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SAE TECHNICAL
PAPER SERIES 2001-01-1894

1.9-Liter Four-Cylinder HCCI Engine Operation

with Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Michael Y. Au, James W. Girard and Robert Dibble
University of California, Berkeley

Daniel Flowers, Salvador M. Aceves,

Joel Martinez-Frias and Ray Smith
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory

Christian Seibel and Ulrich Maas

Universität Stuttgart

Reprinted From: HCCI Combustion

(SP–1627)

International Spring Fuels & Lubricants

Meeting & Exhibition
Orlando, Florida
May 7-9, 2001

400 Commonwealth Drive, Warrendale, PA 15096-0001 U.S.A. Tel: (724) 776-4841 Fax: (724) 776-5760
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Copyright 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.

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1.9-Liter Four-Cylinder HCCI Engine Operation with
Exhaust Gas Recirculation
Michael Y. Au, James W. Girard and Robert Dibble
Daniel Flowers, Salvador M. Aceves, Joel Martinez-Frias and Ray Smith
Copyright © 2001 Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.
ABSTRACT
We present the effect of EGR, at a set fuel flow rate and
intake temperature, on the operating parameters of
timing of combustion, duration of combustion, power
output, thermal efficiency, and NOx emission; which is
remarkably low. We find that addition of EGR at constant
inlet temperature and constant fuel flow rate has little
effect on HCCI parameter of start of combustion (SOC).
However, burn duration is highly dependent on the
amount of EGR inducted.
The experimental setup at UC Berkeley uses a 1.9-liter
4-cylinder diesel engine with a compression ratio of
18.8:1 (offered on a 1995 VW Passat TDI). The engine
was converted to run in HCCI mode by addition of an
18kW air pre-heater installed in the intake system.
Pressure traces were obtained using four water-cooled
quartz pressure transducers, which replaced the Diesel
fuel injectors. Gaseous fuel (propane or butane) flowed
steadily into the intake manifold.
INTRODUCTION
HCCI VS. CONVENTIONAL COMBUSTION - HCCI is a
combustion process that combines the ignition process
of a compression ignition (CI) engine with the premixed
nature of the spark ignition (SI) engine. HCCI engines
may produce diesel-like efficiency due to higher
compression ratios and very rapid heat release while
maintaining very low nitrogen oxide (NOx) and low
particulate matter (PM) emissions (because the air-to-
fuel ratio is lean) without any after-treatment. Also, HCCI
engines are fuel flexible and may be cost competitive to
1
2001-01-1894
University of California, Berkeley
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
Christian Seibel and Ulrich Maas
Universität Stuttgart
manufacture since a high pressure fuel injection system
is not required [1].
Spark-ignited engines generate NOx (a mixture of nitric
oxide, NO, and nitrogen dioxide ,NO2) through the
following sequence. Combustion begins at the point
where the premixed charge in a cylinder is ignited by a
spark plug. After ignition, the flame front propagates
through the premixed charge to liberate heat and this
raises the pressure in the combustion volume. The
pressure does work as the piston movement expands
the volume. The burned gases are hot, well above 1700K
(a temperature at which NOx formation is no longer
negligible [2]). Both the burned and unburned gases are
further compressed as the flame propagates. Therefore,
most NOx is generated in the zone that was first to ignite.
Current methods of reducing NOx formation in a SI
engine attempt to reduce the post flame temperature.
Such methods include ignition timing delay, exhaust gas
recirculation, and leaner fuel/air mixture. However, the
effectiveness of these methods is limited (Ryan,
Callahan, 1996, [3]); all of these methods affect the
engine efficiency. Since the thermal efficiency of a SI
engine is limited in large part by the compression ratio of
the engine, one might attempt to improve efficiency by
increasing compression ratio. Compression ratio is
limited by engine knock, which is autoignition of the
gases ahead of the propagating flame front. This
autoignition, or knocking, is a result of compression
heating of the unburned mixture by the burned gases.
In cases of severe knock it is believed that the premixed,
typically stoichiometric, end gas ahead of the flame front
is subject to rapid compression heating subsequently
resulting in autoignition. A rapid pressure rise in the end
gas results in the propagation of a strong pressure wave
across the combustion chamber that can “scrape off” the
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boundary layer, exposing the piston surface to the core
gas temperature. Piston damage may result and the high
peak pressures can result in damage to the spark plug
and head gasket.
Combustion timing of a direct injected compression-
ignited (DICI) engine is controlled not by a spark but by
autoignition of the injected fuel. Fuel is injected at high
pressure into the engine cylinder late in the compression
stroke. After autoignition, a non-premixed flame
emerges that separates fuel from air. This flame burns
at stoichiometric conditions, which gives the highest
flame temperatures possible and thus produces much
NOx and at the same time, soot. Nitric oxide formation
takes place in the lean regions of the mixture and PM
formation in the rich regions. In-cylinder NOx reduction
using EGR has shown limited success because of a
corresponding increase in PM formation [12].
HCCI combustion is a multi-point premixed auto-ignition
process, with little or no flame propagation. This is
similar to the autoignition process that is undesirable in
an SI engine. The distinction that can be made between
SI knock and HCCI autoignition is that for HCCI the
autoignition is typically contained in the core gas.
Crevices and boundary layer typically have higher heat
transfer and are not compressed rapidly enough that
they autoignite. The use of lean mixtures (lower flame
temperature) and the lack of flame propagation
(eliminating local heterogeneity) greatly reduce NOx
formation. Nitrogen oxides are typically formed by three
mechanisms: thermal (Zeldovich), prompt, and nitrous
[2]. In a HCCI engine, thermal NOx formation is typically
minimal due to the low combustion temperature (below
1700K). However, a small amount of NOx is still formed
by the prompt and to a lesser extent, the nitrous
mechanism. It is important to note that HCCI combustion
is controlled largely by chemical kinetics with less
significant fluid dynamic effects [4].
PREVIOUS WORK ON HCCI – A pioneering paper on
HCCI was published by Onishi, et al. in 1979 [9]. Their
work was performed on a 2-stroke engine and they found
that HCCI combustion (referred to as ATAC – Active
Thermo Atmosphere Combustion) can take place over a
wide load and speed range. In 1983, Najt and Foster [4]
published an SAE paper on the topic of HCCI. Their
work was performed on a single cylinder 4-stroke CFR
(Co-operative Fuel Research) engine. Recently, many
papers have been published on the subject of HCCI and
a few such as [3, 8, 10,16,17] have researched the effect
of EGR on HCCI combustion, which this paper will also
address.
CHALLENGES FACING HCCI - The HCCI engine faces
many challenges. Unlike the SI and the CI engine, there
is no direct combustion timing control for the HCCI
engine. Ignition occurs when the homogenous charge
has reached its autoignition condition. As a result, the
ignition timing is sensitive to the intake temperature, the
equivalence ratio of the charge and the cylinder wall
2
temperature. As a result of the temperature sensitive
nature of HCCI combustion, large cylinder-to-cylinder
variation (not cyclic variation) has been observed in four-
cylinder engine operation due to slight differences in
cylinder temperature (see Flowers, et al [15]). In addition,
HCCI has high rates of heat release, which reduces
operating range and limits the maximum IMEP.
Unburned hydrocarbon (HC) residuals are prominent
from the crevices and carbon monoxide (CO) forms at
the cold boundary layers of a HCCI engine cylinder.
Without after-treatment, the HC and CO emissions may
not meet the current automotive emission standards; the
use of an oxidation catalyst is called for. Also, it is difficult
to cold start in the HCCI mode because preheating of the
intake charge is typically required. A proposed solution
is to start the engine in the regular CI or SI mode and
transition to the HCCI mode once the required operating
conditions are met (such is done by Ishibashi and Asai
(1998) on the Honda AR 2-Stroke engine [11])
MAKING HCCI A VIABLE ALTERNATIVE - In order to
make the HCCI engine a viable alternative to the SI and
CI engines, several issues must be resolved. Control of
the combustion timing is among these issues.
Combustion timing should be controlled so that heat is
released at the appropriate time in the engine cycle [1]
The range of the start of combustion (SOC) should occur
o o
within 20 BTDC to 20 ATDC for a successful
o
combustion event. The optimum is about 8 ATDC.
In this research, a four-cylinder engine with variable EGR
is being studied in an attempt to control the combustion
timing and duration. The main objective of the research
is the investigation of how EGR fractions can affect the
HCCI combustion process.
POTENTIAL APPLICATIONS FOR HCCI ENGINES –
Conventional vehicles, hybrid electric vehicles and
distributed stationary power generation are potential
applications for HCCI engines. Conventional powertrains
are the most challenging because they require an ability
to operate over a wide speed-load range. Series hybrid
electric vehicles require their gas-powered engine to run
only at a few load conditions. Therefore, hybrid electric
vehicles can take advantage of the high efficiency of the
HCCI engine even if the engine has a narrow range of
operation. This will give the hybrid electric vehicle even
higher fuel economy and efficiency. Equally, the HCCI
engine would be a good candidate for distributed
stationary power generation because of its low PM
emissions, high efficiency and low NOx emissions.
These applications were also recognized by Higashino,
et al. (1998) [13].
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EXPERIMENTAL SETUP / FOUR-CYLINDER were fed to a charge-amplifier with a 200kHz low-pass

HCCI OPERATION filter and drift compensation. Conditioned signals were
then collected by a (National Instrument PCI-6110E) data
acquisition system on a Windows NT system. The
pressure signals were acquired every 0.1 crank angle
degree (CAD). The pressure traces were then averaged
over 160 cycles. An example of the averaged firing and
motoring pressure traces is shown in Figure 2. Note the
rapid increase in cylinder pressure near TDC that
characterizes HCCI combustion. The burn rate, IMEP,
heat release rate and other combustion properties were
calculated from the averaged pressure traces by
methods of Stone and Lancaster et al. [5,6]. Crank angle
degree is measured using a (BEI) crank angle encoder
and top dead center was found to within 0.5 CAD by a
method of Lancaster et al. [6]. Airflow at the intake was
measured with a knife-edge orifice plate with a bore to
pipe diameter ratio of 0.426. Fuel flow was measured
Figure1. Schematic of engine setup with a (Sierra Instrument) mass flow controller.

RESEARCH ENGINE - Experiments had been

performed on a four-cylinder Volkswagen TDI (Turbo
Direct Injection) diesel engine modified for HCCI
operation. A schematic of the engine setup is shown in
Figure 1. Specifications and operating parameters of the
engine are presented in Table 1. The engine was Firing
modified to be naturally aspirated with an 18-kW, 3-
element quartz heater installed to preheat the intake
charge. The heater was not operated near its maximum Motoring
power during anytime of the experiment. Note that the
energy needed for preheating has not been included in
the efficiency calculations. The flywheel of the engine is
coupled to a torque transducer and a clutch/brake
assembly. The entire driveline is then coupled to a 30-
kW (40 hp) induction motor at 1800 RPM, which serves
as a driver or a load for the engine depending on the
operating condition. The cooling system consists of a
conventional automobile radiator filled with non-aqueous
propylene glycol (NPG) for better thermal protection. Figure 2. Example of firing and motoring pressure traces for
During the experiments, the temperature of both the RPM=1800, equivalence ratio=0.32
NPG and engine oil is kept at 110°C (+/- 10°C). This is
done to minimize heat losses. Emission of unburned hydrocarbon, oxygen, carbon
monoxide, carbon dioxide and nitric oxide are measured
Table 1. VW TDI engine geometry and operating parameters with an emission analyzer (Horiba). The detection
Displacement 1.896 L methods used are flame ionization detection (for HC),
Bore 79.5 mm magneto-dynamic (for O2), infrared absorption (for both
Stroke 95.5 mm CO and CO2), and chemiluminescence (for NOx). The
Connecting Rod Length 144.0 mm percentage of EGR is determined by comparing the CO2
content in the exhaust and the intake streams using the
Compression Ratio 18.8:1 (Nominal)
following equation [5]:
Firing Order 1-3-4-2
Engine Speed 1800 +/- 5 RPM
EGR (%) = CO2 Intake (%) / CO2 Exhaust (%) x 100
Engine Block / Head Cast Iron / Aluminum
Piston Geometry Bowl
ENGINE OPERATION - Pure propane and pure butane
Intake Valve Open (1mm lift) 16 CAD ATDC
were the fuels tested in this research project. Our
Intake Valve Close (1mm lift) 25 CAD ABDC engine is incapable of self-starting in the HCCI mode.
Exhaust Valve Open (1mm lift) 28 CAD BBDC Therefore, the induction motor is used to rotate the
Exhaust Valve Close (1mm lift) 19 CAD BTDC engine up to speed while the intake air is preheated to a
desired temperature. Fuel is steadily flowed into the
DATA MEASUREMENT - The VW engine is equipped
intake manifold until HCCI combustion begins. For
with four water-cooled (AVL QH33D) quartz pressure
propane, the test range for intake temperature is 115°C
transducers to measure cylinder pressures. The signals
3
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and 145°C and fuel flow is fixed at 15 slpm. For butane, 0.5
the test range for intake temperature is 115°C and 130°C
and fuel flow is fixed at 12 slpm. At low load or low
intake temperature, operation range is bound by misfire. 0.45

At high load or high intake temperature, excessive

In-Cylinder Phi
knocking is the boundary of operation. Excessive
0.4
knocking is loosely defined as a combustion event with
high post-combustion ringing intensity. Exhaust gas
recirculation can be varied from 0 to 55 percent by
0.35
volume (limited by size of EGR line). Un-cooled residual
gases are inducted back into the cylinder by way of a
conventional EGR line between the intake and exhaust 0.3
manifold. Inlet charge heating is reduced as EGR is 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
increased to keep a constant inlet temperature, thus inlet EGR(%)

temperature is constant regardless of EGR. In previous
research, such as [8], the inlet temperature of the engine
was adjusted to get combustion initiation near TDC. The
difference in experimental procedure may result in some
differences in results when the results presented here
are compared to [8].
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
EGR Control - Exhaust gas recirculation EGR was used
to explore the combustion timing of the HCCI engine.
EGR will raise the intake charge temperature. This is a
positive effect for the HCCI engine because intake air
pre-heat can be reduced or eliminated depending on the
operating condition. For the purpose of research, we
hold intake temperature constant at any EGR. EGR will
displace air and hence will displace excess oxygen. In
our experiments, we focused on the effects of EGR due
to this factor only. As we will show, the reduced O2 has
little effect on SOC but substantial effect on burn
duration.
Residual gases and excess oxygen as a result of EGR
will change the in-cylinder fuel-air ratio. For a constant
propane flow rate of 15 SLPM, Figure 3 shows the
corresponding in-cylinder equivalence ratio (φcyl) versus
Figure 3. In-Cylinder Equivalence Ratio from Equation (1) vs. EGR%
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145 °C)
CYLINDER PEAK PRESSURE BALANCE – Some
physical aspects of IC engines are known to create
differences in performance for each engine cylinder
during HCCI operation. The number of coolant channels
around each cylinder is not symmetrical. This will cause
some of the cylinders to be slightly colder and therefore
not autoignite at the same timing. The current engine
design utilizes the intake manifold for mixing of EGR with
fresh charge. The characteristics of the intake manifold
may result in slight non-uniformity in the mixing of EGR
with fresh intake charge, as well as temperature
stratification across the manifold and in the ducts. This
slight mixing imbalance could result in some of the
cylinders autoigniting later or earlier than others.
Furthermore, variations in the exhaust ports and ducting
could result in small differences in residual gases, which
can result in cylinders not autoigniting at same time. The
extreme sensitivity of HCCI combustion to these effects
and other, expose the demanding engine control
problems that need solution. Flowers, et al. [15] have
discussed this topic in detail.
7.00

EGR%. The in cylinder equivalence ratio φcyl increases Cyl 1

Cyl 2
as EGR increases due to decreased amount of fresh 6.00
Cyl 3
oxygen. The in-cylinder equivalence ratio is calculated Cyl 4
SOC (CAD ATDC)

from exhaust measurement using the method stated in 5.00

the appendix. It should be noted that φcyl can be
calculated from the ratio of fuel and fresh inducted
4.00
oxygen (φin) before the EGR valve.
3.00

2.00
0 10 20 30 40
EGR(%)

Figure 4a. Combustion Timing (SOC) vs. EGR%

(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 115 C)
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.

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5
Oakley, et. al
1.00 Morimoto, et. al
Cyl 1 0
Cyl 2
0.00 Cyl 3

SOC (CAD ATDC)

Cyl 4
SOC (CAD ATDC)

-5
-1.00

-10
-2.00

-15
-3.00

-4.00 -20
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50
EGR(%) EGR(%)

Figure 4b. Combustion Timing (SOC) vs. EGR%

(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145 C) Figure 4e. Data from Oakley [16] and Morimoto, et. al [17]
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points. Data shows that SOC is independent of EGR%.
1.20 (Oakley: Gasoline, Phi=0.33, T-in = 320 C)
(Morimoto: Natural Gas, Knock Limit, T-in = 80 C)

0.80
COMBUSTION TIMING - HCCI combustion timing
depends on many factors, such as compression ratio,
SOC (CAD ATDC)

0.40 inlet charge temperature, intake manifold pressure, fuel

type, equivalence ratio, EGR%, engine speed, and
0.00 engine block coolant temperature [8]. In this paper, the
start of combustion is defined as the 50% point of the
Cyl 1
Cyl 2
peak rate of heat release. Figure 4 (a-d) shows the SOC
-0.40
Cyl 3 versus EGR for four different operating conditions. For
Cyl 4
propane the conditions with the inlet charge temperature
-0.80
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
of 115°C and 145°C, SOC is delayed slightly with
EGR(%) increasing EGR. Since the intake charge temperature
was held constant by the air heater, and fuel
concentration is constant, changes in SOC will be a
Figure 4c. Combustion Timing (SOC) vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 115 C)
consequence of [O2] and [EGR]. As the figures show,
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points. varying the EGR, which changes O2 content, has little
effect on SOC. For butane (Figure 4(c-d)), a similar
0.00
trend is followed. These results agree with the findings
Cyl 1 of Christensen [8], and of Oakley [16], and of Morimoto,
Cyl 2 et al. [17]. Figure 4e shows the SOC data from Oakley
-1.00 Cyl 3
Cyl 4 [16] and Morimoto [17], which also show that SOC is
largely independent of EGR. In addition, Figure 4(a-d)
SOC (CAD ATDC)

-2.00 shows cylinder-to-cylinder variations of SOC. Cylinder-to-

cylinder variation is greater at lower inlet temperature.
-3.00

3.00
Timing of Peak Heat Release (CAD ATDC)

-4.00 Cyl 1
2.00 Cyl 2
Cyl 3
-5.00 1.00 Cyl 4
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%) 0.00

-1.00
Figure 4d. Combustion Timing (SOC) vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 130 C) -2.00
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.
-3.00

-4.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)

Figure 5a. Timing of Maximum Heat Release vs. EGR%

(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145C)
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.

5
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Figure 6b. Burn duration (CAD) vs. EGR%

1.00
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145 C)
Cyl 1 Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.
Timing of Peak Heat Release (CAD ATDC)

Cyl 2
0.00 Cyl 3
Cyl 4 11.00
Cyl 1
-1.00
Cyl 2
10.00 Cyl 3
-2.00 Cyl 4

Burn Duration (CAD)

9.00
-3.00

-4.00 8.00

-5.00
7.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)

Figure 5b. Timing of Maximum Heat Release vs. EGR% 6.00

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 130C)
EGR(%)
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.

TIMING OF MAXIMUM HEAT RELEASE - The timing of Figure 6c. Burn duration (CAD) vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 115 C)
the maximum heat release is a complementary measure Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.
to SOC (see Figure 5(a-b)). In general, the maximum of
heat release rate occurs slightly later in the engine cycle
10.00
as the EGR is increased, which follows the SOC data Cyl 1
trend. As above, we conclude that SOC is weakly 9.00
Cyl 2
Cyl 3
dependent on EGR and thus weakly dependent on [O2]. Burn Duration (CAD) Cyl 4

8.00
26.00
Cyl 1 7.00
Cyl 2
Cyl 3
22.00 Cyl 4 6.00
Burn Duration (CAD)

5.00
18.00
4.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
14.00

Figure 6d. Burn duration (CAD) vs. EGR%

10.00 (Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 130 C)
0 15 30 45 Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points.
EGR(%)

20
Figure 6a. Burn duration (CAD) vs. EGR%
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 115 C) Oakley, et. al
17
Error is +/- 0.5 CAD for all data points. Morimoto, et. al
Burn Duration (CAD)

14
14.00

Cyl 1 11
12.00 Cyl 2
Burn Duration (CAD)

Cyl 3
Cyl 4
8
10.00

8.00 5
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR%
6.00

Figure 6e. Burn duration data from Oakley [16] and Morimoto, et. al
4.00 [17]. Graph shows that burn duration is dependent on EGR%.
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 (Oakley: Gasoline, Phi=0.33, T-in = 320 C)
EGR(%) (Morimoto: Natural Gas, Knock Limit, T-in = 80 C)

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BURN DURATION - Burn duration is defined as number butane, the average gross IMEP is 2.54 bars. This level
of CAD the engine takes to complete 10-90% of heat of power output is low for practical use. What limits the
release. Burn duration can be used as a basis to IMEP in part is the imbalance in combustion timing
determine the speed of combustion. Longer burn between the cylinders [15], as well as significant heat
duration conditions provide a smoother and quieter transfer from the cylinder due to the combustion
operation. Figure 6(a-d) show burn duration data for chamber geometry. From figure 7(a-b), the calculated
both propane and butane. For propane data shown in gross IMEP changes slightly with EGR. This agrees with
Figure 6a, it can be seen that burn duration can be the IMEP trends from [8]. The high inlet charge
increased by as much as 12 CAD with 40% of EGR. For temperature condition performs better in gross IMEP
propane, the burn duration is much longer for the because of better combustion efficiency (see Figure 9).
conditions with T-in of 115°C than T-in of 145°C. For
butane (Figure 6(c-d)), the same trend is followed. 0.25
Cyl 1
However, the burn duration does not change much with Cyl 2
different inlet temperature. Again, these results agree 0.20 Cyl 3
Cyl 4
with the findings of Christensen [8], Oakley [16], and
Morimoto, et. al [17]. Figure 6e shows burn duration

PMEP (Bars)
0.15
data from Oakley, et. al [16], which shows that burn
duration is high dependent on EGR%.
0.10

3.00
Cyl 1
0.05
Cyl 2
Cyl 3
Cyl 4
0.00
Gross IMEP (Bars)

2.50 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)

Figure 8a. PMEP vs. EGR%

(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145C)
2.00

0.16

1.50
0.12
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
PMEP (Bars)

0.08
Figure 7a. Gross Net IMEP vs. EGR%
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM, T-in = 145C)
Cyl 1
0.04 Cyl 2
3.00 Cyl 3
Cyl 4

0.00
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
Gross IMEP (Bars)

2.50

Figure 8b. PMEP vs. EGR%

(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 130C)
2.00
Cyl 1
Cyl 2 ENGINE POWER LOSS – PMEP, or pumping mean
Cyl 3
Cyl 4
effective pressure, is a measure of the engine’s pumping
losses. Figure 8(a-b) shows the PMEP versus EGR for
1.50
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
both propane and butane. The average PMEP for the
EGR(%) propane operating conditions is 0.09 bars while the
average PMEP for butane is 0.08 bars. Notice that the
PMEP for all conditions are very low compared to most
Figure 7b. Gross Net IMEP vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM, T-in = 130C)
SI engines, which is one of the advantages of HCCI
engines. PMEP is generally unaffected by different EGR
ENGINE POWER OUTPUT - Indicated mean effective conditions.
pressure (IMEP) is defined as the indicated work output
per unit of engine swept volume. The gross IMEP
versus EGR is shown on Figure 7(a-b). For the
conditions tested with propane, an average gross IMEP
of 2.26 bars can be achieved for stable operation. For
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100

NET INDICATED EFFICIENCY - Net indicated efficiency

is shown in Figure 10(a-b). The values were calculated
Combustion Efficiency (%)

95
from fuel flow rate and IMEP. The net indicated efficiency
has a minimum at about 20% EGR. The highest
efficiency obtained with propane is 29% at EGR of 55%
90
and T-in at 145°C. For butane, the highest efficiency
obtained is 33% at EGR of 31% and T-in at 130°C.
85 These values are low compared to some peak Diesel
T-in =115C
engine indicated efficiency of greater than 40%. For this
T-in =145C particular engine setup, the surface to volume ratio is
80 high, resulting in a high rate of heat loss to the coolant.
0 10 20 30 40 Also, the engine was operated in naturally aspirated
EGR(%)
mode as opposed to the more efficient supercharged
Figure 9. Combustion efficiency vs. EGR% mode. The net indicated efficiency is higher for hotter
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM) inlet charge temperature due to higher combustion
efficiency. However, higher inlet temperature also
COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY - Combustion efficiency means higher rate of heat loss, which diminishes the
(see Figure 9) is calculated from the amount of carbon positive effect of the high combustion efficiency.
monoxide (CO) and unburned hydrocarbon (HC) in the
exhaust stream. It is a measure of how completely the Table 2. Typical Specific Emission
mixture of fuel and oxidizer react. For conditions with a C3H8 at 15 SLPM (T-in =115 C)
higher inlet temperature, the average combustion EGR% NOx (g/kWh) CO (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh)
efficiency is about 96%. Conditions with a lower inlet 0.00 0.02 30.79 48.75
temperature achieved an average combustion efficiency 19.52 0.02 28.21 52.21
of about 85%. There is no distinctive trend with changes 30.34 0.01 31.82 56.56
in EGR.
36.00 0.00 32.24 57.26

32
C3H8 at 15 SLPM (T-in =145 C)

30
EGR% NOx (g/kWh) CO (g/kWh) HC (g/kWh)
0.00 0.07 13.92 15.88
Net Indicated Efficiency (%)

28 20.16 0.03 15.62 14.97

28.46 0.01 12.55 13.38
26
34.77 0.03 14.78 13.31
24

T-in =115C
22
T-in =145C 6
T-in = 115C
20
5 T-in = 145C
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
4
Figure 10a. Net Indicated Efficiency vs. EGR%
NOx (ppm)

(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM)

3

34
2

33
Net Indicated Efficiency (%)

32
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
31 EGR(%)

30
Figure 11a. Nitric Oxide emissions vs. EGR%
(Note: Ultra Low NOx production, only 1 to 8 ppm!)
T-in = 115C
29 (Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM)
T-in = 130C

28
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
Figure 10b. Net Indicated Efficiency vs. EGR%
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM)

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14 4000
T-in = 115C
T-in = 115C
12 T-in = 145C
T-in = 130C
3000
10
NOx (ppm)

CO (ppm)
2000
6

4
1000
2

0
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
EGR(%)
EGR(%)

Figure 11b. Nitric Oxide emissions vs. EGR% Figure 13a. Carbon Monoxide vs. EGR%
(Note: Ultra Low NOx production, only 2 to 11ppm!) (Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM)
(Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM)
3000
EMISSIONS: NITRIC OXIDE - NOx vs. EGR is plotted in T-in = 115C

Figure 11(a-b). NOx formation decreases slightly with T-in = 130C

increasing EGR. Highly diluted mixtures will ignite later

in the combustion cycle, thus, giving a lower peak 2000
cylinder pressure as well as a lower maximum

CO (ppm)
temperature. Higher inlet temperature gives rise to more
NOx production. In this case, combustion efficiency also
plays a role. Lower combustion efficiency will lead to 1000

lower NOx emissions due to incomplete burn of the

fuel/oxidizer mixture and thus lower temperature.
Overall NOx emission level is very low, which is of
0
course one of the advantages of the HCCI engine. Table 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
2 shows some typical specific emission data from our EGR(%)
HCCI engine.
Figure 13b. Carbon Monoxide vs. EGR%
4000 (Butane Flow Rate = 12 SLPM)
T-in = 115C
T-in = 145C
EMISSIONS: CARBON MONOXIDE - HCCI engines
3000 produce high levels of CO emissions. In the exhaust
stream, CO indicates incomplete combustion. Figure
Unburn HC (ppm)

13(a-b) shows the CO emissions from our HCCI engine

2000 for both propane and butane. CO emission is increases
slightly with increasing EGR and is highly dependent on
inlet charge temperature and engine load. CO emission
1000 is lower at higher T-in, because the mixture is better
oxidized.
0
0 10 20 30 40
CONCLUSION
EGR(%)

Figure 12. Unburned Hydrocarbon vs. EGR% The effect of the EGR, at a set fuel flow rate and intake
(Propane Flow Rate = 15 SLPM) temperature, on various operating parameters was
studied. The SOC is a weak function of EGR at constant
EMISSIONS: HYDROCARBON - HCCI engines produce intake temperature. However, burn duration is shown to
a high level of unburned hydrocarbon in part due to the be dependent on the amount of EGR. EGR has little
use of ultra-lean fuel mixtures and low combustion effect on the net IMEP or the net indicated efficiency. As
temperature. Figure 12 shows the unburned expected, NOx emissions were very low for all EGR
hydrocarbon emission for propane versus EGR (butane range and unburned HC and CO emission levels were
data is not available). The emission level is not highly high. It will be interesting if numerical models of HCCI
dependent on EGR. In general, HC emission is higher at predict the observed trends.
lower inlet temperature conditions because of lower
combustion efficiency. Unburned Hydrocarbon emission
may be treated with an oxidizing catalyst.

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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS [11] Ishibashi, Y., Asai, M., “A Low Pressure

Pneumatic Direct Injection Two-stroke Engine by
This project is funded by DOE office of Heavy Vehicle Activated Radical Combustion Concept,” SAE
Technology, Steve Goguen and Gurpreet Singh, Paper 980757.
Program Managers. Work performed under the
auspices of the U.S. DOE by University of California, [12] Flynn, P., Durrett, R., Hunter, G., Loye A.,
Berkeley, under contact W-7405-ENG-48. Akinyemi, O., Dec, J., Westbrook, C.,” Diesel
Combustion: An Integrated View Combining
NOTE Laser Diagnostics, Chemical Kinetics, And
Empirical Validation,” SAE Paper 99010509
Brand names of research devices mentioned in this
paper are not an endorsement. They are presented only [13] Higashino, A., Sasaki, H., Kishishita, K.,
for reference purposes. Sekiyama, S., Kawamura, H.,”Compression
Ignition Combustion in a Prechambered and
Heat Insulated Engine Using a Homogeneous
Natural Gas Mixture,” SAE Paper 00P-397.
REFERENCES
[14] Wagner, C. Untersuchung der
[1] Flowers, D., Aceves, S., Smith, R., Torres, J., Asgasruckfunhoung an Otto und Dieselmotor,
Girard, J., Dibble, R., “ HCCI In a CFR Engine: Disseritation, Daimestadt, University of
Experiments and Detailed Kinetic Modeling,” Technology, 1999.
SAE Paper 2000-01-0328.
[15] Flowers, D., Aceves, S., Martinez-Frias, J.,
[2] Warnatz, J., Maas, U., Dibble, R., “Combustion,” Smith, J. R., Au, M., Girard, J., Dibble, R.,
nd
2 Edition, Springer, 1999. “Operation of a four cylinder 19.L Propane
Fueled HCCI Engine: Basic Operating
[3] Ryan III, T., Callahan, T., “Homogeneous Characteristics and Cylinder-to-Cylinder Effects,”
Charge Compression Ignition of Diesel Fuel,” SAE Paper 2001-01-1894
SAE Paper 961160.
[16] Oakley, A., Zhao, H., Ladommatos, N., Ma, T.,
[4] Najt, P., Foster, D., “Compression-Ignited “Experimental Studies on CAI Combustion of
Homogeneous Charge Combustion,” SAE Paper Gasoline in a 4-Stroke Engine”, SAE Paper
830264. 2001-01-1030.

[5] Stone, R., “Introduction to Internal Combustion [17] Morimoto, S., Kawabata, Y., Sakurai, T., Amano,
rd
engines,” 3 edition, SAE International, 1999. T., “Operating Characteristics of a Natural Gas-
fired HCCI Engine”, SAE Paper 2001-01-1034.
[6] Lancaster, D., Kreiger, R., Lienesch, J.,
“Measurement and Analysis of Engine Pressure
Data,” SAE Paper 750026.
APPENDIX
[7] Flowers, D., Aceves, S., Westbrook, C., Smith,
J., Dibble, R., “Detailed Chemical Kinetics IN-CYLINDER EQUIVALENCE RATIO CALCULATIONS
Simulation of Natural Gas HCCI Combustion:
Gas Composition Effects and Investigation of For lean combustion using oxygenated fuel, a fraction of
Control Strategies”, ASME Paper, 1999. recycled exhaust gas, EGR, is defined by the expression
below:
[8] Christensen, M., Johansson, B., “Influence of
Mixture Quality on Homogeneous Charge
Compression Ignition, SAE Paper 982454. (1 − EGR)éêφinCx H yOz + æç x + y − z ö÷(O2 + 3.76N2 )ùú
ë è 4 2ø
[9] Onishi, S., Jo, S., Shoda, K., Jo, P., Kato, S., é æ y zö æ y zö ù
+ EGRêxφinCO2 + φin H2O + ç x + − ÷(1 − φin )O2 + 3.76ç x + − ÷N2 ú
y
“Active Thermo-Atmospheric Combustion
ë 2 è 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
(ATAC) – A New Combustion Process for
é æ y zö ù
→êxφinCO2 + φin H2O + ç x + − ÷(1 − φin )O2 + 3.76N2
Internal Combustion Engines,” SAE Paper y

790501. ë 2 è 4 2ø

[10] Thring, R., “Homogeneous-Charge Compression The intake equivalence ratio, φin, is defined based upon
Ignition Engines,” SAE Paper 892068. the ratio of fuel to fresh O2 inducted before the addition
of EGR to the stoichiometric ratio of fuel to O2. For the

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general fuel CxHyOz, the stoichiometric fuel-Oxygen ratio é æ y zö ù é æ y zö æ y z öù

ntotal = (1− EGR)êφin + ç x + − ÷(4.76)ú + EGRêxφin + φin + ç x + − ÷(1−φin ) + 3.76ç x + − ÷ú
y
is: ë è 4 2ø ë 2 è 4 2ø è 4 2ø
é æ ö ù éæ ö æ öù
= (1− EGR)êφin + ç x + − ÷(4.76)ú + EGRêç + ÷φin + 4.76ç x + − ÷
y z y z y z
æ Fuel ö 1 ë è 4 2ø ëè 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
çç ÷÷ = æ y zö æ y zö
æ y zö = (1− EGR)φin + EGRç + ÷φin + 4.76ç x + − ÷
è O 2 stoich çx+ − è4 2 è 4 2
è 4 2 æy z ö æ y zö
= φin + EGRç + −1÷φin + 4.76ç x + −
Assuming (1-EGR)φin moles of fuel are added to the è4 2 è 4 2
engine, the molar quantities of the intake charge (fresh Thus the mole fraction of residual gas is:
charge +recycled exhaust gas) are: éæ y z ö æ y z öù
EGR êç + ÷φ in + 4.76ç x + − ÷
n fuel = φ in (1 − EGR ) X resid = ëè 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
æy z ö æ y zö
æ y zö æ y zö æ y zö
nO2 = ç x + − ÷(1− EGR) + ç x + − ÷EGR(1−φin ) = ç x + − (1− EGR⋅φin ) φ in + EGR ç + − 1÷φ in + 4.76ç x + −
è 4 2 è 4 2 è 4 2 è4 2 è 4 2

The ratio of fuel to Oxygen in the engine is Examples

Fuel φ in (1 − EGR ) Methane (CH4, x=1, y=4, z=0):

=
æ zö éæ (4) (0) ö æ ( 4) (0) ö ù
O2
çx +
y
− (1 − EGR ⋅ φ in ) EGR êç + ÷φ in + 4.76ç (1) + − ÷
è 4 2 ë è 4 2 ø è 4 2 ø
X resid =
æ ( 4 ) (0 ) ö æ ( 4) ( 0) ö
φ in + EGRç + − 1÷φ in + 4.76ç (1) + −
The in-cylinder equivalence ratio, defined as the ratio of è 4 2 è 4 2
fuel to oxygen in the cylinder relative to the stoichiometric EGR[φ in + 4.76(2 )]
=
fuel to oxygen ratio is: φ in + 4.76(2 )
= EGR
æ Fuel ö é ù é ù
çç ÷ Thus the residual gas fraction, Xresid, is identically equal
è O2 ÷ø ê φin (1 − EGR) ú ê 1 to EGR for methane. This applies to any fuel where
φ in−cyl = =ê ú ê
æ Fuel ö êæ y zö ú êæ y zö
çç ÷÷ ê çè x + − ÷ (1 − EGR ⋅ φ )
in ú ê çè x + 4 − 2 ÷ø
(y/4+z/2)=1, such as dimethyl-ether (C2H6O) or Ethylene
è 2 ø stoich ë
O 4 2 ø ë (C2H4).

or, Propane (C3H8, x = 3, y = 8, z = 0):

éæ (8) (0) ö æ (8) (0) öù
EGR êç + ÷φ in + 4.76ç (3) + − ÷
φ in (1 − EGR ) X resid = ëè 4 2 ø è 4 2 ø
φ in −cyl = (1 − EGR )φ in + EGRæç (8) + (0) ö÷φ in + 4.76æç (3) + (8) − (0) ö
1 − EGR ⋅ φ in è 4 2 è 4 2
EGR[2φ in + 4.76(5)]
=
The above expression for in cylinder equivalence ratio (1 − EGR )φ in + EGR(2)φ in + 4.76(5)
EGR[2φ in + 4.76(5)]
applies to any fuel. It is important to note that in general
the parameter EGR is not equal to the mole fraction of =
residual gas, Xresid, added to the cylinder, although they φ in + EGRφ in + 4.76(5)
are very close. The relationship between EGR and Xresid The residual gas fraction, Xresid, is not identically equal to
is shown below. Again, based on (1-EGR)φin moles of EGR in this case. Figure A1 shows the deviation of the
fuel, the mole fractions of residual gas in the intake flow residual gas fraction for various intake equivalence ratios
and the total moles in the intake stream can be (φin, or phi-in in the figure). The maximum deviation is
determined. 5% at very low values of EGR, which may be within the
accuracy of experimental measurement.
é æ y zö æ y z öù
n resid = EGR ê xφ in + φ in + ç x + − ÷(1 − φ in ) + 3.76ç x + − ÷ú
y
ë 2 è 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
é y æ y zö æ y z öù
= EGR ê xφ in + φ in − ç x + − ÷φ in + 4.76ç x + − ÷ú
ë 2 è 4 2 ø è 4 2ø
éæ y z ö æ y z öù
= EGR êç + ÷φ in + 4.76ç x + − ÷
ëè 4 2 ø è 4 2ø

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0.06
Relationship between EGR and phi-in=0.1
0.05 Xresid for Propane (C3H8)
phi-in=0.2
(Xresid -EGR)/EGR

phi-in=0.3
0.04 phi-in=0.4
phi-in=0.5
0.03
phi-in=0.6
0.02 phi-in=0.7
phi-in=0.8
0.01 phi-in=0.9
phi-in=1.0
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
EGR

Figure A1 – Percentage difference between Xresid and EGR for

propane fuel for the range of equivalence ratio from 0.1 to 1.0.

12