and the same is a shell because there is no 1p or 1d.

3. The magnetic quantum number m(l):

m(l) describes the orientation of the orbital in space. m(l) depends on the l values. maximum values of m
The range of m(l) is: m(l) = - l,.....,0,...., + l
Example:
Determine the n, l, and m(l) in the subshell 3d.
n 3d, n = 3 , l = 2 (because d orbital will have l - 2). m(l) maximum values are 2(l) + 1 = 2(2) + 1 = 5 valu
of m(l) are - l,.....,0,...., + l.
Hence m(l) values are: -2,-1,0,+1,+2

4. Electron spin quantum number m(s):

m(s) describes the self spinning of electron around itself. The spinning charge generates a magnetic fiel
hat causes an electron to behave like a magnet.
The range of the electron spin quantum number m(s) is:
m(s) = + 1/2 clockwise
m(s) = - 1/2 counter clockwise

Atomic orbitals:
n] [l] [m(l)] [# of orbitals] [atomic orbitals]
-------------------------------------------
1][0] [0] [1] [1s]
___________________________________________
2][0] [0] [1] [2s]
1] [-1,0,+1] [3] [2p(x),2p(y),2p(z)]
____________________________________________
3][0] [0] [1] [3s]
1] [-1,0,+1] [3] [3p(x),3p(y),3p(z)]
2] [-2,-1,0,+1,+2] [5] [3d(xy),3d(xz),3d(zx),
3d(x^2 -y^2),3d(z^2)]
_____________________________________________

Look at the s, p and d orbital and their 3D orientation in the textbook.

s = spherical orbital
p = dumbbell orbital
d = dumbbell orbital
----------------------------------
Energies of the orbitals:
n hydrogen atom:
Energies are determined by n values only. In hydrogen, there is no difference in energies within the sam
number (i.e. 2s and 2p are found at same level of energy, 3s, 3p and 3d are also found at the same leve
Why?
Because hydrogen atom has only one electron and hence there is no repulsion with any other electrons
and hence there is no energy difference between the orbitals.
n other atoms than hydrogen there are more electrons are available and hence more repulsion. This ca
evels to tip off and to be different in value. 2p is higher than 2s and 3d is higher than 3p and 3p is highe

Orbital filling:
The order in which atomic orbtials is filled can be shown as follows:
1s [1st shell has only 1 subshell]
2s 2p [2nd shell has 2 ubshells]
3s 3p 3d [3rd shell has 3 subshells]
4s 4p 4d 4f [4th shell has 4 subshells]
5s 5p 5d 5f [5th shell has 4 subshells]
6s 6p 6d [6th shell has 3 subshells]
7s 7p [7th shell has 2 subshells]
Note that 1s is the only shell that is a subshell at the same time.
Using an arrow (head/tail) through the shell organized as above, the orbitals will be filled in the following
1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d 4p 5s 4d 5p 6s 4f 5d 6p 7s 5f 7p

Note that maximum orbital occupation by electrons is as follows:

s - orbital = 2 electrons max
p - orbital = 6 electrons max
d - orbital = 10 electrons max
- orbital = 14 electrons max
Also note that d orbital is always 1 unit less than the period number, and f orbital is 2 units less that the p

Electron configuration:
Distribution of electrons among the various atomic orbitals. There are three types of electron configuratio
1. Ground state electron configuration or spdf electron configuration:
Na has atomic number of 11. The distribution of these 11 electrons will be in the order of:
1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^1
mportant notes:
a. The sum of all electrons is 11 electrons (all electrons have to accounted for)
b. The valence electrons are electrons found in the last (outermost) shell, which turns to be equal to the
group. In case of sodium the last (outermost) shell is 3s^1 which has 1 electron. This 1 electron is the va
which agrees with the number of the group (sodium is in the first group).
c. Number of the period indicates the number of the period that element is found in. This works in combi
determine the outermost shell (or subshell) that valence electrons can be found in.

Sodium is found in 3rd period and 1st group (main group).Therefore sodium will have valence electron o
group) and this valence electron will occupy 3s orbital ( 3 = 3rd period).

2. Nobel gas configuration:

The noble gas (8th group) will be select from the period previous to the element period. The filling then c
he rest of electrons.
Example:
Na is in 3 period. Nobel gas of the 2nd period will be selected which is Neon (Ne). Neon has 10 electron
electron is left to be accounted for.
Nobel gas electron configuration of sodium (Na) is:
Ne] 3s^1

3. orbital diagram electron configuration:

Electrons are represented as arrows. The orbitals are represented as boxes.
Unfortunately we can not draw boxes and arrows in HTML language, so consult your textbook.
For sodium: 1s^2 will be represented with a box filled with two arrows pointing against each other.
2s^2 will be represented also with a box filled with two arrows pointing against each other.
2p^6 will be represented with a long box divided in three parts (3 boxes). In each box of this long box, 2
represented with two arrows pointing against each other. All three boxes of the long box will have 6 elec
3s^1 will be represented with a box filled with one arrow.

The filling above of the orbital in boxes (orbital diagram) follows "Pauli Exclusion Principal" which states
"No two electrons in an atom can have the same 4 quantum numbers in the same orbital (box)"
Most of the time, the electrons will distinguish themselves in the spin quantum number m(s). Therefore t
drawn as arrows pointing against each other; meaning that 1st electron will spin upwards (clockwise) an
electron will spin downwards (counter clockwise).

Diamagnetism and Paramagnetism:

Paramagnetic substances: substances are attracted by a magnet. (unfilled orbital, unpaired electrons, s
not paired electrons (arrows) can be found in the valence electrons).
Diamagnetic substances: substances are repelled by a magnet (paired, electrons pointing against each
spinning clock and counter clockwise).
Example: sodium has a valence electrons of 3s^1. There is only one electron in 3s orbital which is unpa
sodium is paramagnetic.

Hund's rule:
Electrons are filled in orbital singly and parallel to each other.
The most stable arrangement of electrons in subshell is the one with greatest number of parallel spins.
For example d orbital with 5 electrons unpaired will have 5 spins (paramagnetic, more stable arrangeme
orbital with 7 electrons unpaired will have 7 spins (paramagnetic, more stable arrangement of electrons)

Shielding Effect:
Shielding effect is observed in many electron atoms. The 1s^2 electrons act a shield so that electrons fa
nucleus do not feel the whole positive charge attraction of the nucleus. As a result, a reduction in the ele
between the protons in the nucleus and the electrons in 2s,2p.
2s is more closer (more penetrating) to the nucleus than 2p (meaning less shielded).

Number of electrons in the principal level = 2n^2

where n = the principal quantum number(# of the period).
For example, n = 1 ------> 2n^2 = 2(1)^2 = 2 electrons
n = 2 -------> 2(2)^2 = 8 electrons
n = 7 -----> 2(7)^2 = 98 electrons

Building - Up Principal:
group 1A is called the s - group (their valence electrons equal 1)
group 2A is called the s - group (their valence electrons equal 2)
group 3A through group 8A are called the p - group (their valence electrons are found in the s and p orb
electrons in the outermost shell of s-p orbital is the valence electron number which is the same as group
Transition metals have group B, are called the d group or block. Their actual electron configuration is:
Nobel Gas] ns^2 (n-1)d^x , where x has the value of 1 to 10 and n is the number of the period.
Lanthanides and actinides electron configuration is:
Nobel Gas] ns^2 (n-2)f^x , where x has the value of 1 to 14 and n is the number of the period.

Note again that d orbital is always ONE unit less than the number of the period and f orbital is always TW
han the number of the period.

-------------------------------------------------------

Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 7:

7.7;7.8;7.10;7.16;7.20;7.31;7.34;7.40;7.48;7.54;7.55;7.73;7.79;7.84;7.102
-------------------------------------------------------

Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 7:

1. Calculate the number of electrons in the 250th principal quantum number.

Answer:
# of electrons = 2(n)^2 = 2(250)^2 = 125000 electrons
Note that this number is very large number and it is theoretical. An element with such number of electron
discovered yet. May be in the future!!

2. Explain the following:

a. Hund's rule
b. Pauli Exclusion Principal
c. Shielding effect
d. Diamagnetism
Answer:
Look in textbook + notes

3. Define the following:

a. Psi
b. Psi square
c. Atomic orbital
d. Shell
e. Subshell

4. What do the four quantum number n, l, m(l), m(s) describe?

n = distribution of the electrons in the atom and their average energies
= the shape of the orbitals
m(l) = orientation in space
m(s) the magnetic properties of the orbital due to electron spin.

5. State the range (minimum, maximum) value for each quantum number n, l, m(l), m(s)
n = 1 -----------> infinity
= 0 -----------> n-1
m(l) = -l, ........,0,.........,+l
m(s) = -1/2, +1/2

6. Why do atoms other than hydrogen atom show a split in their orbital energies?
Due to electrons repulsion within the orbital.

7. State if the following sets are possible or not:

a. n=0, l=1, m(l)=0, m(s)=+1/2 ------> not possible, n=0
b. n=2, l=3, m(l)=1, m(s)=-1/2 ------> not possible, l > n
c. n=3, l=0, m(l)=0, m(s)=+1/2 ------> possible
d. n=4, l=2, m(l)=1, m(s)=+3/4 ------> not possible, m(s) = +3/4

8. Write the noble gas electron configuration of the following elements:

a. calcium: [Z=20][2nd main group, 4th period]
Ar] 4s^2
Ar has 18 electrons.
b. Iron: [Z=26][8th secondary group, 4th period]
Ar] 4s^2 3d^6
Note that the general electron configuration of the transition element is: [Nobel Gas] n s^2 (n-1)d^x
where x can have the value from 1 to 10 and n is the number of the period.
c. Phosphorous: [Z=15][5th main group, 3rd period]
Ne] 3s^2 3p^3
Neon has 10 electrons
d. Iodine: [Z=53][7th main group, 5th period]
Kr]4d^10 5s^2 5p^5
Kr has 36 electrons
e. Xenon: [Z=54][8th main group, 5th period]
Kr] 4d^10 5s^2 5p^6

9. Give the subshell notation of the following sets of quantum number:

a. n=3, l=2 -------> 3d
b. n=2, l=0 -------> 2s
c. n=4, l=1 -------> 4p
d. n=4, l=3 -------> 4f

10. How many subshells are in an energy level with each of the value of n
a. n=1 -----> 1 subshell (1s)
b. n=2 -----> 2 subshells (2s 2p)
c. n=3 -----> 3 subshells (3s 3p 3d)
d. n=4 -----> 4 subshells (4s 4p 4d 4f)
e. n=5 -----> 4 subshells (5s 5p 5d 5f)
. n=6 -----> 4 subshells (6s 6p 6d 6f)
g. n=7 ----> 2 subshells (7s 7p)
11. Which of the following subshells do not exist?
2d, 1s, 4d, 1p, 2g, 3f, 4f, 0s, 5d
Answer:
2d, 1p, 2g, 3f, 0s, 2p

12. What are the geometric shapes of s,p,d orbitals

s ----> sphere
p ----> dumbbell
d ----> dumbbell

13. Give the periodic table group number and period for the element whose atoms have the following ele
configurations:
a. 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6
Outermost shell 2s 2p (2nd period). Valence electrons are 2+6 = 8. Hence 8th A group. Matching 8th gro
he element is Neon. Double check it: the sum of all electrons are: 2 + 2+ 6 = 10 electrons which is the s
number of Neon.

b. 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^1

Valence electrons are 3 (3rd A group). The period is 3rd period because n =3. Element is Aluminum (Z=

c. 1s^2 2s^2 2p^6 3s^2 3p^6 4s^2 3d^5

Valence electrons are 7. Two valence electrons come from 4s and five valence electrons come from 3d.
Element is found in the 4th period (n =4) and in 7th B group (because of the presence of unfilled d orbita
Element is Manganese with Z=25. To confirm this, one add all electrons given in the spdf
configuration:2+2+6+2+6+2+5=25 electrons in total.

d. [Ar] 4s^2 3d^2

Ar has 18 electrons. Valence electrons are 4. The total electrons are 22 electrons. Hence the element is
This can be confirmed by the valence electrons number which is 4 (4th B group, because of unfilled d - o
period is 4th period (because n=4).

e. [Ne] 3s^2
Ne has 10 electrons. Valence electrons are 2. Total number of electrons is 12 electrons. (Z=12). Hence
Magnesium. This can be confirmed by the valence electrons number which is 2 (2nd A group) and the p
period (because n=3).

_______________________________________________

Chapter 8: Periodic Relationships among the elements:

Atomic radius:
Half the distance between the nuclei of two adjacent metal atoms.

Cation:
an element or molecule that loses electrons (being oxidized). When the electrons are lost (donated), the
will decrease because the nucleus will have more attractive forces to pull the leftover (not donated) elec
This is because of the fact that more positive charges (protons in the nucleus) than negative charges pre

Anion:
an element or molecule that gains electrons (being reduced). When the electrons are gained (accepted)
atom will increase because the nucleus will have less attractive forces to pull the extra
electrons towards it. This is because of the fact that less positive charges (protons in the nucleus) than n
(electrons) present.

Generally the atomic radius will:

ncrease within the group of the periodic table from top to bottom. Why?
Decrease within the period of the periodic table from left to right. Why?
n case of a group, the atomic radius will increase from top to bottom because the size of atom increase
group of the periodic table from top to bottom. The larger the size of the atom is, the larger its atomic rad
n case of period the atomic radius will decrease within the period from left to right because of the increa
effective nuclear charge. The effective nuclear charge increases within the period from left to right.
Effective nuclear charge:
Shielding effect:
electrons close to the nucleus tend to shield the outer shell electrons so that they do not "feel" the attrac
positive charges of the nucleus (the protons). The repulsive forces between electrons offsets the attracti
by nucleus.
Effective nuclear charge accounts for the effects of shielding:
Z(effective) = Z(actual nuclear charge) - S(shielding constant)
S = shielding constant or sometimes called screening constant is always greater that zero but less than
charge or atomic number).
The effective nuclear charge increases within the period from left to right. Why?
Because more and more are added while the number of electrons of inner shell (which cause the shield
constant.
Example:
Consider the 2nd period:
Li: has 3 electrons 1s^2 2s^1 (Z = 3)
1s^2 two electrons act as shield so the third electron in 2S does not feel two positive charge of the nucle
shielding electrons neutralize the two positive charges (protons in the nucleus).
Z(effective) = 3 - 2 = +1 where:
Z = the actual atomic number = 3
S = the screening or shielding constant = 2 = # electrons in 1s subshell.

Be: has Z =4
Z(effective) = 4 - 2 = +2

B: has Z =5
Z(effective) = 5 - 2 = +3

C: has z =6
Z(effective) = 6 - 2 = +4

N: has Z=7
Z(effective) = 7 - 2 = +5

O: has Z =8
Z(effective) = 8 - 2 = +6

F: has Z =9
Z(effective) = 9 - 2 = +7

Ne: has Z =10

Z(effective) = 10 - 2 = +8

n conclusion, the effective nuclear charge increases in the period of the periodic table from left to right.
effective nuclear charge is the more attraction towards the nucleus can be utilized, the smaller the atom
Therefore, the atomic radius decreases within the period of the periodic table from left to right.

onic radii:
The ionic radii for the metals (cations) are LOWER than their corresponding atomic radii. The trend is st
radii (of the cations) increase within the group from top to bottom and decrease within the period from le
The ionic radii for the non metals (anions) are HIGHER than their corresponding atomic radii. The trend
onic radii (of the anions) increase within the group from top to bottom and decrease within the period fro

Variation of physical properties across a period and within the group:

Metals: are generally very reactive chemically, have higher melting/boiling points
Nonmetals: are generally very reactive chemically, but they have lower melting/boiling point.
The inert gases or ideal gases (non metals of the 8th group) are chemically inactive.
Metalloid: have physical/chemical properties in-between the metals and non metals.

onization energy:
The minimum energy in KJ/mol required to remove an electron from a gaseous atom in its ground state.
he electron is an endothermic process (i.e. needs heat/energy to proceed).
Example:
Boron atom has 5 electrons:
Energy + B(g) ----> B^1+ + 1e^ - I(1) = first ionization energy
Energy + B^+1 ----> B^2+ + 1e^- I(2) = second ionization energy
Energy + B^+2 ----> B^3+ + 1e^- I(3) = third ionization energy
Energy + B^+3 ----> B^4+ + 1e^- I(4) = fourth ionization energy
Energy + B^+4 ----> B^5+ + 1e^- I(5) = fifth ionization energy
(5) is the greatest ionization energy because the last electron is held very tightly due to attractive forces
charges of the nucleus.

The ionization energy has an opposite trend to the atomic radius. The larger the atomic radius of the ato
he removal of electrons will be, the smaller the ionization energy is.
Therefore, ionization energy decreases within the group of the periodic table of the element from top to b
atomic radius). However, the ionization energy increases within the period from left to right (small atomic

Electron affinity:
The energy change that occurs when an electron is accepted by an atom in the gaseous state to form a
X(gas) + e^ - -----> X^ - (gas)
This process is exothermic. Heat will be generated, when an electron is taken by an gaseous atom. The
process is the opposite of the ionization energy process. The electroaffinity increases within the period o
able from left to right (Fluorine atom has the highest electroaffinitive element). The electroaffinity decrea
group from top to bottom.
Note that halides (non metals of the 7th A group) have the highest electroaffinity in general.
Also note that ionization energy process produces cations and electroaffinity process produces anions.

Electronegativity:
The ability of the atom to attract or pull electrons towards it in a chemical bond (covalent, sharing bond b
bond).
Electronegativity increases within the period from the left to right and (fluorine is being the highest electr
element followed by oxygen). The Electronegativity decreases within the group from top to bottom.
Non metals are considered more electronegative and metals are considered more electropositive.

Chemical reactions of the elements:

-----------------------------------------
Hydrogen:
2 Na + H2 ---> 2 NaH
NaH + H2O ---> NaOH + H2
Group 1A: Li ........ Fr
2 Li + 2 H2O ---> 2LiOH + H2
4 Li + O2 ---> 2Li2O
Li2O + 2HCl ---> 2 LiCl + H2O

Group 2A: Be..........Ra

Be + 2 H2O ----> 2 Be(OH)2 + H2
Be + 2 HCl ----> 2 BeCl2 + H2
Be + O2 ----> BeO
BeO + 2 HCl ----> BeCl2 + H2O
BeO + H2O ----> Be(OH)2

Group 3A: B.........Tl

Boron in non metal, so it reacts differently.
4 Al + 3O2 ----> 2 Al2O3
2 Al + 6 HCl ----> 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2
Al2O3 + 6 HCl ----> 2 AlCl3 + 3 H2O
Group 4A: C......Pb
Group 4A includes two metals: Pb and Sn
Pb + 2H^+ -----> Pb^2+ + H2
Sn + 2H^+ -----> Sn^2+ + H2
Group 4A includes two non metals: C and Si
C + O2 ---> CO2
Si + O2 ---> SiO2

Group 5A: N.....Bi

Bi and Sb are the only metals
4 Bi +3 O2 ----->2 Bi2O3
N, P and As are the non metals
N2 + 2 O2 ---> 2 NO2
P4 + 3 O2 ---> 2 P2O3
Sb and As are metalloids:
4 As +3 O2 ----> 2 As2O3
Group 6A: O........Po
Po is the only metal in the group
S8 + 12 O2 ------>8 SO3

Group 7A: F........At

2 F2 + 2 H2O ---> 4 HF + O2
Cl2 + H2 ------> 2 HCl
Group 8A: He........Rn
Group 8th non metals are chemically inert except Xe and Kr
Xe --------> Xe^+ + 1 e^- (high arc is used for the ionization)
Xe(g) + PtF6(g) ----> XePtF6(s)
other compounds of Xe are:
XeO4
XeF4
XeOF4
Kr is known compound with F atoms (KrF6 for example)
No compounds of He, Ne, Ar are known.

------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected problems from Textbook - Chapter 8:

8. 8.13;8.24;8.26;8.27;8.37;8.40;8.43

------------------------------------------------------------------

Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 8:

1. Define the following

a. atomic radius
b. effective nuclear charge
c. ionization energy
d. electron affinity
Answer:
Look in the textbook and notes for definitions

2. How is the atomic radius related to the ionization energy?

ndirect relationship. The higher the atomic radius is, the smaller the ionization energy is and vice versa.

3. Fill the blank:

a. The atomic radius........... within the group and it............. within the period. [increases, decreases]
b. The ionization energy ........ within the group and it ......... within the period. [decreases, increases]
c. The effective nuclear charge ........ within the period. [increases]
d. The electron affinity general trend is that it ........ within the group and it ........ within the period. [decre

4. Rearrange the following elements according to their increasing atomic radius: Give a reason for tour a
a. Sn, C, Pb, Si
The arrangement is C, Si, Sn, Pb (C is the lowest and Pb is the highest). In the group the atomic radius
op to bottom.
b. Re, Bi, Ba, Au
The arrangement is Bi, Au, Re, Ba (Bi is the lowest and Ba is the highest). This is because atomic radiu
within the period from left to right (because of the effective nuclear charge).

5. Compare the ionization energy for the following elements: [Hint: rearrange them according to their inc
onization energies]
a. O, Po, Te
The arrangement is Po, Te, O (O is the highest and Po is the lowest). The larger (in size) the atom is the
onization energy. The ionization energy decreases within the group from top to bottom.
b. Ge, Ca, Br, Co
The arrangement is Ca, Co, Ge, Br (Ca has the largest atomic radius and hence the smallest ionization
other hand has the smallest atomic radius and therefore it has the highest ionization energy). The ioniza
ncreases within the period from left to right.

6. Compare the electron affinity for the above elements (question # 5)

a. Po, Te, O (O is the highest, Po is the lowest)
b. Ca, Co, Ge, Br (Br is the highest, Ca is the lowest)
Electron affinity exhibits similar trends as ionization energy.

7. Compare the effective nuclear charge for the above elements: (question # 5)
a. O, Po, Te No comparison can be made because effective nuclear charge is applicable in the period o
group.
b. Ge, Ca, Br, Co
The arrangement is Ca, Co, Ge, Br (Br is the highest and Ca is the lowest). The effective nuclear charge
eft to right within the period because of the shielding effect.

8. Complete and balance the following equation:

a. Ca + 2 H2O -----> Ca(OH)2 + H2
b. P4 + 5O2 ---> 2P2O5
c. MgO + 2HNO3 ----> Mg(NO3)2 + H2O
d. H2 + Br2 ----> 2 HBr
_______________________________________________

Chapter 9: Chemical Bonding I: Basic Concepts:

Lewis Dot Symbol:

Consists of the symbol of an element and one dot for each valence electron in an atom of the element.
Example:
Lewis - dot symbol for sodium is Na . [Na + one dot represents the valence electron]
For aluminum Al with three dots. (3 valence electrons)
For chlorine Cl with seven dots. (7 valence electrons)

Lewis Dot Structure:

s the same as Lewis dot symbol. But it is used to describe the ionic bond (a bond due to electrostatic fo
metal cation and the non metal anion).
Example:
Aluminum oxide is ionic compound and has the structure of Al2O3 [2 aluminum atoms and 3 oxygen ato
Al noble gas configuration is:
Ne] 3s^2 3p^1
O noble gas configuration is:
He] 2s^2 2p^4
Each aluminum atom will donate its own 3 valence electrons producing two Al^3+ (aluminum cations).
Each oxygen atom will accept 2 electrons to complete its octet (8 electrons in total), producing 3 O^2- (o
called oxide).
2Al^3+ 3 :: O::^2- [oxygen is surrounded with 8 electrons, six its own and the two extra ones from alumin

Example:
LiF
Li ^+1 ::F::^ -1
Li (valence electron is 1) loses its valence electron and it transfers to cation with a charge of +1.
F (valence electrons are 7) gains one electron form Li and it transfers to an anion with a charge of -1.

n conclusion, an ionic bond is the electrostatic force that holds ion in an ionic compound. Lewis dot stru
describe the ionic bonding.
The most striking feature of the ionic compound is its lattice energy.
Lattice energy: is the energy required to completely separate one mol of a solid ionic compound into gas
Lattice energy is a measure of the stability of the ionic compound. The large the lattice energy (more en
separate the ionic compound) the more stable the ionic compound.

The Covalent bond:

A bond between non metal and non metal. It is a bond in which two electrons are shared by the two atom
metals:
H. + .H -----> H___H (covalent bond is made of two shared valence electrons.
C: + 4.H ----> 2H___ C___ H2 [because of the drawing difficulties in HTML language, the other two cov
could not be drawn, instead hydrogen atoms are written twice].

Lewis Structure:
Representation of covalent bonds in which shared electron pairs are shown either as line or as dots betw
Octet rule:
An atom (not hydrogen) tends to form bonds until it is surrounded by Eight valence electrons. By sharing
covalent bond, atoms can complete their octet.
Example:
:F:. .:F:: ------> ::F:: ::F:: [Note that each fluorine atom is surrounded with 8 electrons].
Octet rule works ONLY for the 2nd period elements (2s 2p subshells) which can hold a total of 8 electron
gas configuration.
Octet Rule is held strictly and Exclusively for the elements of the second period: Carbon, Nitrogen, Oxyg
C,N,O,F]
Other elements may or may not follow the octet rule.

Types of covalent bonds:

1. Single covalent bond:
Two electrons are shared by two atoms:
H. + .H ------> H____H

2. Double covalent bond:

When two atoms share two pairs of electrons:
:O: + :O:: ------> O==O [each oxygen atom has 6 valence electrons. To satisfy the octet rule for the CNO
double bond is formed].

3. Triple covalent bond:

Two atoms share three pairs of electrons:
N:. + .:N: -------> N==N [each nitrogen atom has 5 valence electrons. To satisfy the octet rule for the CN
riple bond is formed]. Not drawn because of the HTML limitations.
Double and triple bonds are shorter than single bond. The bond length is determining the distance betw
wo covalently bonded atoms in a molecule.

Comparison of covalent versus ionic compounds:

onic compounds: held by electrostatic forces (strong) which is reflected in high melting points.
onic compounds are in general stable solids.
Covalent compounds: Intermolecular forces (weak). Molecules are not held tightly. This is reflected in lo
points.
Covalent compounds are in general gases or liquids.

Polar Covalent compound:

A covalent compound that has an electronegative atom such as nitrogen, or oxygen or fluorine.
Electronegativity as mentioned before is the ability of the atom to pull or attract electrons from adjacent a
covalent bond. As a result of this attraction or pulling, the electrons will reside (or spend) most of their tim
electronegative atom. Therefore a dipole will form and a covalent polar compound is established.
Note that the polar covalent compound is still showing the sharing effect of electrons but with partial pola
Polar covalent compounds exhibit chemical and physical properties in between the pure covalent compo
onic compounds.
Example:
H2O (water) is a polar covalent compound
HF (hydroflouric acid) is a polar covalent compound
n Conclusion:
Covalent compounds: Sharing, no transfer of electrons
Polar covalent compounds: Sharing, partial transfer of electrons
onic compounds: No sharing, complete transfer of electrons.

How to write Lewis structure:

1. Write the atoms down (bonded atoms close to each other). The most electronegative atoms are draw
positions, the least electronegative atoms are in the central positions.
2. Count number valence electrons of each atom involved in the structure. In case of ions Add the numb
he ions have negative charges (anions) and Subtract the number of charges if the ions have positive ch
3. Start drawing a single bond between the central atoms and terminal atoms.
4. Consider the octet rule for C,N,O,F.
5. If the octet rule is not held or is not satisfied then form double or triple bond till the octet rule is satisfie
6. Calculate the formal charge for each atom involved in the structure.
The formal charge = total # of valence electrons - total # of non bonding electrons - 1/2 (total # of bondin
7. For final check up, count all electrons involved. The total number of the valence electron (in addition o
he negative or positive charges of the ions) must be the same value as the calculated one.
Example:
Write Lewis structure of ammonia NH3.
1.total # of valence electrons = 1N + 3H = 1(5) + 3(1) = 8
2. There are 8 valence electrons to be accommodated for.
3. Nitrogen will be the central atom because HYDROGEN can not be central atom. Hydrogen is bound O
side. Hydrogen is ALWAYS drawn in terminal position.

H] \
H]__N___ [H]

4. Checking up ----> the total # of electrons is 8 which is the same number calculated.
5. Formal charge on each Hydrogen = total # of valence electrons - total # of non bonding electrons - 1/2
bonding
= 1 - 0 - 1/2(2) = 1 - 0 - 1 = 0
Formal charge on Nitrogen = 5 - 2 -1/2(6) = 5 - 2 - 3 = 0
------------------------------------------------------------------
Example:
Draw the Lewis structure of Carbonate ion CO3 ^2-
1. Total # of valence electrons + charges = 4 + 3(6) + 2(charge) = 24 electrons
2. Carbon the least electronegative atom is the central atom. Oxygen is the most electronegative atom is
atom.
3. Start building single bond between carbon atom and oxygen atoms. Then check the octet rule for both
oxygen. If it is not satisfied, then form double bond and recheck again.
4. The following Lewis structure is drawn:

O::

C =O::

O::
The two negative charges will be added to each oxygen atom (singly bonded) to complete the octet rule
5. Formal charge of the two single bonded oxygen atoms = 6 - 6 - 1/2(2) = 6 - 6 -1 = -1
Formal charge on carbon atom = 4 - 0 - 1/2(8) = 4 - 0 - 4 = 0
Formal charge on the double bonded oxygen atom = 6 - 4 - 1/2(4) = 6 - 4 - 2 = 0
6. The total number of electrons used in the structure agrees with the one calculated
------------------------------------------------------------------
Example:
NH4^+ [ammonium ion]
1. total # of valence electrons - charge = 5 + 4(1) - 1 = 8 electrons
2. Hydrogen is always terminal. Nitrogen is therefore is the central atom.
3. Single bonds are drawn. Remember that hydrogen will never have double bond.
The Lewis structure is:
H

N__H
\
HH
4. Octet rule is held.
5. Formal charge of each hydrogen atom = 1 - 0 - 1/2(2) = 1 - 0 - 1 = 0
Formal charge of nitrogen = 5 - 0 - 1/2(6) = 5 - 0 - 4 = +1
6. . The total number of electrons used in the structure agrees with the one calculated.
------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected Problems from Textbook - Chapter 9:

9.16;9.17;9.28;9.34;9.43;9.44;9.45;9.50;9.52;9.53;9.54;9.61;9.62;9.72;9.73;9.74
------------------------------------------------------------------
Selected Problems and Answers - chapter 9:

1.What is the difference between:

Lewis dot symbol, Lewis dot structure, Lewis structure?
Lewis dot symbol is used for describing atoms with their valence electrons.
Lewis dot structure: used to describe the bonding in ionic compounds (no sharing electrons, instead tran
electrons).
Lewis structure: used to describe the bonding in covalent compounds (describing the sharing electrons)

2. What is the difference between covalent bonds and ionic bonds?

onic bonds are the bonds between metal and non metals (electron transfer). Covalent bonds are bonds
metal and non metals (electron sharing).

3. Write the Lewis dot structure of the compound CsCl

Cs. .Cl::: ----> transfer of electron from metal Cs to the non metal Cl
Lewis dot structure is Cs^ + ::Cl::^ -

4. How is the lattice energy is related to the stability of an ionic solid?

The larger the lattice energy, the more stable the crystals of the ionic solid.

5. Write the Lewis structure of the compound CBr4>

Br::

C__Br:::
\Br:::
Br::
Note: go through all procedures

6. What does "octet rule' mean? What is the octet rule used for?
"Octet rule": an atom tends to form bond (covalent bond) by having eight electrons (valence electrons) b
bonding (lone pair). It is used for the elements in the periodic table in general to achieve ideal gas (grou
configuration.

7.What are the elements which have to obey the octet rule without any exceptions?
C, N, O, F.

8. Write the Lewis structure of the following molecules:

N2, O2, Cl2, CO2
N==N: (triple bond)
:O == O:: (double bond)
:Cl__Cl:: (single bond)
:O ==C==O:: (double bonds between carbon and oxygen)

9. Explain the following expressions:

a. polar covalent compound
b. Electronegativity
Look for the definitions in the textbook and in notes.

10. What is the general trend of the Electronegativity within the period and within the period?
Electronegativity increases within the period from left to right with fluorine being the most electronegative
The Electronegativity decreases within the group from top to bottom.

11. Write the Lewis structure for the following ions:

NO3^ -
O:
|
N+___O::: -

O:: -
---------------------------
PO4^3-

O:
|
P___O::: -
\O::: -
O::: -
Note: All steps of writing Lewis structures should be considered as already done in the examples in the
_______________________________________________
My friends' home pages, favorite URLs, other pages on my web site.

Lecture Notes - General Chemsitry 2

Old Exams Examples - General Chemistry 1

Old Exams Examples - General Chemsitry 2