Chapter 4 Notes

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic
Functions
Math 121: : Mathematical Applications
Dr. Trevor Leach

tleach@lander.edu
Lander University
Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 1 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Overview
1 4.1 Exponential Functions
Review: Exponents
Exponential Functions
Modeling With Exponential Functions
2 4.2 Logarithmic Functions
An Introduction to Logarithms
Graphing the Logarithm Function
Solving Equations with Logarithms
3 4.3 Applications
A Review of Section 4.2
Modeling with exponential and logarithmic functions
Gompertz Curves

4.1 Exponential Functions
4.1 Exponential Functions

4.1 Exponential Functions Review: Exponents
Review: Exponents

Integer Powers
I If m is a positive integer, then x m = x| · x{z· · · x}.
m times
• 34 = |3 · 3{z
· 3 · 3} = 81
4 times
• (−5)3 = (−5) · (−5) · (−5) = −125
| {z }
3 times
I If m 6= 0, then
I If x 6= 0, then x 0 = 1 1 1
x −m = and x m
=
• 40
=1 xm x −m
• (−3)0 = 1 1 1
• 2−2 = =
• 00 is undefined 2 2 4
1 1
• 3−4 = 4 =
3 81
Operations with Exponents
I x a · x b = x a+b . Note the bases must be the same

• 24 · 23 = 27 = 128
• 24 · 33 6=67
xa
I = x a−b . Again, must have the same base
xb
28
• = 25 = 32
23
32 1 1
• 5 = 3−3 = 3 =
3 3 27
I (x a )b = x ab
• (32 )4 = 38 = 6561

Fractional Exponents
√
I x 1/m = m
x
√
I 41/2 = 4 = 2
√
I 271/3 = 3 27 = 3
I This rule helps us cancel out exponents:
I (x 3 )1/3 = x 1 = x

4.1 Exponential Functions Exponential Functions
Exponential Functions

Definition
An exponential function has the form
y = a · b x with a 6= 0, b > 0, b 6= 1.
The value b here is called the base of the exponential.
Example
Some examples:
I y = 2x
I y = 5 · 4x ,
I y = −2 · (1/2)x
Note: these functions have the variable in the exponent (2x ) as
opposed to quadratic functions which have the variable
raised to a power (x 2 ).
Example
Graph the function y = 3x .

Example
1 x

Graph the function y = 2
.

The number e
I e is a particular irrational
number (like π) 4
I Its value is approximately
2
e ≈ 2.718, but you should
just use the e or e x button
on your calculator instead. −4 −2 2 4
−2
I The function y = e x shows
up in many applications from −4
biology and economics, and
has a number of interesting Graph of y = e x
mathematical properties

Sketching Exponential Functions
In general we can sketch an exponential functions with 2 important

points (x = 0, x = 1) while keeping in mind the general form of an
exponential function.
x y = a · bx
0 a
1 a·b

4.1 Exponential Functions Modeling With Exponential Functions
Modeling With Exponential Functions

Example (Radioactive Decay)

The amount, Q, of a radioactive substance, in grams, after t days is
given by the formula:
Q = 10 · (1/2)0.53t
a. What was the initial amount of material?
b. How much of the material is left after 3 days?
c. How much of the material is left after 8 days?

Example (Bacteria)
The population, P, of a bacteria sample, after t days is given by the
formula:
P = 5 · (3)0.25t
a. What is the initial population?

b. What is the population after 4 days?
c. What is the population after 12 days?

Example (Investment)
If $10,000 is invested at 6%,compounded monthly, then the future
value (FV) of the investment after t years is given by:
FV = 10, 000 · (1.005)12t
Find the future value after:

a. 5 years.
b. 10 years.

Example (Medication)
Each medication has an elimination constant that corresponds to the
percent of the medication that the body eliminates between doses.
Suppose for a certain medication taken every 6 hours, the milligrams
M present in the bloodstream t hours after a 500 mg dose is given by
M(t) = 500(1.089)−t
Find the amount of medication in the bloodstream after (a) half an

hour, and (b) 6 hours.

4.2 Logarithmic Functions
4.2 Logarithmic Functions

4.2 Logarithmic Functions An Introduction to Logarithms
An Introduction to Logarithms

A Motivating Example
The future value of an investment after x years is given by the
formula F = 3200(1.02)4x
I We can answer questions such as “What is the value after 3
years” by plugging in x = 3 and simplifying the right hand side.
I What about: “How long until the investment is worth $5000?
I We plug in 5000 = 3200(1.02)4x
I However, the variable is stuck in the exponent, and we don’t
have a way to get it down.
I We could guess and check some values of x:
I If x = 5, F = 4755.03, and if x = 6, F = 5147.00
I So the value of x we’re looking for is between 5 and 6
I The tool we need to solve this type of problem
algebraically is called a logarithm.

Definition
For b > 0, b 6= 1, the logarithmic function with base b is given
by:
y = logb x, (logarithmic form)
and is defined to be equivalent to the statement
by = x (exponential form).
Example
y = log2 (x) ⇐⇒ 2y = x

Example (Write each of the following in exponential form)

1 1

a.) log2 (16) = 4 b.) log3 27 = −3 c.) log4 (2) = 2

Solving Equations Using Logarithms
We use this method of switching between logarithmic and

exponential forms to solve for x in the following equations:
I log2 (x) = 3 ⇐⇒ 23 = x ⇒ 8 = x

Example (Solving Equation Using Logarithms)

a.) log3 (9) = x b.) log5 (1/5) = x c.) log3 (7 − x) = 3

4.2 Logarithmic Functions Graphing the Logarithm Function
Graphing the Logarithm Function

Graphing Logarithms
Suppose we wanted to graph the function y = log3 (x). We could try

picking values of x, but computing the logarithm base three is
difficult. Instead, we transform to exponential form: 3y = x. That
way, we can pick values of y and easily compute the corresponding
values of x:
y x
1
−2 9
1
−1 3
0 1
1 3
2 9

Comparing Exponentials and Logarithms

The graph below shows the functions y = 3x and y = log3 (x) on the
same set of axes:

The natural logarithm ln
I Recall: e is a particular
irrational number (like π)
I Its value is approximately 4
e ≈ 2.718, 2
I The function
y = loge (x) = ln(x) is called −4 −2 2 4
the natural logarithm and −2
shows up in many −4
applications from biology
and economics, and has a
number of interesting Graph of y = ln(x)
mathematical properties

Sketching Logarithmic Functions

In general we can sketch a logarithmic
x y = logb (x)
functions with 2 important points (y = 0,
1 0
y = 1) while keeping in mind the general
b 1
form of an exponential function.

4.2 Logarithmic Functions Solving Equations with Logarithms

Logarithms on the Calculator
I On most calculators, there are two logarithm buttons:

• The “log” button represents the log10 operation
• The “ln” button represents the loge operation, called the
natural log
I We’ll need another technique for logarithms with other bases.

I Solve for x: x = log3 (3n )
x = log3 (3n ) ⇒ 3x = 3n ⇒ x = n
I This leads to a more general rule: logb (b x ) = x for any b, and

ln(e x ) = x.
I Example: Solve 5 = 10x :

Theorem (Properties of Logarithms)

If a > 0, and a 6= 1,
Facts about 0 and 1
1. a1 = a ⇐⇒ loga (a) = 1
0
2. a = 1 ⇐⇒ loga (1) = 0
Cancellation Rules
3. loga (ax ) = x For any x.
4. aloga (x) = x For any x.
Drop Rule
5. loga (M n ) = n · loga (M)
Multiplication Inside ⇒ Addition Outside
6. loga (M · N) = loga (M) + loga (N)
Division Inside ⇒ Subtraction Outside
7. loga M

N
= loga (M) − loga (N)
Example
Facts about 0 and 1
1. log4 (4) = 1
2. log4 (1) = 0
Cancellation Rules
3. log4 (43 ) = 3 AND log4 (4x ) = x For any x.
4. 4log4 (3) = 3 AND 4log4 (x) = x For any x.
Drop Rule
5. log10 (3x ) = x · log10 (3)
Multiplication Inside ⇒ Addition Outside
6. log2 (2 · 16) = log2 (2)+log2 (16) = 1+4 = 5
Division Inside ⇒ Subtraction Outside
9

7. log3 27 = log3 (9) − log3 (27) = 2 − 3 = −1

Two Additional Tools For Solving
I Take log base a of both sides:

The equation formed by applying the logarithm with base a to
both sides of an equation is equivalent to the original equation.
Example
If x = y > 0, then the equation
x =y
is equivalent to the equation
loga (x) = loga (y )
Note: We are NOT multiplying both sides by loga we are applying

the function loga to both sides.

Two Additional Tools For Solving
I Take exp. w/ base a of both sides:

The equation formed by applying an exponential with base a to
both sides of an equation is equivalent to the original equation.
Example
If x = y > 0, then the equation
x =y
is equivalent to the equation
ax = ay

Example
Solve for x: e 3x+5 = 0.55

The Change of Base Formula

I How do we compute things like log3 (4) if there is no logarithm
base 3 button on the calculator?
I We change the base to either 10 or e using the following formula:
loga (x)
logb (x) =
loga (b)
I Here b is the original base, and a is the new base.

I Then
log10 (4) 0.60206
log3 (4) = = ≈ 1.26186
log10 (3) 0.477121
I We could also compute it as:
ln(4) 1.38629
log3 (4) = = ≈ 1.26186
ln(3) 1.09861
The Change of Base Formula

I How do we compute things like log3 (4) without using the
change of base formula?
1. Get rid of bases that we can’t use in the calculator.
x = log3 (4)
3x = 3log3 (4)
3x = 4
2. Take log or ln of both sides.

ln(3x ) = ln(4)
3. Use the Drop Rule. x · ln(3) = ln(4)

ln(4)
4. Solve for x. x= ln(3)
≈ 1.26186
Our Motivating Example

We wanted to solve the equation 5000 = 3200(1.02)4x . We use all of
the properties we’ve discussed about logs:
5000 = 3200(1.02)4x
5000
= (1.02)4x
3200
1.5625 = 1.024x This fits our
log1.02 (1.5625) = log1.02 (1.02 ) 4x original guess
that x was
log1.02 (1.5625) = 4x
between 5 and 6.
log10 (1.5625)
= 4x
log10 (1.02)
22.558 ≈ 4x
5.639 ≈ x
4.3 Applications
4.3 Applications

4.3 Applications A Review of Section 4.2
A Review of Section 4.2

A Recap From Section 4.2
Recall the following facts about logarithms from the previous lecture:
I logb (x) = y is equivalent to b y = x
I We can use logarithms to solve for the variables in exponents
I Most calculators have buttons to compute log10 (x) = log(x) and
loge (x) = ln(x)

Properties of Logarithms
We can use the following three properties to help us solve equations
involving exponentials and logarithms:
1. For any base b: logb (b x ) = x
log3 (34 ) = 4, ln(e 3x ) = 3x
2. For any base b: b logb (x) = x
3log3 (6) = 6, e ln(2x) = 2x
3. logb (x n ) = n · logb (x), so that we can “drop” exponents out of

logarithms
ln(3x ) = x · ln(3)
Solving Exponential Equations
We outline a general method for solving exponential equations (when

the variable appears in the exponent):
1. Isolate the exponential part of the equation: b c·x
2. Take a logarithm on both sides (either log or ln)
3. Use the properties of logarithms to pull variable out of the
exponent
4. Solve for the variable

Example
Solve for x: 4 = 3 · 6x

Example
Solve for x: 100 = 4 · 32x

4.3 Applications Modeling with exponential and logarithmic functions
Modeling with exponential and logarithmic functions

Example (Doubling Time of an Investment)

If $P is invested for t years at interest rate r, compound continuously
then the future value of the investment is given by
FV = Pe rt
a. Find the doubling time formula in terms of t.
b. Find doubling time for an interest rate of 10%

Example
Medical research has shown that over short periods of time when the
valves to the aorta of a normal adult close, the pressure in the aorta
is a function of time and can be modeled by the equation
P = 95e −0.491t
Where t is in seconds. How long will it be before the pressure reaches
80?

Example (Sales Decay)

A company finds that its daily sales begin to fall after the end of an
advertising campaign and the decline is such that the number of sales
is S = 2000 (2−0.1x )
Where x is the number of days after the campaign ends.
a. How many sales will be made 10 days after the campaign?
b. If the company does not want sales to drop below 350 per day,
when should it start a new campaign?

Example (Population)
The population of Greenwood was 30,000 in 1990 and 40,500 in
2000. If the formula P = P0 e ht Applies to the growth of a city’s
population, what population is predicted for the year 2020?

Definition Example (Half-Life)

For a radioactive 1000 grams of a substance decays
substance, the half-life according to the formula
is the time it takes for Q = 1000 · e −0.012t , with t in years. Find
half of the material to the half-life of this substance (how long
decay. does it take to reach 500 grams?)

4.3 Applications Gompertz Curves
Gompertz Curves

Definition
A Gompertz Curve is a special type of exponential function, often
used to model population growth with a carrying capacity, or
maximum sustainable population
I They have the form

t
N = C · b r . [There are two
levels of exponents]
I t represents time
I r is a growth constant
(between 0 and 1)
I b represents initial growth
I C is the carrying capacity

Example
A hospital administrator predicts that the growth in the number of
hospital employees will follow the equation
t
N(t) = 2000(0.6)0.5
Where t represents the number of years after opening.

a. What is the number of employees when the facility opens?
b. How many employees are predicted after 1 year of operation?

Gompertz Curves: An Example

Suppose the population of fish in a small lake is given by
t
P = 400 · (0.15)(0.6) , where t is measured in years.
1. What is the initial population? (t = 0)
0
P = 400 · (0.15)(0.6) = 400 · (0.15)1 = 400 · (0.15) = 60
2. What is the population after 1 year? (t = 1)

1
P = 400 · (0.15)(0.6) = 400 · (0.15)0.6 = 400 · (0.3204) ≈ 128.15
3. How long will it take for the population to reach 300? (P = 300)
t
300 = 400 · (0.15)(0.6)
Notice that we need to bring our variable down
two levels of exponents.
Gompertz Curves: Solution
We solve this problem by going through our solution method twice:

t
300 = 400 · (0.15)(0.6) 0.1516 ≈ 0.6t
(0.6)t
3/4 = (0.15) ln(0.1516) ≈ ln(0.6t )
t
ln(3/4) = ln((0.15)(0.6) ) ln(0.1516) ≈ t · ln(0.6)
ln(3/4) = (0.6)t ln(0.15) ln(0.1516)
≈t
ln(3/4) ln(0.6)
= 0.6t 3.693 years ≈ t
ln(0.15)

Example
The Gompertz equation
t
N(t) = 100(0.03)0.2
Predicts the size of a deer herd on a small island t decades from now.
During what year will the deer population reach or exceed 70?

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Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic

Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Dr. Trevor Leach

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 1 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 2 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

4.1 Exponential Functions

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 3 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 4 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Operations with Exponents

I x a · x b = x a+b . Note the bases must be the same

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 6 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 7 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 8 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

The value b here is called the base of the exponential.

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 10 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 11 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 12 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Sketching Exponential Functions

In general we can sketch an exponential functions with 2 important

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 13 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Modeling With Exponential Functions

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 14 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Example (Radioactive Decay)

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 15 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

a. What is the initial population?

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 16 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

FV = 10, 000 · (1.005)12t

Find the future value after:

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 17 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Find the amount of medication in the bloodstream after (a) half an

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 18 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

4.2 Logarithmic Functions

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 19 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 20 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 21 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 22 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Example (Write each of the following in exponential form)

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 23 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Solving Equations Using Logarithms

We use this method of switching between logarithmic and

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 24 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Example (Solving Equation Using Logarithms)

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 25 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Graphing the Logarithm Function

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 26 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Suppose we wanted to graph the function y = log3 (x). We could try

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 27 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Comparing Exponentials and Logarithms

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 28 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

The natural logarithm ln

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 29 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Sketching Logarithmic Functions

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 30 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Solving Equations with Logarithms

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 31 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Logarithms on the Calculator

I On most calculators, there are two logarithm buttons:

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 32 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Solving Equations with Logarithms

I Solve for x: x = log3 (3n )

I This leads to a more general rule: logb (b x ) = x for any b, and

Chapter 4: Exponential & Logarithmic Functions 33 / 60 Math 121: : Mathematical Applications

Theorem (Properties of Logarithms)